THE

CYCLOPiEDIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

larts, ^cimct0, anli iiteraturt.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS,

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXVII.

LONDON
Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, rATERNOSTEK-Kow,

T.C. AMDJ. KIVtNGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HAKDING MAVOU AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
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1819.

CYCLOPEDIA

I-': .3

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

VERMES.

VERMES, ill Anatomy and Phyftolagy. We have ex-
plained, underCjLASsiFicATioN, the objections to which
the Linnsean clafs of Vermes is hable, confidered as one
of tlie great divifions of the animal kingdom ; and we have
propofed, in place of it, an arrangement grounded on the dif-
tinftions of anatomical ftrufture, and therefore better fuited
to the puipofes of comparative anatomy, as well as more
conformable to natural method. As the anatomical defcrip-
tion of tlie Mollusca (which order includes mod of the
I.innspan vciim-a) toiild not be prepnrpd in time to appear
under that word, it has been deferred to the prefent article,
which will include alfo an account of the clafles Vermes
andZooPHYTA. In his " Handbuch der Naturgefchichte,"
Blumenbach retains the Linnajan term Vermes, dividing the
clafs into, I. Intcftina ; II. MoUufca ; III. Teftacea ;
IV. Cruftacca ( Echino-dermata, Cuvier) ; V. Corallia
(Zoophytes of mod naturali(ls); and VI. Zoophyta (chiefly
microfcopic animals and the animalcula infuforia).

In the following article we fhall employ the terms Mol-
lusca, Vermes, and Zoophyta, not in the acceptation in
which they are ufed by Linnseus or Blumenbach, but as
they are explained in the article Classification; — the
fame fenfe in which they arc ufed by the French naturahfts
generally, and by Cuvier particularly, in his moft valuable
and ufeful works, the " Tableau clementaire" and " Le-
mons d' Anatomic comparec."

When, ill defcending along the fcale of living beings, we
arrive, after the clafs of fifhes, at the in vertebraf animals, or
fuch as have no vertebral column, we enter on an immcnfe
fcrics of various crc.itures, the moft numerous, and at the
fame time the moft curious and intercfting in refpeft to the
difference of their organization and f.icultics.

At this point in the fcale, the vertebral column i» anni-
hilated : as this column is the bafis of the fkclcton, the latter

Vol. XXXVII.

no longer exifts ; and confequently the moving parts no
longer have their points of aftion on internal organs.

Moreover, no invertebral animij breathes by means of
cellular lungs : none have any vocal organ, nor confequently
voice. They appear, at leaft for the moft part, not to have
true blood ; that is, not to have a fluid undergoing a true
circulation, and pofleffing, as one of its eflential charafters,
the red colour. It would be an abufe of words to call the
colourlefs fluid, which moves (lowly in the cellular fub-
ftance of polypes, blood. We might as well give that
name to the fap of vegetables.

This conftant and ftriking difference of colour in the
nutritive fluids has been adopted, by fome zoologifts, as the
bafis of their firft great divifion of the animal kingdom.
The primary divifion into red-blooded and white-blooded
correfponds with that into vertebral and invertebral .mimals.

The eye has no iris in invertebral animals. They have i>0
kidney.

In the vertebral clafles, and particularly in the firft, or
that of moft complicated and perfeft organization, all the
eflential organs are infulatcd, occupying diftindl and fepa-
rate fituatioiis ; in the invertebral, they are all brought to-
gether.

In his " Tableau elementairc," Cuvier introduces us to the
Zoophytes as the laft or moft fimplc of the anim.il king-
dom in their organization and faculties. The MoUufca
pofiefs nearly the fame apparatus of organs for digeftioii,
circulation, refpiration, and feiifation as red-blooded ani-
mals ; and they even come very near in thefe points to filh.
Infcfts, occupying a lower rank in the fcale, have no diftinA
circulation, and refpirc by trachea:. Yet tlicy polTefs a fpin.il
marrow, nerves, and organs of fenfe. In moft vermes wc
recognife analogous parts, and tluy probably cxift in all.
But, in the zoophytes, wc no longer difcern thefe organic

B apparatufee :

414078

VERMES.

apparatufes : there are, in a few, barely digeftive vifcera,
and fome indications of refpiration. They have no circula-
tion, no nerves, no centre of fenfation : each part of the
body feems to imbibe immediately the materials of its nu-
trition, and to poffefs, within itfelf, the power of fenfation.

Hence moft of thefe animals have very ftrong reproduftive
powers, quickly reiloring injured or loft parts. Some of
them indeed are multiplied by a fimple divifion, bke plants.
There are however different degrees in this fimplicity, which
is common to all. We pafs fucceffively from beings, which
have feet, tentacula, hard and foft parts, and diftincl vifcera
{viz. the Echino-dermata), to others, whofe whole body is a
gelatinous mafs varioufly (haped (Meduf^s), or, when ex-
amined with the moft powerful microfcope, prefents an ap-
parently indivifible atom (Infuforia).

Stagnant water, infufions of vegetable fubftances, the
recent feminal fluids of animals, &c. teem with animated
points, round, oval, or of other fip\ires, with or without a
fmall appendix forming a tail, only vifible, for the moft
part, by means of ftrong magnifying powers.

In the arrangement of LamarcK thefe creatures form
a diftinft clafs, with the name Infuforia. As they are
merely microfcopic objefts, we can only fay of them, that
they are minute, gelatinous, femitranfparent points, in fome
of which more opaque fpots are vifible, homogeneous, irri-
table throughout, and contrading in every direftion ; con-
fequently changing their form frequently, but generally
affuming, when at reft, a determinate figure in each fpe-
cies. We confider that thefe little bodies, which are mere
animated points, and conftitute, if we may ufe fuch an ex-
preffion, the ultimate term of organization (ultimate at leaft
to our means of refearch), are nouriftied byabforption from
their whole furface, and are probably excited by the fur-
rounding influences of caloric, electricity. Sec. Thus they
refemble vegetables, which live by abforption, executing no
digeftion, and performing organic motions in confequence of
external excitation. But the infuforia are irritable and con-
traftile, and execute fudden motions, which they can repeat :
this charafterizes their animal nature.

The genus Monas of Cuvier, or Chaos of Blumenbach,
includes the fimpleft known animals. The latter author di-
vides his Chaos into aquatile, infuforium, and fpermaticum,
according as the animals are found in water, in vegetable
infufions, or in animal femen. For a defcription of the latter,
we refer to the article Generation ; fome of the former
are noticed under Animalcule. The Volvox is a round,
yellowifti or greenifh, gelatinous, and nearly tranfparent ani-
malcule, which fwims round and round, and moves about
without any vifible organs of motion. It (volvox globator)
abounds in fummer in the water of marlhes, and then has a
reddifti colour. In its interior we can diftinguifh globes
fimilar to itfelf, which come out of its body, move about in
the fame way, and are feen to contain other fmaller ones ;
fo that the animal may be faid to be pregnant at once with
feveral fucceffive generations. The volvox conflitlor is found
' in the water of dunghills, and moves by turning alternately
to the right and left. It contains internally round mole-
cules, which move about alfo.

The appearance of thefe animalcules, their motions, and
the multiplication of fome fpecies, lead us to afcribe them
to the animal kingdom ; but doubts are entertained on the
fubjeft. In that fenfe, at leaft, we underftand the remark
of Cuvier, " On feroit nieme teniedecroire que plufieurs de
ces aniniaux microfcopiques ne fe ferment que de la decom-
pofition des mati^res foumifesa I'infufion." Tab. Element.
p. 663.

They who believe them to be animals, are again divided

in opinion refpefting the mode of their produftion ; fome
arguing from analogy that they are produced by generation
of fome kind, while others admit of a fpontaneous origin, or
what has been commonly called equivocal generation. Spal-
lanzani made feveral experiments to determine this point.
Long boiling accelerated the produdion of the animalcules ;
which were alfo produced from the infufion of vegetable
feeds burnt with the blowpipe. When boihng infufions were
put into glals tubes, and thefe immediately hermetically
fealed, no animalcules were produced. Eleftiicity, tobacco-
fmoke, oleaginous, fpirituous, and corrofive liquors deftroy
them. They will live a month in vacuo ; but are not pro-
duced in that fituation. Spallanzani's Trafts on Animals
and Vegetables.

Refpefting this doftrine of equivocal generation, we may
obferve, that the only argument in its favour is the indireft
and unfatisfaftory one arifing from its oppofers being unable
to (hew that the creatures in queftion are produced by a
procefs of generation. The analogy of all nature, down to
the minuteft infedls, which our microfcopes enable us to in-
veftigate, affords a very ftrong prefumptive proof againft it,
and leads us to conclude, that if our means of examination
were more perfeft, we ftiould find that thefe creatures are
produced and multiplied like all other animated beings.

There are numerous other fpecies named after differences
of form, or according to the circumftances under which
they are produced. The Proteus has the fingular property
of changing its form, almoft incefiantly, into every poffible
modification of figure. The fmall animals found in vinegar
and palle (Vibrio aceti et glutinis), generally called eels from
their elongated figure, are almoft large enough to be diftin-
guiflied by the naked eye. Freezing does not deftroy
them ; but evaporation does, unlefs they are protefted by
a little duft from the contaft of the air. It is faid that
they change their llvin, that they have different fexes, and
produce young ones alive in fpring, then lay eggs till
autumn.

The genera juft enumerated, viz. Monas, Volvox, Pro-
teus, Vibrio, together with two other?, Burfaria and Kol-
poda, make up the ord'.-r infuforia nuda of Lamarck ; that
is, fuch as have no external appendices. He has a fecond
order of infuforia appendiculata, including fuch infufion
animalriiles as exhibit any prominent part like hairs or tail,
&c. The feminal vermiculi, as they have been termed,
(cercarix, Lamarck,) belong to this order, for they have
a tail.

It includes alfo the genus or family of the tricho-cercK
and trichodce.

We come next to animalcules a little more complicated
in their ftrufture : they poffefs ftellated organs, confifting of
fine ciliated proceffes lurrounding an opening, and fufcep-
tiblc of motion, with the fuppofed objeft of drawing their
prey towards the aperture.

The following anitnals are formed by Lamarck into an
order which he calls Polypi, and which we deem a very
natural one. They are gemmiparous, or multiply by
ftioots. They have a fmall elongated body, homogeneous,
gelatinous, very irritable, poffefling wonderful reproduftive
powers, provided at its upper end with a mouth, which is
furrounded by rotatory organs, or radiated tentacula, and
ferves as the entrance of an ahmentary cavity which has
no other opening. This cavity is the only organ they pof-
fefs ; it is ufually an elongated bag, feldom folded on itfelf,
or poffefling any appendages. Such is the idea of a polype :
when feveral of thefe little bodies are connefled together,
and participate a common life, they compofe the animals of
zoophytes.

The

VERMES.

The idea, which fome have entertained, that the brain
and nerves, the mufcular fyftem, &c. of which no trace
can be difcovered in the polypi, neverthelefs exift, but are
expanded and as it were melted down into the general mafs
of the body, fo that every point is capable of fenfation,
mufcular motion, &c. is a perfeAly gratuitous and impro-
bable fuppofition. On this view, it would follow that a
frefh-water polype (hydra) has all the organs of a perfeft
animal in every part of its body, and confequently fees,
hears, fmells, &c. at all points. Thus it would be a more
perfeft animal than man, as each molecule would be equi-
valent, in the complement of its organization and faculties,
to an entire individual of the human fpecies. If we allow
this to the polype, how can we refufe it to the monas, to
vegetables ? The ftudy of nature teaches us in all cafes, that
when an organ ceafes to exift, the faculty is no longer
found.

The polypi are very irritable, and are afted on by exter-
nal influences. Light attrafts them towards the quarter
whence it comes, as it does the branches, flowers, and leaves
of plants. No polype purfues its prey ; but when a foreign
body touches its tentacula, they ftop and convey it to the
mouth ; it is fwallowed without difliinftion, digefted if fuf-
ceptible of that procefs, otherwife rejefted.

Lamarck objefts to the term zoophytes, or animal plants,
becaufe thefe are truly animals, and have nothing of vege-
table nature. The only relations between polypi and plants
are in the fimplicity of their ftrufturc, in the conneftion of
feveral polypi with each other, fo as to communicate by their
alimentary canal, and form compound animals ; and in the
external form of the maffes which thefe united polypi com-
pofe, a form which for a long time caufed them to be taken
for true vegetables, fmce they are often ramified nearly in
the fame manner. Wliether polypi have one or more
mouths, we muft always bear in mind that tliey lead to an
alimentary cavity, that is, to an organ of digeftion which
docs not exift in any vegetable.

The wheel animal of Spallanzani is a remarkable fpecies
of this kind (rotifer redivivus ; vorticella rotatoria, Grael.)
It is found in ftagnant water, and in the fand of fewers and
tiles. It has a tail, and is forked in front ; each portion
bearing a kind of toothed wheel, which can be drawn in at
pleafure. Internally an organ is perceptible with a flow and
irregular motion, fuppofed to be a ftomacli.

The name of redivivus was given to this creature from
its remarkable property, pointed out by Spallanzani, of re-
covering life after being long dried. This refufcitation will
take place at the end of fome years ; but Spallanzani fays,
that the animal muft be kept in the fand in which it is
found. (See his Trafts. ) Baker (on the Microfcopc)
makes a fimilar reprefentation with refpeft to the eels of
blighted corn.

The vorticcUas of Cuvier, polypes a bouquet, (Brachio-
nus, Blumenbach,) have fmall organs, like fine hairs, coming
out of their anterior extremities, turning about rapidly and
inceftantly : their nature and ufe are unknown. Some have
a tail ; others a thread-like peduncle. The latter are united
in an arborefcent manner. They inhabit ftagnant waters,
and are fo minute, that a mafs of them appears only as a
fpot of film. They multiply by fimple divifion, one of the
fmill bodies fplitting, and each half becoming an entire
one.

The botrylli, corini, and criftatellsc, or polypes a plumet
of Cuvier, are allied to the latter : they poffefs tentacula or
ciliated organs ; and are either fingle or coUefted into arbo-
refcent maffes.

In the frcfli-water polypes (hydra), the organizaliun is

rather more complicated, and the fize of the animal increafes,
fo that It is vifible with the naked eye. They are gelati-
nous, femi-tranfparent, and therefore not eafily rccognifed
by a perfon unaccuftomed to look for them'. Their body is
elongated, fmall at one end, by which it is attached to fome
aquatic plant, teftaceous animal, &c. and larger at the other.
It confifts of a cavity terminating at the large end by a round
orifice, furrounded by long tentacula. The animal indeed
may be regarded as a ftomach, provided with inftruments for
catching its food : the latter is the ufe of the tentacula.
The fubftance of the body appears, under the ftrongeft
magnifying powers, a mere jelly, with more opaque portions
interfperfed. Blumenbach compares it to boiled fago.
They hve on naiades, monocuh, and other fmall aquatic
animals, which they feize with their tentacula, and convey
into the ftomach, where they are digefted, and from which
the refufe is rejedled by the fame opening.

They perform locomotion, and feem very fenfible to light,
although nothing like mufcle or nerve can be difcemed in
them. Neither have any vcflels been feen in them : they
are faid indeed to receive a tint from the food they take,
fo that it muft pafs immediately from the ftomach into the
organs.

The moft furprifing circumftances, however, in thefe ani-
mals, are their mode of multiphcation and their extenfive
power of reproduftion. They propagate by buds from
their own body- If cut into fix or more pieces, each be-
comes a perfeft animal : they may be inverted, and the ex-
ternal and internal furfaces will be changed and afiume each
other's funftions. When they are partially divided in the
longitudinal direftion, the feparated parts heal fo as to form
two heads or tails, &c. See the article Polype ; alfo,
Trembley Mem. pour fervir a I'Hiftoire d'un Genre de
Polypes d'Eau douce, &c. ; Leid. 1744, 410. Baker's
Natural Hiftory of the Polype ; Lond. 1743, 8vo. Rijfel
Hiftorie der Polypen ; in the third volume of his Infeften-
beluftigungen. Schaffer Armpolypen in den fiiflen Waf-
fern um Regenlburg, 1754, 4to.

From the frcrti-water polypes, there is an eafy tranfition to
the animal of the Weft India iflands defcribed by Ellis, in
the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ivii. tab. 19. fig. i, and in his Natural
Hiftory of Zoophytes, tab. i. fig. i, under the name of
aftinia fociata, or clufter animal flower. It is the zoanthe
ii drageons of Cuvier, hydra fociata of Gmelin. It is of a
tender flcftiy fubftance, confifting of many diftindl tubukir
bodies, each of which fwells above into a fmall bulb : at
the top of this bulb is the mouth, furrounded by one or
two rows of tentacula, which can be extended or with-
drawn at pleafure : in the latter ftate they look like circles
of beads. Thefe bodies are connefted below to a firm
fleftiy wrinkled tube, fticking fail to the rocks, and fend-
ing forth other flefliy tubes, which creep along them in
various direftions, and give origin to fimilar bodies rifing
up irregularly in groups. Knobs are obferved on the ad-
hering tube, from its infinuating itfelf into the inequalities
gf the coral rock. When the animal is diftttted lengthwife,
a large cavity is expofed, into which a tube opens from the
mouth. From this tube eight fmall cords arife, continued
to the lower part of the animal, where they feem to be loll
in the flefliv bafis.

The fmall polypi will appear to us more wonderful, and
will more powerfully engage our attention, when we find
that they produce all thofc marine fubftances, formerly
called zoophytes, from a notion that they partook both of
the animal and vegetable natures, and including corals, co-
rallines, madrepores, millcporcs, fponges, &c. &c. So ac-
tive are thefe mimilc creatures in fome parts of the ocean,
B z that

VERMES.

that their conftiiiftions form the bafis of new iflands, con-
ftitute extenlive and dangerous reefs, block Up harbours,
create /heals, &c. All which effefts are produced by ani-
mals not greatly exceeding in bulk the frefh-water polype.

It has been repeatedly found in the Weft Indies, that
wrecks become covered univerfally and thickly with madre-
pores and other corals within three-quarters of a year. The
formerly excellent harbour of Bantam is now almoft entirely
occupied by corals. Several volcanic ifles of the South-fea,
and fome even of the Weft Indian, as for example Bar-
badoes, are coated over with coral. The dangers to navi-
gators from great coral banks rifing out of the bottom of
the fea, in unknown trafts, may be illuftrated from what
Cook and FUnders experienced on the coafts of New
HoUand.

Thefe produftions were formerly defcribed with vegeta-
bles, and they will be found fo clafled by Toumefort : their
vegetable nature was even defended by Pallas. Our coun-
tryman Mr. Elhs has the honour of demoriftrating that they
belong to the animal kingdom, and of fhewing the animals
by which they are formed. See his papers, accampanied by
plates, in the 48th, 49th, 50th, 53d, 55th, and 57th vols, of
the Phil. Tranf. ; alfo his admirable works, " Natural Hif-
tory of CoraUines," &c. Lond. 1755, 4to. ; " Natural Hif-
tory of many curious and uncommon Zoophvtcs," &c. 1 786,
4to. See alfo Donati della ftoria Naturale Marina dell'
Adriatico ; Venez. 1750, 410, ; Cavolini Memorie per fer-
vire alia ftoria de Polipi Marini ; Napol. 4to.

The animals belonging to thefe fubftances may be called
compound polypi. The flefhy malFes, which are differently
circumftanced in different cafes, exhibit numerous projeft-
ing heads, each of which has a mouth with radiated tenta-
cula. Thefe heads may be either extended or withdrawn.
Thus all the polypi are connefted into one mafs, which is
increafed by (hoots. In ftrufture, thefe compound polypi
do not differ from the fimple ones, fo far at leaft as our pre-
fent knowledge of them goes.

Some zoophytes confift of a horny tube, branching out
varioufly, and hollow internally. The axis of thefe zoo-
phytes is occupied by a ftem of animal fubftance, and at
each of its branches a polype projefts. The horny covering
probably grows as the fhells of the teftacea do : and we
may fuppofe, that the tentaculated heads of the animal
ferve to procure it nourifliment. The flofcularia is of this
kind ; the animal is not very intimately connefted to the
tube.

The tubularia occurs in frefh water as well as in the fea ;
there is a horny tube, fometimes fimple, fometimes ramified.
The polype at the end exhibits tentacula, or a bundle of
hairs like a pencil. The capfularia and fertularia are of the
fame kind.

In other inftances, each polype, inftead of being con-
nefted to a common ftem, is contained in a horny or calca-
reous cell, with thin fides. In thefe there is not the fame
direft communication as in the former genera. Each polype
is infulated, or, if they communicate, it muft be by very
fine filaments, traverfing the cells.

In thefe and fome other of the zoophytes, veficles are
occafionally feen, and have been fuppofed to be ovaries : the
latter opinion, however, is inconfiftent with the views
entertained at prefent. CeUularia, fluftra, and corallina,
exemphfy this : though, with refpeft to the latter, it muft
be obferved, that its animals have not yet been demon-
ftrated, and its pores are fo fraall, that they muft be ex-
tremely minute.

The zoophytes which have an axis of foUd fubftance,
covered by a foft fleftiy layer, with hollows, which con-

tain tentaculated polypi, have been called cerato-phyta. The
axis is fometimes ligneous or horny, or ftony, and covered by
a flefhy fubftance capable of contrafting. In this there
are numerous hollow tubercles, from which there are pro-
jefted and withdrawn at will, heads, or rather tentaculated
mouths formed like polypi, all belonging to the fame animal,
like the branches of a polype : that is, the foft fubftance co-
vering the folid axis is to be regarded as the animal, of which
thefe are fo many mouths. It has the power of extending
itfelf to form a bafis of adherence to folid bodies. We alfo
obferve it extending over and forming a new ftratum of
coralline matter, inclofing foreign bodies that may be at-
tached to the axis. That the coralline axis is formed by
the fielhy covering cannot be doubted ; we perceive in it
concentric ftrata, indicating its fucceflive depofitions, and
the furface is marked by longitudinal lines correfponding to
the figure of the animal covering. When the trunk of the
coralline tree contains ligneous or vegetable matter, pro-
bably this is an extraneous body, on which the coral is
depofited. The branches are produced by an elongation
of the foft flefh, which forms them in its interior : but
their ftrata are not continuous with thofe of the trunk, as
in the cafe of trees.

Cuvier (Tableau elementaire, p. 671.) ftates, that the
nourifliment taken by any of the polype heads is converted
to the ufe of the whole animal ; to which, alfo, he afcribes
a common will, as evidenced by its extcnfion for the purpofe
of adhering to furroundmg objefts. We know no fafts
concerning the ftrufture of the animal covering, at all fuffi-
cient to warrant thefe ftatcments.

The gorgonia nobilis (ifis nobilis), or red coral, is an ex-
ample of this ftrufture. The axis is the compaft ftony
fubftance, of the hardnefs of marble, of which coral orna-
ments are made. The flefliy covering is of a bright red,
containing calcareous molecules, which form a kind of in-
cruftation when dried, and exhibiting numerous cavities in
which polypi are lodged. Each of thefe has eight denticu-
lated tentacula. The antipathes and ifis belong to this di-
v'fion. See the excellent plates of Ellis in the Natural Hif-
tory of Zoophvtes, exhibiting all the fafts above enumerated ;
particularly tab. 3. fig. 1 — J. for various views of the ifis
hippuris, or black and white coral : tab. 1 1, gorgonia flam-
mea : tab. 12. figs, i, 2. gorgonia ceratophyta : tab. 13.
'^g^- 3' 4- gorgonia peftinata : tab. 14. figs, i, 2. gorgonia
briareus : fig. 3. gorgonia pinnata.

The pennatula, or fea-feather, belongs alfo to this divifion,

and it is remarkable among the marine zoophytes, as being

. unattached, and poffeffing the power of locomotion. All the

others are fixed by their trunks or bafes to fome other ob-

jeft, as rocks, fliells, fea-weed. Sec. &c.

The pennatula refembles a feather, and confifts of a fliaft
and barbs. The former is cartilaginous and covered by a
flefliy layer ; from which, at its fmaller half, forty, fixty,
or more curved arms proceed on both fides, like the barbs
of a feather. Ten, twelve, or more fmaller proceffes are
continued from one edge of each of thefe primary barbs ;
and in each of thefe is contained a deHcate gelatinous polype,
with eight tentacula.

" The ftem of the fuckers of this animal," fays Mr. EUis,
" is of a cylindrical form : from the upper part proceed eight
fine white filaments or claws to catch their food ; when they
retreat on the alarm of danger, they draw themielves into their
cafes, which are formed like the denticles in the corallines ;
but here each denticle is furniflied with fpiculse, which clofe
together round the entrance of the denticle, and proteft this
tender part from external injuries." Phil. Tranf. vol. hii..
p. 424.

Thusj

VERMES.

Thus, in a feapen of a fpan lonjr, there are at leaft above
500 of thefe polypes. (See Ellis, Zoophytes, p. 6. et
feq. tab. 8.) They fwim about in the fea by a common
motion produced by their numerous polypi ; and are re-
markable for pofTeffing phofphoric properties ; hence one
kind has been called pennatula phofphorea, and Linnaeus
fays of it, " habitat in oceano, fundum illuminans." (Phil.
Tranf. vol. liii. tab. 19. fig. i — 5.) The pennatula rubra, or
Italian feapen, is alfo ilrongly phofphoric. Dr. Shaw ob-
ferves of it, that on the coaft of Algiers it fends forth fo
great a light in the night, that the filhermen can dillin-
guilh the fi{h as they fwim by it, fo as to know where to
caft their nets. See Phil. Tranf. vol. liii. p. zi. figs. 1, 2.

The foft covering of the ftem of the feapens confifts ex
ternally of a ftrong coriaceous membrane, and internally of
a thinner membrane : the cavity of the latter is occupied
merely by the bone or cartilage. Between the two mem-
branes are innumerable yellowilh eggs, floating in a whitifh
liquor. The fins are alfo compofed of two fl<ins ; the outer
ftrong and leathery, the inner thin and clear. The cylin-
drical part of the fuckers is formed in the fame way, except
that their outward (kins are foftcr. Both the fins and
fuckers are hollow ; fo that the cavity of the fuckers may
communicate with their fins, as their cavity does with the
trunk.

See an account of the feapen or pennatula phofphorea
of Linnseus ; likewife a defcription of a new fpecies of fea-
pen, found on the coaft of South Carolina, with obfcrva-
tions on feapens in general, by J. Elhs, in the Phil. Tranf. '
vol. hii. with three plates reprefenting various fpecies, with
magnified views of the fins and polypes.

The lithophytes are zoophytes with an axis or bafis of
a ftony fubttance, in which receptacles for polypi are exca-
vated. The madrepores and millepores belong to this di-
vifipn. See Elhs's Zoophytes, tab. 23. for views of the
millepora truncata, in which the polypes are feen magnified.
They are fo numerous in fome feas, as to form entire
iflands : feveral of thofe in the South-fea are a mere con-
geries of madrepores.

The lad kind of zoophytes have a fpongy friable or
fibrous fubftance for their bafis, covered by a flelhy incruf-
tation, which fometimes contains polypes. There are only
two genera ; "viz,, alcyonium and fpongia. The interior of
the latter is hght, friable when dry, compofed of fine, di-
verging fibres. The animal covering is a foft incruftation,
without calcareous particles, which becomes coriaceous by
drying, and is pierced with cells from which the heads of
polypes ilfuc-. See EUis in the Phil. Tranf. vol. liii. tab. 20.
figs. 10. II. and 13.

Whether the fponges are animals, is dill doubted even by
good naturahfts : at all events, they polfets the charafters
and faculties of animals in the lowell degree. They confift
of a more or lefs denfe and flexible fibrous tifl"ue, covered
in its recent ftate by a femifluid and thin kind of animal
jelly. Regularly formed round apertures are obferved,
fometimes pierced in flightly prominent papillae ; but no
polypes itfue from thefe, nor has a[iy thing of the kind ever
been feen in them. The only circumftance mentioned about
them, that can be deemed a fign of life, is a (light and
hardly perceptible contraftion or flirinking, when they are
torn from their fituation. After their death, the animal
jelly diflolvs and is removed, and tiie fibrous bafis alone is
left. See EHii on the Nature and Formation of Sponges,
Phil. Tranf. vol. Iv. pi. 10 and 11.

Next to the polypes, whether exifting fingly and un-
covered, or connected with thofe conilruftitfiis which con-

ftitute the zoophytes, we may place, in refpeA to fimplicity
of (IruAure, the adinix and medufse. The former polfefs a
coriaceous body, with confiderable power of contraftion,
which enables tlie animal to change its figure very remark-
ably, from a half fphere, when the mouth is (hut, and the
tentacula withdrawn, to a cylinder when it is open. It ad-
heres by a circular diik to the fand, rocks, &c. The
oppofite end forms a mouth, furrounded by feveral rows
of long, conical, and moveable tentacula, which can be
withdrawn or extended at pleafure. The mouth is round,
and leads ftraight into a cylindrical ftomach, with rugous
fides. They live on fmall crabs principally, which they
feize and envelop with their tentacula. The refufe is re-
jefted by the fame palfage. Between the parieles of the
ftomach and the fliin there is a vail: number of very fine in-
teilines, interwoven with each other, of which the commu-
nications and ufes have not been found out.

The aCliniae are famous for their reproduftive powers.
When cut in two, each part becomes a perfeA annnal. The
tentacula and other parts are eafily reftored. The young
aftini<e are born ahve, either at the mouth or through the
fide of the parent ; in the latter cafe the cicatrix foon clofes.
They move fometimes on their bafis, fometimes on the ten-
tacula.

Lamarck's clafs of polypi terminates with the aftinii.
It includes the following orders :

I. Polypes rotiferes ^ wheel-bearing), having ciliated and
rotatory organs round the mouth. Urceolarise. Brachioni.
Vorticellae.

II. Polypes a polypier, — polypes connefted with hard
fubftanccs ; having radiated tentacula about the mouth, and
connefted to a hard fubftance, which does not float loofe in
the water.

1. With membranous or horny polypier, without any dif-
tinft cortex. Criftatella. Plumatella. Cellularia. Sertu-
laria. Fluftra. Cellepora. Botryla.

2. Polypier with a horny axis, covered by an incruftation.
Acetabulum. Coralhna. Spongia. Alcyonium. Anti-
pathes. Gorgonia.

3. Polypier with an axis partly or entirely ftony, and
covered by a bark-like incruftation. Ifis. Corallium.

4. Polypier entirely ftony, and without incruftation. Tu-
bipora. Lunulite. Ovalite. Siderolite. Orbalite. Al-
veolite. Ocellaria. Efchara. Retepora. Millepora. Aga-
rica. Pavonia. Meandrina. Aftrea. Madrepora. Caryo-
phyllia. Turbinolia. Foiigia. CycloUte. Daftylopore.
Virgularia.

III. Polypes flottans ; loofe polypi.

Polypier loofe, floating in the water, having a horny or
ofTeous axis, covered by a fle(hy inveftment, to which all the
polypi are connefted : radiated tentacula round the mouth
of the latter. Funiculina. Veretilla. Pennatula. En-
crinus. Umbelhilaria.

IV. Naked polypi ; mouth with radiated tentacula, often
multiplied ; no polypier. Pedicellaria. Corina. Hydra.
Zoanthus. AAinia.

The fubftance of the medufx is tranfparent and gelatinous
(whence their common name of fea-blubber), a d almoil
entirely deftroyed by evaporation or boiling. In the ftate
of reft, their body reprefenls the fegment of a fphere, with
the convexity fmooth, and the oppofite fnrlar<- furni(hcd
with various tentacula- Coloured lines are oblerved in
their interior, but nothing which indicates circulation. To-
wards their edges, however, numerous veftels are obferved,
communicating appivcntly with the alimentary cavity. They
inhabit the ocean, fwimming very well by rendering their

body

VERMES.

body alternately more and leh convex. When the tide ebbs,
many of them are left on the fhore motionlefs. Although
thefe creatures are very numerous, and in fome iiiftances of
great bulic, their ftrufture «nd economy are hitherto but
little known. Meflrs. Peron and Le Sueur devoted their
attention to them very particularly in their voyage to the
Soutliern iflands ; have delineated fome Ipecies in their
" Voyage aux Terres Auftrales ;" and have announced a com-
prehenfive work on the whole tribe, in which their natural
hiftory and ftrufture are to be amply invelligated. Perhaps
this has even now appeared ; but we have not feen it. In
the notice of this publication, given in the Annales du Mu-
feum d'Hiiloire Naturelle, torn. xiv. p. 218. et feq. they ob-
ferve, " that the fubftance of the medufas is refolved entirely,
by a kind of inftantaneous fuilon, into a fluid analogous to
fea-water ; yet the moft important funftions of life are ex-
ercifed in thefe bodies, which feem to be merely coagulated
water. Their numbers are prodigious, yet we have no cer-
tain knowledge of their mode of generation : they are in
fome cafes feveral feet in diameter, and weigh tifty or fixty
pounds, yet their fyftem of nutrition efcapes us : they
execute the moft rapid and continued movements, yet we
can difcover no fibrous or mufciilar ftrufture : their fecre-
tions are exceedingly abundant, yet we fee nothing of the
mechanifm by which they are executed : they have refpira-
lion of a very aftive kind, but its feat is a myftery : they
appear very feeble, yet fifties of fome inches in length are
their conftant prey : their ftomach feems incapable of any
aftion on the latter animals, but they are digefted imme-
diately. Several of them contain air in their interior ; we
do not know how they can derive it either from the atmo-
fphere or water, or develope it in their inteftines. Several
are phofphoric : they ftiine in the darknefs of the night like
fo many globes of fire ; yet the nature, the principle, and
the agents of this ftriking property are fo many problems.
Some fting and benumb the hand which touches them : the
caufe of this phenomenon is equally unknown." The latter
property, being one of the moft obvious, has influenced
the name of thefe beings : they are called in all languages,
fea-nettles.

In the fame volume of the Annales du Mufeum, the au-
thors quoted above have given a view of the generic and fpe-
cific charafters of the medufae, as they will be defcribed in
their great work. See p. 325, et feq.

The echino-dermata of Cuvier are the moft comphcated
in their ftrufture among the zoophytes : they have a coria-
ceous or calcareous covering, a diftiiift internal refpiratory
organ, and often numerous retraftile feet. In many the
fliin is of a more or lefs cruftaceous nature ; or it may even
be a true fliell. The feet, parting through apertures of this
covering, admit of being extended or withdrawn : they are
often arranged with much regularity. There is a mouth,
provided generally with five teeth arranged in a circle, and
leading into an alimentary cavity in the interior of the body :
there are alfo ovaries ; and a very extenfive ramified organ,
which feems to eftablifti a perpetual circulation of water
through the bodies of thefe animals, and confequently a
kind of refpiration. Nothing is found Hke heart or brain.
The holothuria (fea-cucumber), with its cyhndrical body
and thick leathery Ikin ; the atterias, with its conical radiated
procefles and pliable calcareous integument ; and the echinus
(fea-hedgehog), with a complete calrareous ftiell, belong to
this divifion.

The medufx, ftar-fifti, echini, &c. are formed by La-
marck into a diftinft clafs, which he calls Radiana, or
radiated animals, becaufe their bodies are diftinguifhed, in

the arrangement both of their internal and external parts,
by being formed into radii furrounding a centre ; a form-
ation of which the firft (ketch is feen in the polypes.

Their mode of generation is not exaftly known, but they
pofTefs confiderable powers of reproduftion : they contain
organs that feem hke ovaries. The mouth is placed down-
wards, or on the inferior furface of the body : they have no
head, eyes, nor articulated limbs, probably no nerves ; and
no circulating fyftem.

This clafs comprehends two orders :

I. Radiaria mollufca (foft radiant animals). Gelatinous
body, foft tranfparent ikm, without any articulated fpines ;
no anus. Genera : Stephanomia. Lucernaria. Phyffopho-
rus. Phyfalia. Velella. Porpita. Pyrofoma. Beroe.
Equorea. Rhizoftoma. Medufa.

II. Radiaria echino-dermata. Opaque cruftaceous or co-
riaceous flcin, furniftied with retraftile tubercles, or fpines
articulated upon tubercles, and perforated by rows of holes.

1. Stellerida. Skin not irritable, but moveable; no anus.
Genera : Ophiurus. Afterias.

2. Eclunida. Skin not irritable, nor moveable; an anus.
Genera : Clypeaftrus. Caffidites. Spatanguis. Anan-
chites. Galerites. Nucleolites. Echinus.

3. Fiftuljda. Body elongated ; ikin irritable and move-
able ; an anus. Genera : Holothuria. Sipunculus.

The vermes of Cuvier approach very much to the larvae
of infefts. Perfeft infefts are diftinguiftied, among all the
white-blooded claftes, by the perfeftion of their organs of
motion, their members having diftinft articulations, and the
component parts being fohd. The larvae in fome cafes en-
joy the fame advantage : thofe of the orthoptera and heraip-
tera have as perfeft legs as the perfeft infefts : iii the larvae
of the lepidoptera and coleoptera, the members are generally
very ftiort, and not capable of prompt motion. The limbs
difappear entirely in the larvae of the diptera, and many of
the hymcnoptera, their place being fupplied by hairs,
briftles, or merely by the rings and tranfverfe wrinkles of
the trunk. The vermes refemble the laft mentioned larva: ;
but they undergo no change of form.

The largeft have the body divided into diftinft rings : a
knotted nervous cord is found in their interior. Thofe
which live in water, breathe by membranous or tufted
branchiae, like many aquatic larvae. Others have along the
fides of their body ftigmata precifely fimilar to the openings
of the trachese in infefts. The organs of motion, in feveral
inftances, are ftiff^ briftles or fpines. Others crawl by fuc-
ceflively wrinkling or contrafting the different parts of the
body. Some have even antennas. In fliort, we cannot af-
fign any general charafter, drawn either from external form
or internal ftrufture, which would be fufBcient, in all cafes,
to diftinguifli worms from the larvae of infefts.

Moft worms inhabit the interior of other animals, as the
larvae of fome infefts do : others live in the earth or water.
Some of the latter conftruft folid habitations, either by
agglutinating foreign fubftances, or by pouring out a cal-
careous matter, like that of the teftaceous mollufca. But
the ftiells of worms may always be diftinguiftied from thofe
of the mollufca, becaufe they are always either ftraight or
tortuous tubes, never regularly fpiral, or an expanded cone,
and more particularly becaufe the animal is never attached,
which it is almoft invariably in the cafe of the mollufca.

This clafs of vermes has been divided by Lamarck into
two; namely, worms, and annular animals (annelides). His
clafs of worms contains the inteftinal worms, and fome
others, whofe organization is equally imperfcft. The ani-
mals included in this clafs have a foft body more or lefs elon-
gated,

VERMES.

gated, without head, eyes, or articulated limbs. They have
no circulating veffels. No organ of fecundation has been
hitherto difcovered ; fo that fexual generation does not feem
to exift in them. The parts fuppofed in fome to be ovaries
feem to be mere colleftions of reproduftive molecules, which
require no fecundation. Their inteftinal canal is complete,
or poflefles two openings ; and the mouth conliUs of one or
more apparatufes for fucking.

The clafs is divided into three orders ; viz. cylindrical,
veficular, and flattened worms, according to the form of
the body.

The clafs of annclides or annulofa has a foft elongated
body, covered by tranfverfe rings, and no articulated limbs :
feldom a head or eyes. They have a knotted fpinal marrow ;
arteries and veins containing a fluid, which is generally red.
They breathe by branchias, which are fometimes external and
prominent, fometimes concealed.

The clafs confifts of two orders :

I. Annulofa crypto-branchia (having concealed branchiae).
Genera : Planaria. Hirudo. Lernasa. Clavala. Naias.
Lumbricus. Thalaflema.

I I . Gymno-branchia ( having external branchiae ) . Genera :
Arenicola. Amphinomia. Nereis. TerebeUa. Amphitrite.
Sabellai"ia. Serpula. Spirorbis. Siliquaria. Dentalium.

The moUufca have a mufcular heart, to which the nutri-
tive fluid is brought by the veins, and from which it is car-
ried out by the arteries ; they have organs nearly refembling
the gills of fi{h, in which the fluid is expofed to the in-
fluence of the furrounding element, and glands which pour
different fecretions into the alimentary canal. They have a
brain, nerves, and fome organs of fenfe ; but in the latter
there is more variety than in the other points. Their body,
or at leaft; their limbs have no bone in the interior ; but fe-
veral of them are inclofed in very firm, even ftrong cafes,
which are called (hells (teftae), whence the animals them-
felves have been denominated teftacea or fliell-fifli in common
language. Thefe are comprehended, together with the en-
tirely naked ones, under the name moUufca.

They have white and very irritable mnfcles. They are
extremely tenacious of life ; moving after being cut into
feveral pieces, and reproducing very confiderable portions of
their body when dcftroyed in any way. Their fliiii is always
foft, and generally lubucated by a vifcous (ecretion : it is
very fenfiblc, and poflefles organs, called tentacula, capable
of elongation, for the purpofe of touchmg. None have
organs of fmclling, but there are eyes in feveral, and ears
in fome. The body is generally enveloped, or at leafl; co-
vered in great part by a membranous invcftment, called in
French manleau, which we fliall term the mantle. Several
have moreover a hard covering named a (hell, compofcd of
one or mgre pieces, called valves, and produced by calca-
reous matter tranfuding from the mantle. To this the body
is fixed by means of mufcles. Moll mollufca inhabit the
fea ; fome dwell in frcfli water, and others live in the
earth.

Lamarck removes four genera from the mollufca, to con-
ftitute a diHinft clafs, wfiich he calls cirrhipedcs : thefe
genera are tubicintlla, coronula, balanus, anatifa. Their
principal dillingui(hing charafters are articulated arms co-
vered by a homy flcin ; two pairs of mandibles to the mouth ;
a knotted nervous cord.

It appears from the preceding review, if we join to it the
confideration of the (Irufture of infefts, that the animals
with white blood, as they have been called, have not fo
many common characters as the red-blooded. Their chief
JiftinAions are of the negative kind, as the abfence of a

vertebral column, and of an interior articulated flieleton,
&c.

" Thus," fays Lamarck, " when we confider fucceflively
the various organic fyftems of animals, from the mofl; com-
pound to the moft fimplc, we (hall obferve a degradation of
the organization commencing even in the clafs which com-
prehends the moft perfeft animals, proceeding from clafs to
clafs, though with anomalies caufed by various circumfl;ances,
and terminating at lafl: in the infuforia. The latter are the
moft imperfeft, and moft fimply organized ; the degrada-
tion in them has reached its term, the organization being re-
duced to a fimple, homogeneous, gelatinous body, almoft
without confiftence, polfefTrng no diftinft organs, and fimply
formed of a very delicate tillue, which feems to be affefted
by the furrounding fubtile fluids.

" We have feen each organ, even the moft effential, gra-
dually degenerate, become lefs diftinft, and at laft entirely
difappear long before we had reached the extremity of the
feries : and we may obferve, that it is principally in the in-
vertebral animals that the fpecial organs are obferved to be
annihilated.

" Before we quit the divifion of vertebral animals, great
changes are perceived in the perfeftion of the organs, and
even fome of them, as the urinary bladder, the organ of the
voice, the eye-lids, &c. difappear entirely. The lung,
which is the molt perfect apparatus for breathing, dege-
nerates in reptiles, ceafes to exift in fiflies, and is not
found in any invertebral animal. The (Iveleton itfelf, which
furniflies the bafis of the four hmbs polfefled by moft verte-
bral animals, begins to decline, particularly in reptiles, and
ends altogether in fifli.

" But in the invertebral animals, we fee the moft important
parts annihilated, one after the other : the heart, the brain,
the branchiae, conglomerate glands, circulating velfels, the
organ of hearing and of fight, thofe of fexual generation,
and even thofe of fenfation and motion. We fliould feek in
vain among the polypes for the flighted trace of nerves or
mufclea : irritability alone fupplies the place of fenfation and
voluntary motion. AH the motions of a polype are the re-
fult of external excitation. Put a frefli-water polype
(hydra) in a glafs of water, and place this glafs in a cham-
ber, which receives light from one quartir only. It will
flowly move itfelf towards the part on whicli the light falls,
and will remain there. Vegetables turn themfelves towards
the light in an analogous manner.

" Undoubtedly, wherever a particular organ no longer ex-
ifts, the faculty which it exercifed teafes alfo : the latter is
alfo more obfcure in proportion to the deterioration of the
organization. Infedts are the laft, in the fcale of animated
nature, poflelTing eyes ; we have reafou to fuppolc that
they fee very obfcurely, and make but httle uie of their
eyes.

" This degeneration may be obferved, even in tlic nature
and confiftence of the efl^ential fluids, and of the flefli of ani-
mals. The blood and mufcles of the mammalia and birds
are the moft compound and animalizod of .animal produc-
tions. After fifti, thefe fubftances are progrelTively changed
to fucli a degrte, that in the foft radiant animals, in the
polypi, and particularly in the infuforia, the nutritive fluid
has merely the colour and confiftence of water, and the flefli
is a foft jelly, fcarcely animalized." Philofophie Zoolo-
gique, torn. i. p. 212, et fcq.

The following Table, extrafted from the fame work of
Lamarck, p. 277, ct feq. exhibits the invertebral animals,
arranged according to their ftruftui-c, willi tiieir princi-
pal charafters, in a progrcflive feries, from the moft fimple
upwards.

Animals

VERMES.

I. Infusoria.
II. Polypi.

III. Radiaria.
IV. Vermes.

V. Insecta.
VI. Arachnid A.

VII. Crustacea.

VIII. Annelida.
rX. Cirrhipeda.

X. MOLLUSCA.

/tnimals without Vertebra.

Generation by fplitting of the body, or by fhoots ; body gelatinous,
tranfparent, homogeneous, contraftile, and microfcopic : no ra-
diated tentacula nor rotatory appendices ; no fpecial organ, not
even for digeftion.
' Generate by fhoots ; body gelatinous, with great powers of rege- •
neration ; no internal organ, except an ahmentary cavity with a
fingle opening. Mouth at one end furrounded by radiated ten-
tacula, or by ciliated and rotatory organs. They compofe, for
the mod part, compound animals. ,

" Suboviparous : great powers of reproduftion ; no head, eyes, nor
articulated limbs ; the form of the body radiated ; mouth placed

_ below.

' Suboviparous ; body foft, and highly reproductive ; undergo no
metamorphofis ; no eyes, nor articulated limbs, nor radiated dif-
pofition of internal organs.

Oviparous ; undergo metamorphofis ; poiTefs, in their perfeft "
ftate, eyes in their head ; fix articulated limbs ; trachea: extend-
ing over the whole body ; a fmgle fecundation in the courfe of
hfe.

■ Oviparous ; undergo no metamorphofis, but poffefs always articu-
lated Umbs, and eyes in their head. Trachea; confined to certain
parts ; an attempt at circulation ; feveral fecundations in the
courfe of life.

f Oviparous ; body and limbs articulated ; flcin cruftaceous ; eyes on

< the head ; and generally four antennae ; refpire by branchia; ; a

l_ longitudinal knotted medullary cord.

f Oviparous ; body elongated and annulated ; no articulated limbs ;

\ fcldom eyes ; refpire by branchiae ; knotted nervous cord.

I Oviparous ; pofTefs a mantle and articulated arms, with horny flcin ; •

[ no eyes ; refpire by branchiae ; knotted nervous cord.

{Oviparous ; body foft, with its parts not articulated ; mantle va-
riable ; refpire by branchiae, varying in form and fituation ; no
fpinal marrow, nor knotted longitudinal cord, but nerves ending
in a brain.

DeofTees,

ifl. No nerves; no vef-
fels ; no internal and
fpecial organ, but for
digeftion.

2d. No knotted medul-
lary cord; no circu-
lating vefTels ; fome in-
ternal organs Ijefides
thofe of digeflion.

3d. Nerves ending in a
longitudinal, knotted,
medullary cord ; re-
fpiration by tracheae,
which convey air ; cir-
culation imperfect, or

4th. Nerves ending in a
brain, or a knotted
medullary cord ; re-
fpiration by branchise ;
arteries zuid veins for
circulation.

Slrudure and Formation of the hard Parts, which fupply
the Place of the Skeleton in the lower Orders. — The want of
an internal articulated flceleton is the moft flriking charafter
of the fecond great divifion of the animal kingdom, or the
invertebral animals. Infefts and cruflacea have a fpecies
of external fkeleton ; they poffefs hard parts, which are at
once inftruments of motion, and means of fupport and pro-
teAion for the included fofter organs. (See Insects, in
Anatomy. ) The fhells of the mollufca are to be regarded
rather as provifions for defence, as habitations of the foft
animals which they inclofe, than, like the flceleton of the
vertebral animals, or the hard external covering of cruflacea
and infefts, as inflruments of motion.

Shells are compofed, like bones, of a calcareous matter,
intimately connefted with a gelatinous fubflance, from which
it jnay be feparated by means of acids. It is not difpofed
in laminae, or in fibres, but is diflributed uniformly through-
out the whole body of the fhell.

It is only in fome fpecies that we find ftrata eafily fepa-
rated, and as it were agglutinated to each other, like the
leaves of paper in the formation of pafleboard. We know
from obfervation that thefe flrata do not all exifl in young
animals ; they have only the external, which are at the fame
time the fmalleft. In proportion as the animal increafes in
age, it forms a new ftratum on the internal furface of the
thell, which extends beyond the edges of all the preceding
ftrata; fo that each operation of this kind adds to the fize

of the fhell in length, breadth, and thicknefs. Thefe are
certain fafts : to prove them, it is only neceffary to compare
fome fhells of the fame fpecies that have belonged to indi-
viduals of different ages ; the fewefl ftrata will always be
found in the fhells of the young. Mufcles, which may be
obferved when they are very young, and even before they
quit the body of the mother, have at that period one ftra-
tum only ; but the fhell is not therefore foft and gelatinous ;
it pofTeffes the fame firmnefs as the adult fhell, and its
greater fragility is merely owing to its thinnefs.

It has been a queftion among phyfiologifts, whether thefe
fhells grow by developement or intuffufception, or by fimple
juxtapofition ? That is, whether the fhell, hke our bones,
contains nutritive vefTels capable of increafing, diminifhing
or varioufly modifying it ; or whether the gelatinous and
calcareous component elements of the fhell are fimply
depofited from the furface of the animal's body, and attached
to the pre-exifting mafs ? We conceive that the latter mode
of formation has been incontrovertibly eilabhfhed ; that the
fubftance of the fhell is inorganic, and confequently pofFeffes
no power in itfelf of incrcafe, diminution, or any vital
change.

This point was flrft inveftigated by Reaumur, whofe re-
fearches are fo clear and fatisfaftory, that they have left
very little to be added by his fucceffors. They are detailed
in the Memoires de 1' Academic des Sciences for 1709, under
the title " De la Formation et de I'Accroiffement des Co-
1 1 quilles

VERMES.

quillee des Animaux tant ten-eftres qu'aquatiques, foit de
Mer, foit de Terre." He followed up the fubjetl, in anfwer
to fome objections, in the Memoirs for 17 16, p. 303 : under
the title " Eclairciflemens de quelques Difficultcs fur la
Formation et I'Accroiffementdes Coquilles."

" When (fays the author) the aninrial, which filled its rticll
exatlly, increafes ia i'lze, and the fhell is confequently in-
fufficient to cover it entirely, a part of the furface muil be
expofed. This is the part neareft to the opening, for the
animal's body can be augmented only in that direftion. The
inhabitants of a ipiral (hell, as fnails, grow only in the di-
reftion of the head, or towards the opening of the (hell ;
while thofe which occupy bivalve (hells, as mufcles, can in-
creafe in their whole circumference. In both cafes it is the
uncovered portion of the body that produces the fiiell."
Mem. de 1709, p. 367.

" That the animal really grows before its (hell, in the
way juft pointed out, may be eafily feen in the garden-
fnails at their feafon of increafe. We obferve that the (hell is
too fmall. The animal fixes itfelf againft a wall, or remains
at reft, and « part of its body manifettly extends beyond
the (hell all round." Ibid. p. 370.

He illuftrates the natural growth by the procefs employed
for repairing injuries. " After breaking away a portion of
the (hell, which can be eafily done without injuring the
animal, as it adheres only at one point, we obferve the
creature foon attach itfelf to ■ the fides of the vedel in
which it is placed. A fine pellicle, which may be com-
pared to the web made by the houfe fpider in the angles of
walls, covers the body in twenty -four hour.s, and forms the
firll flratum of the new (hell. In a few days this is
thickened by feveral ftrata produced under it ; and, at the
end of about ten or twelve days, the new portion of (hell
has nearly the thicknefs of the original part." P. 371.

" If," he obferves, " the injury were repaired by means of
materials furnifhed by the broken edge, as in the cafe of a
fraftured bone, we (hould obferve a callus produced from
that margin, and extending gradually into the centre of the
aperture. But the edge, in faft, remains unaltered, and the
matter dcpofiled is on the furface of the body." P. 373.

That the body of the animal affords the materials by
which the Ihell is formed, is rendered more evident by the
following experiments. " I broke away a portion of the
fhell, and placed in the opening, between the animal's body
and the Ihell, a portion of !amb-(lcin leather, fuch as is ufed
to make what are called chicken gloves. I fattened this to
the internal furface of the (hell, fo that it completely (hut
up the opening intervening between the (hell and the ani-
mal's body. It is evident, that if the (hell itfelf produced
the materials of reftoration, the new fubftance ought to be
formed, in fuch circumftanccs, on the exterior furface of the
leather. On tiie contrary, however, that fide which was
towards the animal's body became lined with (hell, and none
was depofited on the exterior furface.

" Again, I broke away a part of the (hell at its opening,
introduced a portion of the leather, and fallcned it to the
inner furface ; then turned it down, and faftcnod ic alfo to
the outer furface, fo that the circumference of the opening,
with its broken edge, was completely covered. Now, if the
fhell fp-ows by a principle of vegetation, either this covering
(hould have prevented tlie growth, or the elongation of the
(hell (liould have puOicd the leather forwards. On the con-
trary, the (hell grew, and the leather remained where it was
placed, being interpofed between the old (hell and the new
piece, to the formation of which the former confequently
could not have contributed." P. 374.

" It is a necefTary confcquence of the preceding {i&.3, that
Vol. XXXVII.

the (helli of fnails increafe in fixe, only by an addition to
the number of their fpiral turns, and that tlf length of a
turn, when once formed, continues always the fame. The
truth of this ftatement is eafily (hewn. If the (liell of a
full-grown fnail be reduced to the fame number of turns as
that of a young one of the fame fpecies, the two (hells arc
then of the fame fize. This holds true, even with refpeft
to the (hells of fnails juft produced. A turn more or lefs
makes a great difference in the fize of the (hell ; for the dia-
meter of each is nearly double that of the preceding, and
about one-half of the following ; hence half, or even a
fourth of a turn more increafes confiderably the fize of the
(hell." P. 378.

The fame point has been attentively examined by Mr.
Carlifle, whofe conclufions confirm in all refpecls ihofe of
Reaumur.

" The moft appofite illuftrations, and the moft pofitive
inftances of union between vital and extra-vital parts, are to
be found in the tellaceous tribe of animals. After a long-
continued and careful inveftigation, I am fully convinced,
that the (hells of all the vermes of Linnasus are extra-vaf-
cular from their commencement, and remain fo during the
whole of their connexion with the living creature. Tiie rirft
produ&ion and the growth of thofc (licUs always depend
upon a depofit of material thrown out from the iurtace of
the body of the living animal. The figure and colours of
the feveral parts of thofe fiiells, in every fpecies, depend
upon the fhape and the colouring glands of the modelling
organs. Fraftures are repaired by fpreading a crullaccous
fluid over the inner edges, and never by any exudation from
the fraftured parts, fince they retain always the fquared
broken furfaces after fuch repairs. Extraneous bodies are
equally covered with Ihell, whether they are in contaft with
the parent fhell or not. The firft may be feen in the fre-
quent envelopement of nereifes in the common oyfter ; the
latter has been often afcertained by the experiments made
for the purpofe of creating artificial pearls, and which
might, if fkilfuUy praftifed, yet prove very fucccfsful.
The borings of parafitical vermes into fhells are never filled
up, or the bored furface altered, unlefs fuch borings pene-
trate into the cavity where the living animal dwells, and
then the apertures are invariably plugged up or fmeared over
with pearly matter. The water-worn external furfaces of
old fhells, and other external abrafions, are never repaired,
which is to be feen in old Lving oyfters expofed to the
moving friftion of currents or ftrong tides, in the worn-oif
fpines of the pholas daftylus, and in the convex points of the
two valves of old mytili, efpecially the mytilus anatinus.
I have fought in the moft extenfive colleClions of the metro-
polis for examples of fradures and other injuries which have
occurred to the fliells of living vermes, and I have collefted
many remarkable fpccimcns. They all demonftrate the
fame refults without any exception. I have made numerous
experiments upon tlie garden-fnail, (helix nemoralis,) by
frafturing and breaking away the fliell in various parts, and
have always found the repairs to be effefted from within by
firft fmcaring over an epidermoid varnifh, and then by
plaiftcring the inner furface of that film with fuccefTive cal-
careous lamina:. I have in vain attempted to injcft the flicUs
of recent vermes from the vafcular parts of their bodies ;
and am fully fatisfied, that none of their albuminous or gela-
tinous tellaceous membranes were ever at any time tra-
verfed by vefTels ; indeed, they do not polfefs any of the
reticular texture or arborefcent pores which itfc common to
all vafcular parts ; but, microfcopically examined, they
rcfcmblc the cxuviol or epidermoid membranes. To thefe
may be added the notorious circumftance of the unchangc-

C ablcncfs

VERMES.

ablenefs of the outer furfaces of teftaceous (hells during their
growth, and the continued renewal of their other furfaces
wliich admit of contaft with the living inhabitant ; next,
the ftains and coloured tranfudations which they often derive
from metallic falts, and other colouring materials placed in
their vicinity ; and laftly, that fuch occurrences do not
afFeft the living animal." See " Fafts and Obfervations re-
lative to the Conneftion between vafcularand extra-vafcular
Parts, in the Strufture of living organized Bodies." Lond.
Med. Repofitory for Auguft, 1814.

It is ftated of fome teftaceous mollufca, that they quit
their (hell to form a new and larger one. Cuvier affcrts this
of the cyprasas, and it is alfo fuppofcd to be the cafe with
thebalani. (See Annalesdu Mufeum, t.i. p.470. ) Inthefe
inllances it is cleeu- that the furface of the body niuft form
the new {hell.

The inhabitant of the paper nautilus (argonauta argo)
does not adhere to its fhell at any point ; the additions to
the (hell cannot therefore pofTibly be made by the way of
developement. It grows, in all probabihty, by a fccretion
formed by its two palmated arms. Nautili are met with
where extenfiTe fraftures have taken place, and have been
cop.folidated by depo(ition from within. Hift. des Mol-
lufqucs, par Denys Montfort, t. iii. p. 284.

The animal comes out of its egg with the (hell ready
formed ; it pofTefles one turn, and fometimes rather more,
but is very thin. Leeuwenhoeck firft afcertained the (aft
refpedting oy iters. Lifter made the fame obfervation, and
extended it to other teilacea, both terreftrial and aquatic.
MarQgH, Rumphius, Swammerdam, Reaumur, and Adan-
(on, con(irmed the difcovery. The latter naturalift (hewed
that the viviparous teftacea agree with the oviparous, in
the circumftance of their young being covered by (hells at
the time of birth, and even before. Encycl. Method.
t. vi. p. 549.

" As the animal grows afterbirth, its body advances con-
llantly towards the mouth of the (liell ; the pofterior end
quits the bottom of the (irft turn, to which it does not ad-
here, and when the fize of the (hell is complete, it occupies
a fituation very diftant from its original one. In fome
fpecies of an elongated figure, as the bulime confolide and
decolle, and feveral others, wliere the end of the fpire re-
mains very thin and unfupported, it is liable to break : the
animal flops the breach by a new calcareous exudation from
the pofterior end of its body. In other teftaceous mollufca
the end of the fpire becomes folid, and prefents a mafs of
laminated calcareous matter, fometimes as hard as marble.
The fucceifive layers are diftinftly viiible when a fcction is
made. I have now before me a fplendid fpecimen of the
trochus Niloticus, in which fix turns of the fpire are fohd, and
filled with a calcareous fubftance equal to the fineft Carrara
marble. I can demonftrate the fame h& in other ftiells.

" In fome cafes diiferent phenomena are exhibited. The
murex tritonis not only has the apex of its long fpire con-
fohdated, but, as the animal grows older, and abandons more
rapidly the extremity of the fpire, infteaJ of filling up the
whole tube, it forms only thick fepta, which are conftrucled
fucceflively in the fituations where the animal's body refts
for a while." Hift. des MoUufques, par Denys Montfort,
t. iii. p. 246, et feq.

Some white-blooded animals have hard parts internally ;
but they are not articulated fo as to form the bafes of
moveable members, and their texture differs confiderably
from that of ordinary bones. The common cuttle-fi(h
( fepia officinalis ) contains in the fle(h of the back an oval
fubftance, convex before and behind, white, folid, friable,
and of a calcareous nature. This fubftance is not attached

to the fle(h, but has the appearance of a foreign body intro-
duced into it. There is no indication of any. veflfel or nerve
entering it ; nor is any tendon affixed to it. It is compofed
of thin parallel lamellse, which are not in immediate contaft
with each other. The intervals are occupied by an infinite
number of fmatl hollow columns, ftanding perpendicularly
between one lamella and another, and arranged in very
regular quincunces. As the fuperficies of the lamellse are
plane, and thofe of the bone itfelf convex, they neceffarily
interfefl each other : the points of interfeftion are marked
on the furfaces of the bone by regular curvilinear ftrix.
Thefe bones have a kind of wings, which are of a lefs
opaque nature, lefs brittle, and have a greater refemblance
to thin elaftic horn, than the body of the bone.

To this laft fubftance the part called the fword of the
calmar (fcpia loligo) bears an analogy. It is tranfparent,
elaftic, and very brittle ; its (hape is fometimes that of a
leaf, fometimes of a fword-blade. It bears the fame rela-
tion to the foft parts, and occupies the fame fituation as the
bone of the cuttle-fifh.

There is a gradation in ftruftnre from this fword of the
calmar and bone of the cuttle-fifh, which are completely
internal, to the external (hells of the teftacea. The bulla
aperta (Linn.), bullxa (Lamarck), has a (hell contained
in its cloak or outer integument, and not vifible on the ex-
terior of the body. It is extremely thin, and almoft tranf-
parent ; not attached to the body by any mufcle, for it is
fo weak that the (lighteft mufcular force would break it. It
is ftriated, fo as to indicate fucceifive dcpofitions ; and fo
placed in the body as to cover the principal vifcera. (Cuvier,
Annalcs du Mufeum, t.i. p. 159. pi. 12.) The dolabella,
teftacella, and parmacella, have analogous (hells, called by
Cuvier coquillescachees. (Ibid. t. v.) There is a thin (hell
contained in the cloak of the pleuro-branchus. ( Ibid. t. v.
p. 270 ; pi. 18. B. fig. 3.) There is a fmall and thin cal-
careous plate in the back of the (lug, analogous to the com-
mon (hells. The fle(hy covering of the branchiee has a
larger but thin, horny, tranfparent and flexible plate in the
aplyfia. Ibid. t. ii. p. 297.

The infulated bony or horny pieces juft enumerated, par-
ticularly that of the cuttle-fi(h, ftrongly confirm the repre-
fentation which has been already given refpefting the growth
of (hells. They muft increafe by ilrata fuccefQvely depo-
lited ; and they may thus be called internal (hells.

The afterias and echinus have a kind of fl<eleton, the
nature of which very much refembles that of the mollufca.
In the echinus it is a fohd calcareous envelope, frequently
very hard. It has a number of Uttle holes, through which
pafs membranous feet, furnifhed with tubercles and points
analogous to the fubftance of the (hell, which play freely on
thefe tubercles.

In the ftar-fi(h, the calcareous part forms a ftalk, com-
pofed of a number of fmall articulated vertebrse, which
extend under the middle of each of the branches of the
body, and te which is attached a kind of offeous grating,
which fupports the remainder of the envelope of the branch
to which it belongs, and which is rendered remarkable, even
externally, by its projeftion, and by the tubercles of dif-
ferent forms that cover the whole of its furface.

Their offeous ftalk cannot be regarded as completely ex-
ternal, fince it is covered outwardly by an epidermis and
other foft parts. This is, perhaps, the moft ftriking excep-
tion to the general rule that white-blooded animals have no
internal articulated (Iceleton. The mode of growth of the
(Iveleton of the ftar-fi(h has not yet been iufficiently in-
veftigated : the (lieletou of fome holothurias is exaftly
fimilar.

Corals,

VERMES.

Corala, other zoophytes, and lithophytes, have hard parts,
which are fometimes horny, fometimes calcareous, and fome-
timcs fpongy ; but which grow by fimple juxtapofition, or
at lead hkc (hells by the addition of fucceffive ftrata. In
fome their growth takes place externally, and the fenfible
fubftance envelopes the old ftrata by new ones, with which
it again covers itfelf. Such is the cafe with the lithophyta
and ceratopliyta. In others, the parts which have once at-
tained their proper hardnefs, no longer increafe in thick-
iiefs ; but new fhoots or branches are formed at their extre-
mities. Such are all the jointed zoophytes.

There are fome minute obfervations on the texture,
courfe of the fibres, &c. of fhells, and fimilar fubftances, in
a paper by Mr. Beudant, entitled " Memoirc fur la Strudture
des Parties folides des Mollufques, Radiaires, et Zoophytes."
See Annales du Mufcum, t. xvi. p. 66.

Chemical Compo/ilien of Shells, isfc For our knowledge

•of the chemical compofition of thefe fubftances, we are
indebted principally to the excellent papers of Mr. Hat-
chett in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1799 and 1800.
Shells, like bones, confift of calcareous falts united to a
■foft animal matter ; but in the former the lime is united
chiefly to carbonic acid, whereas in the latter it is united
to phofphoric acid. The predominating ingredient in fhells
is carbonate, in bones, pliofphate of lime. This conftitutes
the charafteriftic difference in their compofition.

Mr. Hatchett divides Ihells into two clafies. The firft
are ufually of a compaft texture, refemble porcelain, and
have an enamelled furfacc often finely variegated. The
fliells belonging to this clafs have been diftinguiftied by the
name of porcellaneous fhells ; they are exemplified in the
voluta, cyprasa, &c. Thofe of the fecond clafs are ufually
covered with a ftrong epidermis, below which lies the fhell
in layers, and compofed of the fubftance known by the
name of mother-of-pearl : thefe he calls mother-of-pearl
fhells. The frefh-water mufcle, the halyotis iris, and the
turbo olearius, are examples. In the firft clafs there is a
fmall, in the fecond a large proportion of animal matter.

Porcellaneous fliells contain fo little animal matter, that
they emit no fmoke nor fmell, when expofed to a red heat,
nor are they blackened ; and they difTolve with effervefcence
in acids, without leaving any refidue. They confift, there-
fore, of carbonate of lime, cemented together by a fmall
portion of animal matter, which is foluble in acids, and
therefore refembles gelatine.

Some patella: from Madeira, examined by Mr. Hatchett,
confiftcd alfo of carbonate of hme, but they emitted a fmell
like horn, when expofed to a red heat, and left a femi-
liquid gelatinous matter behind, when difTolved in acids.
They contain, therefore, lefs carbonate of lime, and more
animal matter, which is alfo of a more vifcid nature than
tliat of porcellaneous flioUs.

The mother-of-pearl (hells, when expofed to a red heat,
crackle, blacken, and emit a ftrong fetid odour. When
immerfed in acids, they effervefce at firft ftrongly ; but
gradually more and more feebly, till at laft the cmifTion
of air-bubbles is fcarcely perceptible. The acids take up
only lime, and leave a number of thin membranous fub-
ftances, which ftill retain the form of the fliell. From
Mr. Hatchott's experiments, we learn that thefe membranes
have the properties of coagulated albumen. Thefe fhells,
then, are compofed of alternate layers of coagulated albumen
and carbonate of limo, beginning with the epidermis, and
ending with the laft formed membrane. The animals
which inhabit thefe (hells, inrreafe their habitation by the
addition of a ftralum of carbonate of lime, fecured by a
new membrane.

Different fhells vary confiderably in the proportion of
their conftituents, and in the confiftcncy of the albuminous
part. Some, as the common oyfter-ftiell, approach nearly
to the patellae, the albuminous portion being fmall, and its
confiftence nearly gelatinous ; while in others, as the halyotis
iris, the turbo olearius, the real mother-ofnpearl, and a
fpecies of frefli-water mufcle, the membranes arc diftinft,
thin, compaft, and femi-tranfparent. One hundred parts of
mother-of-pearl contain fixty-fix of carbonate of lime, and
thirty-four of membrane. Merat-Guillot in Ann. de
Chimie, torn, xxxiv. p. 7 1.

Pearls, or the concretions formed in thefe fhells, refemble
them exaftly in ftrufture and compofition. The fubftance
confifts of concentric and alternate coats of thin membrane
and carbonate of hme. Hatchett, in Phil. Tranf. 1799.

The bone of the cuttle-fifti was found by Mr. Hatchett
to be exaftly fimilar, in its compofition, to mother-of-pearl
ftiells.

Mr. Hatchett compares the porcellaneous fhells to enamel
of teeth, (fee Cranium,) and mother-of-pearl ftiells to the
bone of teeth, or other bone. (See Bone.) The only dif-
ference is, that in enamel and bone the earthy fait is phof-
phate of lime, whereas in fliells it is pure carbonate of lime.

The fliells of the echini, and the crufts of the afterias
(ftar-fifh), are made of carbonate, with a fmall quantity of
pliofphate of lime ; and a greater or lefs proportion, accord-
ing to their hardnefs or flcxibihty, of an animal, gelatinous,
or albuminous matter.

Many of the fubftances which compofc the bafis, or
hard part of zoophytes, have the hardnefs and appearance of
fhell or bone : others are foft, and belong rather to tjie clafs
of membrane or horn. From Mr. Hatchett's admirable
differtation in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for i8co, and
the experiments of Merat-Guillot in the Annales de Chimie,
torn, xxxiv., our knowledge of the chemical cbnftitution of
thefe fubftances is derived.

The hard zoophytes are compofed chiefly of three ingre-
dients ; I . An animal fubflance of the nature of coagulated
albumen, varying in confiftency, fometimes being gelatinous,
and almoft liquid, at others of the confiftency of cartilage ;
2. Carbonate of lime ; 3. Phofphate of lime.

In fome zoophytes the animal matter is very fcanty, and
pliofphate of lime wanting altogether ; in others, the animal
matter is abundant, and the earthy fait pure carbonate of
lime : in fome, there is much animal matter, with a mixture
of carbonate and phofphate of lime ; and a fourth clufs is
almoft entirely deftitute of earthy falts. Thus we have
four claftes ; of which the firft refembles porcellaneous fheUs,
the fecond mother-of-pearl fhells, the third the crufts of tlie
cruftacea and cchino-derniata, and the fourth hora.

£. When the madrepora virginca is imincrfed in diluted
nitric acid, it cffcrvefces ftrongl-', and is foon dllTolved. A
few gelatinous particles float in the folution, which is other-
wife colourkfs and tranfparent. Ammonia precipitates
nothing, but its carbonate i..rows down abundance of car-
bonate of hme. It is compofed, therefore, of carbonate of
lime and a little animal matter. The following zoophytes
yield nearly the fame refults ; vl%. madrepora miiricata
and labyrinthica ; millepora C3;rulea and alcicornis ; and
tubipora nuifica.

2. The madrepora 'rmea eftervefccs in weak nitric acid ;
but when all the foluble part is taken up, there remains a
membrane, completely retaining the original fhape of the
madrepore. The fubftance taken up is ,juie lime. Hence
it is compofed of carbonate of lime, and a membranaceous
fubftance, which, as in mother-of-pearl ftiells, retains the
figure of the madrepore.

C 2 The

VERMES.

The following zoophyte? yield nearly the fame refults ;
viz. madrepora fafcicularis ; millepora ceDulofa, fafcialis,
and truncata ; and ifis hippuris.

Merat-Guillot gives the following flatement of the com-
pofition of three fpecies, which muft, according to this
account, be referred to the prefent clafs.

-(Vhhe Coral. Red Coral.

Carbonate of lime
Animal matter

50
5°

53-5
46.5

An".ft:iated
Coralline.

49

5'

100

3. Immerfion in weak nitric acid does not afFeft the (hape
of the madrepora polymorpha : there remains a tough,
opaque, membranaceous fubftance of a white coloui;, filled
ivith a tranfpaitent jelly. The acid folution yields a flight
j)recipitate of phofphate of lime, when heated with ammonia,
and carbonate of ammonia throws down a copious precipitate
of carbonate of lime. It confifts, therefore, of animal matter,
partly ill the ftate of jelly, partly in that of membrane, hard-
ened bv carbonate, together with a little ph.jfphafe of lime.

The fluftra foliacea, corallina opuntia, and ifis ochracea,
gave the fame refults ; except that in the two latter, phof-
phate of lime could only be difcovered in the folution of the
burnt fubftance.

The colouring matter of the ifis ochracea falls down in a
fuie red powder in weak nitric or muriatic acid ; whereas
that of the tubiiiora mufica, and of the gorgonia nobilis, or
red coial, is dellroyed by thcfe acids.

After the red coral has been immerfed in acid, it is feen
to confift of two parts, vh. an extf-rnal tubulated mem-
lirane of a yellow colour, inclofing a tranfparent gelatinous
fubftance. The acid folution yields only carbonate of
lime ; but when the red coral is heated to rednefs, and
then diflblved, the folution. yields a little phofphate of
lime alio. Red coral then confifts of an internal ftc-m,
compofed .of gelatinous matter and carbonate of lime ;
and an external covering or cortex, confifting of membrane
hardened by the calcareous falls ; and both coloured by
fome unknown fubftance.

The gorgonia ceratophyta and fiabellum have a fimilar
compofition. The cortex of the gorgonia fuberofa contained
a httle phofphate and a large portion of carbonate of hme.
The llem contained icarcely any earthy fait. The gorgonia.
fetofa and peftinata exhibited nearly the fame phenomena.

4. Gorgonia antipathes has a horny ftem, but is deftitute
of cortex. It gives out fome gelatine to boiling water.
When fteeped in nitric acid, it becomes foft, and exhibits
concentric coats of thin, opaque, brown membranes, of a
ligneous afpeft. With potafh it forms an animal foap, and
pofleffes nearly the properties of horn. The ftems of the
gorgonia umbraculum and verrucofa are fimilar ; but they
both poflefs a cortex, competed of membrane and carbonate
of lime.

Mr. Hatchett analyfed many fpecies of fponges : but
found them all iimilar in their compofition. They confift of
gelatine, which they gradually give out to water, and a thin
brittle membranous fubftance, which polfeffes the properties
of coagulable albumen.

■ The alcyoniums refeinble verv much in their compofition
that of the gorgonia fuberofa. They yield a little gelatine
to water. They are foftened, and appear membranous in
nitric acid, which takes up the carbonate of hme, and likewife
a little phofphate, at leaft when the fubftance has been pre-
vioufly heated to rednefs.

In the Annales du Mufeum d'Hiftoire Naturelle, we

have an account, by A. Laugier, of the earthy and faline
matters contained in the hquor produced by the fpontaneous
decompofition of the medufae. This was procured by the
melting of a blue medufa taken in the Channel. When left
to fpontaneous evaporation, a cryftalline peUicle formed, and
was removed, and fo on fucceffively, until no more cryftals
were formed. " The fait thus obtained," fays the author,
" was formed of carbonate and phofphate of lime ; thefe
falls exifting in exaftly the fame proportions as in all the
calcareous concretions, produced by the hardening juices of
the mollufca, the polypes, and the cruftacea, which I have
examined, fuch as red coral, white coralline, oyfter-fheUs,
crab's-eyes, &c. viz. carbonate of lime 92, phofphate of
lime 7, animal matter uniting the molecules i, in 100
parts. See p. 346.

The remaining liquor, being evaporated to drynefs, gave
a fahne refidue, of which the component parts, fimilar to the
falls of the fea, were, in 100, muriate of foda 79, muriate
of lime 4, muriate of magnefia 3, muriate of iron 2, ful-
phate of lime l, water and lofs 11. P. 349.

So complete, fays Peron, is the fpontaneous fufion of the
medufa?, that from an individual weighing feveral kilo-
grammes, hardly a few milligrammes of membranous refidue
remain in the filter. Ann. dn Muf. t. xv. p. 43.

Organs of Motion. — In the cephalopodous mollufca.

The mollufca, which have the iiead furnilhed with long ap-
pendages for progrefllve motion, are called cephalopoda ;
and have two orders of mufcles, one belonging to the body,
the other to the feet or tentacula.

The fac which compofes the body of thefe animals,
ftripped of the external fl<in, prefents a mufcular tifiue of
very compaft fibres. Thofe of the outer layer appear to
have a longitudinal direftion ; the middle layer is tranfverfe ;
and the iucceeding layers have different obliquities. They
can flatten, elongate, twift, and bend the lac ; bift the
aclion of each layer cannot be afligned in a pofilive manner,
on account of their very complicated ftruClure.

In the back of thefe animals, under the Ikin, there is
found a body more or lefs folid. In the cuttle-fifti it is a
fpecies of bone compofed of different thin paraUel plates
one above another, and feparated by httle columns difpofed
in the form of quincunces. This bone is oval, thick to-
wards the middle, and thin at the circumference. In other
fpecies, its form varies much, but its fubftance is generally
elaftic, and tranfparent like glafs. Its furface is fometimes
marked with longitudinal furrows.

The fepia oftopus war.ts it entirely.

Two Ifrong mufcles arife from the inner furface of the
fac, on each fide of this bone. They run towards the head,
and on their arrival there, divide each into two branches;
one branch is inferted into the head, the other mixes its
fibres with thofe of the fac, at the edge of which it ends.
The cephalopoda have eight conical feet, of different
lengths, arranged in a circle at the top of the head, round
the mouth. The animal can turn and bend them in every
diredlion, and faften itfelf to bodies by help of the cups
or fuckers with which they are furnifhed. The mufcles,
which perform their motions, are very numerous : they
may, however, be diftinguifhed into thofe that are common
to the whole foot, and thofe that are proper to the fuckers.

Below the flcin we find a very thin mufcle, the fibres of
which are united by a loofe cellular fubftance. It accom-
panies the fkin in all its different fiiapes, and may, perhaps,
be regarded as a mufculus cutaneus employed to corrugate
the fkin, and give greater force to the mufcle fituated
within it, upon which it afts hke a girdle. Between the
feet, and under the fkin, which unites them at their bafe,

two

VERMES.

two thin nmfcles are fltuated, one btlow the other, the
fibres of which are tranfverfe. One arifes in the middle
longitudinal line of the foot, on the fide oppofitc to the
fuckers, and proceeds direftly to its infertion in the fame
line of the adjacent foot on either fide. The other arifes
below the fuckers themfelves, goes over the lateral parts of
the foot, and at laft forms a mufcular membrane with
tranfverfe fibres, which pafFes under the preceding mufcle,
and proceeds to its infertion in the other foot, exaftly
in the fame manner as it took its origin. This double
mufcular membrane bears fome analogy to that which unites
the toes of web-footed birds, Inch as ducks, geefe, &c. It
produces a circular plate, which occupies the intervals be-
tween each bale of the feet. Thefe two mufcks probably
ferve to bring the feet nearer to each other ; the fecond
may befides feparate the two rows of fuckers. It reaches
the whole length of the foot, but becomes thinner towards
the extremity.

Below thefe three layers of mufcles (the two tranfverfe
and the cutaneous), we find another pretty large one, the
conical figure of which determines the fhape of the foot.
At the furface it feems entirely formed of tranfverfe fibres ;
but on cutting it in different directions we find that it has
longitudinal fibres. Tliele fibres are interwoven like thofe
of the human lingual mufcle towards its centre. In the
centre of thi^ mufi.Ie there is a vacant fpace, in which we
find very large vefltls and nerves. The fuckers are fattened
to the inferior furface of this mufcle, and to a layer of fibres
llill more evidently longitudinal, by little flL-fliy bands, dif-
fering in direftion according to the fpecies.

The fuckers are formed by a mufcular cup of radiated
fibres, which, by their contradlion, diminifh its capacity.
But at its edge, and clofe to the plate under the cylindrical
mufcle, tiierc is another layer of circular fibres, hke a
fphinfter, which renders the cup more convex. Finally,
each fucker is retained and moved upon the foot by little
mufcular fafciculi interlaced together, and uniting at laft in
the inferior tranfverfe mufcle of the foot. At leaft, this is
the cafe in the fepia odlopus.

In the calmar (fepia loligo), and the cuttle-fifh (fepia
officinalis), the fuckers arc attaclied by very fmall mufcular
peduncles.

When an animal of this kind approaches any body with
its fuckers, in order to apply them more intimately, it pre-
fcnts them in a flat or plane ftate ; and when the fuckers are
thus fixed, by the adaptation of furfaces, the animal con-
traiSs the fphinftcr, and forms a cavity in the centre, which
becomes a vacuum. By this contrivance, the fucker ad-
heres to the furface with a force proportioned to its area,
and the 'weight of the column of air and water of which it
forms the bafc. This force, multiplied by the number of
fuckers, gives that by which all or a part of the feet adhere
to any body. The power of adhcfion is fuch, that it is
eafier to tear off the feet than to feparate them from the
fubllance to wliich the animal choofes to attacli itlelf.

In the cuttle-fifh and the calmar, the mouth of the fucker
is fnrrounded by a cartilaginous indented zone ; in the
oftopus it is only a fltfliy diflc, fiat, ar.d perforated in the
middle.

Befides the eight feet juft defcribed, which are all that
are poffefTed by the odlopus, the cuttle-fifli and calmar have
two others much longer and fmaller, and without fuckers,
except at the extremity, which is enlarged. Their ftrutlure
is in other refpects the fame as that of the other feet.

The organs of locomotion in the gaftcropodous moUufca,
rcfide principally in that inferior part of the body on which

they drag themfelves forwards, and which is called their
foot. It is a flclhy mafs, formed of fibres which crofs each
other in fevcral din dtions, and are capable cf giving it every
pofTible (hape. Mod commonly it has that of an oval,
pointed behind ; but, bv the various contr^ftions of which
thffe fibres r.re fiilciptible, they cxtLiid or contraft it in
the whole or in part, lo as to produce that (lew progreffive
motion, which every body has remarked in the common
fnail or Aug. The tranfverfe fibres are rafily fetn in the
foot of the fiug, if it be opened by the hack. They pro-
ceed from the edges of the foot to two longitudinal middle
tendinous lines. Below thefe we meet with others in a con-
trary direftion ; but fo interwoven, that it is difficult to
trace the layers.

In the fcyllafa the foot is only a longitudinal furrow, im-
prefTed in the whole length of the belly of the animal. By
the help of this furrow it embraces the flalks of fucus, upon
which It crawls. In other refpefts, the organizatioH of its
foot is nearly the fame as that of the fiug.

In the limpet (patella), the inferior layer is compofed of
tranfverfe fibres, which are interlaced at the edge with
numerous circular ones. The fuperior layer confifis of two
rows of fibres, meeting at an acute angle on a middle line,
which correfponds to the long diameter of the foot. There
are alfo foire circular fibres at its edge. The inferior layer,
by its contraftions, lengthens the ellipfis of the foot, while
it leffens the breadth ; and the inferior diminifiies the length,
but increafes the breadth. This is the mechanifm which
produces the progreflion of thefe animals. Laftly, the cir-
cular fibres diminifii the furface on all fides, and render it
convex above, thereby producing a vacuum, which makes
the animal adhere firmly to the furface that fupports it. So
powerful is this adhefion, that we cannot feparate a limpet
from the rock by means of the fingers.

Reaumur tied a ftring round the limpet, called by the
French osil du bouc (patella Grseca), and fufpended a
weight from it perpendiculai-ly. Thirty pounds w^ere nc-
ceffary to feparate the fhell ; and this weight was fupported
by the animal for a ftiort time. Reaumur conceives that
the adhcfion is not produced on the principle of forming a
vacuum, but by a vifcous fluid ; and ftates, that when the
(hell and animal were fplit vertically, the divided portions
ftill adliered. (Mein. de I'Acad. des Sciences de Paris,
171 1, p. 109, et fcq.) In this reprefentation we are fa-
tisfied that this able obfervt^r was mirtaken.

The gafteropodous mollufca, which arc furnifhed with
(hells, poflefs, befides the mufcles juft defcribed, others
that enable them to retreat into the (liell, and protrude
their body from it again. Thefe (hells, or moveable habi-
tations, vary much in their form. They are generally
made of one piece, of difFeront fliapes, fimple, without
twifting, in the limpet ; in a flattened fpire, as in the
planorbis ; in a globular and pyramidal fpire, as in the
(hell of the fnail, bulimus, dipper-fnail, &c. T!ie chiton
is the only genus of gafteropoda which has a (hell formed of
fevcral pieces.

In the limpet the foot is faftcned to the circumference of
the (hell by a ring of fibres attached all round the (hell, and
wiiich, after piercing the outward covering or cloak, .ire
inferted in the edges of the foot, and interlaced witli its
circular fibres. They leave a fpace in front, for the pafTage
of the head.' This mufcle, by its contrat^iona, brings the
foot and the fliell clofcr together, and compreffe! the body ;
on relaxing, it allows the (hell to be raifitl up by the elaf-
ticity of the body.

In the garden-fnail there are two Hfong mufcles, which

draw

VERMES.

draw the foot and the whole body within the (hell. They
arife from the colLnnella or axis of the (hell, and, having
penetrated the body below its fpiral part, they run forward
under the flomach, and fpread their libres in feveral flips,
which interlace with thofe of the mufcles proper to the foot,
the fubftance of which they enter. From thefe attachments,
their mode of aftion may be eafdy underftood. When the
animal wilhes to protrude itfelf from the (hell, its head and
foot are forced out by circular fibres, which furround the
body immediately above the foot.

The acephalous moUufca have the body enveloped by a
membrane principally mufcular, which is called the mantle
or cloak. This integument is more or lefs complete in the
different genera. It is generally covered by valves or (hells
of various forms and proportions. Few of the genera want
this folid covering ; among thofe, however, are the afcidia
and falpa.

The valves of the (hells are fo difpofed, that they can
move one upon the other, by means of o(reous projedlions,
which reciprocally receive each other, thus forming a real
hinge. They are, befides, connefted by an elaftic ligament
of a horny fubftance, which continually tends to open them.
" This elaftic fubftance," fays Mr. Carlifle, " is wedged in at
the hinge : its fpring is excited by comprefTion ; but it does
not pofTefs the property of expanfion beyond its paffive ftate.
When dried, it cracks into cubes. As the valves increafe,
this elaftic ligament is augmented along the inner furface
only, and muft have been always depofited daring the ex-
panded ftate of the valves, fmce the limits of its elaftic con-
dition are exaftly adapted to that ftate. As the lamina of
the (hells increafe, there is a gap at the outfide of the hinge,
filled with foft crumbling and decompofing worn-out elaftic
ligament : this gap prefents two inclined planes meeting at
an acute angle, and that fpace is kept free from pebbles and
hard extraneous bodies by the prefence of the decompofing
ligament ; as fuch an accident would prove fatal, by pre-
venting the opening of the valves." Monthly Repofitory
for Auguft, 1 8 15.

The hinge of the (hells prefents fo many varieties, that
naturalifts have drawn from it the charafteriftics of the
genera. The oyfter, placuna, fcallop, avicula, &c. have
no tooth in their joint. The piddocks and the mya or
gapers have it in one of the valves only ; but it is not received
into a foffa. The razor-(hells have the hinge ftrengthened
by a tooth in each (hell, which projefts inward. Thefe
two projeftions meet and move upon each other. The
anomia, unio, chama, fpondylus or thorny oyfter, and fe-
veral others, have one or two teeth on one valve only,
which are received into correfponding cavities, in the op-
pofite valve. The venus, cockle, and maftra, have teeth
on each (hell, which are mutually received. Laftly, the
area has a multitude of httle teeth, which are clofely in-
dented with each other. Thefe different conformations
either facilitate the motion of the hinges, or ftrengthen
the joint ; or they permit a greater or lefs opening of the
valves.

The elaftic ligament, which tends continually to open the
valves, is not always fituated at the fame point of the (hell.
The mufcles, for example, have it at one fide of the valves.
The placunx have a little ofleous appendage, which forms a
projeftion in the infide of each valve ; and from this arifes
the ligament that holds them together. The 'perna has in
each valve feveral Lttle cavities, oppofite to each other in
pairs, in which an equal number of fmall ligaments are
Jodged.

The ftiells of the acephala prefent feveral other pe-

culiarities. We find the valves immoveable, and foldered to-
gether at the angle, in the pinna. The teredo or pipe-worm
has the body inclofed in a calcareous tube, and is armed
with tv^'o little moveable valves, which are ufed in pene-
trating wood. The terebratula has on the inner part of one
of the valves two olTeous appendages, which fupport the
body.

The contraftile membrane which covers all the body of
the acephalous moUufca, and is called the mantle, is a real
mufcle, prefenting many varieties. Sometimes, and indeed
moft commonly, it is open before, in the direftion of the
valves, as in the oyfter, the mufcle, &c. ; in the (hells that
have two ends always open, as in the razor-fliells, the
gapers, the piddock, &.c. it is perforated at both extremities.
Laftly, the cloak may envelope the whole body of the
animal, and be open at one end only, as in the afcidia.

The cloak of the oyfter is compofed of two pieces of the
fame form as the (hell ; they are fixed to the body pof-
teriorly, or on the fide of the hinge, and extend to the
edges of the valves. Their fubftance is foft, femi-tranf-
parent, and furnifhed with a number of mufcular bands :
they are perforated by the mufcle, which clofes the (hell.
One of the edges is in folds, like a flounce, and feftooned ;
the other is furni(hed with fmall conical and contraftile
tentacula. The cloak of other acephala differs from this
defcription in its general form ; in the tentacula on its edge ;
in the tubes, which are prolongations of it ; and, laftly, in
the mufcles which perforate it.

The aperture which ferves for the expulfion of the feces,
and that which receives water and the different aliments, are
fometimes prolonged into a kind of tube, which is a con-
tinuation of the cloak : this is called a probofcis (in French
" trompe.") The oyfter, the mufcle, the unio, the ano-
dontites, have only one of thefe apertures, which is the
anus. The water merely enters by the large flit in the
cloak. In the cockle, each aperture is a few lines elon-
gated ; that which ferves for refpiration is longer and larger
than the other. They are ftill more elongated and unequal
in the venus, tellina, maftra, and fome other genera. The
razor-fhell has likewife two ; but in the piddock, both tubes
are inclofed in a very thick flefhy probofcis, through the
whole length of which they pafs without uniting.

In the acephala that have the cloak open before, the
tentacula are placed at its edge, and in particular towards
the anus ; but in thofe which have tubes, they are fituated
at the orifice of the probofcis. In the edible mufcle (my-
tilus eduhs, Linn.), they are branched.

The valves of (hells having a continual tendency to open,
in confequence of the aftion of the elaftic ligament fituated
at the fide of the hinge, it was neceffary that the contained
animal (hould have the power of clofing them at pleafure.
For this purpofe they are furnithed with mufcles, palling
between the valves at right angles. In the oyfter there is
only one mufcle of this kind, fituated near the centre of the
fheil, behind the liver, and in the middle of the cloak. It
is equally inferted into both valves, palling in a ftraight
line between them ; and bringing them together, by its f.on-
traftion, with an aftonilhing force. In the moderate fepa-
ration of the valves, we obierve the operation of the elaftic
ligament, when the mufcle is relaxed : if we tough the ani-
mal, the (hell is inftantly clofed ; and we can eftimate the
power with which this is accomplilhed, by the amount of the
force required for the forcible difruption of the valves.
The fame mechanifm is feen in the perna, avicula, and
fpondylus.

There are two mufcles for clofing the (hell in the mvtilus,
8 'folen.

VERMES.

fokii, vciiuj, niaftra, cardiiim, &c. They are always
fcparatc from each other towards the extremities of long
(hells, and generally approximate at the edge on which the
hinge is fituated, in order that a very fmall relaxation may
produce a large opening on tlie oppofite fide.

The common oyftcr pofTefTes its iirft pair of valves, con-
fifting of fingle laminas, before it leaves the parental organ* ;
the mufcle pafTes between the centre of the concavity of
each /hell, adhering to each, and it afts on the valves nearly
at right angles. The animal has no other continuity with
the (hell. As it grows, it augments the margin of its iliells,
and thickens them by adding new laminx on the infide ; the
mufcular adhefion glides forward, (till keeping to the centre
of the valves.

Many of the teftaceous moUufca have the power of re-
moving themfelves from one place to another, by means of
a mufcular appendix, which they can protrude or retraft at
pleafure, with which they fallen themfelves to the fand and
rocks, and thus drag themfelves along. This appendix is
called the foot of the animal.

The common oyfter, the fpondylus or thorny oyfter,
fome fpecics of the fcallop, the anomia, and in general all
the mollufca that have (hells with unequal valves, iiave no
foot, and are, therefore, deprived of the means of voluntary
locomotion.

One of the moll fimple of thefe feet is that of the fre(h-
water mufcle (mytilus anatinus, Linn. ; anodontites, Cuv.)
It is fituated before the body, towards the margin of the
(laells. Its form is a compretTed oblong. We obferve on
each fide externally a layer of fibres, proceeding from the
bottom of the (hell. There are alfo fome internal fibres,
which crofs each other at right angles ; and others unite the
two external layers, to which they are attached in a circular
manner. From this difpofition it will eafily be underftood,
that the animal may, when it pleafes, change the three
dimenfions of the foot, or of one of its parts : by this
means, it is enabled to place its (hell flat on the ground, and
to crawl along like the fnail by the help of its foot.

The mufcle may be obfervcd to open its (hell, to put
forth the foot, and elongate it, to feel about with it. The
animal fixes it to fome objeft, and drags the fliell after it.
The animal called by the French lavignon, alfo a bivalve,
puts forth a broad flat foot, by which it makes its way into
the fand or mud. It has two long tubes, which keep up its
communication with the furface, for the purpofe of refpira-
tion. The holes correfponding to them (hew where the
animal is. See Reaumur, " Du Mouvemcnt progrefTif, et
de quelques autres Mouvemens de diverfes Efpcccs de Co-
quiliages, Orties, & Etoiles de Mer," in the Acad, des
Sciences, 1710, with fevcral figures, and detailed explana-
tion of the fubjeft, both fo far as concerns the animals juft
mentioned, and fome others.

AVe find this fimple foot in the piddock. Its form is
almofl fpherical, and tunicatcd by a flat furface. The part
which Linnius has oblervcd in the razor-fhells, and which
he has compared to a glans in its prepuce, is the foot, by
which the animal buries itfolf in the fand, or rifcs to the
furface. In thefe two genera, the foot is protruded at the
aperture of the (hell, which is oppofite to that through
which the tubes pafs. See Reaumur in the Acad, des
Sciences, 1712, with figures.

The foot of the cardium or cockle is fomewhat complex.
It has a triangular appendix, which is capable of inflexion,
of feizing with its point tlic glutinous matter, and drawing
it out into threads. But the fx)ot of the fea-mufclc (mytilus
edulis) is the moil remarkable in its organization. It r£-
fembles a fmall tongue, mai-kcd with a longitudinal furrow,

fufceptible of confiderable elongation, and of being lliortened
into the form of a heart. This organ is moved by five
mufcles on each fide. Two arifo from the extremities of
the (hell, near thofe \yhich clofe it ; the other three come
from the bottom of the fliell, and the depreffion for the
nates. They are all inferted into the foot, with the fibres
of which they are interwoven, in the fame manner as the
external mufcles of the human tongue join the lingual.
The organ is completely enveloped in a (heath formed of
tranfverfe and circular fibres, of an obfcure purple colour.
This foot is employed both in fpinning and crawling : the
laft; office is performed as in all the other bivalves. It ac-
comphflies the firft; by feizing with its point the gluten
fupplied by a gland fituated under its bafe, and drawing it
out into threads, in the above-mentioned furrow. The
gland that fecretes this humour, of which the thread is
formed, will be defcribed hereafter.

The organs of motion in worms are not fo perfeft as in the
larvK of infefts ; having neither fcaly nor membranous feet,
feveral of them crawl or drag themfelves along by the help
of ft.i(r hairs or briftles, with which they are wholly or
partly covered : of this defcription are the ger.era aphro-
dita, terebella, nereis, lumbricus, &c. Two kinds of mufcles
contribute to their motion.

The one extends the v.hole length of their body, and
forms four principal fafciculi, two of which belong to the
belly, and two to the back. Thefe four mufcles may be
faid to conflitute the mafs of the body. We find them im-
mediately under the flciu. Their fibres are parallel ; but-
their length does not exceed that of the rings, being inter-
rupted in the folds of each ring by a very compaft cellular
tilTue. The flrufturc of thefe mufcles is, however, mod
dillinftly obferved iu the infide. We there find that they
are feparated from each other by a longitudinal line, and
enveloped in a kind of fac of a clofe cellular fubftance,
which correfponds to each ring of the body. Thefe four
mufcles produce the principal motions. Where thofe of the
back contraft wholly or partially, they raife the portion of
the body to which they belong : the fame cffeft, but in tlie
oppofite direilion, is produced by the conilruftion of the
ventral mufcles.

The fecond order of mufcles is appropriated to the mo-
tions of the fpines or briilles. Their number is equal to that
of the tufts of hairs. The defcription of one of them'
will be fufficient to give us a knov«ledge of the whole.

The hairs, briflles, fpines, &c. which project from the
bodies of thefe animals, are manifeftly moveable. They are
rctrafted, and puflied out at pleafure. The mufcles which
produce thefe motions are vifible only when the animal is
laid open, the intellinal canal taken out, and the flcin
llripped o(f. We then obferve that each tuft of hair is re-
ceived in the concavity of a flc(hy cone, tlic bafe of which
is attached to the longitudinal mufcles, and the apex to the
internal extremity of the hairs. All the fibres which form
this cone are longitudinal, but enveloped by a compaft cellu-
lar fubilancc. They move the hairs outwardly, and in the di-
reftion which their contrailion may determine. This firll
clafs of the mufcles, which belong to each branch of hairs,
may be called the protractors of the fpines.

The fpines arc withdrawn within the body by another fet
of mufcles, which may bo called retratlors. They have
fewer fibres than the former ; their adion therefore is feeble.
They are fituated under the internal furface of the long
mulcles, at a fliorl diilance fiom the holes with which the
latter arc perforated for the paflage of the hairs. Tliey arc
inferted into the tufts of Ipines, nearly on a level with the
point, which thcfc reach, when completely rctraClcd. It

may

VERMES.

may be conceived that the protraftors, when they aft, pufh
the retraftor outwards ; but the latter, when contrafting in
its turn, tends to recover the parallel fituation of its fibres,
and thus draws the fpines inwards. It is by the help of
thefe mufcles, and of the fpines on which they aft, that the
imperfeft locomotion of thefe worms is effefted.

There are other worms, deftitute both of fpines and
bridles ; and therefore pofTeffing a different mufcular or-
ganization. Their manner of crawling differs confiderably
from that of the former. Their progrefllon is accomplifhed
by means of the two extremities of their bodies, which they
apply alternately to the furface on which they crawl. They
are fitted for this kind of motion by a peculiar ftrufture.
We mav di\nde them into two orders.

The firft, as the leeches, and fcvcral inteftinal worms, have
the head and the tail terminated by a kind of contraftile flefhy
dific, fomewhat refembling thofe of the arms of the cuttle-fifh.
The ftrufture of thefe two difks, which perform the office
of fuckers, cannot be eafily afcertained ; for when the fkin
which covers them is removed, we obferve merely fome very
fmall fibres interwoven in different direftions.

Though the worms with fuckers polTefs a great power of
contraftion, it is extremely difficult to trace the mufcles that
move their bodies. Their whole fl<in may indeed be regarded
as one mufcle, or kind of flefhy fac, furnifhed with circular
and longitudinal fibres, and contaip.ing the veffels, vifcera, and
glands. This mufcular fldn is thick, and li«ed with a very
lolid and compaft cellular fubftance.

When the worm wifhes to change its place, the body is
fixed at one of the extremities, by means of the fucker that
terminates it ; the circular mufcles of the n<in then aft,
which elongates the animal's body by diminifhing its dia-
meter : when the free extremity has in this manner reached
the place to which the wonn choofes it fhould be extended,
it is applied and made fafl to that fpot by the fucker, and
becomes the fixed point of a new motion : the aiiimal
having detached the fucker firft made ufe of, draws it by
the operation of the longitudinal fibres of the flcin towards
the fecond fucker, aad proceeds in this manner to fix each
extremity alternately. This is the mechanifm by which
progrefllon is effefted in worms that have terminating dillcs.

The fecond order of worms, which move by fixing their
extremities, includes the greater part of the inteftinal kind.
Thefe pofTefs lefs contraftile power than the leeches, and
their motions are therefore lefs extenfive. Their head, in-
ftead of being terminated by a dilk, is fometimes provided
with hooks, by means of which they fix themfelves to the
parts they fuck. Such are the common tinia, the tsnia fo-
lium, the hydatigena, the hsruca, the echinorhynchus, the
uncinaria, &c. &c. The difpofition and number of the
hooks, which vary confiderably, have been defcribed by
naturalifls.

The Organs of Motion in Zoophytes vary confiderably in
their nature, form, and aftion. It is necetfary, therefore,
in order to obtain a juft notion of thefe organs, to take a
particular and fuccefCve view of them in certain orders of
thofe animals.

The echino-dermata are diftinguifhed by numerous re-
traftile feet, and a covering more or lefs folid. TheTe feet
are a kind of fuckers, and have nearly the fame organiza-
tion in the three genera which conipofe this order. In their
form, they refemble a globular phial or ampulla : they are
filled with a fluid, and their parietes are formed of circular
fibres. The elongated or tubuljr portion of the ampulla is
the only part that appears externally, when the feet are ex-
tended. It is terminated by a kind of difk, which is con-
cave in the middle. The fpherical portion is fituated within

the body. From this conllniftion of the foot, the me-
chanif;n of its aftion will be eafily underllood. Tiic liquor
contained in the ampulla becomes, by a change of place, the
caufe of motion : when the foot is drawn into the body, the
fpherical portion of the ampulla is greatly enlarged : when
the foot protrudes, the parietes of the ampulla contraft, and
impel the contained fluid into the tubular part, which con-
fequently increafes both in length and circumference. In
the retraftile motion of the foot, the tunic of the tube is
contrafted, and the liquor thereby forced back into the
body of the ampulla. The number of thefe feet vary
confiderably in the different genera and fpecies.

The holothuris are covered with a thick coriaceous flcin,
which the animal can lengthen or fliorten at pleafure. Thefe
two motions are produced by longitudioal mufcular bands,
varying in length and breadth in different fpecies, and fmaller
tranfverfe bands extended over the whole internal furface of
the body. The animals included in this genus have their
feet difpofed in different manners, and in fome fpecies they
are even wanting. In others we find them either fpread ir-
regularly over the wliole body, fituated upon one fide only,
or placed in longitudinal rows.

In the afterix, or fea-ftars, the covering of the body has
a clofe fibrous texture, the interftices of which are filjed
with grains of calcareous matter of various forms and di-
menfions. This kind of cruilaccous fkin is however fufcep-
tible of a certain motion, which, though fiow, is very re-
markable. The body of the animal is commonly divided
into five branches, to which the feet are attached. Thefe
lall are ranged in fev^ral files throughout the whole length
of the branches from the mouth. The branches are fome-
times furnifhed with fpines, their middle portion is frequently
entirely calcareous, but articulated at its origin, and move-
able upon the central part of the body.

Reaumur counted 1520 legs in a ftar-filh ; yet their mo-
tion is extremely flow. Thefe legs can be extended or with-
drawn, or partly thruft out : when withdrawn, their extre-
mity is vifible. Mem, de I'Acad. des Sciences, 1710,
p. 487.

The echini, or fea-eggs, are encrulted by a complete cal-
careous fhell, the furface of which is covered by tubercles
difpofed in a very regular manner. Moveable fpines of va-
rious (hapes and fizes are articulated to thefe tubercles. It
is very difficult to difcover the fibres by which the fpines are
moved at the will of the animal ; for in their joints we ob-
ferve only a folid Ugamentous fubftance, which cannot be
eafily cut. The feet are protruded through holes which
perforate the fhell with much regularity, and form uniform
parallel lines, called by naturalifls ambulacra. They are
very numerous, but produce, as in the afterias, only a very
flow motion.

The medufx fvvim, by difplacing the water with alter-
nate motions, rendering their bodies now Jlat, now convex.
Reaumur has a figure of one ; Acad, des Sciences, 1 7 10,
p. 478, pi. II.

" Although," fays Peron, " the medufs are compofed
of a homogeneous jelly, without any appearance of fibres,
they poffcfs a truly furprifing power of contraftion. Cort-
flantly adtive 011 the furface of the waters, we fee them
alternately contrafted and developed. When the animal
comes from below towards the furface, he flrikes from above
downwards, and thus raifes himfelf in confequence of the
refi fiance of the water to this motion of his umbeUa. In order
to change the direftion of his courfe, he is inclined, fo that
the umbella forms a more or lefs acute angle with the hori-
zon ; in this cafe the direftion of the flroke, and confe-
quently the relillance being oblique, he is urged forwards in
7 the

VERMES.

ttie fame direSion. When he has reached the furface, the
vertical pofition caii have no other eftetl than that of retaining
him in the fame pollure and place ; to change it, he mull
again incline lii: body. In this way, all the medufjc with
gelatinous and orbicular bodies fwim : the umbelia remains
parallel to the horizon only in the ftate of red, or at I'-all of
relative repofe. Defcending in the water is acc^ir 'iiOied
very fimply ; their fubftance being fpecifically heavier than
that of fea-water, it is only neccffary that tiiey ftiould con-
trail thernfelves powerfully, fo as to coatraft their dimen-
fions in every direftion, and they fink of themfelvcs. Some-
times, in order to go down more quickly, they turn thern-
felves over ; fo that the upper convex part of tlie umbelia is
downwards." Amiales du Muieum, tom. xv. p. 41.

The coriaceous Ikin which covers the aftiniae, poilcfles fo
extraordinary a power of contraftion.that thefe animals can
aflume at pleafure the moft diffimilar forms. Sometimes they
are flattened into a diflc ; fometimes elevated into a cone ;
fometimes lengthened into a cylinder, &c. &c.

" They can walk," fays Reaumur, " in two ways ; firft,
by means of their bafis, of which they can change the
figure, dilating or contratting it in different direftions, fo as
to move forwards the body llowly." Reaumur defcribes
this at great length ; Acad, des Sciences, 1760, p. 470,
et feq. " I have alfo," fays he, " feen them walk upon
their tcntacula. They were the kind that live in holes of
rocks, and poffefs long tentacula in proportion to their fize.
In this cafe the animal is inverted, the bafis being upwards.
The tentacula are very vifcous, and even rough to the
touch, fo as to be well calculated for the purpofe." P. 47 j.
He has reprefented them in the different forms which they
can affume, in fig. 21 — 26.

In frefh-water polypes (hydra), we obferve moveable ten-
tacula about the mouth, which feem principally deftined to
feize their prey. The animal has the power of locomotion.
The fmallnefs and tranfparency of parts m the other genera
do not allow of our difcovering the mechanifm by wliick
motion is produced.

The two following memoirs of Reaumur, in the Academy
of Sciences, contain the beft account of the motions of
thefe animals, and they are illuflrated by fereral figures.
" Du Mouvement progrcffif, et de quelques autres Mouve-
mens de diverfes Efpeces de Coquillages, Orties, et Etoiles de
Mer," 1 7 10, p. 439 ; " Obfervations fur le Mouvement
progreflif de quelques Coquillages de Mer, fur celui des
Heriffons de Mer, et fur celui d'une Efp^ce d'Etoile,"
1712, p. 115.

Nervous S^em. — Animals without vertebrae are not
formed on a common plan, either with refpeft to the nerves
or mufcles ; they prefent difparities fo great, and indeed are
fo deficient in common charafters, that we are obhged, with-
out making any general obfervations, to confider the nervous
fyftem in the difiej-ent clafTes and the principal genera.

Brain and Nerves of the Cephalop'idous Molhifca In tlie

fepia oilopus, the cutlle-fifli, and the calmar, tlie nervous
fyftem appears to refemble in fome rcfpcdts that of red-
blooded animals. The brain is inclofcd in a particular
cavity of the cartilage of the head, which is pierced by a
number of holes to give palTage to the nerves. The carti-
lage of the head has the form of a lioUow and irregular
ring ; its pofterior part is the thickcft, and containj the
brain ; its anterior part contains the ears, and a feniicircular
canal which communicates on each fiilc with the cavity of
the brain, and includes the medullary collar. The ccfopha-
giis pafTes through the centre of this cartilaginous ring, and
js confequently, as in all white-blooded animals, furrounded
^y the medullary cord. The lateral parts of the carti-

VOL. xxxvii.

laginous ring have eminences which form a kind of orbit on
each fide.

The brain is divided into two diftinft parts ; one next the
oefophagus, the furface of which is f?nooth, and tlic other
towards the back, which is round, and marked by longitu-
dinal ftrise. The medullary collar arifes from the lateral
parts of both portions : in the oAopus it is in the form of
a lamina, the anterior part of which produces four large
nerves, whicii, with the four correfponding nerves, proceed
forward into the eight feet, which crown the head. Thefe
lamina: arc joined inferiorly, and tluis furround the oefopha-
gus. Two other principal pairs of nerves arife on each fide,
near the origin of the collar. The firll or optic pair ex-
tends diredlly into the orbit, pafTes after a fhort courfe
through the fclerotic coat, and is there dilated into a gang-
lion larger than the brain, (liaped like a kidney, with the
concave fide turned towards the brain. The fubftance of
this ganglion appears to be the fame as that of the brain :
its convexity produces a multitude of fma'l nerves, as fine as
hairs, which pafs through the choroides, by an equal num-
ber of fmall holes, to form the retina. The fecond pair
belongs to the mufcles of the fac ; it originates a hltle
above the preceding pair. Thefe nerves defcend obliquely,
and after leaving the cerebral cavity, pafs between the
mufcles, which fuftain the head, to the lateral part of the
fac, near its fuperior edge, between the body and the bran-
chiae. It then divides into two branches, one of which
defcends to the bottom of the fac, the other dilates into a
roundifh ganglion, which produces a multitude of nerves,
difpofed Hke radii. Thefe are diftributed to all the flefity
fibres of the fac and the fins.

The anterior and inferior part of tlie collar gives origin
to two pairs of nerves. The firft or auditory are very
(hort, as they only traverfe a cartilaginous lamina to pene-
trate the ear, where they are diftributed. The fecond pair
iffues from the cartilage by two lioies placed near each other,
and beneath the ears : the two nerves which compofe it de-
fcend within the peritoneum to the bottom of the fac.
When they arrive near the heart, they form a complicated
plexus, from which all the nerves of the different vifcera
proceed.

Each foot has a nerve, which paffcs from one extremity
to another, like an axis, and occupies a canal, w-hich we have
defcribed in fpeaking of the mufcles. This nerve is en-
larged, at different fpaces, by numerous gangha, which have
the appearance of tubercles, and from each of which ten or
twelve nervous filaments proceed : thefe diverge and pene-
trate the mufcles of the interior of the foot, to which they
diftribute branchiae ; but the chief ramifications arc fpe nt
on the fuckers.

This defcription is taken from the oAopus : the other
cephalopoda differ only in having a brain lefs diftinftly di-
vided, and prefenting lefs confpicuous furrows.

Nervous Syjlem of the G ajleropodous MoUufca.

In the Snail {Helix Pemalia.) — The brain ia fituatcd upon
the oefophagus, behind an oval mafs of mufcles, which cn-
Tilop the mouth and the pharynx. Its (hape is neaily ami-
lunar, with the concavity backwards. The angles of the
crefcent are prolonged on each fide into a branch, by which
the oefophagus is encompafled in a collar. The falivary
glands, and the mufcle which retrafts the mouth and brain,
pafs alfo through this collar. The two cords produced by
the brain unite below the oefophagus and mufcle in a large
round ganglion, which is more than one-half the fize of the
braip. All the nerves proceed from one or other of thefe
two maiTes. Thofe furnifhed by the brain proceed from the
D Uicral

VERMES.

lateral parts of its.convex fide. There are, firft, two nerves
for the flefhy part of the mouth ; next, one on each fide
for the fmall horns ; then two for each great horn, one of
which proceeds to the bafe of that horn, and paffes into its
tnufcular fubftance ; the other goes to the eye. The latter
IS folded confiderably on ilfeff, when the horn ie drawn
inward. There are befides fome other filaments, which ex-
tend to the bafe of the parts of generation, and to the
mufcles which move the head. The large inferior ganglion
produces at iirft three great nerves, one for the penis, ano-
ther for the brain, and a third for the mufcles, which draw
the whole animal into its (liell. The inferior furface of this
ganglion afterwards produces two great fafciculi, which
proceed backward, and which, after paffing between the
two mufcles before mentioned, are diftributed to all the
flefhy parts of the foot.

Swammerdam's figure of the nerves of the fnail appears
to have been taken from the (lug.

In the. Slug [Limax Rufus.) — The brain is alfo fituatcd
behind the cefophagus in this animal, but it has the form of
a narrow ribbon lying crofswife. It enlarges a little at its
lateral parts, each of which produces a filament to encircle
the cefophagus. The ganglion, wliich is formed by the
union of thefe two filaments, is larger than the brain.
' Two principal trunks proceed, each on its refpeftive fide,
in a ftraight line from this ganglion. They extend along
the lower part of the body, throughout its whole length,
preferving nearh' a parallel direction. On the external fide
they each detach a number of filaments, which penetrate
into the flefhy fubftance of the fkiii. A great number of
other filaments alfo proceed immediately from the inferior
ganglion to the /kin. Further, the inferior ganglion fends
off two nerves on each fide, which go to the vifcera, and
•follow the diftribution of the arteries.

With refpeft to the brain, properly fo called, it furnifhes
in the firft place a nerve on each fide for the fleftiy mafs of
the mouth ; theii two for each of the great horns, one of
which extends to the eye, and becomes the optic nerve.
The nerves of the fmall horns arife more outwardly.

In the Aplvjia This is a fmall marine animal, very like

the Aug, but refpiring by means of branchias, which form
a kind of tuft on the back, and are covered by a particular
operculum. The brain is fituated as in the fnail ; but the
branches, which furround the cefophagus, produce two
ganglia, one on each fide, which are conjoined by a fmall
filament.

The brain fumifties, at its anterior part, two flender fila-
ments, which encircle the flefhy mafs of the mouth, and
unite under it in a fmall ganghon, whence the nerves of the
lips are detached. The brain afterwards affords nerves to
the horns and the eyes, which are in this animal fituated be-
tween the horns, and to the parts of generation. The two
lateral ganglia tranfmit a multitude of nerves to all the
flefhy parts of tlie foot and Hiin ; they alfo produce each a
long cord, which unites to its correfponding cord on the
aorta, near the part where it arifes from the heart ; there
they form a ganglion, from which all the nerves of the
vifcera proceed.

In the Clio Boreal'u. — This fmall animal has no foot, and
can only fwim. It refpires by two branchix, in the form
of wings, fituated on the neck ; but in other refpefts it
very much refembles the flug. Its nervous fyftem is ana-
logous to that of the aplyfia.

Its brain is formed of two roundifh lobes : it furnifhes
immediately nerves to the tentactJa, and gives origin to a
double collar. The anterior extends, as in the aplyfia,
under the mouth, to form a fmall ganglion. The pofterior

has a ganglion on each fide, which furnifhes nerves to the
mufcular fliin that furrounds the body ; each of thefe pro-
duces one or two other gangha, which fend nerves to the
vifcera.

In the Doris — This is alfo a fmall marine animal fimilar
to the flug, but it refpires by external branchix difpofed
like ftars round the anus. The brain is very large in pro-
portion to the reft of the body, and particularly in com-
parifon with that of other galleropoda. It is elongated
tranfverfcly, and of a fquare form. It is fituated imme-
diately above the origin of the cefophagus, behind the or-
bicular mafs of mufcles, which form the parietes of the
mouth.

Six nerves proceed from the brain on each fide j one pair
is deftined for the mufcles of the mouth, another for the
tentacula. The third is a cord, which pafTes below the
cefophagus, and is loft in the mufcles of the foot, where it
may be very diftinftly obferved on the lateral parts of the
internal furface. The fourth and the fifth are direfted
above the mafs of inteftines, and proceed to the fkin of the
back. Lailly, the fixth terminates in the parts of generation.

In the ScylUa This is another marine animal fimilar to

the (lug, but refpiring by branchije in the form of wings
arranged by pairs on the back : it crawls on a furrow in its
belly. The collar furrounding the cefophagus is a fimple
cord, and does not enlarge into a ganghon as it proceeds
downward. The brain, which is above it, is of an oval
form ; it fends nerves to the mouth and to the horns, but
there are no optic nerves, as this animal has no eyes. The
nerves of the vifcera arife from the inferior part of the col-
lar, and thofe of the mufcles from its fides.

In the Sea-Ear [Halyotis Tuberculata.) — This animal has
no ganglion above the cefophagus to fupply the place of the
brain. We find merely a nervous filament, fituated tranf-
verfcly above the cefophagus, behind the mouth. Four
fmall ramifications proceed from the middle and anterior
part of this filament, two on each fide, and are loft in the
parietes of the mouth. At each extremity of the tranfverfe
nervous filament there is a very large flat ganglion, from the
circumference of which a number of nerves are detached to
the adjacent parts. Three filaments pafs off on each fide
from the external furface of this ganglion : one is fent to
the fetiform tentaculum, fituated above the mouth, the
other two proceed to the flat tentaculum, like a buckler,
placed more pofteriorly and on the fides. The mofl pof-
terior appears to be intended for the eye : it is the thickeft,
the other feenis loft in the mufcular parts.

A very remarkable filament is detached from the fuperior
parts : it proceeds above the cefophagus, and joins the cor-
refponding one on the other fide. There is a fmall enlarge-
ment at the point of union, from which four nerves proceed,
two on each fide of the middle line. The moft external is
loft in the mufcles of the tongue ; the other purfues the
middle line of the cefophagus, and is ramified over the in-
teftines. Several fmall branches are detached inferiorly, and
terminate in the fan-like mufcles that fuftain the tongue.

Laftly, the ganglion is prolonged poiteriorly into a thick
nervous cord, fituated on the fides and below the cefophagus,
which becomes flat, as it proceeds backward : it defcribes a
femilonar curve, fo that the two nerves of the oppofite fidea
are approximated, and finally touch each other at the bafis
of the tongue, and below the anterior part of the large
mufcle which attaches the animal to its fhell. The union of
thefe two nerves produces a ganglion, from which tn-o very
remarkable trunks, intended for the inteftines, proceed ;
they can be followed to above the ftomach, and we con per-
ceive that fome of their ramifications enter the Uver. Aft^

the

VERMES.

the formation of the ganglion, which furni(hes nerves to the
vifcera, the two trunks penetrate by two different lioles into
the fubftance of the mufcle of the foot. Tlicfe two holes
arc the origin of two canals, which run throughout the
vrbole length of the foot, on the fides of another middle
canal, which appears deftined to diftribute the blood of the
animal. The two nerves, lodged in the lateral canal, are
diftributed by a great number of lateral holes into the fub-
ftance of the fieihy mufcles of the foot, and of the fhell,
where they may be foUowed with facility.

In the Helix Stagnalis and Helix Cornea ( Planorbis Cornea],
the brain confills of two lateral mafTes, feparated by a
contraclion. In the living animal they are of a lively red
colour. The diftribution of the nerves differs very little
fr«m what we obferve in the common fnail.

Nervous Syjlem of the Acephalous Mollufca — It is formed
on a plan far more uniform than that of the gafteropoda.
In all the teftaceous acephala, from the oyfter to the
pholas, and the teredo, there appears no effential difference :
it confifts always of two ganglia, one on the mouth re-
prefenting the brain, and another towards the oppofite part.
Thefe two ganglia are united by two long nervous cords,
which take the place of the ufual collar, but which occupy
a much greater fpace at the foot where it exifts, and the
ftomach and Hver always pafs in the interval between them.
All the nerves arife from the two gangha.

In the AnoJontites , or Frejh-iuater Mufcles, in Cockles, in
the Venus, Maclra, and Mya. — In thefe, and generally in
all the bivalves which have two cylindrical mufcles, one at
each extremity of their valves, for the purpofe of bringing
them together ; the mouth is placed near one of thofe
mufcles, and the anus near the other. The foot appears
about the middle of the Ihell ; and the tubes for the excre-
ments and refpiration, when they exift, go out at the end
of the {hell oppofite to that in which the mouth is fituated.
The brain is placed at the anterior edge of the mouth ; it is
oblong tranfverfely ; it fends off two cords anteriorly, which
go to the adjacent mufcles, and turning towards each fide,
penetrate the lobes of the cloak, paffmg through the whole
extent of their edge. The brain furnilhcs alfo, on each
fide, fome filaments to the membranous tentacula, which
furround the mouth, and detaches, from its pofterior edge,
the two cords analogous to the medullary collar in other in-
vertebral animals. Thefe cords proceed, each on its fide,
under the mufcular itratum which envelopes the liver and
the other vifcera, and which becomes thicker as it is con-
tinued to form the foot, which is frequently conilrufted for
fpinning. When arrived at the polterior mufcle whicli
clofes the valves, thefe cords approach each otlier, and en-
large as they unite to form the fecond ganglion. This
ganglion has the form of two lobes. It is at leall as large
as the brain ganglion, and always much more eafily diftin-
guifhed. It detaches two principal nerves on each fide,
and the four together reprefent a kind of crofs. The two
anterior nerves, as they afcend, proceed a little towards the
fide of the mouth, and after having defcribed an arc, pene-
trate into t!ie branchix. The other two pafs on the pof-
terior mufcle, prccifely in the fame manner as tliofc of the
brain on the anterior. After detaching fome filaments they
proceed into the cloak, the edge of which they follow until
they join thofe of the brain ; they thus form a continued
circle. We do not yet know the origin of the vifccral
nerves in thefe animals.

The teftaceous acephala, in which the foot is protruded
by an extremity of the fhell, tiiat always remains open, and
the tubes by the oppofite extremities, that is to fay, in
razor-fifh and piddocks, the mouth, and confeqiiently the

brain, is always near one extremity. The nerves which pro-
ceed from the brain, take therefore a longer courfe before
they diverge to join the cloak. The cords of the collar,
however, have a much Ihorter diftance to pafs before they
unite. There is a confiderable fpace, particularly in the
razor-fiffi, between the mafs of the vifcera fituated in the
bafe of the foot, and the pofterior mufcle. The fecond
ganglion is fituated in the middle of this fpace, between the
branchias of each fide : it k round, and much more diftinft
than in the other fpecies ; the nerves it produces are how-
ever exaftly fimilar.

In the oyfter, which has no mouth at the anterior part,
the brain and mouth are fituated under the kind of hood
which the cloak forms towards the hinge. The nerves go
direftly into the cloak itfelf. The ganglion is fituated on
the anterior furface of the fingle mufcle, immediately behind
the mafs of vifcera. The nerves it produces are the fame as
in the preceding genera.

In the Afcidia. — Thefe fmall marine animals are enveloped
in an immoveable coriaceous or gelatinous cafe, which' has
two apertures ; one for the expulfion of the excrement, the
other for the admifiion of water to the branchiae. The
branchiae are in the form of a large fac, and are inrlofed, as
well as the other vifcera, in another membranous bag, of the
fame form as the external cafe, but fmaller, and completely
adhering to that cafe at the two apertures only. The in-
ferior ganghon is fituated on this membranous fac ; its pofi-
tion is between the two apertures, but neareft that which
correfponds to the anus ; it produces four principal nerves :
two afcend tovcards the fuperior or refpiring aperture, the
other two defcend towards that of the excrements. There
are fmaller nerves difperfed through all the membranous fac.
We have not yet difcovered thofe produced by the brain,
nor the brain itfelf, which is doubtlefs fituated as ufual on
the mouth. The mouth is in the bottom of the branchial
fac.

In the Tritons of Linnaus, •which inhabit the anatiferous and
halanite Shells, [Lepas, Linn.) — Thefe animals approach
perhaps nearer to the crultacea, and particularly to the mo-
noculi, than to the mollufca. Their nervous fyftem is a fort
of middle kind between that of the mollufca, and that of
the cruftacea and infefts.

The brain is placed acrofs the mouth, which is itfelf
fituated in the pai't of the body correfponding to the liga-
ment, and at the bottom of the fhell. It produces four
nerves to the mufcles fituated in that place, and to the
ilomach, and two others which embrace the oefophagus, and
proceed into that elongated portion of the body which bears
the numerous articulated and ciliated horny tentacula
which the animal protrudes from its Ihell. Thefe two fila-
ments approach, and form a ganglion, and then proceed dofe
to each other among thefe tentacula, furnifliing a corre-
fponding pair of nerves for each pair of tentacula ; but there
are no apparent ganglia at the origin of thefe nerves.

The general rcfult from the preceding ftatcments is, tliat
the nervous fyftem of the mollufca confiils in a brain placed
on the afophagus, and in a variable number of ganglia,
fomctimes approximated to the brain, and fometimes dif-
perfed in the different cavities, or placed under tiie mufcu-
lar envelopes of the body : that the ganglia are always
conneAed to the brain and to each other by nervous cords,
which eilablifli a general communication between thefe dif-
ferent medullary maffes : that the nerves all aiife eitlier
from the brain or the ganglia : and lallly, that there is no
part which can be compared to the medulla oblongata and
medulla fpinalis.

Nervous Syjlem of IVormt. — Some genera prcfent a very
D 2 diftinft

VERMES.

diftinft nervous fyftem, organized ne:irly like tliat of the
cruftacea and infefts. In others, however, that fyftem be-
comes fo obfcure, that we can fcarcety recognife its cxift-
ence. Thus the clafs of worms, which in feveral of its
genera ranks above infefls, with refpeft to the organs of
circulation, is reduced almoft to a level with the zoophytes,
when confidered with regard to the organs of fenfation.

The Aphrodite acuhata has a very dillinft nervous fyftem.
Immediately behind the tentacula, fituated above the mouth,
we obfcrve a large nervous ganglion, which is the brain ; it
has the form of a heart, the broadeft and bilobed part of
which is direfted backwards. The pointed anterior portion
produces two fmall filaments for the tentacula, and the
lateral parts forae other filaments, which are ftill more
flender, for the parietes of the mouth. This ganglion is
fituated immediately above the origin of the cefophagus.
The two cords which arife from the brain, and from the
collar, are very long and dehcate ; they gradually increafe
ill thicknefs as they approach the point of their union.
Each then produces a large filament, wliicli we (hall call the
recurrent nerve ; thefe nerves are very diftinA : they are
direfted forward towards the part where the cefophagus,
which is very fhort, joins the (lomach. They may beeaCly
followed by the naked eye to the lateral parts of that vilcus,
which is very long and mufcular ; before they reach the
iuteftines that follow the ftomach, they fwell into a ganghon,
which produces a great number of nervous fibrils.

The two curves of the collar produce a very large
ganglion at their union ; it is bifurcated anteriorly, and
fituated immediately behind the mouth, and above the cefo-
phagus ; it is the anterior extremity of the chief nervous
cord. We do not obferve any filaments proceeding from it.
To this firft ganglion another fucceeds, which is dillinguiftied
from it only by a fmall contraftion ; the latter produces
two nervous filaments, which go forwards into the mufcles
of the abdomen. A fcries of ganglia, the fpaccs between
which are confiderably greater, afterwards fuccced ; each- of
thefe fends oft' fix nerves, tliree on a fide, which are loft iii
the mufcles. Thefe ganglia are twelve in number. The
nervous cord, which fucceeds, and which occupies the pofterior
tliird of the body, no longer cxliibits any apparent enlarge-
ment ; but pairs of nerves are ftiU detached at certain
fpaces. Finally, this cord may be followed to the extre-
mity of the body.

In the Lcich, the nervous fyftem is a longitudinal cord,
compofed of twenty-three gangha. The firft. is fituated
above tlie cefophagus ; it is fmall and rounded ; anteriorly it
produces two flender filaments, which proceed above the
difk of the mouth. The lateral parts furnifti a tliick pair of
nerves, that form a collar round the cefophagus, as they pro-
ceed downward, and unite at the fecond ganglion. This
ganglion is of a triangular figure, and appears to be formed
by the union of two tuberclfes. Two of thefe angles are
anterior and lateral ; they receive the nerves that proceed
from the firft ganglion. The other is pofterior ; it is pro-
longed into a nerve rather more than half a line long, which
produces, the third ganglion : the anterior part of the trian-
gular ganglion which we defcribe, detaches two fmall nerves
that are loft on the cefophagus, around the mouth. The
nine fucceeding ganglia are precifely of the fame form, and
produce each two pair of nerves ; they differ only in the
greater or lefs diftance at which they are placed froni each
other. The third, as we have obferved, is very near the
fecondt The three following are at the diftance of nearly
a line and a half : but thofe which fuccced, from the feventh
to the twentieth, are at the diftance of three or four lines :
finally, the, three lall are very clofe together.

All thefe ganglia are fituated longitudinally below the
jnteftinal canal, to which they furnifti, from their fuperior
furface, a number of nervous filaments ; they produce on
each fide two nerves, which pafs into the longitudinal and
tranfverf>; mufcles, in the fubftance of which they are
loft. Thefe nerves run in oppofite direftions, fo that
they reprefent the figure of an X. The coat of thefe
nerves is black, and very folid, fo that before the parts have
been immerfed in alcohol, they appear like a fyftem of
veffels.

The nervous cord of the Earth-worm derives its origin
from a ganglion fituated above the cefophagus : this ganglion
is formed of two clofe, but very diftinft tubercles. It pro-
duces a pair of fmall nerves proceeding to the parietes of
the mouth, and two large cords, which embrace the cefopha-
gus in the form of a collar : thefe unite to form the nervous
cord, the origin of which therefore appears bifurcated.
Three pair of fmall nerves are detached at this place : one
from the cord itfelf, and the others from its lateral parts.
They all proceed into the mufcles of the mouth. The
nervous trunk is continued to the anus, along the inferior
part of the inteftine ; its fize is not fenfibly diminiftied, and
the contraftions are not very remarkable : there arc, there-
fore, no real gangha. A pair of nerves arifes between each
of the rings of the body ; thefe nerves pafs under the longi-
tudinal mufcles, and difappear between them and the fl<iii.
When the nervous cord reaches the anus, it terminates by
forming a plexus, which is loft on the parietes of that
aperture.

In the Gordiiis argill/iccus, there is only a fingle nervous
cord, fimilar to that of the earth-worm, but its contraftions
are ftill lefs apparent.

The Nereis and TerebeUa have, within the (kin of the belly,
a longitudinal cord, which may be regarded as nervous : it
has as many contraftions as there are rings in the body.
No nervous filament has been obferved proceeding from this
cord.

In the Sea-ivorm [Lumhrii-iu Marinus, Liiiii.), which in
its external charafters approaches nearer to the nereis than
to the lumbricus, the nervous fyftem is the fame as in the
nereids, but the cord gradually increafes in tliicknefs
towards the middle of the body, where it is much more
diftinft.

In the Afcaris LumbricoiJes of Man and the Horj'e. — This
animal appears to have two nervous cords ; they are ob-
fervable tliroughout the whole length of the body, on the
lateral parts of the abdomen. They unite above the cefo-
phagus, exaftly at its origin on the mouth ; they are very
(lender, and produce no remarkable ganghon : they are fmaller
at their origin than towards their extremity, that is to fay,
towards the anus ; but they are equal, and precifely fimilar
to each other with refpeft to their different parts. We ob-
ferve at firft fome fmall granular points, which enlarge in
proportion as the nerve defcends. When it has reached the
middle of the body longitudinaOy, it forms fquare gangha,
at a (hort diftance from each other. Laftly, towards the
termination, for the length of nearly fix fines, the nerve be-
comes more and more flender, and ends in a very fmall fila-
ment, which unites with that of the other fide.

Thus we find an evident analogy in the organization of
the nervous fyftem of cruftacea, inlefts, and worms, no lefs
rtriking than that which prevails in the external forms, in
the difpofition of the mufcles, and the fingular divifion, into
a feries of rings or fegments, which we obferve in thefe
animals. This analogy prevents us from eftabhfhing be-
tween thefe three cla(les limits equally diftinft with thofe
which fubfift between them and the mollufca. The uniform
6 diftribution

VERMES.

diftribulion of nearly equal ganglia upon a cord, extending
throughout the whole length of the body, feems defigned
to furnifh each fegment witli a brain peculiar to itfelf.
Thus we are gradually condufted to that general diffufion of
the medullary fubftance, wliich feems to take place in zoo-
phytes.

Animals in 'which no djJlinB NeriMus Syjlem has been yet dif-
covered. — We do not, fiiys Cuvier, include in this divifion
the animals of the clafs of worms, or the moUufca, in which
the minutenefs or foftnefs of the parts have not yet per-
mitted us to trace the nervous fyltem. Analogy will not
allow us to doubt its exiftence, when the parts which ac-
company it uniformly exift.

Thus the flukes (fafciola) having veflels, or liver, &c.
muft be fuppofed to have nerves alfo, though we have
hitherto been unable to demonltrate them. We even doubt
not the exiftence of a nervous fyftem in feveral intcftinal
worms, particularly thofe which have a cylindrical form,
which we fuppofe to have a medulla nearly fimilar to that
defcribed in the large afcarides. It is found in the gor-
dius ; why fhould it not exift in the cchirrorhynchus,
ftrongylus, &c. &c. ?

But there are animals, in which analogy affords us no
afiiftance, to whom we cannot afcribe a nervous fyftem,
unlefs we dittinttly obferve it: there are fome inteftinal
worms, very different in form from thofe we have mentioned,
and the greater part of zoophytes.

The afterias has parts very fimilar to nerves ; but Gal-
vanic experiments ought to be made on living individuals,
to prove completely their nature. Round the oefophagus
we obferve a girth of a foft whitifh fubftance, which pro-
duces ten filaments, two to each of the branches, whieli
form the body of the ilar. The two filaments belonging to
each branch having arrived at the bafe of the ofTeous and
articulated ftalk, which ferves for the principal fnpport of
the animal, unite to form a fhort cord, which extends di-
rcftly from one to the other : they afterwards both con-
tinue along the ftalk to the extremity of the branch, dimi-
nilhing always in thicknefs. At the place where they are
united, each produces a fafciculus of fdanients, which are
diftributed to the ftomach, which, in thefe animals, is
fituated in the midft of the body, between the five branches.
The appearance of all thefe filaments is rather tendi-
nous than nervous, and that circumftance chiefly has hi-
therto prevented us from forming a decided opinion of their
nature.

In the Holalhuria, properly fo called, among which we do
not include cither the thalia, or the holothuria phyfeter of
Linnsus, we find fomething fimilar to what we have de-
fcribed in the afterias ; but the appearance of the cord is
much more nervous, and this is a flrong confirmation of our
conjefturcs.

The parts we allude to are feen moft diftinftly in the
fpecies of holothuria which have five longitudinal pairs of
mufcles, as the priapus and pentacla. Between the two muf-
cles, which compofe each pair, there is extended a white
cord, (lightly ferpentine, and marked by tranfverfe rings,
like common nerves. The five cords enlarge as they pro-
ceed towards the (fifophagus, where they feem to unite and
furround the canal.

The Sipunculus is more fimilar to the holothuria than to
any other animal, though naturalifts have hitherto placed
them next the lumbricus. They have only a fingle whitifh
cord, but it completely refembles thofe of the holothuria,
and it proceeds, in the fame manner, to embrace the oefopha-
gus by its anterior extremity.

If the parts now mentioned arc real nerves, it will be

necefTary to feparatc the cchino-dermala from the other zoo-
phytes, and eflablifli tliem as a diftinft clafs.

In the Sea Urchins [Echinus), nothing fimilar to nerves
has been obferved : tlie fame remark may Ise extended to the
aftinix and medufae.*

With refpeft to the polypes, both the frefh -water kind
and thofe which belong to the corals, Sec. we have already
obferved that their bodies exhibit only a gelatinous and ho-
mogeneous pulp, in which no particular arrangement of
organs can be difcerned. All thefe animals have however
diftinft fenfations : their fenfe of touch is very delicate j
they not only perceive the motions which agitate the water
in which they live, but they completely feel the degrees of
heat and light. The expanfion of the aftiniae correfponds
precifely to the fercnity of the atmofphere. The liydra
perceives very diftindly the prefonce of light ; prefers it,
and conftantly turns towards it. The microfcopic animals
appear to approach in fome meafure the nature of polypi,
by their uniform and gelatinous ftrufture. There are fome,
however, in which we obferve a more complicated organiza-
tion, and feveral kinds of internal vifcera ; but it will be
obvious, that we have no means of afcertaining whether they
poffefs a nervous fyftem.

Organs of Senfe 'l"he eye.

The cephalopodous moUufca have two eyes fituated at
the fides of the head, under the tentaculated arms. Moft
of the galleropoda have alfo two eyes, but very fmall, and
placed either on a level with the head, or on fome of the
flclhy and moveable tentacula. In fome they are fituated
at the bafe of thefe tentacula; in others at the middle, or
the point. In all this order, only the clio, fcyllea, and ler-
nea, want eyes.

No eyes are found in the acephalous moUufca.

Among the articulated worms there are fometimes found
fmall tubercles, whicli have been regarded as fimple eyes,
in confcquence of their refemblance to thofe of infefts.
Some leeches have two, four, fix, or eight : in fome of the
ncreids we find two or four : in fome naiades only two, 5:c.
No parts that can be compared to eyes have hitherto been
obferved in any zoophyte.

']'he cephalopodous mollufca, particularly the calniar,
have very large eyes ; on the contrary, in fuch of the gaf-
teropoda as poffefs eyes, they are fcarcely vifible.

The eye of the cuttle-fifh has no cornea, nor aqueotis
humour : the anterior aperture of the fclerotic is not filled
up, and the cryilalline projects acrofs it. Under the con-
junitiva, however, 'a particidar membrane is obferved, dry,
fine, and tranfparent, enveloping the fclerotica itfelf, and
fupplying, by its anterior part, the place of the cornea.
Tfiis conjundliva is eafily feparahle from the eye, as in fer-
pcnts. The cryftalline is fphcrical, as in animals which fee
in water ; and luird in confiftence. The itruiturc of the
fclerotic is fingular, being much removed polleriorly from the
globe of the eye. The large ganglion of the optic nerve,
and feveral other glandular parts, are fituated betwien them.
The fclerotica, tlierefore, forms pofleriorly a truncated cone,
the pointed part of which is directed to the bottom of the
orbit : to this portion the mufcles are attached. "^I'lie an-
terior part nearly fliuts the globe of the eye. It is very
foft and vifcous ; eafily feparatcd, and prefents a coarfe fclt-
likc texture, which becomes firmer in fpirits of wine. In
fome fpecies it has a mct.iUic brilliancy. As there is no
cornea, the fclerotic is wanting oppofite to the cryilalline ;
but the hole is not fufficiently large to admit a view of the
iris without diffcftion.

Tlie internal furface of the choroid is of a purple-red
colour, The ufe of the ciliary proccflts, in retaining the

cryftalline,

VERMES.

eryllalHne, is no where fo diftiiiftly feen as iu the eye of the
cuttle-fi/h. They form a large zone or diaphragm, in the
aperture of which the cryftalliiie is truly encafed. A deep
circular furrow paffes completely round the cryftalline, and
divides it into two unequal hemifpheres. The cihary pro-
ceffes penetrate into this furrow, where they are fo firmly
frxed, that they cannot be removed without being torn.
The procefs is not formed of projefting laminae, but of a
continued membrane, the two furfaces of which are marked
by a circle, confifting of a vaft number of fine radiated ftriiE,
which prefent a very agreeable fpeftacle.

The fepJK have glandular bodies between the fclerotica
aad the choroid ; but none between the latter and the tunica
Ruyfchiana. The feparation of thefe two membranes is even
fometimes difficult ; the choroides is more thick, foft, and
vafcular, the Ruyfchiana thin and dry. There is no tape-
turn, all the eye being hned internally by a deep purple pig-
ment. The pupil is (haped hke a kidney.

After the numerous optic filaments have perforated the
choroid, they are confounded in 3 fingle membrane, the
retina.

The cryftalline divides eafily into two hemifpheres, the
limits of which are marked externally by a deep fun-ow :
each hemifphere confifts of a number of concentric cups,
compofed of radiated fibres.

As the conical fclerotic of the fepis is attached to the bot-
tom of the orbit, the glandular bodies, which ferve to fupport
the globe, are fituated, not between it and the orbit, but
between it and the choroid. The part fixed to the edge of
the optic hole is pointed ; it preferves therefore fome degree
of mobility. There are onlvtwo fmall mufcles, one fuperior
and an interior, the head being fuppoled upwards.

Ttlie fepisE and other mollufca, which have not the eyes at
the extremity of their tentaciila, have no eye-lid ; the flcin
covers the eye, as in ferpents and eels. But the flugs, fnails,
&c. have an organization, which is far more comphcated,
and much better calculated for the proteftion of their eye.
This organ is fituated at the extremity of a flefhy tube,
called a horn or tentaculum, which may be drawn completely
within the head, and protruded by a motion fimilar to the
evolution of the finger of a glove. We have already de-
fcribed the mufcles that draw the fnail into its fheU. The
particular mufcle of tlie eye is attached at the external edge
of each of thefe mufcles : this mufcle penetrates to the in-
fide of the horn, to the extremity of which it is fixed.
When it contrafts, therefore, but ftill more when alTilled by
the contraftion of the great mufcle of the body, it draws
the extremity of the horn inwardly, in a manner which re-
fenibles the turning in of a ftocking. The annular fibres,
which encircle the horn throughout the whole of its length,
unfold the internal part by fucceffive contraftions, and thus
bring back the eye to its external pofition. In the Aug, the
retradors of the eyes are fimply attached to the flefhy raafs
which forms the foot. In the inferior horns or tentacula,
which have no eyes, the mechanifm is alfo the fame.

The gafteropodous mollufca are the only order, among
the animals we are now confidering, that polTefles an organ
of hearing. No animals placed below thefe in the fcale of
being are known to poffefs fuch an organ, although there
are proofs of the faculty in many. The ear of the fepias is
very fimple ; it is entirely concealed in the body of the an-
nular cartilage, which ferves as the bafe of the great tenta-
cula, or feet of thefe animals. Towards the back of the head
there is an eminence of the cartilaginous ring, unperforated,
and covered by the thick integument of the animal. The
membrane of the labyrinth contained in this part is a fimple
purfe of an oval or roundilh form, containing a clear fluid.

In the common cuttle-fifh (fepia officinalis), it has internally
feveral conical eminences, difpofed in an irregular manner :
thefe eminences are wanting in the other fpecies. In the pulp
which fills the membrane there is a fmall body fufpended,
which is ofTeous in the cuttle-fifh properly fo called, and like
ftarch in the oftopus. In the fepia officinalis it referables a
fmall fhell. See Scarpa de Auditu et Olfadlu.

Organ of Touch — We do not eafily dillinguifh all tlie
parts which compofe the integuments o' vertebral animals,
in thofe that have no vertebrse : fome of the ftrata are more
diflinft, others lefs fo : there are alfo fome fpecies in which
we do not find the whole of them. Of the animals we are
now confidering, different orders dwell in different fituations,
and are expofed to very different external circumflances :
there are correfponding variations in their outward coverings.
Some live in the inteftines of other animals, the mucous
fluids of which fufificiently proteft them ; others are enclofed
in calcareous or flony habitations, neceffary to enfure them
from the agitations of the waves, and from the furrounding
hard bodies. Others have a hard integument, covered fome-
times with fpines.

There is an epidermis in invertebral animals : thofe whicii
live in water have it commonly mucous ; it is of a very dif-
ferent thicknefs in the feveral fpecies. It is nearly the fame
in the cephalopoda as in fiflies. In the naked gafteropoda
it very much refembles that of falamanders and frogs.

There is an epidermis on the (hells of moft teflacea. In
the land kind, as the fnails, it is a dry pellicle, very eafily
detached, when the fhell is, after the death of the animal,
expofed to the aftion of the atmofphere, or plunged into
boiling water. In the mufcles, both of frefh and fait water,
and in other bivalves, we obferve a fimilar epidermis, which
envelopes the fhell externally. This epidermis is always
wanting on the furface of the projefting parts, on which the
animal draws its fhell along the fand, becaufe it is there
worn off. In fome fpecies of fhells, the epidermis is thick
and vifcous, and on this account it has been named fea-cloth.
Th's is very remarkable in feveral fpecies of the genus area
of Liimseus ; and to exprefs this pecuharity, he has called
one of them pilofa.

In all the teflacea, the epidermis which envelopes the
fhell is continued to produce the pellicle, which covers the
animal, and it produces the fame change as that which is
prolonged within the body of vertebral animals. It is thin
and mucous on all the parts which are not expofed to the
aftion of the ambient fluid. In the fpecies of gafteropoda,
however, whoffe fhell is concealed under the fkin, and does
not ferve for defence, the epidermis does not change its
tiature. We have examples of this in fome fpecies of
aplyfia and fcyllea, as well as in the animal which produces
the fhell, called by Linnaus helix halyotoidea (figaretof
Lamarck).

Worms have a diftinft cuticle, which is eafily feparated
from the (liin in the earth-worm, when it has been immerfed
for a few hours in fpirits of wine, or macerated fome days in
water : it is a pretty folid pellicle, which may be removed
in a fingle piece. In the fipunculus faccatus this epidermis
is even entirely feparated from the body, which is uncon-
nefted and floating within it, as if it were inclofed in a fac.
Leeches and fome other worms have the cuticle mucous,
hke that of the gafteropodous mollufca.

It is very difficult to afcertain the nature of the epidermis
in zoophytes, or even to difcover whether it exifts in fome
of them. The fea-ftars (afteriasl, the urchins (echinus),
and the acliniae, appear to poffefs it. The medufa? are co-
vered with a pelhcle, but fo thin and tranfparent that it
cannot be fuppofed to confift of ftrata. The other zoo-
phytes,

VERMES.

phytes, as the polypes, &c. have a mucous furface, tlie
ioftncfs of which prevents us from diftinguifhing any mem-
brane.

Mofi moUufca have a rete mucofum below the epidermis.
In the cephalopoda it is moft commonly of a blue or red
colour ; but it forms a very thin layer. That of the gaf-
teropoda varies confidcrably, as we may obferve particularly
in the Aug. It is thick and vifcous ; but difiblves com-
pletely, in water. In fituation, the fliell is analogous to rete
mucofum. It is found immediately under t)ie epidermis,
and, when fome of the calcareous part is removed, it is a
kind of cruft without any apparent organization, and not a
membrane. It is produced by fucccltive llrata. Finally,
it is coloured, and its fliades arc infinitely various.

The rete mucofum is to be found in a fmall number only
of zoophytes : and it cannot even be feparated from tlie
(kin, as in the afteria; and actiniae.

It appears to be confounded with the calcareous fiiell,
which forms the habitation of feveral other genera. This
may be obferved in fome fpecies of echini and coralhiies ; and
in the ceratophytes, and a number of lithophytes.

Nothing at all approaching to the appearance of nervous
papilla can be feen m white-blooded animals. In the cepha-
lopodous mollufca fome nervous filaments may be feen in
the fmall globules, which feem glandular, and which cover
the {l:in. In other mollufca, fome nervous filaments may
be traced into the fubilance of the flcin ; but they cannot
be feen to form papillae.

No real cutis is to be obferved in the invertebral animals,
excepting the cuttle-fifh and the other cephalopoda. It is
applied almoll immediately to the mufcles, by means of a
very denfe cellular fubilance : it is of a very coriaceous na-
ture, and not eafily lacerated. Its fibres are very (lender.

In the other invertebral animals, there is no part which
can be compared to the cutis. There is, indeed, a pelhcle
under. the (liell of the cruftacea, but it is fine, tranfparent,
and has very little confidence. The ftin cad off by the
larva: of infefts in moulting, is of the fame nature and thick-
nefs as that below it, and which is dcitined to fuccecd it.
Even the envelop of certain chryfalides, as thofe of the
lepidoptcra and diptera, cannot be regarded as cutis : it is
rather a kind of horny epidermis. In the perfcft ftate,
there is no part of tlie teguments of infects that can be
compared to the cutis. The fame obfervatiou applies to
the worms and zoophytes.

In the invertebral animals, that' have foft bodies, almoft
all the mufcles may be confidercd as cutaneous ; for the
greater number are attached to the (kin. But as they are
alfo employed in progredion, they are dcfcribcd among the
organs of motion.

Befides the (]<in in general, which is an univerfal organ of
touch iri man, and the red-blooded claffes, there are parti-
cular organs poffefiing a much more acute power of dif-
cerning the tangible properties of bodies, aiid at the fame
lime fo conftnicted as to admit of eafier application to their
furface. The fingers exemplify this. It may be doubted
whether the invertebral claffes have any parts calculated to
perform fiich an office ; and we nather think that they have
not. Some, iiowcver, regard the tentacula as organs of
touch, and confider them analogous to the antenna; of in-
fe£ls, or to the fingers of man and the qnadrumana.

We have already defcribed the tentacula of the cephalo-
podous mollufca, under the head of Organs of Motion.
They obvioudy ferve for fcizing their prey ; but whether
they enjoy any fenfc of touch is extremely doubtful.

The horns of the fnail have been defcribed in tlie account
of the eye. Thofe of the other genera among the gallcro-

poda do not differ, except that they are incapable of that
motion by which the former are retracted and protruded like
the finger of a glove. They have mufcular fibres, which may
be contracted or relaxed.

Tentacula are found in many invertebral animals ; but
they are not fo univerfal as the antennx among infefts.
They are fituated on the head ; often at the opening of the
mouth, as in the doris ; above it, as in the flug; or round it,
as in the terebella. Several fpecies have fimilar appendices
round the cloak. Such are the rimpcts, the genus halyotis,
&c. Among the acephala, the greater part are provided
with thefe appendices, and fome have them in great num-
bers. In the fpecies which have the cloak completely open
they are placed around it, and particularly towards the
anus : this may be obferved in oyllers, mufcles, &c. In
thofe in which the cloak opens by a tube only, the ap-
pendices are attached to the circumference of its orifice.
Such are the genera venus, cardium, &c. The tube itfelf
furnifhes thefe animals with an excellent inftrument of
touch. The fle(hy and ciliated arms of'the genera lingula
and terebratula are equally proper for this employment ;
but thofe of the anatifa are very inferior, in confequeuce of
their horny fubftancc.

Cirri are found in feveral fpecies of worms ; and they
fometimes appear to be formed of different articulations, tike
the antenna: of iufefts. Nen-es proceed into thofe of the
aphrodita and nereis. There are none in the lumbricns
and leech ; but their place is fupplied in the latter by the
two difks which terminate their bodies. Their mimber
varies : generally there are two, the flug has four, the
cuttle-fifli eight, the peiinatula forty to fixty or more. Many
varieties of form are alfo obferved, and defcribed by writers
in natural liiftory. Tlie tentacula of the polypes are faid to
be hollow, and to communicate with the ftomach. Fine
hairs are obferved in them, by means of the microfcope ;
they alfo poffefs numerous knots, which probably are of
fervice in fixing them on animals which they feize for prey.
Throughout the invertebral claffes, we find thefe inftru-
ments chiefly ufed for feiiing the creatures on which the
animal lives. Tlie tiibularia, hydra, brachyonus, vorticella,
&:c. throw the water into motion by means of their arms.
\Vlien any thing on which they can prey comes near, they
inltantly feizc and convey it to the mouth. Trembley ob-
ferved, that the tubularia fultana (polypes a bouquet) gave
a rotatory motion to the water, and thus condufted the prey
to their arms. Olivi obferved, that the aftinix and polypes
(hydra) perceived their prey at a diftance, put the water in
motion, and thus brought it within the fphere of their arms.
Speaking of thefe organs, Cuvicr fays, " the anus, the
tufts and the flowers of feveral zoophytes (polypi, La-
marck) ; the innumerable tentacula of the fea-llars, urchins
and adtiniae, and the complicated branches of the medufae,
are excellent organs of touch."

Of the infenfible parts, covering the (kin, very little re-
mains to be faid ; we have already defcribed the formation
of the (liell, and have made fome further remarks on it in
fpeaking of the (l(in.

Many of the vermes clafs have the body furni(hed with
bunches of hairs, which are fometimes (liff and ix-traAile,
and ferve for feet, as we have pointed out in the genera
nereis, terebella, lumbricus, &c. In the aphrodita, there
are, befides thefe brilllcs employed in progreffioii, an infinite
munbcr of other hairs, which are long, flexible, and of a
changeable fea-green colour ; there is alfo a tomentous
felt-like fubftancc, covering the branchii, through which
the water is llrained.

Organ of Smclling.-'Thi fatvdty of Imell is connected in

all

VERMES.

all animals, in which it has been hitherto difcovered, with
the refpiratory apparatus ; the air wliich enters the latter
loaded with odorous effluvia atling on the olfaftory nerves
in its paflage. This analogy would lead us to look for the
nofe in fimilar iituations in invertebral animals. No fuch
organ, however, has yet been difcovered in this great divi-
fion of the animai kingdom ; a.though in fome inftances
there are ftroug proofs that fuch a fenfe exifts. (See
Insects, in Anatomy. ) In moUufca and worms we have
ilill fewer direft arguments for the exiilence of the fenfe,
than in infefts. We fhould not perhaps expeft it in in-
teiUnal worms, as it could anfwer no purpofe ; nor in fuch
tcitaceous animals and corals, &c. as have no power of
locomotion.

Organ ofTaJlc The fepis, fnails, and mod gafteropodous

inollufca, have a cartilaginous tongue, the fingular ftrufture
of which will be fpoken of in defcribing the organs of
maRication, &c. It has no motions except fuch as are
connefted with deglutition. Its anterior part is fixed
below the mouth ; and it it incapable of embracing fapid
bodies. The acephalous mollufca do not appear to have
any tongue ; perhaps they exercife the fenfe of taile by
thofe tcntacula, fo fimilar to papillse, with which their
cloaks are furniftied at the parts, where the water, which is
the vehicle of their aliments, enters.

There is no tongue, properly fpeaking, in worms ; though
lome have given that name to the probofcis of the tha-
laffema, echinorhynchus, &c. The zoophytes have alfo no
tongue ; but the tentacula, which furround their mouth,
are frequently fo fine, and of fo deUcate a fubftance, as to be
very well calculated for the feat of tafte.

Organs of Digeflion.

Organs of Maflicatton in the Mollufca. — As this clafs hardly
ptyffelTes in any inftance an oifeous or at afl fohd head, their
jaws, when they have any, cannot be articulated with, or
reft upon the head. Although the cephalopoda poffefs a
kind of cranium, they do not conftitutc an exception to
this rule ; the parts compofing their mouth are fufpended
in the ring formed by this cranium.

The jaws of the mollufca confift of horny, or fometimes
ftony fubftance, fixed in an oval flefiiy mafs, enveloping the
mouth, and compofed of the mufcles of the jaws, and of
thofe concerned in deglutition. The mufcular fibres be-
longing to this mafs are not very diftinft, although we per-
ceive in them different direftions, by which they are calcu-
lated to approximate or feparate the jaws. The latter differ
confiderably in form. All the cephalopoda poffefs two,
which refemble exaftly the homy mandibles of a bird.
They are convex, hooked, and very fharp-pointed. They
confift of a double plate of a thick hard horn, of a deep-
brown colour, of which the edges, oppofed to each other at
the triturating part, become very thin, while they are
hidden at their bafis in the flefhy mafs already mentioned.
This inftrument is employed to break the crabs and other
teflaceous animals which are ufed for food.

The form and number of the jaws are not fo conftant in
the gafteropoda. The common flugs and fnails have only
one, which correfponds to the upper ; it is crefcent-lhaped,
and the concave edge is denticulated.

In the tritonia, the jaws may be bcfl; compared to the
fhcars emploved in {hearing (heep. Inftcad, however, of
playing on a common fpring, the two plates move by a
joint ; and they are (lightly curved, inftead of being plane.
Tliefe jaws are lateral, and move from right to left ; the
cutting-edge of one Aides over that of the otlier, and they
are very fharp.

We fee nothing in the aplyfia but a thin horny phfe, of
no great ftrength, covering th interior of each fide of the
mouth. Even this flight induration is not obferved in the
onchidium.

The gafteropodous mollufca, poffelling a long or (hort
probofcis, have no jaws at all ; this is the cafe with the
buccinum, murex, voluta, buUaea, &c. ; and among the
naked gafteropoda, with the doris, fcvl!";? Sec. We merely
find in fome cafes, that the fides cf the bottom of the
probofcis are covered with cartilaginous plates ; there are
fuch in the doris. The ofcabrio has no mafticating organ :
neither have the pteropoda, as the hyalasa, clio, pneumo-
dermon, &c.

None of the acephalous mollufca have jaws, nor any
thing fubfervient to maftication properly fo called. The
teredos employ, for piercing wood, the valves of their (heDs,
which fome naturalifts have called their teeth ; but about
the true nature of which it is impoffible to doubt, when the
teredo is compared to the pholas, the genus moft analogous
to it. The valves of the former feem merely a miniature
reprefentation of thofe belonging to the latter ; as Adanfon
obferved long ago.

The naked acephala, as the falpa (biphore), afcidia, 8cc.
have no apparatus for dividing their food. The cirropoda,
as the balanus and lepas, have veftiges of jaws, difpofed in
pairs. The lepas, for example, has two denticulated pairs,
and a thin oae fimply rounded.

Organs of Mqflicatlon in the Vermes. — Some of this clafs
have lateral jaws as ftrong as thofe of any infeft or crutla-
ceous animal, and even very fimilar to them in form. In a
large fpecies of nereis, for example, the opening of the
oefophagus is furnifhed with eight calcareous pieces, which
feem to fupply the place of mandibles, jaws, and lower lip.
The two upper are flattened, arched, and pointed hooks,
difpofed like the branches of a pair of forceps, united
behind, and articulated upon a horny, elaftic, femilunar
plate fituated above the oefophagus. The two following
are broader, but not fo long ; they have fix denticuU
direfted backwards ; they are articulated towards the pof-
terior third and below the hooks, which reft upon them '\i\
their whole length. The third jaw on each fide is placed
below and exteriorly ; it is Ihorter arid embraces the firft
jaws, as in the bowl of a fpoon. It is found, on attentive
examination, to be compofed of three fmall pieces placed
near together ; the internal has its edge denticulated with
twelve fmall triangular points, like the teeth of a faw : the
middle is placed forwards, and forms the pofterior edge of a
prominent rounded eminence, fituated at the opeamg of the
mouth ; the laft is external, and terminated by a fingle
point. The two lower pieces, which feem to ferve for a
lower lip, are the longeft, flattened horizontally, fofter at
their edge, which confifts of a horny and rather flexible
fubftance. All the parts juft fpecified are furrounded by a
ftratum of mulcular fibres detained to move them.

In other fmall fpecies of nereis, the opening of the
oefophagus is very mufcular, covered with wrinkles and
points of a horny firm texture, arranged in a circular
manner, and on fcveral lines, which are capable of rubbing
on each other. Two principal rugae, fituated towards the
upper part, fupport two larger horny pieces of a round
form. At the lower and back part are two arched iiooks,
which come together hke the branches of forceps. In
other fpecies we alfo obferve two hooks ; but the homy
points are not arranged in the fame manner. They are
collefted in fix groups in mufcular eminences, of which
three are anterior and three pofterior. It appears that the
animal has the power of inverting this part of the afopha-

VERMES.

pus, fo a? to bring out the two liooks, which feize the food
l:ke a pair of forceps. Wlien it is feized, they drag it in,
and the mufcular part of the ocfophagus, acting on it by its
coiitraftions, and by means of the liorny papilla;, divides
and triturates it, and thus prepares it for the aftion of the
inteftinal canal.

The other marine vermes, arranged near the nereids,
fuch as the arenicolse, the aniphinomice, amphitrite, lere-
bells, and ferpula?, have neither jaws nor teeth. At lead
we can hardly s^ive that name to the peftinated procefles of
the ampliitrite. They are fealy pointed pieces, of a
brilliant golden colour, arranged in two rows, which repre-
fent two combs, but fituated out of the mouth, on the fur-
face of tlie head, and enabling tlie animal to fix itfelf, or to
hook in various fnbllances, but not to mafticate or divide
the food.

The aphrodita: have four fmall teeth at the bottom of a
probofcis, whicli they can extend or withdraw at will.

Leeches have three fmall femi-circular prominences in the
interior of the mouth : the eda;e is cutting, and finely denti-
culated, like a faw. With this inftrument they pierce the
fkin. The lumbricu? has no jaws.

Organs of Blajlicalion in the Ech'wo-iltrmala. — Amongfl.
the invertebral animals, the echini are thofe which have the
moft furprifing apparatus of this kind. Their external
covering, which is bony and confills of a fingle piece, prc-
fents a large round hole, in which the mafs of the mouth is
fufpended, attached indeed by ligaments and mufcles, but
moveable to a certain point. The bony part of this mafs
has feme refemblance to a lantern with fix divifions : the
comparifon was made as long ago as the time of Ariftotle.
The objetl of the apparatus is to fupport and move five
teeth, which encircle the fmall round aperture, by which the
food enters. Thefe teeth are worn away by maflication, and
are con(lru£ted on the fame principle as the incifors of the
rodentia ; viz. very long, loft behind, and hardening towards
the front, in which direction they advance in proportion to
the effedl of tlie attrition. They rell in an apparatus
confiding of fixed and moveable pieces. The fixed pieces ad-
here within the fliell, all round the hole : they confill of five
bony arches, whofe convexities are turned towards the cavity
of the fliell, or downwards ; while their concavities arc to-
wards the edge of the circular opening, or upwards. The
principal moveable pieces are five triangular jjyramids, form-
ing the principal body of the mafs of the mouth, and dividing
the great pyramid or pentagonal lantern of the mouth. Two
faces of cacii pyramid correfpond to thofe of the neighbour-
ing pyramids : they are marked by five tranfverfe Itrix.
Their inner edges do not touch each other, but are fe-
paratcd by a fmall interval. The dorfal or external face of
eacli pyramid is convex, thick, and perforated towards its
bafe by a triangular or circular opening, differing in fize ac-
cording to the fpecies. Its inner edge has a groove, in which
the body of the teeth pafTes and can move longitudinally, but
in no other dircftion. Its extremity paffes out at the point
of the pyramid ; and the five points being approximated
about the opening of the mouth, the five teeth end there
alfo.

The pyramids are hollow, and their faces do not exactly
touch thofe of the neighbouring pyramids ; but they are
united by a flefliy mafs, which can approximate them. Its
effeft is that of bringing the five teeth together, and thus
contracting the opening of the mouth.

The canal of the celophagus paffes between the five py-
ramids : the fides of their bafes, by which they touch each
other, are united, two by two, by five bony pieces difpofed
like radii, and approximating towards the ocfophagus as
Vol. XXXVII.

their centre. Each of thefe pieces unites the adjacent fides
of the bafes of two pyramids, being articulated to them in
a loofe manner. The third fide of the bafis of each py-
ramid, that which conllitutes the bafis of its dorfal or exter-
nal furface, forms one of the planes of the general pyramid
or pentagon. " In the natural pofition thefe fides correfpond
to the intervals of the fixed bony arches, which confequeutly
anfwer to tlie angles of the pentagonal pyramid.

Twenty mufcles aft from the fixed bony arches on this
pentagonal pyramid, and can either move it entirely, or move
on each other the five triangular pyramids which compofe
it. Ten of thefe mufcles pafs from the intervals of the
arches to the external bafes of the five pyramids. When
they aft all together, while at the fame time the mufcles
joining the pyramids together contraft, the whole mafs
of the mouth is carried forwards, or towards the ouifidc of
the body. If they aft feparately, tliey incline the mafs and
render its axis oblique, makiug the internal extremity of the
axis converge towards the fide of the mufcles wliich aft.
If one afts alone, while the particular mufcles joining its
pyramid to the two neighbouring ones are relaxed, it carries
the tooth of that pyramid further inwards than the others.

Tiie ten ollur mufcles go from the convexities of the
arches like radii, to terminate at the points of the pyramids;
fo that each point receives the mufcles of the two neigh-
bouring arc'ies. As the arches projeft inwardly, thefe muf-
cles are inclined towards the outer furface of the (hell ;
confequeutly their effeft, when they aft together, is that of
making the mafs of the mouth pafs a little inwards. When
they aft feparately, while the mufcles uniting the pyramids
are contrafted, they incline the mafs of the mouth, by
making the external extremity of its axis converge towards
the fide of the mufcle which afts. When the mufcles join-
ing the pyramid to its neighbours are relaxed, the effeft of
the mufcles we are now defcribing is to draw back the tooth
correfponding to tiiat pyramid, and move it away from the
aperture of the nyjuth. Thus, in thefe three relations, the
mufcles coming from the arches are antagoniiU of thofe
which come from their intervals.

If both fets aft together, they become common antago-
nills of thofe which join the pyramids, and their operation
will then be to feparate the latter from each other, and to
enlarge, not only the entrance of the mouth, but the whole
of the paffage left for the ccfophagus through the axis of
the great pcntagoua! pyramid.

Befides the twenty-five mufcles, which aft immediately
on the pentagonal pyramid and its parts, there are ten
others, which adt on it tlu-ough the intervention of five
officula, which we muft now defcribe. They are flender,
and rather femi-circular or arched ; and are placed each on
tiie fame level with one of the five bony radii which have
been defcribed.

One extremity of each arc is articulated to the internal
extremity of the correfponding radiated piece : the other
paffes above and on the outfide of its external extremity,
and is bifurcated like the letter Y. A pentagonal membrane
unites and (h-engthens their extremities towards the centre.
Each of the two branches of tlie Y receives a mufcle com-
ing from the middle of the nearefi. interval of the fixed bony
arches ; fo that each of the five intervals gives a muiclo to
the hvo nearefl Ys.

The effeft of the mufcles, afting by fucli levers, in, in-.
dining the mafs of the mouth in every dircftion can be,
eafily conceived.

Eacli tooth may be confidered as a long triangular prifin ;
of which the two pollerior faces make re-entrant angles..
The part which comes out of the point of the pyramid is

E very

VERMES.

ven' hard ; but it becomes gradually fofter behind, and
forms a long flexible tail. This foft part has a filky, or
even metallic luftre, and is torn by the flighteft effort.

The form of teeth juft defcribed, is that which we find
in the echinus elculentus. In other fpecies, as the echinus
cidaris, inftead of being prifmatic, they are like half tubes,
and their extremity, which is worn away obliquely, forms
the bowl of the fpoon.

All the echini, properly fo called, and apparently all the
fubgenera, which have the body fpherical and the mouth
central, have a mouth conftrufted in the manner jull de-
fcribed. Such as have the mouth central, and the body
flattened (clypeaiter, Lamarck ; echinus rofaceus), have an
oval mafs compofed of five offeous pieces, each fupporting
a tooth : but this mafs is quite flattened, like a circular
cake divided into five feftors. The faces, by which the fee-
tors touch each other, are not ilriated. Although there
are fibres to unite them, they are merely perforated by fine
and regular pores. The furface oppofite to the opening is
elevated at the fides into fine and prominent laminae ; the other
furface is fometimes like this. Their teeth do not Aide m
grooves, but are fixed, and have the (hape of a comprefTed
cylinder, worn obliquely at the end which is in action.
The oppofite end is foft, as in the preceding inftance, but
not prolonged into a flexible tail. The external mufclcs
which aft on this apparatus are very trifling.

Such echini as have the mouth oblique, and furnifhed
virith a plate of the fliell advancing under it, as the fpstan-
guis and caffidula of Lamarck, have neither teeth nor offeous
mafs to fupport them. There is merely round the opening
of the mouth a ikin furnifhed with fmall fcaly pieces, firnilar
to thofe of the fliell, but not fo clofely fet as to render
this part inflexible j it can, on the contrary, be extended
and retrafted to a certain point, at the will of the animal,
like a probofcis.

The afteris have no teeth : their mouth is a round mem-
branous aperture, leading to the ftomach by a very fliort
oefophagus, which is fometimes capable of being everted,
particularly when the animal is hungry. Thofe fpines of
the external furface, which are ncareft to the mouth, may
ferve, when inclined towards that opening, to retain the
prey : but they cannot be regarded as teeth in the proper
fenfe of the word.

The opening of the mouth in the hblothuriae is furrounded
by a ring compofed of ten femi-offeous pieces ; but they
ferve merely as points of fupport for the longitudinal muf-
cles of the body and the tentacula. They are covered by
the internal integument of the mouth, fupport no teeth, and
are not concerned in the bufinefs of maftication.

The fipunculi have no hard parts in the mouth, nor elfe-
where : neither have any of the zoophytes, which come next
in the fcale.

Salivary Organs.

In the Mollufca. — They are very large in the cephalo-
poda and gafl;eropoda ; more confiderable indeed than in
any other animals. In the former there are two pairs.
The firft and fmalleft is fituated on the flefliy mafs of the
mouth : each gland has a fliort excretory duft, penetra-
ting the mafs laterally, a httle in front of the origin of the
oefophagus. The other pair is much larger, fituated under
the neck, behind the liver, and oppofite the crofs. The
excretory dufts of the two glands unite into one tube, which
afcends beliind the oefophagus, and penetrates the mafs of
the mouth towards the pofterior point of the fmall cartilage,
which fupplies the place of a tongue. Thefe glands are
whitifti, flattened, and but little granulated. They are lo-

bulated, and have an angular outline ; and they receive large
branches from the principal artery.

In general, the gafteropoda have only a fingle pair of thefe
glands. In the common fnail (helix pomatia), they are ob-
long, placed clofe to tlie origin of the oefophagus, and pro-
duce two long canals, which increafe in fize as they are in-
ferted in the mafs of the mouth above. In the red Aug
they are lefs, and merely form a collar round the origin of
the ftomach.

In the aplyfia, the falivary glands are two long, narrow,
ribbon-like bodies, floating at the fides of the oefophagus.
They are inferted in the mouth, near the origin of the fto-
mach, without having any part of their excretory duft un-
covered. Their pofterior extremity is fixed to the fecond
ftomach by means of branches received from the itomachic
artery.

The doris has falivary glands fhaped like a long narrow
ribbon, attached behind to the ftomach. They are fo flen-
der in fome fpecies, that they might be taken for nerves,
when they have paffed through the nervous collar of the
brain.

Anim.als of the genus bullsea, though very firnilar to the
aplyfias, have merely two fliort lender glands ; but in the
ciio borealis they are nearly the fame as in the aplyfia.

In the pneumodermon they are elongated, and contrafted
where they pafs under the brain : for in all thefe animals,
without exception, eitlicr the gland, or at leaft its excretory
canal, paffes with the oefophagus through the cerebral ring.

In the tiitonia they are very large and lobulated, fituated
at the fides of the oefophagus, and tolerably wide in their
middle. The ftrufture is firnilar in the onchidium. They
are generally confiderable in the aquatic univalves, as in
the genera bulimus, murex, and buccinum, which is remark-
able, inafm.uch as in aquatic vertebral animals they are either
fmall or entirely deficient. They are fmall in the halyotis.

In the Echino-dermaia The holothurias have all round

their mouth oblong Wind pouches, which terminate in that
cavity, and mufl; be fuppofed to pour into it fome liquor
analogous to faliva. There are twenty of different lengths
in the holothuria tremula. The pentaftes has only two,
much larger. Nothing of the kind has been difcovered in
the echini and afteriae.

The medufae and other radiaria, and the zoophytes pro-
perly fo called, exhibit no falivary apparatus.

Organs of Deglutition.

In the Mollufca. — We muft diftinguiflj the external or-
gans or lips from the internal or tongue. The former are
again divided into two kinds ; viz. ftiort or proper lips, and
tubular lips elongated into a probofcis.

I. Proper lips. In the cephalopoda, the opening of the
mouth is furrounded by a flefliy and denticulated circle,
Avhich covers and entirely conceals, when the animal choofes,
the two mandibles of the bill.

In the gafteropoda, which have no probofcis, the mouth
is generally a longitudinal flit, whofe flefliy margins hold the
place of lips. Sometimes, as in the tritonia and onchidium,
thefe lips have the form of lliin plates, often divided into
flireds, as in the tritonia arborefcens ; the inferior tentacula
of the aplyfia may alfo be confidered as folds of its hps.

All the common bivalves have round their mouth four
membranous folds, ufually triangular, and more or lefs elon-
gated, ferving apparently by their motion to convey the
food towards the mouth. One of their furfaces is, moreover,
fo vafcular, that it probably has fome conneftion with the
bufinefs of refpiration. Sometimes thefe folds are united,
two by two, in part of their length, as in the pinna. In
4 other

VERMES.

other inftances, the proper opening of the mouth is fur-
rounded by a circle of flefhy fimbriae, more or lefs divided,
as in the fpondylus.

The naked acephala, as the biphori, thalias, afcidias, &c.
have neither folds nor fringes. The mouth of the biphorae
has merely a circular and flefhy edge.

In the brachiopoda (terebratulse and lingulae) lips do not
exift ; but their place is advantagcoufly fupplied by two
long ciliated arms.

2. Probofcis. Several naked moUufca, as the doris, and
probably moll of the tcftacea, as the buccinum, murex,
voluta, &c. have a flefhy cylindrical or conical probofcis,
which they employ for feizing their food at a diilance.
The motions of this inflrument are not confined to flexion
and a limited elongation, as in the trunk of tiie elephant ;
but it is capable of being withdrawn into the body
by folding inwards within itfelf, and of being extended
again, like the finger of a glove, the horns of a fnail, or
many other parts of nioUufca.

It may be reprefented as a cylinder folded inwards within
itfelf, or as two cyhnders, of wrhich one includes the other,
and the two fuperior edges are continuous, fo that in draw-
ing outwards the inner cylinder, it is elongated at the
expence of the other, and in pufliing it back again it is
fhortened, while the exterior is elongated. The latter effedl
takes place at the Infide, becaufe this outer cyLnder has its
inferior edge fixed to the parictes of the head.

Tliere are feveral longitudinal mufcles divided into many
fhreds at their two extremities. They are fixed on one fide
to the parietes of the body ; and on the other to the internal
parietes of the inner cylinder in its whole length, and to its
very end. It is obvious that they will have the efFeft of
drawing inwards this cylinder, and the whole probofcis.
When it is thus rctraftcd, a large part of the inner furface
of the internal cylinder comes to form part of the outer
furface of the external cylinder : and the contrary takes
place when the probofcis is elongated or extended. The
infertions of the mufcles undergo correfponding variations.

The elongation of the internal cylinder, by the unfolding
of the external, is effcdtcd by the proper annular mufcles of
the probofcis. They furround its whole length ; and by
their fucceffive contraftions thrufi it outwards. There is
one ftronger than the others where the external cylinder is
attached to the parietes of the head. When the pro-
bofcis is elongated, its retraftor mufcles, by afting partially,
can bend it to one fide or the other ; and the various portions
in this way antagonife each other.

This defcription may ferve alfo for the murex tritonis ;
but the probofcis is much fliorter lljan in the buccinum.

In thofc moUufca which have a probofcis, the (ifophagus
is very long, and loohly folded, that it may follow all the
motions of that inflrument : it forms in a manner a third
cylinder concentric to the two others.

None of the cephalopodoiis, pteropodous, or acephalous
claffes have a probofcis : the part which has been fo named
in the cirrhopoda (the anatifae and balani) is the redlum.
The fuppofed probofcis whicli fome authors fpeak of in
feveral bivalves, is the canal for the conveyance of water into
the fhell : it is placed oppofite to the true mouth, and is an
organ of refpiration, not of deglutition.

The Tongue It is very fingular in the cephalopoda and

gafteropoda ; and has nothing parallel in the animal kingdom.
It is a membrane covered with prominent fpines or ridges
dircfted backwards, and capable of excrcifiiig a kind of
periflaltic motion, in v/hich the fpines arc alternately raifcd
and deprefled, fo as gradnally to propel the alimentary fub-
llanccs into the cefophagu:..

The tongue of the cephalopoda is placed between the
two mandibles : it is behind the jaws in fucii gafteropoda
as have thofe organs. This is particularly obfervable in the
tritonia, when the tongue immediately receives whatever
pafTes the cutting edge of tlic jaws. Others have it near the
opening of the mouth ; and thofe which have a probofcis,
have their tongue at the anterior extremity of that organ.
In that cafe it ferves, in fome degree, as an organ of mafli-
cation ; as it can cut the food more or lefs by means of its
hooks.

The tongue varies much in length ; and there arc fpecies
in which we are at a lofs to afhgn an explanation for its
confiderable extent. In the halyotis, for ex.imple, it is half
as long as the body ; in the patella and turbo pica it is
nearly quite as long, and folded Hke the intefl;ines ; and,
what is remarkable, thtfe genera have no probofcis. In
thofe which have one the tongue is fliort. The arrangement
of the organ makes it impofTible for the animal to employ
more than the anterior part : but probably it may refemble
fome kinds of teeth, the pofterior part coining forwards,
and fucceeding to the other in proportion as it is worn
away in front. This conjefture receives confirmation from
the foft and nearly gelatinous ft;ate of the pofl;erior part :
we may fuppofe that it becomes firm when it comes into
ufe, as the teeth of quadrupeds which are to fucceed. All
this pofterior part is rolled up longitudinally, hke a horn.

In the cephalopoda the tongue is oblong, and prolonged
pofteriorly into a long horn. In the aplyfia it is very
broad, heart-fhaped, and placed on two rounded eminences
ieparated by a groove. In the bullosa it forms a fmall
tubercle at the bottom of the mouth.

The hard covering of this tongue is difpofed in a regular
and conftant manner in eacli fpecies. It confifts, in the
cephalopoda, of hooked fpines of equal length, arranged in
two lateral rows, and of a middle feries of fcales with ivc
points.

In the ofcabrio, there is on each fide a feries of hooked
fcales, with three points, and of long, fharp, and hooked,
but fimple fpines. In the middle there are fmall tubercles.

The turbo pica has tranfverfe, cutting, and denticulated
laminae.

The tongue of the aplyfia is covered all over with fmall
hooked fpines, difpofed in the quincunx order. In the
onchidium there are very fine tranfverfe grooves, thcmfclves
marked with ftill finer ftrias of an oppofite direftion. The
arrangement is nearly the fame in the doris. A fimilar
ftrufture occurs in the fnail and flug, but it is io minute
that a ftrong glafs is neceflary to perceive it.

The acephala have no proper tongue ; but there is a cir-
cular valve at the entrance of their cefophagus, dirccled to-
wards the ftomach, and capable of contributing povverfidly
to deglutition. It is very plain in the oyfter. Generally
thefe are mere tranfverfe folds, which diredt the food by
their periftaltic motion.

The ^tlimenlary Cavil and its Appendages. — The allnienlar^
canal of invertebral animals is compofed of the fame effential
parts as in thofe which have vertebrae. There is an iniernal
mucous furface, which in fome inftances afl'umes a callous
nature, and fometimes becomes villous, or has a papillary
texture ; a cellular ftratum external to this, analogous to
what fome have called the nervous coat of the mammalia ;
and a mufcular covering of variable thicknefs. A leading
difference is, that often the ferous or mefenteric coat, and the
mefentery itfelf, are wanting. There feems to be none in
feveral moUufca, and in the clafs of infefts, and we only-
meet with it again in theechino-dermata. Another difference
is, tliat the cellular ftratum ir, not alway* vafcular : it in fo
E 2 only

VERMES.

only in the mollufca, worms, and fome echino-dermata.
In no cafe have infefts any thing more than trachea rami-
fied in the parietes of their inteflines, and moil zoophvtes
have nothing at all. A third, but lefs general difference
is, that the memb^nes of the ftomach are often armed with
hard parts, either fimply in the form of plates, as in the
bullaea ; or of teeth, as in tlie cruftacea ; or of fcales, as in
the grylli ; or hooks, as in the aplyfia. This is a new
analogy between the inteilinal membranes and the Ikin ; for
we know, that in thefe animals, the (hells and fcales which
cover them, are often produced by the induration of their
rete mucofum.

In its relative length, in the fize of its different parts, in
the number and form of its dilatations, and particularly of
the liomachs and csca, and in its internal folds, the ali-
mentary canal of invertebral animals exhibits varieties alto-
gether analogous to thofe obferved in the vertebral claffes.
Thus, for example, fuch as are carnivorous, have a fimple
and fliort canal, Sec.

There is more variety in the pofition of the anus. The
zoophytes, fome echino-dermata excepted, have none at all,
but void their excrement by the mouth. Infefts, worms,
and cruftacea, always have an anus at the extremity of the
body oppofite to the mouth, and below. In the mollufca
its pofition feems fubjeft to no rule. In the doris we find
it backwards and upwards ; backwards and downwards in
the onchidium. It is on the right fide in the fliig, fnail,
aplyfia, and bullaea ; in the head, in the patella ; in front
of the neck, in the cuttle -fifh ; on the fide of the neck, in
the clio : in the acephala it is ufually found oppofite to the
mouth.

Alimentary Canal of the Mollufca. — Locomotion is per-
formed in all the cephalopoda with the head downwards : as
the mouth is in the centre of the feet, the food muft
af«end into the abdomen : the redtum defcends and opens
into a cartilaginous cloaca, or funnel, placed in front of
the neck, and ferving as a common receptacle for the
femen, the eggs, and the inky fluid. The cefophagus
paffes behind the liver, or towards the back ; and the retlum
ia front, or towards the abdomen : the reft of the canal is in
the bottom of the fac or abdomen. In the middle of the
cefophagus of the fepia oftopus, there is a confiderable dila-
tation, of which the parietes, though thin, are manifeftly
glandular : this is a true crop, analogous to that of birds ;
but they have nothing fimilar to the bulbus glandulofus of
birds. The ftomach is a gizzard in its general arrangement :
the parietes are covered by two mufcles nearly as Itrong as
thofe of the gizzard of the gallinaceous birds : its internal
membrane is equally thick, cartilaginous, and eafily fepa-
rated. The pylorus is near the cardia, and leads into a
fpecies of caecum, or, if that name ftiould be preferred, a
third ftomach which is a little bent on itfelf in a fpiral form.
Here the hepatic canals terminate. The fecond, or true
pylorus, is near the other, and alfo near the cardia. A
fmooth canal lies along the concavity of the third ftomach :
the reft of its internal furface is plaited tranfverfely, and
exhibits the orifices of an infinite number of fmall mucous
follicles. The intcftine itfelf has thin fides : it is large,
and nearly of uniform diameter throughout. In the oc-
topus it makes two nearly tranfverfe convolutions, and a
large longitudinal turn before it proceeds ftraight to the
infundibulum. In the calmar it goes ftraight, without
any convolution.

The alimentary canal prefents numerous varieties in the
gafiercpoda. It is moft fimple in the fnail and Aug. The
cefophagus, after being a little dilated to form a kind of
crop, ends at the ftomach, which is itfelf merely an oblong

membranons bag, with a large hepatic canal opening in it;
The pylorus is near the fame part : the inteftine is cylin-
drical, and of uniform fize ; it makes two turns, and then
goes forwards and to the right, to open clofe to the orifice
of the lung, after having paffed along the parietes of that
cavity, and furnifhed numerous branches to the venous veffels
which are diftributed over thofe parietes. The fame relation
is obferved in the other gafteropoda between the inteftine and
the pulmonary organ : hence the anus is always near the
branchiae, when the latter are of limited extent.

The parmacella differs only in having the anus, as well as
the pulmonary opening further back ; and the teftacella, in
having them quite at the pofterior extremity.

There is a fimple membranous ftomach in the doris ; it is
an oval fac, into the bottom of which the bile is poured from
. numerous orifices. The pylorus is placed forwards, near
the cardia ; and the inteftinal canal, which is large and fliOrt,
goes directly backwards, almoft without any turn, to open
in the centre of the branchial circle, placed at the pofterior
part of the back.

In the tritonia and phyllidia, the ftomach is as in the
doris ; but the inteftine goes forwards to the right, where
the anus ends under the edge of the cloak. The pylorus is
nearer to the cardia, and the anus more anterior, and nearer
to the generative orifice, in the phyllidia : it is feparate, and
placed further back, in the tritonia.

The halyotis has merely a membranous fac at the back of
the bodv. The canal is uniform throughout, and runs twice
and a half the length of the body, nearly in three ftraight
hues. It opens by a flefhy tube in the cavity of the
branchiae, on the left of the body.

In the buccinum the cefophagus is long and flender, has
a fmall lateral crop, and foon after ends in a rounded fto-
mach. The inteftine is very ftiort. When it has reached
the right fide of the branchial cavity, it is dilated into a
large tube with thick fides, of which the internal furface is
plaited longitudinally : it contrafts fuddenly before opening
at the anus.

The ftomach of the murex is a flight membranous dilata-
tion. The reAum is not dilated, but fituated as in the buc-
cinum. The inteftine is ftiort.

The ftomach of the patellae is a fcarcely fenfible dilatation ;
the bile enters by numerous pores. In the ofcabrio it is a
rounded fac. The inteftinal canal in both thefe genera is
flender and long ; and makes many convolutions.

In the helix ftagnalis the ftomach begins to be more com-
plicated. It is funiiftied with two mufcles united by com-
mon tendons, and radiated exactly as in the gizzard of
birds. Immediately before entering it, the cefophagus is
dilated into a kind of crop.

The onchidium alfo has a thick gizzai'd, preceded by
a crop. Two hepatic canals open into the latter, and
a third into the former. The gizzard is followed by two
membranous but thick ftomachs ; one is pyramidal, with the
broad part turned towards the gizzard, and parietes deeply
plaited into longitudinal ridges : the other is narrower, cy-
lindrical, and more dehcately plaited.

There is fome analogy between the ftomach of the pleuro-
branchus and that of the onchidium ; but the organ -is
weaker in the former. There is at firft a membranous crop,
which is a mere dilatation of the cefophagus, receiving,
clofe to the opening of the fecond ftomach, the biliary fluid :
then comes a fmall gizzard, with mufcular but weak parietes :
this is followed bv a third ftomach, which refembles, by the
thin longitudinal lamina; of its inner furface, the third fto-
mach (nianyplus, feuillet, Fr. ) of the rurfiinantia. I^iftiy,
there is a fourth ftomach, fimply membranous like the firft,

but

VERMES.

but fmalkr. We obfcrve in tlie gizzard a narrow groove,
leadiii" direftly from the lirft (lomach into the third, and
probably fubfervient to fomething hke rumination. The
intelline is fhort and uniform. The aliment is moulded, in
the third ilomach, into long whitidi cords.

The aplyiia has a ilill more curious ilomach : it is alfo
four-fold. The a;fophagus, at lirft narrow, dilates fud-
denly to form the Krit ilomach or crop, which is a large thin
membranous bag, makuig a nearly fpiral turn, and having
no glandular appearance. Then follows a iliort cylindrical
gizzard, with mufcular and very itrong parietes : they are
covered internally with a very extraordinary kind of armour,
to which there is nothing exaftly fimilar, although the ofleous
pieces belonging to the Ilomach of the bullxa bear fome
analogy to it. Let us conceive pyramids with rhomboidal
bafes, whole irregular faces are united into an apex divided
into two or three obtufc points. Their fubftance is femi-
cartilaginous, and compofed of ftrata parallel to the bafis.
There are about twelve large ones, arranged in quincunces
on three rows, and fome fmaller, placed at the upper edge
of the gizzard. Thefe pyramids adhere fo flightly to the
mucous furface, that the llighteft contact difplaces them, no
trace of membrane, or any other union, being perceptible.
The places to which they adhered are, liowever, marked by
fmooth prominent furfaees, while the intervals are flightly
hollowed and ftriated. Tiie aj)ices of thefe pyramids come
together in the middle of the gizzard, and tiiey muft con-
fequently comminute the food which paiFes along the fpace
between them. The third Ilomach is broad, but not fo long
as the former, and has an equally fmgular covering, confiding
of fmall pointed hooks attached to one iide of the cavity, al-
moft as flightly as the pyramids are to tlie preceding ilomach.
Their points are turned towards tiie gizzard, and no other
ufc can be afllgned to them but tiiat of (lopping the paffage
of the aliment when infufiiciently triturated : licre, indeed,
the form of the alimentary fubflances is no longer recog-
nizable. • Near the pylorus are two fmall prominent mem-
branous crillx, between which the orifice of the fourth ilo-
mach is feen, and that of the hepatic veflels. The former,
as in the cuttle-fidi, might be called a caecum. This caecum
is as long as the third ftomach : its diameter is fmall, its
fides fimple, without any internal projeftions, and it is ab-
folutely hid in the liver. The inteftinal canal is of uniform
diameter, with tiiin tranfparcnt fides, more fo than thofe of
the third ftomach, and dillinguiflied from it by this circum-
ftance : it makes two great convolutions enveloped in the
lobes of the liver, and terminates at the anus, in the middle
of the right fide of the body, by a reftum which pafles
tranfverl'ely. Its internal furface exhibits neither papillx
nor valves ; it has no fenfible conftriftion nor dilatations.

The moft ftrongly armed of all known ftomachs is tliat of
the bulla lignaria and aperta ; there are three flat ftony
pieces ; two of iimilar form, triangular, broader and late-
ral, one narrower, rhomboidal and middle, united by muf-
cular fibres, wliich liave the power of approximating them.
Thefe hard fubftances are larger in the bulla lignaria, and
rather differently made. Draparnaud found tfiat this ap-
paratus had ben confidered as a fliell, and had given rife to
the eftablifhment of the genus tricla or giocnia. ■

In the Pteropoda. — Two of the fmall genera which com-
pofe this order, -vn. the clio and pneumodermon, have
ftomachs of the fame kind : they are fimple membranous
bags, furrounded by the liver, and receiving bile from nu-
merous orifices. Tlie third genns, hyala'a, has a dilatation
of the cefophagus, followed by a fiiort cylindrical gizzard :
both have internal longitudinal plates. The two firll genera

have a fliort itraight intelline : the hyala:a has three convolu-
tions included in the liver.

In the Acephala. — We generally find in this family a mem-
branous ftomach, following a very fliort cefophagus, fur-
rounded on all fides by the liver, which adheres to it inti-
mately, and in which it appears to be excavated. Its pa-
rietes are very irregular, forming feveral fmall cul-de-facs,
at the bottom of which the bile is received : for in all the
order that fluid enters the ftomach immediately. The
bfliary apertures have fomewhat valvular edges, to prevent
the food from entering the dufts. The inteftine makes fe-
veral convolutions, chiefly out of the liver, and moft fre-
quently in the fubftance of the mufcles of the foot, in which
it is in a manner incafed. Towards its origin, in fome
fpecies, the inteftinal canal has dilatations, which might be
taken for fecond ftomachs. In others there is a true iecond
ftomach, which is a kind of caecum near the pylorus. The
greateft fingularity, which is alfo abfolutely peculiar to fome
acephala, is a part long ago defcribed by Willis, Swam-
merdam, and others, but more particularly by Poli, under the
name of tiie cryftalline ftilette. It is probably traiifparent
and cartilaginous ; elongated, pointed at one end, and obtufe
at the other. It is compofed of lamina, included one in the
other, and contained in a flieath clofely applied to the com.
mencement of the inteftine, but open towards the ftomach,
fo as to allow the point of the ftilette to penetrate that cavity.
On this point is articulated a body of fimilar texture, divided
into fome conical eminences, and occupying the entrance of
the ftomach : it is difficult to afiign the ufc of fuch an
organ.

The folen has a fecond ftomach, long and flender, and
occupying half the length of the foot, into which it pene-
trates : the inteftine begins at the fide of the origin of the
latter, and proceeds parallel to it. The oyftcr has alfo a fe-
cond ftomach, fituated between the branchiae and the mufcle
that clofes the fticll : the inteftine rifes from it near its com-
mencement, and proceeds in an oppofite direftion.

According to Poli, the inteftinal canal is Ihorter in the
genera fixed to one fpot, as the oyfter and fpondylus, than
in thofe which are capable of locomotion, as the cardium
and venus. Yet the frefli-water mufcle has it fliort ; it
makes a '.ingle fold in the foot, and returns backwards to
defcend to the anus. The fame arrangement is found in the
mya piftnrum. On leaving the fecond ftomach, in the
oyfter, the inteftine afcends, furrounds the liver, and then
goes backwards. It is nearly the fame in the fpondylus. In
the eatable mufcle fmytilusefcnlentus), it defcends along the
back, afcends again, goes round the liver, and then defcends
to the anus. It is very fliort, making only two flio-ht curves,
in the venus decu-fiata ; but in the cardium cdiJe (common
cockle) it makes .feven or eight fpiral turns in the foot,
and is more than five times the length of the body. It is
equally long, but rather differently arranged, in the maftra
piptrata, where its commencement is very large, and might
eafily pafs for a fecond ftomach. It is the fame in fome of
the genus venus, and in the orbicular tellinae : the common
tellinx have moreover a kind of cxcum at the end of this
dilatation.

\n moll of the acephala the reftum' pafles through the
middle of the heart, but the oyfter is an exception.

There are fome remarkable varieties rtfpeding the anus.
In thofe which have no tubes to the clonk, and which walk
or fpin like the frefli-water and fea muftles, it opens by a
flefliy didc or fphinCler, between the two edges of the cloak.
In thofe which have thefe tubes, the anus itfelf makes
another, iituatcd more internally, projeding into the cavity

of

VERMES.

of the cloak, behind one of the mufcles which clofe the
Ihella. Such is the cafe in the lolen, pholas, &c.

The naked acephala have a fimple ftomach and (hort in-
teftine. In the afcidia, the latter makes only two convolu-
tions; in the biphori (falpa), it turas twice round the liver,
near which the anus is found. There is only one fpecies
(thalia) in which the canal is prolonged further, even to
the oppofite extremity of the body. The heart in this
family is never traverfed by the reftum.

The brachiopoda ( terebratulae and lingulz) have a fimple
uniform canal. In the lingula it comes from the mouth,
which is between the two arms, and makes two turns before
reaching the anus, which is at the fide. It is nearly twice
as long as the body.

Alimentary Canal of IVorms. — It is in general ftraight,
without any confiderable fnequalities, extending from one
end of the body to the other, and occupying nearly its
whole capacity.

In the common fea-moufe (aphrodite aculeata), there is a
flefhy part in front, holding the place of a probofcis, and
capable of being extended out of the body : a miftake has
been committed in confidering this as a ftomach. A cy-
lindrical inteftine follows, of fmall diameter, but giving
origin on each fide to twenty long blind proceffes, be-
coming larger towards their blind end, which Is attached
between the mufcles of the feet and the lateral veflek.
This organization is the more remarkable, as nothing hke it
is met with in the neighbouring genera.

The amphinomia capillata and tetraedra (terebella flava
and roftrata ) have firft a flefhy mafs of the mouth or a pro-
bofcis, rounder and ihorter than that of the aphrodite, then
a fmall oefophagus, and an enormoufly dilated ilomach, with
cellular panetes, like thofe of a colon, the folds of which are
fixed by a tendinous line placed on the ventral fide. It oc-
cupies two-thirds of the length of the body, and ends in a
large fhort inteftine.

The arenicola, or worm ufed as a bait by fiftiermen
(lumbricus marinus, Linn.) has no fleftiy probofcis; the
oefophagus occupies one-eighth of its length ; the ftomach,
which is more dilated, occupies a third. It is of a fine yel-
low, with the furface divided into lozcnge-fliaped facculi,
the feparations of which are marked by veflels of a beautiful
red. The reft of the canal is fmall, fmooth, and ftraight.

In the leech of frefti water (hirudo fanguifuga), an oefo-
phagus equal to one-eighth of the animal is followed by a
ftomach occupying one-half of its length : this organ is ca-
pacious, with thin fides, and divided by numerous mem-
branous diaphragms, which contrail it confiderably, leaving
only an opening in the middle. The inteftine is narrower,
and its internal membrane, which is opaque, exhibits an in-
finite number of fmall plaits ; it enlarges towards the anus,
which is very fmall, fo that its exiftence has been er-
roneoufly denied by fome anatomills. Two csca arife from
the pylorus, proceed parallel to the principal canal, and are
nearly as long. In tiie fea-leech (hirudo tuberculata), the
alimentary canal may be faid to enlarge from the mouth to
the oppofite end ; the exiftence of a ftomach is marked
merely by its fepta, which are wanting in the inteftine.

The common earth-worm has only a long canal, divided
by numerous tranfveife fepta, which are even ftrcngthened
by membranes attaching them to the exterior covering of
the body. Some dilatations in front may reprefent a kind
of ftomach.

The canal of the nereis is equally fimple, ftraight, and
conftriftcd at intervals : nothing more can be obierved in
the amphitrite, terebella:, and ferpulx. The tail which

terminates the body of the genus amphitrite, contains the
reftum. Cuvier has, however, obferved in one fpecies of
amphitrite, which lives commonly on the oyfters, a very
thick and hard globular gizzard.

In the lumbricus, thalaflema, and echinus, the canal is
five or fix times longer than the body, of equal diameter
throughout, with thin and corrugated fides. The pofterior
part IS filled with excrement, moulded into fmall ftiort
cylinders.

Among the inteftinal worms, the afcaris has a very fimple
canal with thin fides, of nearly uniform diameter, and
fcarcely longer than the body.

Alimentary Canal and Sac of Zoophytes. — In this clafs we
meet with alimentary canals pofiefiing both mouth and anus,
and others like a fimple fac, more or lefs complicated. The
firft arc even fupported by a true mefentery, which is not
found in infefts, mollufca, or worms. Such a ftrufture is
feen in the echinus and holotliuria.

The canal of the holothuria tubulofa is four times the
length of the body, in which it makes a double convolution,
refembling the figure 8. It commences at the mouth by a
flight contraftion, then retains nearly the fame diameter
throughout. Its parietes are flender ; the anus opens into
the great cloaca fituated at the back of the body, and fepa-
rated from the cavity of the abdomen only by a valve : this
circumftance will be further confidered in fpeaking of the
refpiratory organs. A membranous mefentery attaches this
whole canal to the external coverings of the body. A fimi-
lar arrangement is obferved in the holothuria pentaftes.

The fipunculus has a fmall uniform canal, going firft
ftraight from one extremity of the body to the other ; then
returning in a fpiral manner round this ftraight part, to ter-
minate at a lateral anus very near the mouth. It is fix or
eight times as long as the body.

An alimentary cavity, conftituting a complicated bag, is
obferved in the afterias. It is a membranous fac, much
folded when empty, placed in the common centre of the
rays, and having no other opening but the mouth, lo
that the excrement is rejefted by the paftage which admits
the food. This bag has ten blind appendices or inteftincs,
minutely fubdivided into branches and ramifications, which
form a very beautiful objeft. Thefe are lodged in the rays
or branches of the body, two in each : when there are more
than five branches, there are alio more than ten of the rami-
fied c<Eca. Theie trees, or kind of bunches of grapes, are
fixed rays in their place by membranous mefenteries.

The ailerix, whofe rays have no feet, but refemble
the tails of ferpents f ophiuri, Lamarck ), have no fuch caeca.
Their ftomach is a fimple bag, occupying merely the central
diflc of the animal : its membrane, however, exhibits in all
parts an infinite number of fmall facculi. Probably the
fame ftrucfure exifts in the kind called caput medufas.

The ahmentary canal of the medufs is as complicated as
that of the afteriae ; but, iiiftead of being fufpended in the
great cavity of the body, it feems to be excavated in its fub-
ftance. The ftomach, which is very large, fills the bafis of
what is called the pedicle or diflc of the animal : tubes
proceed from it in a radiated manner towards the edges of
the luperior broad part of the body, which has the fhape of
a fegment of a fphere. Theie veffels communicate together
by lateral branches, and both furnifh an infinite number of
fmall ramifications, which form a very complicated net-work
over the whole body, conveying the nutritive fluid to all
parts, as blood-veffels do in other animals. This plexus is
particularly difcernible towards the edge of the umbella,
where it refembles a fpecies of lace.

The

VERMES.

The medufie differ moft widely in the manoer by which
tlie aliment enters the ftomach. Some have a fingle mouth,
a large round opening- : others, inilead of a mouth, have
numerous branched tentacula, each perforated by a fmall
oper.ing. Each opening gives origin to a Imall canal,
which joins the neighbouring one, and fo on : in this way
four large trunks are formed, which end in the ftomach, and
convey to it the matters abforbed by the fmall apertures of
the tentacula. The number of the latter fometimes exceeds
eight hundred.

It is from this ftructure, which is hitherto unique in the
animal kingdom, that Cuvier has ellablilhed the genus
rhizoftoma, from two Greek words ( ,1^2 and ^o/j.x) fignifving
root and mouth. The rhizoftoma, in faft,may be faid to derive
itsnourifhment from a kind of roots ; and in it, as well as in
all the medufas, the ftomach fupplies the place of a heart.

The alimentary apparatus of the aftiniae confifts of a
fimple bag, with a circular opening, ferving both for mouth
and anus. The aperture is placed in the centre of the fu-
perior furface of the animal, and is furrounded by the ten-
tacula, which can feize the prey, and convey it immediately
to the mouth. The animal has the power of contrafting or
dilating this orifice. The alimentary fac is fufpended in the
general cavity of the animal by a kind of membranous at-
tachment. No inteftine nor any veflel is known to proceed
from this ftomach. See Memoire pour fervir a I'Hift. de
I'Afterie rouge, &c. pur Dr. Spix, Annales du Mufeum,
torn. xiii. pi. 33.

" It is furprifing (fays Reaumur), that a foft animal like
this, not provided with claws, or any thing equivalent, (hould
be able to devour others apparently well defended by their
(hells, fuch as mufcles and other bivalves, and various fpecies
of univalves. It is however certain, that the aftinias live on
the flefh of ihefe animals, though, as they fwallow them
whole, and then contradt the entrance of the ftomach over
them, it is not eafy to find out how they extraft the animal
from its ftielly coverings. We can only fee that after a cer-
tain time they expel the empty ftiells by the fame orifice
through which they had fwallowed the wliole animal. I have
feen in this way the largeft mufcle-ftiells thrown out empty by
moderate-fized aftiniae : while in fomc cafes they are re-
jefted without the animal having been extrailed. In the
fame way I have feen them throw up entire buccina. I once
faw a large mufcle expelled entire through the bafis of the
aftinia, where there is no natural opening. In getting rid
of the fhelk, particularly when they are large, the animal
not only dilates its mouth to the greateft extent, but abfo-
lutely inverts the whole cavity, as you would a ftocking."
See fig. 25. Reaumur, Acad, des Sciences, 1 7 10. p. 475.

In the common polypes (hydra), the whole body appears
to be a ftomach ; and the nutritive matter is imbibed appa-
rently direftly from the fm-face of the cavity into the fub-
ftancc of the animal. The moft curious fatt in relation to
this ftomach is, that if the animal be inverted, the external
furface performs the office of ftomach juft as well as the ori-
ginal ftomach did.

The pyrofoma, a large fpecies ot marine polypus, without
arms, brought to France by Pcron, feems, like our frefli-
water polypes, to be a mere ftomach.

The polypes, which form by their aggregation compound
animals, fuch as tliofe which produce the various lithophytes,
have a ruitritivc fyftem nearly related to tliofe of the common
polype and medufa. Cuvier has examined this in the vere-
tillx (pennatula cynomorium), whofe large and foft body,
and tranfparent polypes, arc more favourable to fuch re-
fearches than moft other animals of this clafs. In the body
of each polype, a fmall ftomach with brownifti parictes is

obferved, from which proceed hve lubes funilar to thoit of
the medufie, that is, executing the funftions both of in-
teftines and veffels. Thefe inteftines are at firft yellowifti
and undulated ; having traverfed two-thirds of the lenrth
of the polype, they become ftraight and fmaller, and thus
penetrate the general body or ftem which fupporls all the
polypes. They then feparate to join correfponding veffels
from the neighbouring polypi, and form with them a net-
work occupying the whole mafs of the ftem. By means of
this communication, the food taken by one polype is en-
joyed by the whole animal, which may be confidered as a
fingle one with feveral mouths and ftomachs.

The alcyonium exos exhibits an analogous ftrufkure. See
Dr. Spix, in the Annales du Mufeum, torn. xiii. p. 451, et
feq. pi. 33 ; and it is probable that a fimilar organization
prevails through the whole clafs.

Appendages io the AHmerUary Canal.

Liver. — All the moUufca have a liver, which is generally
very large, but never poflefTes a gall-bladder. It does not
receive, as in the vertebral animals, the blood which has cir-
culated through the inteftines, and tlius acquired a venous
nature ; but it derives from the aorta the neceffary fupply for
its own nutrition, and the fecretion of its peculiar liquor; and
it returns tiiis blood to the vena cava, which is the fame with
the pulmonary artery in thefe animals. In this arrangement
we may perhaps find a reafon for their having no fpleen.

The liver of th^ cephalopoda is a large oval mafs of a
yellowifh-brown, fituated towards the back near the head,
partly filling the interval behind the funnel, and partly
defcending into the abdomen. It may be divided into two
lobes, between whicli the trunk of the aorta pafTes, giving
to each a confiderable branch. The bag, wiiich produces
the inky fluid peculiar to thefe animals, is inclofed between
thefe two lobes ; and in the calmar (fepia loligo), it is at-
tached in front of them. Monro confidered it to be a gall-
bladder ; he thought the ink was merely bile, confequently
that that fluid was excrementitious in thefe animals. This
is a grofs error. In the common cuttle-fifti the ink-bag is
found in the bottom of the abdomen, far from the liver ;
and in thofe fpecies, where the two organs are neareft to-
gether, they are not organically united. The bag contains
its fecrcting apparatus in its own cavity, and the liver
pours the bile into the alimentary canal. There arc two
excretory tubes, one for each lobe, penetrating together the
third ftomach, near its middle. Air impelled into the hepatic
vein pafTes eafily into thefe two canals ; and they fpeedity
inflate the third ftomach. The bile whicli they pour out
is of an orange-yellow : it remains for a confiderable time
mixed with the chyme, in the lateral and tortuous refervoir
of t!ic third ftomach, where it can flowly exert its aftion.

All the gafteropoda have a large liver, divided into nu-
merous lobes and lobules, and lomctimes into feveral maffes,
each of which has a particular excretory canal. Thefe
iobes are interwoven with the inteftinal convolutions, en-
veloping them, or being enveloped by them, and united by
a cellular texture. The diftribution of the artery and vein
IS eafily feen, and even that of the proper vellels, which are
diUnbuted into the fmalleft lobules, the liver relembling a
bunch of grapes more than a homogeiieou!> parenchymatous
mals, and extending ufually through nearly the whole
length of the body. In the aplyfia, it pours out its fecre-
tion by feveral openings near the orifice of the cicum, cr
fourth ftomach ; that is, nearly as in the cephalopoda. In
the pleurobranchus and onchidiuni, which have fcvcr.il fto-
m.ichs, there are difterences. The bile is poured into llie
firft ftomach of the pleurobranchus. The onchidium has

its

VERMES.

its liver divided into three diftin£l mafTee, of which the ex-
cretory dutts are not even united. The two firll terminate
in the firll ftomach by diftinft orifices ; the third opens into
the bottom of the gizzard or fecond ftomach.

In the teftacella the liver is divided into two independent
maffes : their dudls are inferted oppofite each other, in the
beginning of the inteftine, not in the ilomach.

The doris and phyllidia, which have a fimple membranous
ftomach, receive the bile in it by feveral openings. The
liver of the former is remarkable, inafmuch as it gives rife
to a fecond excretory vefTel, terminating on the outfide of
the body, near the anus. The objeil of this llructure is
not known. '

The fnail and iiug have enormous livers, divided into
many lobes and lobules, all which pour their liquor by a
common caaal into the bottom of the cul-de-fac formed by
the Ilomach behind the pylorus. The appearance of the
liver is remarkable, particularly in the (lug, from the con-
trail of its black furface with the fine opaque white of the
blood-veflels. The teftaceous gafteropoda have an equally
voluminous liver, filling, together with the generative or-
gans, the greateft part of the convolutions of the (hell.

The liver of the acephala generally envelopes the ftomach,
like an incruftation on its furface : it pours the bile into
that cavity by numerous orifices. The patella among the
gafteropoda, and the clio and pneumodermon among the
pteropoda, have the fame ftrufture ; but the hyala, which
belongs alfo to the latter order, has its liver placed as in the
common gafteropoda, t,hat is, interwoven with the inteftine.

Even in the acephala, the inteftine, after leaving the
ftomach, often returns to penetrate again the fubftance of
the liver.

This form and difpofition of the liver are fotmd in the
naked acephala (afcidije and biphori;, as well as in the
others. In the brachiopoda (lingulas and terebratulx), the
hver is diftindl, connefted with the convolutions of the in-
teftine, and even with the mufcles.

In all the moUufca, as in the red-blooded animals, the
bile is of a greeni(h-yellow, more or lefs ftrongly marked.

Nothing analogous to a liver is found in the worms, unlefs
we confider the yellow fubftance in the parietcs of the
ilomach of the arenicola as fuch. The echino-dermata and
zoophytes have nothing which can be compared to this
gland. The liver then (cems to end with the moUufca, and
iome cruftacea : infects have a knid of fubllilute for it, and
zoophytes have nothing like it. In proportion as the
fundlion of refpiration is lefs confined, and extends to more
parts in the body, the liver ceafes more completely.

Coverings and Supports of the intejlinal Canal.

In the MoUufca. — We may aftert in general, that the
alimentary canal of the mollufca is not enveloped nor fup-
ported by a mefentery. The different convolutions are joined
together, and to the lobes of the liver, by cellular tiffue, blood-
veffels, and nerves, but not fixed to a membrane. Yet all the
vifcera are contained in a true peritoneum, which even forms
a diilinCl cavity for the heart, and alfo envelopes the lung,
when the latter is not entirely exterior ; but this peritoneum
is not folded inwards to cover the inteftine.

The peritoneum of the gafteropoda nearly lines the whole
external ijit'^gument of the body : the latter is thick and
mufcular, and, tlierefore, protefls it elfeclually. In thofe
which have a (hell, the part of the body conilantly covered
by it is not furrounded by mufcles ; it is covered only by
peritoneum and a thin layer of flcin, and might almoil be
regarded as a natural hernia, formed by parts wliich have
protruded from the mufcular portion of the aniioal.

In the cephalopoda the peritoneum is a bag contained in
another bag, namely, that which properly conftitutes the
body. But the latter does not entirely inclofe the former ;
its opening leaves the peritoneum uncovered in front, where
it is protected only by a thin continuation ol the (l<in. The
peritoneum of the cephalopoda is further remarkable from
the circumftance of its being perforated by two openings,
which communicate externally. There is no other example
of fuch a ftrudilure, except in the rays. As the cephalo-
poda have a head, feparated from the body by a neck, and
a true cartilaginous cranium, their peritoneum, \vhich docs
not reach beyond the neck, does not cover the brain, nor
the mafs of the mouth, as in the other mollufca.

In confequence of the form of the body, the peritoneum
of the acephala occupies a fmaller fpace than that of the
other mollufca. It is furrounded by the mufcles, which rriy
to the foot ; and when there is no foot, it is fimply covered
by the (liin. Nothing like an omentum has been feen in any
animal of this clafs.

Some worms, as the arenicola, have their alimentary
canal fupported merely by blood-veffels ; others, as the
earth-worm, have fmall tranfverie membranes connecting
the canal to the exterior covering of the body ; but a me-
fentery, properly fo called, exifts in none. A thin mem-
brane, forming an internal hning to the exterior integuments,
may be regai-ded as a peritoneum.

In the echino-dermata we again meet with a perfeft me-
fentery, and even fometimes with a kind of omentum. The
mefentery of the echini is fixed to the (liell, and makes turns
exadllycorref ponding to thole of the inteftine, which it covers.
In the ftar-fi(h there are as many mefenteries as ramified
creca in the branches of the body. They adhere alfo to the
internal furface of the general covering, parallel to the axis
of the branch. In the holothuria tremula, the mefentery it
attached to the inteftine from the mouth ; it accompanies
the tube to the other extremity of the body, following one
of the longitudinal mufcles ; it then croffes, and returns to
the mouth, following a fecond ; croffes again, and re-
defcends to the anus along a third. Let it, liowever, be
remarked, that the numerous veffels of this animal are not
found in the mefentery, but on the oppofite furface of the
canal. The interweaving of thefe veffels with each other,
and with the refpiratory organs, forms a fingular fpecies of
omentum, concerned in the bufinefs of refpiration.

The alimentary fac of the aftinis is fupported by feveral
vertical membranes, which furround it like radii, and are
fixed on the oppofite fide to the covering of the body.

The medufx have no occafion for mefentery, tiieir ali-
mentary cavity being merely excavated in the gelatinous
mafs of their body : the frelh-water and other polypes ilill
lefs fo, inafmuch as their inteftine and body are one and the
fame thing, that is, fimply a bag formed of a gelatinous
membrane.

Organs of Abforpt'wn. — No abforbing veffels can be dif-
covered in the lower claffes of animals now under our con-
fideration. Cuvier thinks that the yeins abforb in them ;
and he fupports his fentiments by the following ftate-
ment.

We are firft, fays he, led to this notion by obferving
that the blood of thefe animals does not differ from wliat is
called lymph in the red-blooded claffes : and alfo by the
faft, that no anatomical method has hitherto enabled us to
demonftrate the exiftence in thefe animals of any but blood-
veffels. We have already obfervcd that the parts, called by
Poh lymphatic veffels, belong to the nervous • fyftem.
There are, befides, fome pofitive reafons ; of which the-
principal is the natural communications of the great cavities

of

VERMES.

of the body, in wliich there is always much fluid to be ab«
forbed, with the trunks of the great veins.

Thefe communications are particularly obvious in the
cephalopoda, where the principal branches of the vena cava
are furniihed with a multitude of bodies refembling ramified
glands, and floating loofely in the abdomen. They have
tubes manifeftly ending in the trunk of the vein. Fluids in-
jeded into the vein penetrate like a dew the extremities o#"
thefe ramifications, and pafs into the abdominal cavity.
Sometimes air will pafs in the fame way. There mult
equally be a paifage in the oppofite direftion.

Among the gafteropoda, the aplyfia exhibits a communi-
cation no lefs free between its veins and the great cavities of
the body. If we impel air from the lung into the vense
cavx, which are continuous in thefe animals with the pul-
monary artery, the abdomen will be diftended. The ori-
fices, through which the air efcapes, are vifible to the naked
eye : they mull admit liquids from the abdomen, as they
allow air to pafs from the veflels into that cavity.

The paffage of the reftum through the heart in the ace-
phala is another point deferving attention. We cannot fee
what end this arrangement can ferve, if the nutritive fluid
does not find its way through the inteftine into the heart,
where it will be mingled with the blood, and fet in motion.

This manner of viewing the fubjeft coincides extremiely
well with the gradation of the organic fyftem3,tin the dif-
ferent clafles of animals. Infefts mod probably have no
velfel at all (fee In.sects, in Anatomy): it is, therefore,
natural to find before them, in the fcale, animals which
have veflels of one kind only, and which, therefore, may be
arranged between the vertebral divifion poflefllng the two
kinds, "u/z. lymphatic and fanguineous, and the infeAs
which have none ; unlefs at leall we regard the fecretory
tubes as a third order, the mod eflential, becaufe common
to all. The moUufca, vermes, and crullacea, feem deftined
to hold this intermediate rank. The echino-dermata, and
particularly the holothuriae, are of a doubtful kind : their
place cannot be yet affigned.

In the zoophytes, properly fo called, the fubftance of
their body forming the fides of the alimentary cavity is im-
mediately impregnated with the nutritive fluid. The medufre
do not differ in this refpeft from the fimplefl polypes, except
that their cavity has numerous tubular prolongations. If
thefe inteftinal tubes are to be confidered as veflels, the
fl.omach will perform, with refpeft to them, the funftions
of a heart.

Organs of Circulation and Refpiration. — As both thefe kinds
of organs exift together in all the vertebral clafles, there can
be no variety in their combinations ; but one or the other may
be wanting in invertebral animals, fo that we may ellabhfli
between them in this refpeft relations, which are very con-
ftant in the claflfes, in which thefe organs are perfeftly un-
dcrftood. Thus, in the moUufca, the worms with red
blood, and the cruftacea, which have a complete circulation,
we find circumfcribed branchiae. Infefts have the body
nouriflicd by a fluid, which ftagnates inilead of circulating ;
and in them refpiration is eff'efted by means of tracheae,
which are diftributcd over the whole body. True zoo-
phytes, medufse, and polypes, in which the body itfelf
forms the fides of the intellmal canal, and direftly abforbs
its nourifliment, have no particular organ for refpir.ition.
Probably the whole body refpires.

The moUufca have a double circulation ; that is, all their
blood, after circulating through the body, partes through
the lungs before it is fit to be circulated again.

The cephalopoda Iiavc three hearts, two compofcd of a
ventricle and an auricle, and one of a ventricle only : the
Vol. XXXVII.

gafteropoda have one, confifting of a ventricle and an au-
ricle ; the acephala one, of a ventricle with two auricles ; and
the brachiopoda two, of a ventricle without an auricle.
This clafs alone, in faft, exhibits nearly as many modifica-
tions of the circulating organs, as all the four clafles of ver-
tebral animals : thefe modifications, however, have reference
to the number and pofition of the auricles and ventricles,
not to the courfe of the circulation, which is always double.
The cephalopodous mollufca have the moit complicated
fyftem of circulating organs of all animals, poffeffing three
diftinft hearts, two pulmonary and one aortic.

The defcending vena cava, formed by the union of branches
which return the blood from the head and arms, pafles from
the neck, along the front of the liver, tovvards the bottom
of the abdominal fac : it receives the hepatic vein in its
courfe, and immediately afterwards, that is about the middle
of the abdomen, it is bifurcated, each branch going tranf-
verfely to one of the lateral hearts ; but before they arrive,
they receive various branches from other parts. Thus, di-
reftly after their origin from the common trunk, each re-
ceives a vein from the inteftines and back of the body ; and
at the very point of entering the hearts, each receives another
from the lower parts. All thefe veins are extremely thin
and tranfparent : tliey are much more capacious and exten-
file than the arteries ; no valve can be feen in them, except
at the entrance of the hepatic vein.

The two great tranfverfe branches, which end in tlie late-
ral hearts, and all the veins immediately fending in them, are
perforated by openings leading into very Angular appendices
of a ramified or glandular appearance, fuch as are found in
the nervous fyftem of no other animal.

They are numerous, large, and of an opaque yellowifli-
white : only two offices can be afcribed to them ; either that
of fecreting fome fluid from the arterial blood, or of ab-
forbing the Hquids of the abdomen and conveying them into
the veins. The fmall number of their arterial ramifications
favours the latter idea : it is fufficient for their nutrition,
but not for a fecretion proportioned to their volume.

The two lateral hearts are placed at the root of the
branchia; ; they are more or lefs rounded, with thick, muf-
cular, though rather foft parietes, and large flefliy columns,
mtercepting numerous fpaces of diff^erent fize. In the icpia
oftopus they are of a very deep brown red, as in a red-
blooded animal, while all tlie other vifcera, the mufcles, and
the aortic heart, are whitilh.

The entrance of the vein into each lateral heart is fur-
niflied with two membranous reftangular valves, fixed at
their bales and extremities, and loofe only at the inner edge ;
they allow the blood to pafs in, but prevent its return. The
pulmonary artery goes out at the extremity of the heart op-
pofite to the entrance of the vein. There is no valve at its
origin in the oftopus, but in the cuttle -fifli and calmar
there are four, fliaped like fmall flefliy tubercles, furround-
ing the orifice of the artery, and preventing the return of the
blood. They are a little beyond the origin, and in the very
trunk of the artery. Tlie latter runs along the external and
pofterioredge of the gill, producing as many lateral branches,
perpendicular to its trunk, as there are plates of llie gill.
Their ramifications and dillribution will be dcfcribed in the
article on refpiration. A branchial vein is found on the
oppofite or internal and anterior edge of the gill, from which
it coUcfts the blood, lleacliiug the lower end of the gill,
the vein quits it, and runs tranfverfcly towards tht; middle
of the body, a little below and behind the part where the
vena cava bifurcates. Here it ends in the third, aortic, or
intermediate heart. This heart receives then two pulmo-
nary veins, one from each gill, which end each on its own
F fide,

VERMES.

Me, reaching the heart direftly, and without any previous
diviiion. Their cardiac orifices are furnifhed with two
membranous reftangular valves, analogous to thofe of the
venae cavi in the pulmonary hearts.

The aortic heart is white, and of a firmer tifTue than the
two pulmonary hearts. Its form is oval in the longitudinal
direftion in the calmar ; tranfverfely in the oftopus ; and
like the trefoil leaf in the officinalis. Its internal parietes
exhibit numerous mufcnlar columns, decufiating in all direc-
tions. In the oftopiis it produces two principal arteries
and fome fmaller ones, aU arifing immediately from the
cavity, and not from a common trunk. The fuperior
afccnds nearly parallel to tlic vena cava, giving branches to
it, as well as to the furrounding parts. The inferior is the
largeft artery, and indeed analogous to the aorta : having
given branches to the lower part of the fac, it turns up-
wards behind the vifcera to the head, and fends ramifications
to the inteftines, liver, oefophagus, then terminates, near the
fleftiy mafs of the mouth", by a circle which furrounds the
oefophagus, and fnpphes the crop, the fallvary glands, the
mouth and feet.

Gajleropodous Mollufca. r-ln aU thefe, without exception,
the pulmonary fyllem is exaftly inverfe of that of filhes :
that is, the heart is compofed of an auricle and a ventricle,
and it receives the blood from the lung to diftribute it over
the body ; while the heart of fifhes fends the blood from the
body to the lung. In other words, the gafteropoda poflefs
always a fimple aortic heart. All the veins of the body end
in one or two vena cav:e, which, as foon as they reach the
refpiratory organ, are changed into pulmonary arteries, with-
out this change being marked by a ventricle, nor even by
valves. ' It is exadtly the fame as the change of the trunk
of the inteftinal veins into that of the vena portanim. The
pofition and direftion of thefe veins are determined by that
of the pulmonary organ, which latter is ufually found in the
neighbourhood of the reftum, that they may receive more
readily the veins of the inteftines, which probably bring
the chyle with them. Large trunks alfo come from the
liver.

Thus, in the doris, where the branchia; form a circle
rotind the anus, the vena cava having collefted the blood
from the whole body, and traverfed the liver, arrives above
the reiElum, and divides into brandies, which feparate like
radii to enter the bafes of the branchial tufts. Thefe
branchicE return the blood, which has undergone their ac-
tion, by velTels correfponding to thofe which brought it.
The auricle, which is fliaped like a pyramid with a very
broad bafis, has this bafis difpofed in a circular manner, and
receives the blood from the pulmonary veins. It conveys
this blood immediately into the heart, which is round, flat,
and placed on the back of the liver. The heart has valves
at its entrance and exit : the latter is the origin of a large
artery divided immediately into four branches. One is
turned back, and foon loll in the liver ; two others alfo enter
this gland ; the fourth, which is the continuation of the
trunk, goes direftly forwards, giving branches to the intef-
tine, ftomach, fahvary glands, organs of generation and
mouth, and is loft ultimately in the flefhy mafs of the foot.
The tritoniae and phyUidia have the lungs at the two
fides of the body, and the heart confequently in the middle,
towards the back. The auricle, placed at the back of the
heart, extends tranfverfely from one lide to the other. It
receives the blood from two or rather four pulmonary veins,
which extend on the two fides of the body, from one end
to the other, in the fubftance of the flefhy covering, and
receive the blood from all the branchial tufts. The latter
had received it from two arteries reaching in the fame way

along the fide of the body, and placed parallel to the vein?>
Thefe pulmonary arteries coUeft the blood from the body
by fix large veins, three on each fide, coming principally
from the liver and inteftines. The veins of the mufcular
covering end in thefe trunks without quitting its fubilance.
Having thus received from the lung the blood, which has
circulated through that organ, the heart diftributes it over
the body bv three large arteries, one of which goes back-
wards into the ovary, another downwards to the liver and
inteftines, and the third forwards to the male organs of gene-
ration, the mouth, and the flefliy mafs of the foot.

The onchidium has fome refemblance to the tritonia.
Two veftels are formed in the fame manner in the flefhy co-
vering oil the two fides, and they convey the blood of the
body into the lung ; but by their extremity only, fince the
lung itfelf is excavated in the back of the body. Thefe
velTels receive the blood from the vifcera by many fmall
veins entering feparately, and that of the flefhy covering by
others excavated in its thickncfs. The heart is near the
lung behind on the right fide. Its auricle is very large, and
furniftied with flefhy columns. The heart produces one
great trunk, which firft gives a branch to the liver and
vifcera, then a long retrograde one to the reftum and organs
of generation, which are fituated behind and on the right.
It afterwards pafTes in the collar of the cefophagus, and
gives two large branches to the general covering. The
right fends an artery to the fahvary gland of its fide ; the
left does the fame, and moreover one to the male organ of
generation : the trunk is then loft in the mafs of the mouth.

The aplvfia poflefTes one of the moft curious circulating
fyftems. There is excavated on each fide, in the flefhy
covering, a large vefTel furrounded by mufcular bands de-
cufTating in every direftion : thefe veftels receive the blood
by ordinary veins from certain parts. Two come from the
gland which furrounds the fhell, and produces the purple
liquor : but it is very clear that they communicate imme-
diately with the abdominal cavity by feveral large holes.
Are the latter fhut during life by mufcular contraAion,
or by any fine membrane ? We do not hitherto know.
However this may be, the two large veifels unite behind,
and thus produce a third, which is the pulmonary artery.
This is alfo very large, and runs forwards along one fide of
the membranous triang^le which fupports the branchiae on its
two furfaces. It diftributes the blood to all the branchial
plates by a correfponding number of branches : this blood
returns by correfponding vefTels into the pulmonary vein,
fituated alfo in the branchial triangle, and terminating in
the auricle. The heart is fituated croffwife, along the
middle of the body, a little towards the left, inclofed in a
pericardium. The auricle is large, thin, tranfparent, and
ilrengthened by mufcular fafciculi, which intercept lozenge-
fhaped fpaces. The ventricle is oval and thick, and has
ftrong mufcular columns : it has valves only at its entrance,
they are reftangular. The artery is divided at its exit into
three principal trunks. The firft goes to the left, for the
liver and inteftines ; the fecond forwards to the ftomach ;
the third and longeft remains longer in the pericardium, in-
chning towards the right. It pofTefTes in this fituation a
very extraordinary apparatus of unknown ufe ; namely,- a
double crifta filled internally with ramifications, arifing from
the artery itfelf, and filled by injefting the artery. They
appear to have blind terminations ; and the liquid they con-
tain appears to pafs back fimply into the vefTel, vv'ithout
entering any veins. After quitting the pericardium, this
artery gives a branch for the correfponding part of the muf-
cular covering, then goes direftly forwards under the oefo-
phagus. Arriving at the crop, it fends a retrograde branch

to

VERMES.

to the general covering ; under the nervous collar of the
cefophagus it produces a fecond, which goes backwards to
the left in this covering ; then immediately afterwards a
third, whicli goes to the right for the penis. The trunk is
then bifurcated, and loll in and about the mcuth.

The lung lies on the front of the body in the Aug, and
the heart is placed immediately under it. The innumerable
ramifications fpread over the internal furface of the lung all
end in the auricle, and the latter in the ventricle placed
under it, and producing behind two large arteries. One
fuddenly turns forwards to the mouth, the generative organs
and the general covering ; the other goes direttly back-
wards, and is dillributed to all the vifcera.

The circulation of the pleurobranchus much refcmbles
that of the aplyfia. But, as the heart is placed more for-
wards, the pollerior artery is the largell of the three, fince
it has more parts to nourilh.

In the teilaceous galleropoda, the heart and its auricle
are fituated in the bottom of the great pulmonary cavity,
which occupies the upper part of the front of the body, to-
wards the edge of the fhell. The lung, whatever may be
its form, receives the blood of the body, and a particularly
large portion from the laft part of the inteftine, which runs
clofe on the furface of the pulmonary cavity, opening fome-
times within it, fometimes at its edge. Having pafled
through the lung, the blood enters the auricle, goes thence
into the ventricle, from which it is fent over the whole body
by arteries, which vary according to the general form of the
animal.

The branchia; form a feries all round the body, under the
cloak, in the patella. The pulmonary vein is alfo difpofed
in a circular manner, coUetls the blood from all the branchial
plates by many fmall veins, and carries it to the heart,
which is fituated above the head, and diftributcs it over the
whole body.

Acephahui MoUuJca. — In fuch of thefe as liave the heart
in the back, and traverfed by the reclum, it is perfedly
fymmetrical, oval, broader behind, and accompanied by an
auricle on each fide. Their branchia- form tour parallel
plates : each auricle receives the blood from tlie two
branchia of its own fide, and tranfmits it to the heart.
Thefe auricles are triangular, broad towards the branclii<e,
and pointed towards tlie heart : fometimes they liave a kind
«f criliac, fufceptible of dilatation. Their fides are tranf-
parent, and poffels few projetting threads. Their openings
into the ventricle are furnifiied with valves, which allow the
blood to pafs only from the auricle to the ventricle. The
latter is much flrongcr than tlie auricle : its fides arc opaque,
and furniflied with numerous flefhy columns. The blood
goes from it by two arteries fituated at its two extremities ;
thefe follow the reftum, one afcending towards the head,
the other defcending to the anus. Such is the heart of the
anodontites, or frefh-water mufclc, of the venus, maftra, car-
dium, folen, pholas, mya, and apparently of all the equivalve
bivalves.

But the bivalves with unequal (hells, at lead the oyftcrs
and the peftens, have the heart differently placed : it occu-
pies a cavity between the niafs of the liver and the mufcle
that clofes the fliell ; and is directed from behind forwards,
or from the back to the branchix, and not, as in other bi-
valves, from above downwards, or from the anus to the liead.
In this cafe the auricles, or rather the fiugle bilobed auricle
is fituated before the heart, and not at the fide. This is
jremarkable hi the oyfter on account of its thicknefs, and
deep red colour. It receives the blood from the branchiiv,
and the heart dillribulcs it to the body by two vcfTels which
pafs out at the cstremity cppofilc to the auricle, and go,

one upwards to the liver, the other downwards to the
mufcle.

Each branchia has an infinite number of fmall, llrajglit,
parallel vefTels, terminating perpendicularly in a larger one
at the back of the branchia : thefe dorfal trunks convey the
blood to the auricle. But each branchia has at tiie fame
time another feries of fmall vcffels, fimilar and parallel to the
firfl, and pouring the venous blood into their extremities.
Tills blood is brought by another veflel at the back-of each
branchia, which velFel receives the veins of the body.

The circulation is carried on in the pteropnda, as in the
gafteropoda, by a fimple heart, with one auricle, which re-
ceives the blood from the lung, and tranfmits it to the body.
Thefe things may be feen in the hyalasa and piicumodermon.

Cuvier Rates, that he has diffefled only one genus of
bracliiopoda, and found two diitinft hearts, both aortic,
that IS to fay, receiving blood from the lung, and fending it
to the body.

Tlius we find that the whole clafs of moUufca pofleffes a
circulation as complete as any vertebral animal ; and that
this circulation is double. When there is only one ventricle,
it is aortic, and not pulmonary ; when more than one, they
are feparate, and form fo many diftinft hearts. The pafiage
from tlie arteries to the veins, in the Lttle as well as in the
great circulation, is as evident as in animals of the higher
clafies.

Blood and Circulation of Worms. — The blood is tranfpa-
rent, or at molt a little blueifii, in moUufca and cruilacea.
The fuppofed red blood of fomc of the firll claf^s is merely
a fecretion. But the entire clafs of articulated worms, both
marine and terrefl:rial, has the blood more or lefs red, and
often of as deep a tint as in any vertebral animal. It may
be feen in the genera lumbricus, hirudo, naias, nereis, aphro-
dite, amphinomia, amphitrite, terebella, and ferpulu. But
the lumbricus marinus (arenicola) exhibits moll plainly, not
merely the colour of the nutritive fluid, but alfo its courfe
and dircftion : the yellow colour of the inteftine and the grey
colour of the parietes of the body allowing all the veffiTs to
be perfedlly diftinguiftied.

A large velTel, diminifhing in fize at the two ends, lies
along the back, between the branchix. It fends forward
the blood by its anterior origin, and receives fifteen lateral
veflels on each fide, one from each branchia. They bring
the blood from thofe organs, and are to be regarded as pul-
monary veins : when the branchiae contradl, the large veflel
is diftended. The blood is carried back to the branchiae
by vefl^els fimilar in number to the preceding, but not all
arifing from a fingle trunk. The nine firll proceed from a
large veflel fituated upon the inteflinal canal immediately
under tlie one firR defcribed. The others come from the
back part of a vcflll parallel to tlie two firft, but fituated
under the inteltinal canal. Thefe two great longitudinal
trunks fend all their blood to the branchis ; they reprefent
both venK cavx and pulmonary arteries ; for thofe branches
which do not go to the lungs are veins returning the blood
from the various organs. Thefe branches of the vena cava
in the lumbricus marinus are fpread over the yellow furface
of the inteftinal canal with an admirable regularity ; and
the beauty of the arrangement is heightened by the Iplen-
dour of their purple colour.

All thefe branches arife, in the firft inftance, from two
veflels, which proceed along the fides of the inteftinal canal,
and perform the office of an aorta. They afcend as far as
the lower part of the cefophagus, and then arc bent to
communicate with the great pulmonary vein, with which the
defcription began. At this communication there in a fwell-
ing, which cshibils to the naked eye more marked conlrac-
F 2 tions

VERMES.

tions and dilatations than any other part of the fyftem :
although their parietes are no thicker than thofe of the other
veflels, their enlargements may be called hearts ; but as they
are not found in all worms, it would be more exaft to fay
that the circulation is carried on in thefe animals by the
veflels only, without a heart. If, however, the exiftence of
a heart be admitted, at leaft in the lumbricus maiinus, it muft
be'confidered as double, and, like that of the two preceding
claffes, aortic.

The aphrodite, amphinomia:, and nereids, differ from the
lumbricus marinus, only in having a greater number of pul-
monary velfels correfponding to the greater number of
brauchije. But in the fpecies which have their branchiae
on the neck, as the amphitrite, the pulmonary vefTels form
four trunks, two arterial and two venous, coming from the
trunks, which extend the whole length of the body, upon
the inteftine, and fimilar to thofe which have been de-
fcribed in the lumbricus marinus.

The colour of the blood is more difficultly perceived in
the leech, becaufe it is paler and lefs contrafted with the
ground of the body ; yet the veflels may be eafily diftin-
guifhed, and injefted with mercury. There is a large longi-
tudinal veflel on each fide, communicating together, both
towards the belly and back, by tranfverfe branches, the
ramifications of which, dillributed in the Ikin, probably
ferve for refpiration, as no other organ can be found out.
Along the back we obferve a middle and flender veflel, not
fo immediately connefted to the two others, as they are to
each other, and producing branchiae on each fide. This
probably belongs to the arterial, and the two others to the
venous fyfl;em ; but their connexion has not been hitherto
difcovered.

Longitudinal veflels, producing ramifications filled writh a
fine red blood, may be feen in the earth-worm.

Movements of fyfl.ole and diaftole are very manifeft, and
quickly performed in all thefe red-blooded worms.

Echlno-dermata I have not, fays Cuvier, been able hi-
therto to arrive at any clear notions concerning the arrange-
ment of the vafcular fyftem in this order ; but the following
is the refult of my refearches.

The inteftinal canal of the holothuria tubulofa is twice
folded, and confequently forms three portions. The middle
of thefe has a veflel at its fide, diminifliing towards the two
ends. It receives numerous fliort veflels from another tube,
which will be defcribed laft ; and it produces from the oppo-
fite furface others, which are much fubdivided, and whofe
branches are at laft united into an equal number of fmall
veflels to end in a fecond trunk, which will be defcribed.
The net-work produced by this fubdivifion of the branches
of the fiift veflel, before they end in the fecond, is intimately
interwoven with the fmall branches of a hollow ramified
organ ending in the cloaca, and probably concerned in refpir-
ation. This organ can be diftended with water, or emptied
at the will of the animal, and thus probably admits of the
blood being afted on by the air. The firft; veffcl, then,
would be a pulmonary artery, and receive the blood from the
body to tranfmit it to the lung. We have feen the branches,
by which it receives blood from the inteftine ; that of the reft
of the body comes from a veflel, which will be defcribed
third in order, having been brought by veins which are per-
ceived over the whole mefentery.

The fecond great trunk is divided into four great branches,
united by a tranfverfe one : two receive the blood from the
lung, and run parallel to the firft trunk, but at a diftance
fuited to the fubdivifions of branches which go from one to
the otlier. Thefe two branches are a kind of pulmonary
veins : they convey the blood, which has undergone the

aftion of the lung, into the two other branches by the tranf-
verfe canal, and by their extremities ; for there is a vifible
communication between them. Thefe other branches, which
confequently perform the office of aorta, run along the firft^
portion of inteftine, fending blood to it by an infinity of fmall,
but rather long arteries, which feem to terminate imme-
diately in the body of the inteftijie. The fuperior branch,
arriving at a certain height, is bifurcated, and its two rami-
fications are joined fo as to form a circle round the oefopha-
gus, from which five arteries go off to the mafs of the
mouth and the general covering of the body. The blood
returns from this covering by veins, which fill the mefenteries :
but there is alfo a general trunk, which feems to form a kind
of vena cava. It is made up of four principal branches,
united by a tranfverfe one. Two of thefe branches, which
run along the firft portion of inteftine, receive the blood
from it ; and the two others tranfmit it to the pulmonary
veflel by the fmall branches already mentioned at the begin-
ning of the defcription.

According to this reprefentation, the arrangement would
very clofely refemble that of worms.

In the afteria and echini the fame approximation is ob-
ferved between the vafcular and digeftive fyftems. The
principal vein and artery equally run along the inteftinal
canal in the latter ; and they are multiplied in the former to
follow the caeca.

Nothing like blood-veflels can be feen in the medufse.
" The fubftance of thefe zoophytes," fays Peron, " prefents
at firft view the appearance of a kind of jelly, more or lefs
diaphanous, confiftent, and agreeably coloured according to
the fpecies. Excepting the fines, lamellae, and veflels of the
lower furface of the umbella, their fubftance appears homo-
geneous, even when examined with the moil powerful
magnifiers. However it may be torn or cut, the appearance is
the fame, and no trace of internal veflels can be difcovered.
Such indeed are the denfity and homogeneoufnefs of this
matter, that we can hardly conceive it to be penetrated and
nouriflied by veflels." Annales du Mufeum, t. xv. p. 42.

Organs of Refpiration. — Cuvier obferves that thefe exhibit,
in invertebral animals, the fame relations to the organs of
motion, and particularly to the force which animates thofe
organs, as in the vertebral clafles, and thus confirm the
theory which afligns the degree of motive power as a mea-
fure of the quantity of refpiration. Thus, the only clafs in
this divifion of the animal kingdom, in which moft of the
individuals have the power of flying, is that in which re-
fpiration takes place at all points of the body, in which the
tracheae convey air to all parts ; in fhort, infefts. In fome
of thofe which have no wings, and therefore do not fly, the
power of the mufcles is evinced by the rapidity of their
other motions. Let any one obferve the centipede running,
or the flea jumping, and he will acknowledge that they
belong to a clafs poflefling great mufcular power, as he would
judge of the oftrich and caflbwary, although they are birds
without wings.

The mollufca, fuperior to infefts in their circulating
organs, and particularly in the central parts of their nervous
fyftem, have a circumfcribed refpiration ; they breathe only
by the lungs, and no portion of air is admitted into the reft
of the body. It is therefore only neceflary to compare the
flownefs of their motions, with their rapidity in infefts, to
eftimate the effefts of thofe differences in organization.

Invertebral animals poflefs either lungs more or lefs analo-
gous to thofe of reptiles ; branchiae, fometimes fimilar to
thofe of fifties, fometimes to thofe of tadpoles ; or laftly,
tracheae, a kind of organ not known in the vertebral divifion.
The latter is peculiar to infefts j the former to a fmall num.

ber

VERMES.

ber of moUufca ; the fecond is the mod common, and is found
in moil mollufca, in worms, and ciuftacca. The mode of
refpiration is not well known in the echino-dermata, fo that
their organs cannot be claffed with certainty.

The efFedt of refpiration cannot be eilimated by the co-
lour of the blood, except in red-blooded worms, where it
is very obvious : it may be feen without hgature or incifion
in the branohia; of the lumbricus marinus. But the efFeft of
this function on tlie refpired air may be eafily judged : the
refearches of Vauquelin and other naturalifts have (hewn that
invertebral animals confume oxygen like others, and infeft
the refidue with carbonic acid. See Respiration.

Refp'tratory Organs of the Mollufca. — We meet in this clafs
with lungs, with uncovered branchiae, and with branchix
contained in a cavity. In the cephalopoda and acephala
they are always of the latter kind : the gafteropoda have all
three forts. A lung is found in the terreftrial gafteropoda,
and in thofe aquatic kinds which are obhged to come to the
furface of the water in order to take in air. The principal
genera that have it are the f nail (helix), flug(limax), the teila-
cella and parmacella, among the terreftrial ; in the onchidium,
buHmus of pools (helix ftagnalis), and planorbis, among the
aquatic. This lung is a larger or fmaller cavity, commu-
nicating externally by a narrow aperture, which can be
opened or clofed voluntarily, while the cavity, contradling
or dilating at the fame time, expels or admits air. As the
parietes are mufcular, and there is no bony ftrufture, there
is no other mechanifm than mufcul.ir contraftion. The pa-
rietes of the cavity are furniftied with an almoft infinite net-
work of blood-venels, ramified in a rather fpongy fubftance.
The cavity itfelf is placed on the neck, and opens at the
right fide of the cheft, in the fnail, Aug, bulimus, and
planorbis ; on the back, and opens on the right fide of the
body, in the parmacella ; on the back, and opens back-
wards, in the teftacclla ; on the pofterior part of the body,
and opens behind, under the edge of the cloak, in the on-
chidium.

The branchia; projefting externally, fometimes reprefent
tufts or trees, as in the tritonise, where they form a kind of
hedge all round the body, and in the doris, where they have
a circular arrangement round the anus, at the pofterior part
of the back ; fometimes in fmall laminae or fcales, as in the
eolides, where they are difpofed like tiles ,on the back, in
the phyllidiae, the ofcabrio, the patcllx, where they form a
cordon all round the body, under the edge of the cloak.
In the fcyllea they arc pencils of filaments, difperfed over
flefiiy plates, or a kind of wings placed on the back. In
the glaucus they refemble fins, radiated like a fan : in the
pleurobranchus they arc fmall plates, arranged in tranlverfe
rows on the two furfaces of a prominent plate at the right
fide of the body.

Teftaceous gafteropoda have prominent branchiae, but
fituated in a cavity concealed under the edge of the (hell.
The opening is generally very free, and occupies all the
upper part of the animal's neck. Often alfo a part of the
flefhy edge of the cloak is prolonged into a fmall canal,
lodged in a correfponding canal of the (hell, and calculated
toconduA the furrounding element into the branchial ca-
vity, even while the animal is entirely inclofed in its calca-
reous habitation. Thcfe canals are found in all the genera
made out of thofe united together by Linnxus under the
names bucciuum, murcx, and ftrombus. In moll of the
genera the branchix form one or two long ferics of tranfverfe
plates, occupying the whole length of tlie cavity, but a part
only of its breadth, and rcprclenting, fometimes a priim,
fometimes a kind of pen fixed by the whole length of its
item. There is a fingle ferics in the murcx tritonis ; a large

and a fmall one in the buccinum uudatura ; two large ones
in the halyotis.

Some genera however deviate from this general rule : the
patella Hungarica, which fcems fo much like the other pa-
tellx, has its branchix arranged in fmall long plates, placed
within a cavity above the neck, but forming a tranfverfe
feries round the edge of the cavity.

The courfe of the blood, however, is the fame, whatever
form the branchix may pofTefs in the gafteropoda : each di-
vifion and fubdivifion receives a pulmonary arterial branch
from the vena cava, and fends a venous branch into the pul-
monary vein, which terminates in the heart. The pofi-
tion of the branchix regulates that of the heart, as well as
the courfe of the large veffels.

The branchix of the acephala are formed into plates, each
compofed of a double leaf : they iiave a double feries of
velfels, very regularly and clofely arranged, like the .teeth
of a fine comb, the ftrix being at right angles to the length
of the plate. An arter)- and a vein run along the bafis of
the plate. The teftaceous acephala have four of thefe
plates, inclofed between the two lobes of the cloak, and
allowing the foot to pafs between them when there is one.
The internal furface of the four triangular plates furround-
ing the mouth, and occupying the place of lips or tentacula,
is alfo ftriated with veffels fimilar to thofe of the branchix,
and may probably aflift in refpiration.

Poli fpeaks of fmall air-veflels, commencing in the fmall
tentacula, ufually fituated at the pofterior edge of the
cloak, or round the orifice of the branchial tube : he fup-
pofes that they penetrate to a certain refervoir, whence the
air pafles into the interior of the branchix. Cuvier has not
found this ftrufture, and thinks that refpiration is carried
on in the acephala, as in other mollufca and filhes, by the
fimple afflux of water over the external furface of the
branchix.

Some genera bring this water to the branchia: by
fimply opening the (hell and the anterior edges of the
cloak. It is expelled by again ftiutting the ftiell. In
the mufcle, which has the wideft opening of the (hell be-
hind, the water paffes in and out at this part. When the
animal is placed in water, a (light motion of the fluid is per-
ceived in this fituation, produced by the procefs of refpira-
tion. In the genera which have the cloak prolonged be-
hind into one or two tubes, the water enters, and is dif-
charged by the tube fartheft from the back, or by the ana-
logous canal, when there is only one tube : for it is then
divided into two canals. The cardium, venus, maftra,
teUina, &c. &c. have two tubes ; the pholas, folen, teredo,
mya, S:c. have only one. They can partly withdraw the
tubes into the (hell by means of two flat, fan-fhaped, re-
traftor mufcles, attached to the lobes of the cloak : but
they do not extend them fimply by mufcular aftion ; for
they may be feen to increafe in length and breadth both at
the fame time in the pholades.

In the afcidix, which are naked acephala, the branchix
do not form four plates, but a fingle large fac, with an ex-
tremely fine vafcu'.ar net-work. This bag is filled with
water as often as the animal dilates it : the mouth is at its
bottom. In the biphori, or falpx, and the thalia, they
form only a narrow ribbon, obliquely traverfing the interior
of the body : tlie water, in palling through this from before
backwards, neccn"arily goes over this ribbon.

The cephalopoda alfo have their branchix inclofed in a
cavity, that is, in the bag forming their body. They are fe-
parated from the other vifcera by the peritoneum, and their
cavity communicates externally by the funnel under the
neck. The water is admitted and expelled by the dilatation

and

VERMES.

and contraAion of the mufcular parietes of the bag : thus it
is renewed in the braachis. The latter are two large pyra-
mids, placed at the lide of the peritoneum, with their bafe
towards the bottom of the fac, and the apex towards the in-
fundibulum. Each is attached by a membranous ligament
to a mufcular column which adheres to the fac, and fends a
procefs to each of the plates of which the pyramid is com-
pofed- The pulmonary artery, arifing from the lateral
heart of its own fide, afcends along the external edge of the
branchia, giving two aiteries to each plate. The pulmonary
vein, which terminates in the intermediate heart, defcends
along the internal fide of the branchia, receiving two veins
from each plate. The plates themfelves are arranged one
over the other, parallel to the bafis of the pyramid : their
figure is triangular, and the two furfaces exhibit rows of
pencils, filaments, or minute ramifications, which are the
ultimate divifions of the pulmonary veflels. Each branchial
pyramid of the calmar has as many as fixty of thele plates,
while we find only nine in the oftopus ; but in the latter the
rows of filaments are more minutely ramified, and form much
thicker ftrata.

Refpiration mud be effe&ed by the admiffion of water to
the branchia, and by its penetration among all the fine pro-
.cefles of their furfaces ; in the fame way, in fhort, as in
other inftances.

Inftead of branchise, the brachiopoda have a circle of fmall
triangular plates attached to each lobe of the cloak.

Among the pteropoda, the hyalaea has them concealed in
the two folds of the cloak ; they reprefent vafcular ramifi-
cations on the wings of the clio ; and in the pneumodermon
they are fmall plates, forming various hnes on the furface of
the abdomen.

In the Angular animals called anatifje and balani, there
are found, on each fide, at the bafis of the arms or tentacula,
conical plates, equal in number to that of the arms, but
having a contrary direftion, namely, towards the back, and
lying againil the body under the cloak. Their relation to
the vafcular fyftem has n9t yet been determined.

Thus we find, in all the moUufca, as complete an appa-
ratus for refpiration as for circulation. An extraordinary
additional or fecondary office of the branchije is that, which
they perform in fome acephala, of affording a receptacle,
for a certain time, for the ova, and even for the young when
hatched.

Organs of Refpiration in IVorms Leeches and earth-
worms, as well as the thalaffema, have no other apparatus
for breathing but the fkin and its vafcular net-work : but in
other genera there are ridges or tufts, in which the veflels
are ramified. Thofe which fwim freely in the water have
the organs equally arranged on the two fides, along a more
or lefs confiderable portion of the back. Such as five in
tubes have them ufually placed on the head, that they may
be more eafily expofed to the water.

In the aphrodite aculeata they are fmall iiefliy crifts, flightly
refembUng that of the cock, fituated above each of the tu-
bercles, wi'.ich fupport briilles. There ai'e forty pairs.
In the fcaly aphrodite they are fmall bundles of filaments.

In the nereids there are fra,dl flefhy cones, amounting to
two or three on each fide of a ring : the blood-veffels are
ramified in them with wonderful delicacy. Sometimes, in-
flead of thefe fmall cones, there are true filaments grouped
into pencils, of three, or feven, or even in the form of
tufts. Sometimes there are fmall thin plates.

In the terebella flava the branchiae reprofent bipinnated
leaves, and have a beautiful rofe -colour. There are thirty
pairs. In the tetraedra and carunculata there are merely

large fafciculi of fil/ments. Their number in all thefe ge-
nera is the fame as that of the rings of the body.

The arenicola (lumbricus marinus) has only fourteen pairs
occupying the middle of the back, and refembhng fmaU
clofe bufhes, of the fineft carmine when diftended with
blood, and becoming pale agam when empty.

The terebella have branchis in the form of fmall clofe
trees ; there are only three pairs, fituated in the back, near
the head.

In the amphitrite'there are two pairs in the fame fituation,
but (haped like feathers, very thick.

They form, in the ferpulx, at the fides of the mouth,
two beautiful fan-like procefTes, with feathery branches,
having long ftems and fhort barbs, and exhibiting the fineft
colours. The number of feathery procefTes, as well as the
general curvature of the fan, varies according to the
ipecies.

The fabellx (amphitrite ventilabrum, Linn., &c.) have
fan-like branchiae, as well as the ferpulae. Sometimes the
fan has a fpiral turn.

In thefe animals each branchia has a vafcular, arterial and
venous fyftem, as in the higher clafTes. But we come to an
end here of refpiration by expanfion of the vafcular fyftem.

Refpiration of the Echino-dermata. — Monro regarded the
feet, or thofe cyHndrical and extenfile tentacula, by means
of which the echini, afterix, and holothuriae walk, as organs
for abforption of the furrounding fluid, at leaft in the firft
of thefe genera. Cuvier affigns this funftion, in the two
firft named genera, to organs much fmaller and more nume-
rous, which may be feen in a living afterias obferved in
water. Befides the great tentacula of the lower furface,
the whole integument briftles with fmall flefhy tubes, which
are withdrawn into fmall openings as foon as the animal
is taken out of water. They form a beautiful fpeftacle
in the large fpecies, coming out at all points : the very
fpines produce them by fmall apertures along their ftems ;
and while the minute tubes are extended, they refemble fmall
leaves of trees connefted to their branches. There are fpe-
cies in which they form tufts, &c. round thefe fpines. Thofe
tubes which are fituated on the fides of the feet, are gene-
rally longer than the others. It can hardly be doubted,
that they have the office of conveying water into the interior
of the body.

The holothurije, at leaft the tubulofa, have no tubes
projefting externally, but they have an internal organ,
which muft be fubfervient, according to all appearance, to
refpiration. It is one or more membranous and hollow trees,
of which the trunk opens into the fame receptacle (cloaca)
as the anus. It enters the body, dividing and fubdividing,
until it ends at laft in fmall conical produiStions. The
branches fwell at intervals into veficles, which are generally
found more or lefs diftended with water.

The holothuria tubulofa has a fingle trunk, divided from
its origin into two principal branches, of which one pro-
ceeds along the general covering, adhering to it by a kind of
mefentery ; the other runs among the inteftines, interweav-
ing its branches with the veflels already noticed. This con-
neftion is fo intimate, that it cannot be detached without
laceration : probably there is a communication at this point
between the nutritive fluid and the furrounding element.

The holothuria pentaAes has two diftinft trunks, deeply
diWded into large branches ; other fpecies have only one,
which is not divided.

All animals fituated below thefe in the fcale, are deftitute
apparently of refpiratory apparatus.

The genera medufa and rhizoltoma, whofe numerous vef.
fels are expanded in the tliin edge of their difk, may pro-
bably

VERMES.

bably refplre by this part : but the zoophytes, properly fo
called, begiiming willi the armed polypes (hydra;, breathe,
if at all, by their whole furface.

If, as fome have conjeftured, the vibrating organs of the
vorticellx and rotifers are an apparatus for breathing, thefe
animals ought to occupy a higlier rank in the fcale of being
than they do now. Their extreme minutenefs mull oppofe
great obilacles to our acquiring any exaft knowledge about
them.

Phyfwh^y of Refpiratlon. — The changes produced in the
air by the refpiration of the moUufca, &c. have been
already fpoken of in the article Respiration, towards the
end, under the head of Refpiration of Animals. We have
only to notice here the fads that have been afccrtained re-
fpefting their temperature.

" Spallanzani obferves," fays Mr. Ellis, " that when a
fnail or (lug is infulated in a jar of atmofpheric air, a ther-
mometer placed in the jar will continue ftationary ; but
when feveral are confined together, the mercury rifes one-
tenth, one-feventh, and even one-fifth of a degree, and in
oxygen gas, one-third of a degree ; from which he con-
cludes, that fnails and flugs, in decompofing oxygen gas,
give out caloric enough to be fcnfible to the thermome-
ter. (Memoirs on Rt-fpiration, p. 255. 258.) This ex-
periment we repeated, by confining feveral fnails in a pint
jar of air, from the top of which a fmall thermometer was
fufpended, and at the bottom a glafs of lime-water was
placed. A film of carbonate of lime foon overfpread the
lime-water, the infide of the jar was dimmed by moifture,
and the mercury in the thermometer rofe at the fame time
nearly one degree. Dr. Martine fays, that from the refult
of feveral trials which he made, fnails were about two de-
grees warmer than the air. (On Thermometers, p. 141.)
Mr. Hunter found the lungs of fnails 38°, when the at-
mofphere was 34° ; and, in other inftances, fnails were fix
and feven degrees above the atmofphere, when it was fo low
as 30''. Earth-worms he found ^^•°$, when the atmofphere
was 56'' ; and, in other trials, the worms exceeded by four,
leeches by three, and flugs by four degrees the temperature
of the ambient air. (Treatife on the Blood, p. 298, ct leq.)
The temperature of a fnail, which was 44", fank, on expo-
fure to a cold mixture, down to 31°, and then froze; and
feveral leeches froze hkewife when reduced to 31°. (Ob-
fervations on the Animal Economy, p. 105.) In all thefe
experiments, the animals, when thawed, were found to be
dead ; but Mr. Carlifle fays, that the garden-fnail may be
frozen, during its (late of dormancy, without dellroying its
mufcular irritability. Diilof Tranf. 1805, p. 18." In-
quiry into the Changes, &c. p. 215.

Generative Organs.

Generative Organs of the MoUufea. — Four combinations
are met with in this clafs : t/'k. i. Separate fexes with
copulation ; in feveral gaileropoda, as the buccinum.

2. Separate fexes without copulation ; in the cephalopoda.

3. The fexes united with reciprocal copulation ; in the
fnail, and moft gaileropoda. 4. The fexes united, and
fecundating each other in the fame individual, or perfeft
hermaphrodifm ; in the acephala.

The Cephalopoda ; Male Organs. — The tefticle is a large,
wlntifli, and rather foft gland, found in the bottom of the
abdominal fac ; its (lru£lure is remarkable, and eafily deve-
loped. It is inclofed in a membranous capfule, united to it
only by vclTels paflfing between them, and that at one point
only : it has a thin proper cellular tunic. Its furface ex-
hibits an infinite number of fmall areoli, which are the com-
mencement of white, opaque, loft filaments, lying clofc to-

gether and compofing the whole fubllance of the gland. In
the cuttle-fifli thefe filaments are fmall and numerous, fo that
the areola- are mere points. In the oftopus the filaments
are larger, and like ribbons. They unite fuccefTively to form
trunks, which terminate in the cuttle-fifh, in va(l numbers,
in three or four large excretory canals pafling through the
gland in various diredlions, alid ending ultimately in a large
common circular opening, furnilhed with a valve which pre-
vents the return of the fluid. In the odlopus, which has
fewer filaments, the large common canals do not exift, but
the filaments end immediately at the common opening. Thefe
filaments are themfelves 'fmall excretory velTcls, furrounded
by glandular parenchyma, and connefted by blood-veffels,
nerves, and cellular fubllance. The fluid they fecrcte is
poured out through the opening into the membranous cap-
lule, from which it is conveyed by a canal rcprefenting the
epididymis, and tortuous, like that tube in the human fub-
jeft. It ends in a larger canal, of which the interior has at
firfl feveral projefting and ramified columns and ridges, and
afterwards a fingle one extending through its whole length,
and dividing it into two half canals. This canal, much
fhorter and lefs tortuous than that of the epididymis, con-
trafts towards its end, and penetrates a tolerably large cy-
lindrical glandular body, poffefTrng a large excretory duft,
which receives the termination of the canal jull mentioned.

This body is large and folid in the oftopus, much lefs
and nearly membranous in the cuttle -fi(h. It is regarded as
a kind o( proftate. Its canal joins one of the two belong-
ing to the cavity which contains the fpringiug tubes, which
will be fpoken of prefently.

This cavity or burfa, which is large and much folded, is
capable of confiderable extenfion, and contains the cele-
brated tubes, firit imperfeftly defcribed in the cuttle-fifh
by Swammerdam, then more in detail' by Needham in the
calmar, and rendered famous by BufFon, who derived from
them the principal fupport of his fyllem, on the nature of
the fpermatic animalcules. The o6lopus lias them larger
than the two other fpecies. The burfa, which contains
them mixed up with a vifcid liquor, is compofed of two
compartments communicating together, but each poffeffing
a dillinft orifice. One of tliefe orifices is the commence-
ment of a (lender canal, which ends on the exterior of the
penis at the fide : the other alfo produces a canal, which,
after having become Rill fmaller, opens externally near the
bafe of the penis.

The penis is a hollow, cylindric.il, flefhybody, perforated
at Its point, and h.aving a cul-de-fac behind the place where
the canal jull mentioned opens. Its cavity poflelfes flefliy
col.imns internally.

The excretory canal of the proftate, which is to tranfmit
alfo the feminal fluid of the tefticle, communicates more
particularly witii that compartment of the burfa, whofe duft
opens externally on the penis. The communication indeed
is very near its orifice. It is the other compartment of the
burfa, whofe duft opens in the penis. The name of penis
is given to this part, becaufe it projcfts externally, and
has a cylindrical form : it does not fecm, however, to
be an organ of copulation, although it certainly is one of
ejaculation.

All the canals now defcribed, from the tefticle to the
penis, are fituated on the left fide of the abdomen, and the
penis projefts witliin the left branchia ; but as tlie funnel
placed under the neck clofes the flclhy bag, it frenis impof-
ilble for the penis to approach the part which gives Iffue to
the oviduft of the female, fo as to produce copulation.
The feminal fluid thrown out by the penis muft. travcrfe the
funocl, as the ova, the ink, and the excrements do.

Swam-

VERMES.

Swammerdam and Needham took the burfa of the fpring-
ing tubes for the tefticle, from which it is confiderably dif-
tant. They have been followed in this error even by modern
authors.

The tubes themfelves are membranous bodies like worms,
terminated by a filament thinner than their boJy, fix lines or
more in length. While they remain in their vifcous liquid,
or if placed in fpirits or oil, they continue at rell ; but if
they are put in water, they become agitated, twill about,
and throw out at one extremity an opaque matter. By means
of a glafs we can fee in their interior an opaque whitiih body,
fpiral like a cork-fcrew, terminating behind in a fpongy
mafs, and before in a fimilar fmaller one. It feems that
this body is elaftic, and retained by the external membrane
of the tube ; that water, by foftening and diffolving the ex-
tremity of the tube, allows the fpiral or fpongy body to
exert its natural elafticity ; and that the twilling of the tube
arifes from the effort which the fpiral body thus makes to
efcape. However the matters may be explained, the mo-
tion certainly is not a vital one, and may be feen in the tubes
of a cuttle-fi(h, which has been preferved for years in fpirits
of wine, as foon as they are put in water.

But what purpofe is ferved by thefe tubes ? Are they,
like the pollen of plants, capfules containing a feminal aura,
and not giving way to allow its efcape, until they are in a
proper fituation J They feem to be developed only in the
burfa, which contains them, and they are not found at all
feafons. Are the ordinary fpermatic animalcules to be con-
fidered analogous to thefe tubes, according to the notions
of Buffon?

Female Organs They are more fimple. The ovary oc-
cupies a fituation analogous to that of the tefticle, and is in
the fame manner enveloped by a membranous capfule, to
which it is connefted at one point only by veffels. The
capfule is fimple in the oftopus, divided into two by a
feptum in the cutt!e-fi(h.

The ovary has thoufands of ramifications, and refembles
the moft complicated and beautiful tree. The ova enlarge
unequally : at the end of a certain time we find them
large, prefled together, and angular. Two tubes go from
the capfule in the oftopus, and the calmar fagittatum of
Lamarck. In the former, when empty, they are fmall, and
plaited internally. They end at the fides of the anus. At
one-third of their length is a knot, which is a gland tra-
verfed by the ova, and furnifliing them with their external
covering. It is divided, hke an orange, by longitudinal
fepta.

In the calmar fagittatum there are fimilar glands, much
larger in proportion, oval, fituated at the very end of the
ovidufts, and divided by very numerous, thin, tranfverfe
fepta. The oviduft enters at the fide, and contracts con-
fiderably before going out.

The cuttle-filh and common calmar have a fingle oviduft
terminated by a gland of the fame kind. The duft of the
latter is larger, and makes two convolutions.

The dufts of the calmar fagittatum end at the inner fide
of the branchice : the fingle tube of the cuttle-fifti and com-
mon calmar terminates near the left brancliia, in the fame
fituation as the penis of the male.

Thefe three fpecies have alfo three enormous oval glands,
divided, like that of the oviduft, by tranfverfe fepta, and
opening at the fides of the anus. Their ufe is unknown.

The eggs of theoftopus and calmar are united by a gela-
tinous fubftance into fmall maffes, while thofe of the cuttle-
filh are united by a duftile matter into bunches, like thofe
of grapes. The uniting medium is probably furnifhed by
the glands which terminate the oviduft : perhaps the three

glands juft mentioned may alfo be concerned in furnifh-
ing it.

Hermaphrodite Gajleropoda They muft be arranged in

two feftions ; thofe in which the organs of the fwo fexes
have a common ilfue, as the fnail ; and thofe in which their
iffues are feparate, or even diftant, as the aplyfia. Under
the firft are included the fnail, Aug, teftacella, parmacella,
doris, tritonia, and many univalves.

The flug may be defcribed firft, as being the moft fimply
organized : it has only the organs common to the whole
clafs ; TOz. an ovary, oviduft, tefticle, vas deferens, penis,
and bladder with a long neck.

The ovary is fituated towards the back part of the body,
between the lobes of the bver and the inteftines. It forms a
very complicated congeries, like a bunch of fmall grapes, of
which each grain is an ovum, while the pedicles are tubes
uniting together, and ending at laft in the oviduft. The latter
forms many zigzags, and adheres fo clofely to the tefticle,
that it may eafily be fuppofed to penetrate its fabftaiice,
and receive the fecreted fluid ; but this is not the cafe.
Having followed the whole length of the tefticle, become
obvioufly larger, and even during the feafon of copulation
fvvoUen and plaited, the oviduft terminates in the bottom
of the common cavity of generation.

The tefticle is a white oblong gland, very lai-ge, particu-
larly at the feafon of propagation. It may be divided into
two parts : the pofterior, behind the junftion of the ovi-
duft is oval, and fwells moft at the time juft mentioned. The
anterior is oblong. Its ftrufture does not fo much confift of
filaments, hke that of the cuttle-fifh, as of grains. It pro-
duces an excretory canal, which opens at the bottom of the
penis.

The latter is a cylindrical fleftiy bag, poffeffing internally
a prominent ridge in its whole length, and opening into the
common cavity of the generative organs. It can be everted
like the finger of a glove, and be extended by means of its own
fibres, and withdrawn to its original pofition by a retraftor
mufcle anfing from the back of the animal, and inferted in
the point of the bag, near the vas deferens. When this
bag is unfolded, and is protruded externally, it forms a
projefting penis, the internal ridge being unfolded fo as to
make the internal furface fufficiently broad to become ex-
ternal. The orifice of the vas deferens is now found on the
very point of the penis, having been before at the bottom of
the bag.

The bladder with the long neck, making the third prin-
cipal organ, was called by Swammerdam the refervoir of
the purple, beheving that the murex formed in an analogous
part the celebrated colouring matter of the ancients. Tliis
is not the cafe ; though the real ufe of the part in quellion
is not known. It fometimes contains, both in the flug and
fnail, a concrete reddifti-grey fubftance : at other times
merely a liquid. It is found in all gafteropoda, and may
pofllbly be concerned in producing a fluid to cover the
eggs.

The common cavity of generation is a flefliy fac, in which
the three preceding organs terminate, and which has an ex-
ternal opening under the right fuperior horn.

When fnails copulate, they evert this fac, which then
prefents three openings ; wz. of the oviduft, bladder, and
penis. The latter quickly comes out of its opening, and
enters the oviduft of the other individual. In this way
copulation is effefted : the laying takes place fome days
after.

The intimate conneftion between part of the oviduft and

part of the teftis and vas deferens, deceived Swammerdam

concerning the nature of thefe organs. He firft conceived

II the

VERMES.

the tefticle to be the ovary : having afterwards found the
true ovary, he called the teftis the bag of glue. The large
part of the oviduft adhering to the teftis he called the
uterus ; and not feeing that the vas deferens belongs exclu-
ilvely to the teftis, and has only an external attachment to
the oviduft, he admitted a communication between the
uterus and penis.

The fize of the penis varies in the different fpecies of
fnails : fome have it longer than the body, when extended.

Thefe organs in the teftacella do not differ remarkably
from thofe of the fnail.

The ovary of the tritonia is more voluminous, the oviduft
larger in proportion, and the tefticle irregularly lobed and
fhaped like a ball.

In the doris, the oviduft, after joining the teftis, appears
to unite with the canal of the bladder, and to form with it a
common canal. In the doris folea, from the Indian feas,
it feems even to enter the bladder itfelf ; which would con-
firm the notion of tliis part being defigned to furnifh a cover-
ing for the ova. The tefticle is rounded, and touches the
common cavity. A fmall acceffory bladder is connefted to
the canal of the bladder.

In the bulimus ftagnalis (helix, Linn.) the conneftion
between the oviduct and tefticle is not fo clofe. The vas
deferens can be diftinguifhed throughout, at firft large and
expanded into a refervoir much plaited, and capable of con-
taining a large quantity of fluid. At parting out, the canal
is fmall, enters the flefh near the end of the oviduft, then
comes out again to end in the bottom of the fac of the penis,
which is organized as in the Aug.

The ovary and tefticle of the fnail are arranged as in the
flug. The neck of the bladder is much longer, and con-
nefted to the broad portion of the oviduft, as far as the
point of its union with the tefticle. The lower part of its
neck is broad, and receives the orifice of the oviduft. It
moreover receives the apertures of two parts, which do not
cxift in the flug ; viz. two ramified organs, each of which
terminates in fifteen or twenty fmall caeca, containing a
white milky liquor. This might be confidered as feminal
fluid, and the organs as veficulae feminales, but they have no
immediate conneftion with the vas deferens. The latter
terminates in the fide of the penis, near its entry into the
common cavity. The penis therefore is not perforated at
its bottom, as in the flug : it is alfo much longer ; but pro-
bably it cannot be unfolded in its whole length, perhaps
only as far as the point at which the vas deferens enters :
this would then become its external extremity.

The fnail has another remarkable part, not found in the
(lug ; W2. the fac of tlie dart. It is oblong, with thick
mufcular parietes : at the bottom there is a papilla, from
which proceeds a pointed dagger-ftiaped dart, with four
cutting edges. The fubftance of this fingular part is cal-
careous : it is renewed when loft. Snails prick each other
with it, at any part of the fltin indifferently, when they are
about to copulate. They feem too to dread it ; for as foon
as one perceives the other's dart, he withdraws immediately
into the fliell. The objeft of fuch a proceeding cannot be
conjeftured. Copulation docs not take place, until after
both individuals have brought out their darts : it refembles
that of the flug.

The length of the penis protruded in copulation,
and the number of caeca, vary in the different fpecies of
fnails.

The parmacella has the fame organs as the fnails. Its
veficulx are oval and undivided, and terminate dircftly in
the common cavity. The fac of the dart is nearer to the

Vol. XXXVII.

prepuce of the penis ; and the vas deferens opens in the bot-
tom of the latter.

The fecond feftion of hermaphrodite gafteropoda in-
cludes thofe, in whom the penis paffes out at fome point of
the body diftant from the oviduft. The vas deferens is ftiU
united to the oviduft, and communicates with the penis
only by the intervention of a groove excavated in the ex-
ternal furface of the body. This groove is on the right
fide of the neck in the aplyfia; under the right edge of the
cloak in the onchidium, ice.

The ovary of the aplyfia is an oval mafs, occupying all
the pofterior part of the abdomen, and in its ordinary ftate
of a whitifli colour. The oviduft arifes from it by feveral
veffels, coming from the different parts of the mafs, like the
excretory tubes of a gland, and uniting into one canal.
The latter, having run along the right fide of the tefticle,
fuddenly becomes fmaller, turns round the apex of that
gland, and forms a canal which, having been clofely joined
for fome time to the vas deferens, terminates by openir.g in
it, after receiving a fmall blind inteftine, apparently analo-
gous to the ramified organs of the fnail.

The tefticle is of a beautiful yellow, and refembles an
elliptic fpheroid furrounded by a fpiral band. Its middle
is tolerably compaft, and feems nearly homogeneous. The
fpiral band is itfelf divided into a principal finely ftriated
band, of which the ftrise are probably fo many veffels, and
two fmooth borders, which are excretory tubes. The fu-
perior is the vas deferens common to the whole tefticle,
ierving to convey the feminal fluid.

The common cord going to the exterior of the body is
at firft divided into two canals. That which comes from
the teftis is formed of a thin membrane much plaited : the
other, from the oviduft, has thicker parietes. From the firft
third of their length they communicate freely by means of
a flit : yet the diftinftion between them is marked by a
projefting membranous feptum. The oval bladder opens,
towards the fecond thread, by a fmall particular duft.
Beyond this orifice, the double canal forms a prominence,
vifible externally, on the right fide of the body : its open-
mg is continuous with a deep groove formed in the right
fide of the neck, and continued into the body of the penis.
Does this groove conduft the feminal fluid of one aplyfia
into the body of another ? The folution of the mode of
fecundation in thefe animals depends on the anfwer to that
queftion.

The onchidium refembles the aplyfia in the feparation of
the organs. The oviduft, after being joined to the tef-
ticle, is united to the canal of the bladder, near its neck ;
and the common canal goes out at the fame point as the vas
deferens. From their orifice a groove extends, on the right
fide, along the under part of the cloak, to that of the penis
fituated at the right fide of the head. The latter com-
municates firft with a cavity having two cul-de-facs. In the
bottom of one of them a cylindrical tube enters, which tra-
vcrfes an elhptical mufcular enlargement, and extends be-
yond it to a length more than five times that of the body.
Near its entrance into the cavity, this tube conceals a fliarp
horny point. The other cul-de-fac receives the end of a
tube fliorter and much flcnderer than the preceding, with-
out any enlargement. This has alfo a fmall horny point in
the correfponding fituation. The ufe of thefe organs is not
known.

The oviduft is diftinft throughout from the tefticle and

the canal of the bladder in the bullxa, although the three

organs have their iffue at the fame point. There it alfo an

acceffory veficula, coming out with them, and a fmaller one

G ending

VERMES.

ending in the ovjduft. The penis forms a tube nearly a3
long as that of the onchidium, but without any enlargement
or acceffory tube.

The openings of the fexual organs are remote from each
other in the hyalxa and pneumodermon, although united in
the fame individual ; but the animals are too fmall for a
detailed defcription.

Gajhropoda lu'ith feparate Sexes. — This feparation certainly
exifts in the buccinum undatum. The male is recognized,
even externally, by a flcfhy penis as large as a finger, com-
prefled, broader at the end, and terminated by a fmall
tubercle, which is perforated by the orifice of the vas
deferens. It adheres to the right fide of the neck, and
folds back into the pulmonary cavity, but the animal often
extends it, without any intention of copulating. The vas
deferens traverfes its whole length, making fevcral folds and
zigzags ; it enters the right fide of that part of the body
which fills the (hell, makes a large packet of tortuous t\irns,
becomes gradually fmaller, and ends at the tefticle, a yel-
lowifh, foft, glandular mafs, occupying with the liver the
higheft turns of the fhell.

Nothing fimilar to this penis is found in the female ; the
neck is fmooth, but on the right fide of the pulmonary
cavity, between the body and the reftum, a large canal is
feen, the extremity of the oviduft. The orifice is fmall :
on opening it we find a large tube with thick glandular
parietes, calculated no doubt to furnirti an exterior covering
for the ova. It opens a little within the edge of the pul-
monary cavity by a fmall aperture.

In the murex tritonis, there is a Cmilar feparation of
fexes, and a penis equally flefhy and prominent. Inftead,
however, of having a complete vas deferens in its interior,
there is a fimple groove on the furface, continued on the
body, as far as the portion which fills the fhell. The penis
is proportionally Ihorter and thinner than in the buccinum.
The female has an oviduft fimilar to that of the female
buccinum.

The ftrombus has a mere tubercle projefting flighlly at
the right fide of its very fmall foot. The femuial fluid is
conveyed to it alfo by a groove.

The penis of the voluta is flefhy, conical, always pro-
jefting, but not perforated : the femen arrives by a groove,
which however ends at its bafis, without going to the point.

In thofe genera with feparate fexes, the oviduft is wanting
when there is a penis with its groove ; this groove occupy-
ing the place of the oviduct.

There is an hermaphrodite fpecies ; but it feems formed
rather on the model of thofe juft defcribed, than on that of
the fpecies in the former divifion. It is the hehx vivipara
of frefii water. It has an ovidnft and a groove, placed fide
by fide, and ending refpeftively at the ovary and tefticle.
The latter is clofely joined to the oviduft : its groove ter-
minates externally at the very edge of the foot, under the
right hern ; and there is no penis but the prominence which
this edge may form when extended. The oviduCl is of great
fize and length when filled with fmall living individuals.

This animal is ovo-viviparous. In the \^per part of its
ovidudl we find eggs not hatched, refembling fmall globules
of a whitifh glairy matter, in which with a glafs the
animal can be feen covered by its fhell. In theie ova the
fmall pedicle may be Hill feen, by which they were attached
to the ovary.

The acephala are all hermaphrodites, and impregnate
themfelves without any copulation. We difcover no other
generative organs but an ovary, extending over the two fides
of the body, immediately under the fliin, penetrating be-

tween the tendons of the mufcles, and fometimes between
the two membranes of the cloak. The fize and colour'
vary according as the animal is more or lefs advanced in
geftation. At a certain period a milky liquor is feen in it,
which is probably a feminal fluid defigned to fecundate the
ova. When the latter are advanced, they pafs into the
fpaces between the two vafcular laminae, compofing each of
the four plates of the branchias, and fometimes diftend them
in an extraordinary manner, for the number is truly pro-
digious in fome fpecies. The eggs of the ovo-viviparous
fpecies, as the frefh-water mufcle, are hatched in the
branchise. When we obferve the little mufcles with a
glafs, we fee them open and fhut their valves with great
afiivity.

No orifice has yet been difcovered, by which they could
pafs out ; probably they efcape by lacerating the tiffue at
the edges of the branchia; between their pulmonary veffels.

The organs of generation in the naked acephala, as the
biphori and afcidia:, and in the branchiopoda, as the tere-
bratulx and lingulas, have not been carefully inveftigated.

The cirropoda, or balani and anatifae, differ very much
from the acephala, and approach in their male organs, as in
feveral others, to the cruflacea. On each fide of their in-
teftinal canal there is a white ferpentine tube, fuppofed to"
be the tefticle, and ending towards the bafis of the redlum.,
Yet thefe animals are hermaphrodites, and their ovaries are
two nialTes placed between the trunk and the cloak, and
connefted in their fituation only by veffels and cellular
tifl"ue. ,

Generative Organs of Worms. — This clafs exhibits the
three combinations, which are found in the moUufca ; fome
have the fexes feparate ; others united, fo that they fecun-
date themfelves in an infulated manner ; in a third divifion
they are united, but there is a reciprocal copulation.

The leech exemplifies the latter modification ; it has a
very confiderable penis, compofed of a thick and long
mufcular tube, hollow internally, which can be protruded
like the penis of the fnail, while it is prolonged backwards
into a flender and merely membranous tube. There are
two tefticles, each compofed of numerous convolutions of a
fingle, foft, whitifh canal, with glandular fides, and of a
fliort, ftraight, and mufcular vas deferens. Thefe two tubes
appear to terminate at the bafis of the mufcular part of the
penis, and the feminal fluid probably flows along the
grooves of its furface, when it is unrolled. Near it is a
cavity opening externally, and ferving apparently to receive
the penis of the other individual. The orifices of thefe
parts are near each other, and near the anterior extremity
of the body.

The earth-worm exhibits two orifices on its under fur-
face, near the anterior extremity, and not, as fome have
defcribed, at the fwelling in the middle of the body. They
correfpond internally to two or three foft, oval, glandular
cavities. There are feveral fmaller ones around them.
Thefe feem to be the organs of generation ; but we cannot
point out their funftions. Willis mentions that the large
cavities are fometimes filled with eggs ; but we fee true
ovaries, in the form of fmall inteftines, arranged in three or
four pairs, and fwelled by ova, fo as to referable rows of
beads. No external or internal organ of copulation can be
found ; yet it is popularly known that earth-worms remain
clofely embraced for the purpofe of fecundation.

In the anterior part of the body of the lumbricus marinus
there are five greyifh facculi on each fide, fufpended by
veffels and cellular fubftance, and appearing analogous to
thofe of the earth-vi'orra. The ova mufl efcape from the

facculi

VERMES.

facculi in thefe animals, for we fometimes find the whole
body filled with them.

The fame thing is feeii in the aphrodite, where the fexes
are feparate ; in Imall individuals the body is filled with a
whitifli milt, while the large ones have it full of fmall ova
in all the intervals of the vifcera. If, as it feems probable,
there are particular organs for the preparation of thefe fub-
ftances, they have not yet been difcovered or defcribed.
The fame obfervation may be extended to the genera nereis,
ferpula, and other red-blooded worms.

It is doubtful, whether or no there are diftinft fexes in
the inteftinal worms. In the afcaris lumbricoides, the orifice
of generation is found in the anterior third of the body : a
fmall (hort veffel foon ends in two larger ones, which
gradually diminilhing extend to four or five times the length
of the body, and are coUefted m irregular bundles, which
may be eafily developed. Thefe tubes, which muil be
regarded as ovaries, contain a milky fluid, and an infinite
number of fmall ova.

All the echino-dermata feem to be hermaphrodites, and to
poflefs the power of fecundating themfelves : their ovaries
fill a large part of the body, when they are fwollen in the
feafon of laying. They are fometimes feen bathed as it
were in a milky liquor, which feems to hold the place of
feminal fluid : this may be obferved in the common fliar-fidi,
■where the ovaries form five large branches, one for each
divifion of the body: the eggs are round and reddifli.

The echini, properly fo called, have from five to ten con-
fiderable ovaries, reddifh, lying near the furfacc of the fliell,
and ending at the circumference of the anus. They form
the eatable portion of the echini.

In the holothurix, a collection of numerous ramified
fmall tubes is feen near the mouth, amazingly developed at
particular feafons, when they are filled with a reddifli
powdery matter, fometimes collefted in globules. Thefe
parts feem to be the ovaries ; but we fee alfo, near the
anus, numero-.is whitifli filaments, refembhug worms, and
each formed of a flender elaftic thread, turned fpirally, and
capable of being unfolded.

The mode of generation in the aftinix has been defcribed
by Reaumur: he dates that " in producing its young, the
aftinia inverts its body as it does in rejedling the fliells of
animals, which it has fwallowed for food. I have obferved
that thefe animals are viviparous, and have feen them come
out, perfetlly formed, from the body of the mother, as they
are reprefented in fig. ij. It is necefiarv that the cavity
rtiould be turned infide out, as we have already defcribed
in fpcaking of the digeftive procefs : the young ones then
come out of a large tranfverfe filTure. Although the parent
may contain fometimes more than twelve (and this opening
is large enough to allow feveral to pafs at once), they come
out one by one, and indifferently at all parts of the fifTure.
Thefe little aftinias, before their birth, are placed in the
bafis of the parent ; and lodged in folds of the membrane."
Reaumur, Acad, des Sciences, 1710, p. 477..

The procefs and the organs concerned in it have been
defcribed more in detail by Dr. Spix, in the Annales du
Mufcum d'Hift. Naturelle, torn. xiii. " The fpace left be-
tween the alimentary cavity and the external envelop of
the animal is divided, "he fays, " into longitudinal cavities by
folds of a membrane which lines it, and 'is analogous to
peritoneum. Each longitudinal cavity contains an ovary,
and communicates with two or three tentacula. Each
ovary is compofed of three or four cylindrical and united
tnbcs, joining together at their bafis into a common canal,
.iiid becoming flenderer towards the apex in proportion as the
fggs become fmalkr, of which each ovary contains about

fixty. The common tubes of two neighbouring ovari'.s
join into one, and this latter again joins the common tube of
the two next ovaries. The oviduft thus formed belongs
therefore to four ovaries, and terminates in the bottom of
the ftomach. This is the only point at which the young can
come forth : hence all obfervers have found them in the
ftomach, without knowing how they came there. The
eggs are round, yellow, and fimilar to grains of fand. The
aftinia: are viviparous, according to the obfervations of
Reaumur, Elhs, and Dicquemarre, with which my own
agree. I have often feen the young come out of the mouth,
of a form perfeftly fimilar to that of the mother. An
aftinia, which I have in fpirits of wine, contains a great
number of eggs marked with an opaque point, and appa-
rently containing the embryo animal. I have even an
individual about the fize of a hempfeed, which feems to
quit its covering with difficulty, and whofe mouth and
tentacula are not yet dift:inft." P. 448. pi. 33.

The multiplication of polypes and zoophytes by buds or
flioots is well known : this feems to preclude the exiftencc
of a particular organ of generation. Yet the author juft
quoted, has defcribed and figured parts which he confiders
as generative organs in a fpecies of alcyonium. See his
Memoir and plate as above.

Peculiar Secretions. — The inky Jluid of the fepia- is pro-
duced in a membranous bag, exprefsly defl;ined to that
office. The fecreting organ is a villous furface, with fine
and long proceffes, adhering to one of the fides of the bag.
The fecretion is a very thick black fubftance ; but its p.ir-
ticles are fo minute, that it admits almoft of infinit; dilution,
and a fmall quantity will tinge a vaft volume of water.
This matter, when removed and dried, forms the colour
named fepia by the painters ; that of the common cuttle-hfli
is a black-brown. The o£lopus has it blacker ; and the
Indian ink which comes from China is certainly nothing
more than the produce of fome lepia of that country, fo
that it is ufelefs to attempt imitating it by artificial mix-
tures. Chemical analyfis has difcovered in it a very mi-
nutely divided carbonaceous matter, mixed with animal
gluten.

The ink-bag of the oftopus is enveloped by the lobes of
the liver, which has given rife to the erroneous idea of fomc
moderns, that this part is analogous to the gall-bladder, and
that the fluid is a biliary fecretion.

It is ill front of the liver in the calmar, but free, and not
inclofcd in its fubftance. In the cuttle-fifli it is much nore
deeply placed, before the inteftines and the intermediate
heart.

In all cafes, its excretory dudl terminates near the anus
pouring its liquor into the funnel, which is the general 1 •
ceptacle for all the excretions.

The purple matter, fo celebrated among the anciems, is
produced by feveral different gafteropoda : poffibly, how-
ever, fome ipccies may furnifh it of a more beautiful or
durable kind. It tranfudcs in fome of the genus mur. .\
from the edges of the cloak ; fo that it is no doub' , i
duced in them as in the aplyfia, of which the organ w !l
defcribed. Swammerdam l^ufpetted that the fac, adi
to the organs of geiK-ration, and defcribed by the iiiii 'e
term of bladder, was the refcrvoir of the purple; In; 'ii.s
fufpicion docs not feem well founded.

In the aplyfia the operculum of the branchia; is .ir,,i!o-
gous to the cloak of other univalves, and differs fi.i;ii it
only bccaufc the fliell does not entirely fill it. The tJ,^.- js
occupied, in all parts to which the fliell docs not exloid, by
a fpongy fubflance, of which all the pores are diftended by
the purple matter. This is fo thick, that when it is rx-
Gz rieffed

VERMES.

prefled without being diluted, its colour is a black violet ;
but it gives water the tint of claret wine. A fingle
aplyfia is capable of colouring in this way feveral buckets
of water.

In fpirits of wine this liquor becomes of a deep green.
Some naturalifts reprcfent that the colouring liquor of cer-
tain animals of the genus murex comes out of the body
green, and changes to purple by the aftion of light But it
may be fqueezed out of the murex brandaris of a perfeft
violet colour.

Spinning Organs ( Filicres ) of acephalous Mollufca. — The
mufcles of falt-water (mytilus), the lini^ (oltrea lima,
Linn.), pernx (oftrea, Linn.), aviculae. and peftines, are
fixed to rocks by means of threads, which they make them-
felves. Thofe of the pinna are the moft celebrated, for
they have been aftually employed in manufactures.

The matter, of which the threads are formed, is pro-
duced by a conglomerate gland, concealed in the body under
the bafe of the foot. The latter, which has more or lefs
refemblance to a tongue, with a groove along its under
furface, feizes the rifcous matter at the orifice of the ex-
cretory tube, draws it out, and models it in the groove.
It fixes the end, ftill foft, to a rock, and returns to the
orifice, to find the materials of another. Reaumur has mi-
nutely defcribed the procefs, in the Memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Sciences for 1 710, from which we have taken
the following particulars.

" From the root of this kind of tongue, or the part where
it is attached to the body of the animal, feveral threads are
obfervcd to proceed to fome neighbouring fixed object, and
thus *tach the animal in its lituation. They are about
equal in fize to a pig's bridle ; vary in length from one to
two inches, and pafs out of the (hell at the^ part where it
naturally opens. Stones, fragments of (hells, and very fre-
quently the (hells of other mufcles, are the objefts to which
thev are fixed : hence we often find large alTemblages of
thefe animals adhering together. I have fometimes reckoned
more than 150 threads employed in faftening a fingle mulcle :
as they take different direftions, we may regard them as fo
many cables keeping the animal firmly anchored.

" Having detached feveral, I incloled them in boxes, and
put them in the fea : in a few days, they were attached to
the fides of the veffel, and to each other. I placed others
in velfels of fea-water, and obferved their proceedings. In
a (liort time they opened their (hell, and thruft out the part
already defcribed, which I have compared to a tongue.
They elongated and then (liortened it, and thus ftretched it
out farther : they would at laft extend it to two inches in
length, and then feel about with its extremity, as if to re-
connoitre the ground. After thefe preludes, they fixed it
for a time in one fpot, and then withdrew it quickly, cann-
ing it back completely into the (hell. I now difcovered
that they were fixed to the fpot by a thread. The repeti-
tion of this manceuvre multiplied the threads, until they
were fufEciently numerous to fallen the animal. The new
threads thus formed were whiter and more tranfparent than
thofe which had exiHed for fome time." P. 1 14, et feq.

When a thread has been formed, the animal feems to try
its ftrength, and fometimes it gives way. They will fix
themfelves to the furface of glafs. They do not form more
than four or five threads in a day. P. 122.

M. Reaumur could not difcover whether they have the
power of detaching themfelves, after being once fixed.
The youngeft mufcles fpin thefe threads, fuch even as are
fmallcr than millet feeds. The threads give way in time,
either from the repeated (hocks to which they are expofed,
or from an alteration in their texture by time. P. 123.

The pinnsE are very large animals, the valves of their
(liells meafuring one or two feet, attached to rocks, &c. ii>
a manner fimilar to that of the mufcles, except that the
threads are longer and more numerous. They alraoil equal,
in finenefs and beauty, the filk fpun by the filkworm : hence
the French name of coquille porte-foie, and the ancient
name of barba byflina applied to this prodiiftioii, which has
been generally called the beard oi the animal. It has aftually
been manufaftured in Sicily, and other parts of the Medi-
terranean, into gloves and other articles, which exaftly re-
fembled filk. As the individual threads are fo fine, their
number is immenfe. Ibid.

In the Memoirs for 17 17, Reaumur fpeaks at greater
length of the pinna or jambonneau, and the filk threads
which attach the animal to furrounding objefts. Thefe
animals are filhed in the Mediterranean, in from fifteen to
thirty feet of water. The tuft of filk is attached, as in the
mufcle, immediately to the animal's body, and palTes be-
tween the two valves, at four or five inches from the fmall
end of the (heU, in large pinna;. As they are torn up with
an iron hook, you cannot be fure of feeing the whole length
of the faftening ; but Reaumur has found it feven or eight
inches long, and weighing three ounces. The fpinning
organ is about two inches long in the dead animal, and mult
admit of extenfion to fix or feven inches in the living, to
form threads of the length we meet with. The end of the
filk palTes into a conical bag, which contains four mem-
branous plates, and an equal number between them of thin
filk plates, made of fine filk intricately interwoven. The
filk faftening of the animal is fecrired to the latter. Ob-
fervations fur le Coquillage appelie Pinne marine, ou Nacre
de Perle, &c.

On the fubje(ft of the remarkable power, poffefled by
many animals of the lower orders, particularly in the genus
medufa, of producing hght, fee the article LtGHT.

The fource of that Angular property, which many me-
dufa polTefs, of imparting a burning fenfation to the (kin,
like that produced by the common nettle, (whence their
names of urtica marina, fea-nettles, &c. ) is not known.
It may be in fome fluid fecreted by the animal.

We may obferve, in general, of all the fecretions in the
lower orders, including the purple matter and filk, tlie
biliary fluids, the luminous and ftinging particles, the cal-
careous matter of (hells, &c. that they are produced in
ftruftures much lefs complicated, and in animals much lefs
perfeAly organized, than the analogous piodufts of the
vertebral divifion.

We cannot pretend to give a complete enumeration of the
works, from which information may be derived on the fubjeft
of the preceding article ; but we (hall mention a few of the
moft important.

On the aratomy of the lower orders, fcience is moft
deeply indebted to the learned, acute, and indefatigable
Cuvier, who has contributed more than all others together
to our accurate knowledge of thefe clafTes. His " Legons
d' Anatomic comparee" contain the refults of moft of his
labours ; and the greater part of our defcriptions is derived
from that work. He has alfo pubii(hed numerous excellent
papers, accompanied with very beautiful and valuable en-
gravings, on the anatomy of feveral genera of m.ollufca, in
the Memoires du Mufeum National d'Hiftoire Naturelle.
They are as follow :

Memoire fur 1' Animal de la Lingule (Lingula anatina,
Lamarck); torn. i. p. 69.

Memoire fur la Bullsea aperta (Lamarck), Bulla aperta
(Linn.); torn. i. p. 156.

Memoirie fur le Clio bcrealis j torn. i. p. 242.

Memoire

V E R

V E R

Memoire fur le Genre Tritonie, avec la Defcriptioii et
I'Anatomie d'uiie nouvelle Efpece, Tritonia Hombergii ;
torn. i. p. 480.

Memoire fur le Genre Aplyfia, vulgairemeiit nommc
Lievrc marin, fur fon Anatomie, et fur quelqucs unes de fes
Efpeccs ; torn. ii. p. 287.

Memoire concernant 1' Animal de I'Hyale, un nouveau
Genre de Mollufqucs, intermediaire entre I'Hyale et le
Clio, et I'EtablilTcment d'un nouvel Ordre dans la Clafle des
MoIIufques ; torn. iv. p. 223.

Memoire fur les Thalides (Thalia, Brown), et fur Ics
Biphores (Salpa, Forflcaohl); torn. iv. p. 360.

Memoire fur le Genre Doris ; torn. iv. p. 447.

Memoire fur le Limace (Limax, Linn.), et le Coli-
ma^on (Helix, cjufd.); torn. vii. p. 140.

Memoire fur le Limnee (Helix llagnalis, Linn.), et le
Planorbe (Helix cornea, Linn.); torn. vii. p. i8j.

Memoire fur I'Onchidie, Genre de Mollufqucs nus
Voifins des Limnces, et fur une Efpece nouvelle, Onchidium
Peronii ; tom. v. p. 37.

Memoire fur la Phyllidie et fur le Pleurobranche, deux
nouveaux Genres de Mollufqucs de la Famillc des Gadero-
podes, et Voifins des Patellcs et des Ofcabrions, dont I'un
eft nu, ct dont I'autre parte une Coquille cachee ; tom. v.
p. 266.

Memoire fur la Dolabelle, fur la Tcftacellc, et fur un
nouveau Genre de MoHufques a Coquille cachee, nomme
Parmacelle ; tom. v. p. 435.

Memoire fur la Scyllee, I'Eolide ct la Glaucus, avec des
Additions au Memoire fur la Tritonie ; tom. vi. p. 416.

Memoire fur 1' Xanthine et la Phafianelle de M. Lamarck ;
tom. xi. p. 121.

Memoire fur la Vivipare d'Eau douce (Cycloftoma vivi-
parum, Draparnaud ; Helix vivipara, Linn.), fur quclques
Efpcces voifines, et Idee gcnerale fur la Tribu des Gaftero-
podes peftincis a Coquille entiire ; tom. xi. p. 170.

Memoire fur le grand Bucciu de nos Cotes (Buccinum
undatum, Linn.), ainfi que fur les Buccins, les Murex, les
Strombes, et en general fur les Gafteropodes peAines a
Syphon ; tom. xi. p. 447.

Memoire fur le Genre Tethys, et fon Anatomie ; torn. xii.

P- 257- , ^ , ^

Memoire fur les Accrcs, ou Gafteropodes fans Tentacules
apparens ; tom. xvi. p. i.

Sur les Afcidies, et fur leur Anatomie, Memoires du
Mufcum d'Hiftoire Naturelle ; tom. ii. p. 10.

Sur les Animaux des Anatifcs et des Balanes, Lamarck
(Lepas, Linn.), ct fur leur Anatomie ; ibid. p. 85.

We may refer alfo to Peron, fur le nouveau Genre Pyro-
foma, Ann. du Muf. tom. iv. p. 437.

Piron et Le Sueur fur les Medufes du Genre Equorce,
tonru XV. p. 41 ; et Hiftoire de la Famillc dca Mollufqucs
Pteropodes, p. 57.

Spix Memoire pour fcrvir a I'Hiftoire de I'Afterie rouge
(Afterias rubens, Linn.), de I'Aftinie coriaccc (Aftinia
coriacea, Cuv. ), et de I'Alcyon exot ; Ann. du Muf.
tom. xiii. p. 438.

Mery, Rcmarqucs fur la Moulc des Etangs ; Mem. de
I'Acad. des Sciences, 1710.

Reaumur, De la Formation et de I'Accroiflrcmcnt des
Coquilles des Animaux tant tcrreftrcs qu'aqiutiqucs, foit
de Mer, foit de Riviere; ibid. 1709.

Reaumur, Du Mouvcmcnt progreffif, et de quclques
autres Mouvemens de diverfes Elpeces de Coquillagcs,
Orties, ct Etoiles de Mcr ; ibid. 1710.

Jlcaumur, Des differentes Manieres dont pluficuri Efpcces
9

d'Animaux de Mer s'attachent au Sable, aux Picrres, et
les uns aux autres, 171 1.

Reaumur, Obfervations fur le Mouvement progreffif de
quelques Coquillagcs de Mer, fur celui des HerifTons de Mer,
et fur celui d'une Efpece d'Etoilc ; ibid. 171 2.

Reaumur, Eclairciffement de quclques Difficultcs fur la
Formalion et rAccroiffcmcnt des CoquilUs; ibid. 1716.

Lamarck, Sylleme des Animaux fans Vertcbres.

Bofc, Hiftoire Naturelle des Vers.

Bohadfcli, Dc quibufdam Animalibus marinis, 1761,410.

Pet. Forfl<aohl, Icones Rerum naUiralium, quas in
Itinere orientali depingi curavit. Edidit C. Nicbuhr,
Havniae, 1776, fol.

.1. C. Poli, Teftacea utriufque Sicilia;, eorumque Hif-
toria et Anatome. Parmx, 1791, 2 vols. fol.

Goeze, Verfuch einer Naturgefchichtc dcr Eingeweide-
wurmer thicrifcher Korpcr, 17S2, 410.

Werner, Vermium Inteftinalium prxfcrtim Taenia- hu-
mana brevis Expofitio, 1782, 8vo. ; with three continua-
tions, 1782, ct feq.

Rudolphi EnVozoorum Hiftoria, 2 vols. 8vo.

Miiller, Zoologia Danica, fol.

Miiller, Von wiirmern fijlfen und falzigen Waffers, 410.

Pallas, MifccUanca Zoologica et fpicilegia Zoologix.

Swammerdani, Biblia Naturae.

Lifter, Excrcitationcs Anatomies.

Since this article was finillied, new and valuable fources
of information on the fubjcfts comprehended in it have
been opened to the pubhc. L'^nder this head we may enu-
merate Cuvier Hiftoire et Anatomie des Mollufqucs, 410.
1 81 7, containing all the memoirs fpccified above, and fome
new ones, particularly one on the cephalopoda.

Cuvier, Regne Animal, 4 tom. 8vo.

Savigny, Sur les Animaux fans Vertebrcs, part 2.

Lamarck, Sur les Animaux fans Vertcbres, 2d edition,
greatly enlarged.

Blainville, various memoirs on the MoUufca, publiflicd in
the Bulletin des Sciences, 1814 — 18 17.

Tiedemann, Anat. dcr Holothuria, des Seefterns, et des
See-igels ; fol. Landftiut.

VERMICELLI, or Vkhmiciiei.i.i, a kind of mixtura,
prepared of flour, chccfe, yolks of eggs, fugar, and fafFron ;
and reduced into little long pieces, or threads, like worms,
by forcing it with a pifton through a number of little liolcs
in the end of a pipe made for the purpofe.

The word, in the original Italian, fignifies ItttU worms:
tlicy alfo call it lagliiirlni, and mil/efiinti.

It was firft brought to us from Italy, where it is in great
vogue. In cflcft, it is the great regale of the Italians.
Other nations are not eafily brought to rehfti the tafte of it.
It is chiefly ufed in foups and pottages, to warm, provoke
venery, &c.

VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing th«
bears a relation or refeniblaiice to worms, vermiculi.

Anatomifts particularly apply it to the motion of the in-
tcftines and certain mufcles of the body.

The •vermicular, or periflallic, motion of the inteftines is
performed by the contradlion of the fibres thereof from
above downward ; as the unnatural, or antipcriftallic mo-
tion, is by their contrattion from below u|)waids.

The contraftion happening in the perillaltic, whicli other*
call the vermicular motion, as refembling the motion of
worms, does not affed ;ill the parts of the iiitciliucs at once ;
but one part after another.

Vi:HMicyLAU, or Frrmiculaled H^ork, Opus vrrmituliUum,
in Sculpture, a fort of ornament, tonfiftmg of frets, or

knots,

V E R

V E R

knots, ill Mofaic pavements, winding, and reprefenting, in
fome fort, the tracks made by worms :

" Quam lepide lexeis compofitse, ut tefferiilae omnes
Arte pavimento, atque emblemate vermiculato."

Cic. de Orat.- lib. iii.

VERMICULARIA, in Botany, from ■vermkulus, a
little worm, fo named by Tode, on account of the arrange-
ment of the feeds. — Tode Fung. Mecklenb. v. i. 31. Perf.
Syn. Fung. iio. — Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi.
Nat. Ord. Fungi.

Eff. Ch. Capfule globofe, feffile, filled with vermicular
bodies, covered with feeds.

This genus appears to have been feen only by the lynK-
eyed author of the Fungi Mecklenbergenfes. Perfoon has
adopted it from him. Three fpecies are all that we find
defcribed.

1. V. pjeudcfph.tria. Black Granulated Vermicularia.
Tode n. I. t. 6. f. 46. Perf. n. i. — Globofe, aggregate.
Capfule granulated, black. Seed-bearing filaments loofe,
naked, white. — On rotten oak-bark in March, found but
once. The capfule is not larger than a grain ot fand,
ffightly comprelfed, tender, not brittle as in Sphxria ; full
of fhort, flexible, crowded fibres, covered all over with ex-
tremely minute white feeds. Afterwards the fibres turn
orange-coloured.

2. V. pubrfcem. Downy Vermicularia. Tode n. 2.

t. 6. f. 47. Perf. n. 2 Globofe, fcattered. Capfule

downy, two-coloured. Seed-bearing filaments loofe, naked,
hoary. — Found in rainy weather, in July, on dry ftalks, or
dead branches. The fize of cabbage-feed, of a deep orange-
colour, covered with white cottony down. Fibres very
flender, crowded together.

3. V. hifpida. Hifpid Vermicularia. Tode n. 3. t. 6.

f. 48. Perf. n. 3 Cufhion-likc, fcattered. Capfule

black, befet with bridles, which difappear from its fummit.
Seed-bearing filaments whitifh, loofely immerfcd in meally
pulp. — Found but once, on rotten elder-wood, iu April.
This is no larger than the firft fpecies. The capfule is orbi-
cular, depreffed ; when young briftly all over ; but at

length the centre fliovvs itfelf quite bare, very fmooth, never
burfting, flightly wrinkled as it advances in age. The
fibres, though unconnefted with any other part, are im-
bedded in rather foft pulp, which is pecuhar to the prefent
fpecies.

VERMICULARIS. See Ascaris.

Vermicularis Crujla, a term ufed by fome anatomical
writers to exprefs the internal hairy and corrugated coat of
the inteftines.

V£RMICULI Spermatic:. See Generation-.

VERMICULUM, a word ufed by fome cheraifts to
exprefs a tinfture or elixir.

VERMICULUS Marixus, the Sea-tvorm, in Natural
Hijlory, the name of a genus of (hell-fifh.

Thefe fhells are called vermiculi, fea-worms, from the fifh
contained in them, which is always a fort of worm. Tl'.ey
ufually are found in great clufters together, interwoven
oddly with one another.

Bonani calls them fea-ferpents, inclofed in (hells, from
the various twifted forms in which they adhere to (hips and
rocks. The author eftablifhes them among the multivalves,
becaufe they are never found fingle, but always in thefe
clufters. In this fenfe he looks upon the whole clufter as
the fhcU-firti under confideration, not any one of the fingle
tubes ; though he acknowledges that each of thefe tubes is
a perfeft (hell, independent of the reft, and has its proper

inhabitant. Striftnefs in natural hiftory, therefore, tvould
not bear him out, in arranging them among multivalves ; for
they are certainly an univalve ftiell, though many of them
happen always to be found together.

Care muft be had not to confound thefe with the dentalia
and entalia ; for thefe laft are always found fingle ; and the
vermiculi, of the kind here treated of, are always found to-
gether in great numbers, forming clufters of ten inches, and
often much more iu diameter.

Of the vermiculi, which are ftraight, we have eight
fpecies ; of the crooked kind, we have four fpecies ; and
of thofe which are difpofed in a fort of circles, we have nine
fpecies. Hift. Nat. Eclair, p. 354.

According to Da Cofta's arrangement, the vermiculi or
worm-fhells conftitute the third family of univalve ftiells :
and he defines them to be tubular cylindric fhells, fingle, in
mafies together, or adherent to other (hells or bodies ; va-
rioully finuous, by winding or twifting to and fro in a very
irregular manner. Of thefe vermiculi he reckons two genera,
lis. thofe which have no fixed or regular form, as the
common vermiculi, of which, though they are found in
great abundance, there are not many different fpecies ; and
the penecilli or worm-fhells, which, in the whole, or any
particular part, have a determinate regular fhape or ftruc-
ture. There are few fpecies of this genus ; the watering-
pot from the Eaft Indies is the chief kind, and, when perfeft,
IS much valued. There are alfo vermicuh which have con-
camerations, or are divided into chambers by a few or many
tranfverfe plates ; but they are feldom regular, or fet at
equidiftant intervals, and not pierced by a pipe or fiphun-
culus, communicating from chamber to chamber, fo as to
permit the fifh to penetrate more than one chamber or in-
clofure at a time ; in which refpedt they differ from the con-
camerated fhclls, as the nautili, &c. The vermiculi are
frequently found in the folTile ftate ; but there is no fpecies,
that is not known recent, or from the fea. Da Cofta's
Conchol. p. 148. See CoxcHOLOGY.

VERMIFORM IS appendix Cteci, in Anatomy, a fmall
blind procefs connefted with the cKcum. See Intestine.

Vermiformis Procerus, of the cerebellum. See Brain.

VERMIFUGE Substances, in the difeafes of animals,
are all fuch as are found capable of deftroying or expelling
infefts or worms from their bodies. They are of many dif-
ferent forts, as thofe of favin chopped fine, antimony,
calomel, and manv others. See Worms.

VERMIFUGUS, the fame with anthelmintic. See
WoKM-Seed, and /^orm-PoWDERS.

VERMILION, a bright, beautiful red colour; in
great efteem among the ancients, under the denomination of
minium-
There are two kinds of vermilion ; the one natural, the
other faBitious.

The natural is found in fome filver mines in form of a
ruddy fand ; which they prepare and purify by feveral
lotions and coftions. When this is ufed as a colour, no
other preparation is necefTary than a careful levigation with
water on a ftone.

The factitious or common is ijiade of artificial cinnabar,
ground up, as fome fay, with white wine, and afterwards
with the white of eggs : in thk ftate it is made into cakes,
and left to dry. And to fit it for ufe, they grind it up a
fecond time with water, and whites of eggs. To purify
and heighten its colour, fome grind it up with urine, or
fpirits of wine, to which a little faffron is added.

Some alfo pretend to make vermihon of lead, burnt
and wafhed ; or of cerufs,- rubified by fire. But thefe are

not

V E R

V E R

not properly denominated venriilion, but nd lead, iicc
Minium.

It is this lail, however, that feems to be the artificial
minium, or vermilion of the ancients ; and, accordingly,
apothecaries and painters flill give it that name.

The ancient Greek and Latin authors have given divers
fabulous accounts of their mniium ; and feveral of the mo-
derns have adopted their dreams ; the moft rational accounts
are, that Theophraftus attributes the firft invention of
making it to Calhas the Athenian ; who hit upon it in en-
deavouring to draw gold, by fire, out of a red fand, found
in the filver mines, in the year of Rome 249. But Vi-
truvius fays, it was difcovered in the Cilbian fields ; where
it was drawn from a red flone, called by the Greeks
ttnthrax.

We have two kinds of vermilion from Holland ; the one
of a deep red, the other pale ; hut both are in reality the
fame matlt-r, the difference of colour only proceeding from
the ciimahar's being more or lefs ground : when fine ground,
the vermilion is pale ; and this is preferred to the coarfer
and redder.

It is of coiifiderable ufe among the painters in oil, and in
miniature ; aijd likewifc among the ladies, as a fucus, or
paint, to heighten the complexion of fuch as are too pale.

Vermilion is fometimes alfo, though improperly, ufed
for what we otlHiwife call kcrmcs, or fcarlet grain.

VERMILLION Lake, in Geography, a lake of North
America, which extends 6 or 7 miles N.N.W., and by a
narrow flrait communicates with lake Namaycan, that takes
its name from a particular place at the foot of a fall, where
the natives fpear ilurgeon. N. lat. 48' 40'. W. long.
93° 26'.

Vermillion Point, or Cape Townfend, a peninfula in
lake Michigan, which feparates Green bay from the other
part of the lake ; 23 leagues long, and from I to 3 broad.

Vermillion River, one of the principal rivers of Loui-
fiana, in that part of the ftate which is called Attacapas,
and which is bounded S. by the gulf of Mexico, N.W. by
Opeloufas, N.E. by the Alchafalaya, and on the E. by the
Atchafalaya and the lakes belonging to that river. This
diftricl forms a fcalcne triangle, whofe area amounts to
5100 Icjuare miles: the aftual population, afcertained by
the cenlus of 1810, amounts to lefs than two perfons to the
fcpiare mile. The Vermillion river, like the Teche ( which
fee), has its fource in Opeloufari, and enters Attacapas or
Attakapas at the moutli of Ctrrion Crow ; it then runs
fouth about 16 miles, then winds to the weft, and receives
from the fouth the bayou (creek) Tortua, continues weft
eight miles, paffes the ridge of hills, (a ramification of
which winds along each bank to fome diftance,) and afTumes
a fouth-weft courfe, which it maintains 25 miKs. When it
enters the hills, its magnitude juillfies the title of river,
though it has that appellation below the Carrion Crow.
The tide in autumn is perceivable thus high, ttie current of
the river being at all times rather gentle. When it has
completed its fouth-weft courfe, it winds fouth-eaft by fouth
20 miles : the whole length of its comparative courfe in
Attacapas being 69 or 70 miles ; but the diftance, purfuing
the windings of^ the ftream, inuft exceed 100 miles. The
two large prairies, known by the names of Opeloufas and
Attacapas, extend on each fide of the Vermillion, from its
entrance into Attacapas to its egrcfs into the gulf of
Mexico. Wood abounds more on the Vermillion tlian on
tiie Tcche ; and though the foil may be lefs fertile, it is
nevcrthelefs excellent, and the quantity greater on an equal
length of river. There are 80 niileb on the banks of the

Vermillion, which have an extenfion backwards of two miles,
that afford 320 fuperficial miles, or 204,800 acres. Some
of the moft beautiful fettlements yet made in the Attacapas
are upon this river. From the diverfity of foil, and eleva-
tion, none can err in giving the preference, with regard to
beauty of appearance, to the banks of the Vermillion, before
any other river in Loulfiana, fouth of bayou Bceuf. The
lower part of the Vermillion will, without doubt, fuit the
culture of the fugar-cane ; whilft the whole extent of its
banks is well adapted to cotton and corn. The Vermillion,
by its union with the gulf, forms the natural communication
of its inhabitants with the fea. At prcfent the depth of
water through the inlet into the Vermillion will not admit
veffels of very confiderable burthen. Darby's Geog. De-
fcription of the State of Louifiana, Philad. 1816.

Vermillion River, a river of America, which runs into

the Wabalh, N. lat. 40= 5'. W. long. 87° 40' Alfo, a

river of America, which runs into the 'rheakiki, N. lat. 41"
10'. W. long. 88° 40'.— Alfo, a river of America, which
runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 41° 45'. W. long. 82° 12'.

Vermillion Sea. See California.

VERMIN, in Agriculture, a collective term which in-
cludes all the various forts of fmall animals, that are injurious
to the corn, fruit, and other produce of the fanner. The
vermin, rats and mice, ftand foremoft among thofe which,
are the moll prejudicial. It has been ftatcd, that one of the
former eats and dcftroys more than a quart of corn, on the
average, in the courfe of the week ; which amounts to the
vaft quantity of upwards of twenty quarters in the year, for
the fupport of an hundred of them ; .ind this is probably
fewer than the number to be met with, in moft cafes of large
corn-farms ; fo that the real damage is perhaps confiderably
more. The injury fuftaincd ^'om the latter is, in all pro-
bability, nearly equal to that from the former. The loffes,
on a moderate calculation, cannot be lefs than forty pounds
in the year to every large farmer, and half that amount to
thofe of the fm<Jler clafs.

In the field, the barn, and the dairy, thefe fmall vermin
are equally difagreeable, troublcfome, and dcftrufiive, and
are fuppofed to be more mifchievous than moles. Much
care is beftowed, it is faid, on the deftruftion of moles ;
and it might be worth while to endeavour to lefteii the num-
ber of field vermin of this fort, which are in their nature, it
is contended, more injurious to the farmer tiian moles are.
In the rick-yard, the barn, the dwelling-houfc, and fome
other places too, their mifcliievoufnefs is too obvious not to
be noticed. In the dairy they not unfrequentlv commit
great injuries, by fpoiling and dellroyiiig the different pro-
dudts ; and in the harncfs-rooms, and places where fuch
articles are kept, they are not lefs deftrudlive, by eating
into and gnawing the different articles.

The barn and the ftack-yard are, it is faid, ufually put
under the care of the cat ; but to fet a trap for this vermin,
in a barn full of corn, has perhaps been confidered as a thing
fo unlikely to be effective, that it has fcldom been tried.
The fuccefs of traps, where they have been ufed, has been
fufficient to recommend them ; for altliough a total extirpa-
tion of the vermin, in cafes where they have been tried, did
not take place, an annual faving of fome quarters of corn
has been the confeqnence.

It is remarked, that while the number of thefe vermin is
great, almoft any kmd of trap may be ufed, provided if be
propiily baited ; but that for taking a remaining artful few,
a common fhaped round fteel trap, fuited to the fize of the
vermin, has been found to be the moft effedilual.

In order to the complete extirpation (jf thefe and oilier

vermin,,

VERMIN.

vermin, the author of a late Calendar of Hufbandry has,
however, advifed that every farm (hould be well provided
with a competent number of ferrets, and of true vermin-
bred dogs, fuch as are ufually kept for the purpofe ; and
that an hour or two fhould be fpared weekly, and referved
for executing the bufmefs in all accefilble places. The
holes and haunts of the vermin, in and about the premifes,
are to be diligently fought out and difcovered ; trifling re-
wards being given for the purpofe, as an encouragement, by
the mailer. Nothing of a refpite is to be allowed to the
delinquents, but a war of extermination is to be conftantly
kept up and carried on throughout the whole year. In aid
of thefe means, others too may be adopted, when neceflary ;
as thofe of the trap kind, which fhould be of the cage fort,
and not fuch as to endanger the cats, a moil ufeful fort of
domellics, which are fully entitled to care and kindnefs ; the
qualifications of which in this fituation are, that they do not
touch young poultry, and hunt for mere fport, rather than
from the impulfe of hunger ; as eating their prey injures
them, and lefTens their exertions. The ferrets in this view-
are, it is thought, bed kept in huts, in the fame manner as
the rabbits : their food is well known to be any fort of offal
of the flefh kind, with occafionally a little milk and bread
boiled.

The fame means of extirpation and removal apply equally,
it is fuppofed, to the field vermin, polecats, weafels, and
their different varieties ; which, unlefs they be checked,
commit fuch frequent confiderable nightly depredations in
and about farm-yards, as to become highly injurious, taking
away various kinds of poultry in different dates, and fome-
times even young pigs. But it is believed that neither thefe
nor the fox would be heard of near fuch premifes, if they
were well furnifhed and guarded by vermin dogs.

A good method of trapping field vermin has been pro-
pofed by the author of the Rural Economy of the County
of Kent, which is this : a wooden box, refembhng a dog-
kennel, divided in the middle by an open wire partition,
running from end to end, and reaching from the ridge of the
roof of it to the floor ; one fide of which partition is again
divided into two parts or cages, one of them for a rabbit,
and the other for a live fowl to be put into, to allure the
vermin ; the other half formed into a faUing box-trap to
take them in. But it is furely a moft unneceflary piece of
cruelty to expofe a poor wretched fowl or rabbit to the
fight and claws of their dreaded enemy. Kill the baits, and
all is right ; as the fcent of the frefh blood is the greateft
poffible enticement to fuch vermin.

In regard to vipers, efts, lizards, toads, and different
others of any fort of poifonous vermin of the reptile kind,
which are troublefome and prejudicial to the farmer, it is
fuggefted, that if country-people, who are engaged in this
way, would be unanimous and fteady in their endeavours, all
thefe forts of creeping little animals might in time be extin-
guifhed. Would a fingle parifli but make the effort, it is
faid, of rooting out all fuch ufelefs and dangerous vermin,
they would foon find their account in it, and would un-
doubtedly be followed by their adjoining diflrifts. The
only mode is, it is thought, by the allowing of handfome
premiums to thofe who fhall produce the vermin, or who may
difcover their retreats, hiding-places, or their ova or eggs.

In refpeft to the deflruftive vermin birds of prey, and
thofe of other kinds, it may be noticed, that the former,
fuch as carrion-crows, ravens, magpies, kites, hawks, and
fome others, chiefly endanger the poultry, fometimes even
attack lambs, and are often injurious to difeafed fheep, by
picking them in different parts ; while the latter, as jays.

pigeons, rooks, and different forts of fmall birds, are princi-
pally deflruftive of field produce. The firft, as well as
pies, bull-finches, and fome others, are greatly deflruftive
of fruit, and the jay often commits much injury on bean-
crops near harveft-time. Pigeons are particularly injurious i
at feed-time and harveft, by deflroying large quantities of
grain, tares, and feeds, and doing much hurt to the crops.
Rooks are a fort of vermin which do great injury to various
kinds of field-crops as they rife, and at other times ; but
they are thought by fome to be ufeful in devouring the
grub-worm and other infefts. Small birds do much mif-
chief by the deilruftion of grain which they caufe at the
time of fowing, and when the corn becomes nearly ripe ;
befides that which they, in fome cafes, do to fuch build-
ings as are covered with thatch. In fome places they
quit the towns, villages, and fingle houfes, and attack the
corn-fields in flocks of thoufands together, and would foon
clear whole fields if not kept off by proper means. Some
forts of thefe birds feed upon animal as well as vegetable
food, and do good by leffening the number of grubs, cater-
pillars, and butterflies, and much harm by deflroying blof-
foms, fruit, and corn in the fields. Great numbers of
caterpillars are faid to have been found in the flomachs of
fome forts of thefe fmall birds. The befl and mofl effeftual
proteftrion againfl their injuries and depredations, in all thefe
cafes, is probably the gun, though other means, fuch as
rattles, and different contrivances, may be had recourfe to
againft fuch vermin.

Vermin of the worm, grub, fl ng, and other fimilar kinds,
are often very injurious to the farmer's crops. The earth-
worm, the wire-worm, the grub of the cock-chaffer, the Aug,
the turnip-fly, the black canker caterpillar, the black infeft,
which deflroys beans, and the yellow maggot, which feeds
on the ears of wheat, are of numerous families, and not lefs
mifchievous than any of the above vermin. They not un-
frequently cut off turnip, clover, tare, and other fuch crops,
and do great damage to thofe of the corn-kind. There is a
whitifh fort of flug that often prevails much in bean and
pea-flubbles, in flrong land when fovvn with wheat, and in
wheat after clover and beans. It is very deflruftive too to
rye-crops in fome diflrifts and places. The deilruftion of
thefe forts of vermin may be attempted in different ways, as
by having them devoured, in fome cafes, by the introduftion
of fuitable birds for the purpofe, and thofe of ducks and
guUs in other cafes. It has been flated that worms and
flugs which feed on the new roots of corn, and other fuch
matters, may moflly, perhaps, be deflruyed by a clean fal-
low, continued fo long as to occaiion their death by want of
food. It is probably a miflaken notion, it is faid, that lime
fpread in fuch a quantity as to be beneficial to the foil, will
deflroy thefe reptile vermin. In Kent, near the chalk-hills,
and even on a calcareous foil, they lime, it is faid, fre-
quently, and very liberally, without being at all relieved
from the ravages of worms. The earth-worm feeds on
herbs, and as its fize is much larger, fo it is probably more
deflruftive than the wire-worm. See Black Canter,
Grub, Slug, TvRviip-F/y, and WiuE-fVorm.

Vermin of the fly kind, fuch as hornets, wafps, and others,
are often prejudicial to feeding and pafluring flock, and
render team animals, in fome inflances, quite ungovernable ;
they and their nefls fhould of courfe be as much deflroyed
as poflible, in order to prevent fuch inconveniences and acci-
dents. Seee Wasp.

Game may be confidered as a fort of vermin on farms,
which feed upon the farmer's crops, and induce and en-
courage fportfmen to commit much injury and deilruftion

on

VERMIN.

•Ml his propOrty in the purfuit of fuch field-fport. This
fhould be avoided and done away with whenever it can,
as the damage is very confiderable in many cafes. See
Game.

The able writer of the Corre£led Report of tlic Agri-
culture of the County of Middlefcx has eftimated, that the
expences of guardinjj againft, and the damage produced by
■vermin and game, on a farm of two hundred acres, half
arable and li;df grafs, without flioep-walks, amount to fifty
pounds in the year ; which is nearly five fhillings an acre on
the whole quantity of land, which fum will perhaps, it is
fuppofed, average the cultivated corn and grafs land farms
of Britain ; and that, as there are nearly forty miUions of
acres in this (late, thefe depredations amount to ten millions
the year. This is an amount which would hardiy have been
fufpetled by many, and which it is important in different
points of view to prevent as much as poffible.

Vermin, in Gardening, is a term applied to various fmall
animals that are injurious to garden-crops in different cafes,
and as deftrudlive as in the farm-yard.

Rats and mice are of this kind, and do much mifchief in
(beds and other places, where they frequently deftroy beans,
peas, and other feeds ; they ihould therefore be extirpated
as much as poffible in all fuch cafes.

And there are different modes of deftroying them in thefc
inftances ; as by traps, poifon, &c. But Mr. Forfyth ad-
vifes never to ufe arfcnic, or corrofive fublimate for that
purpofe, except under particular circumftances, a^ they are
deadly poifon : nux vomica will, he thinks, generally anfwer
the end as well, without the danger He has fuggclled it
as a very good plan to prevent accidents, to enclofe the traps
in cafes, having holes in the ends of them large enough to
admit rats, but fmall enough to exclude dogs, cats, Sec.

And the following is recommended as a bait for rat-traps
in thefe cafes : Take a pound of good flour, three ounces
of treacle, and fix drops of the oil of carraways : put them
all in a difh, and rub them well together till they are pro-
perly mixed ; then add a pound of crumb of bread. The
traps baited with this mixture (hould be fet as near their
haunts as poffible ; but, for two or three days, fo as not to
fall or ftrike on the rats going in, but letting them have free
liberty to go in and out at pleafure, as this makes them
fearlefs. Some of the bait (hould alfo be laid at the rat-
holes, and a little of it fcattered quite up to the traps, and
fo on to the bridge of each trap, where a handful may be
placed. It may alfo, it is fuggefted, be proper to fcent the
traps with the following mixture, for the purpofe of en-
ticing the rats into them.

Take twenty drops of oil of rhodium, fix or fevcn grains
of mufk, and half an ounce of oil of anifeed ; put tlicm in a
fmall phial, and (hake it well before ufing ; then dip a piece
of twilled paper or rag in the mixture, and rub each end of
the trap with it, if a box-trap, and put two or three drops
on the bridge, leaving the paper or rag in the trap. Of
whatever kind the trap is, it (liould be fcentod ; but once in
a twelvemonth will be fufficient. Then throw fome chaff
mixed witli a little wlicat about the bottom of the trap, in
order to deceive the rats ; for they are very fagacious, and
will not enter a fufpicious place. This will be neceffary to
be done only at the firil time of fetting the traps ; for after
fome rats have been caught, and have watered and dunged in
them, rats will enter boldly when they find others have been
there before them : do not, therefore, wa(h or clean out the
trap, as Ibmc people do before they fcl it again, but let the
dung and urine remain in it. Keep the places whiTC the
traps arc fct as private as poffible ; and when they arc fet

Vol. XXX VTI.

for catching, mix no bread with the bait, as the rats will in
that cafe be apt to carry it away.

It is advifed, that when the holes are found quiet, «ind
that no rats ufe them, to (lop them up with the following
compofition : Take a pint of common tar, half an ounce of
pearl-afhes, an ounce of oil of vitriol, and a good handful of
common fait, mix them all well together, in an old pan. or
pot. Take fome pieces of paper, and lay fome of the above
mixture very thick on them ; then (lop the hoks well up
with them, and build up the mouth of the holes with brick
or (lone, and mortar ; if this be properly done, rats will, he
affcrts, no more approach thefe, while either fmell or tafle
remains in the compofition.

In order to deftroy the rats in places where traps cannot
be fet, he recommends us to take a quart of the above bait,
then lafp into it three nuts of nux vomica, and a quarter of
a pound of crumb of bread, if there was none before : mix
them all well together, and lay it into the moutli of their
holes, and in different places where they frequent ; but firll
give them of the bait without the nux vomica, for three or
four fucceeding nights ; and when they iind it agrees
with them, they will eat that mixed with the nut with
greedincfs.

It is further obferved, that rats are frequently very
troublefome in fewers and drains. In fuch. cafes, arfenic
maybe ufcd with fuccefs, as follows : Take fome dead rats,
and having put fome white arfenic, finely powdered, into an
old pepper-box, (hake a quantity of it on the fore parts of
the dead rats, and put them down the holes or avenues, by
the fides of the fewers at which they come in ; this puts a
(lop to the hve ones coming any further ; for wiien they
perceive arfenic, they will, it is aflerted, retire immediately :
whereas, if they were put down without the arfenic, the
live ones would eat them.

We have, however, found that thefe animals take arfenic
bell when it is prepared, by being finely levigated and mixed
up with very ftrong old cheefe and oatmeal. In order to
deftroy mice, Mr. Forfyth advifes perfons to take a quart
of the bait for rats before there is any bread mixed with it ;
then to take four nuts of nux vomica, and rafp them very
fine, otherwife the mice will pick out the food from it, oa
account of its bitter talle ; rub them well together ; lay
fome of it upon a piece of paper, or, if without doors, on a
piece of tile, removing all other food from the place, and it
will kill all that eat of it. What is not eaten, (hould be
taken away in the morning, and replaced at night. If this
be in a garden, Iheltei it with boards or tiles, that it may not
get wet.

Open traps (hould likewife be fet, as mice are (hy in enter-
ing clofe ones. And care flioiild be taken not to convey
thefe animals into gardens by the draw fitter, or other fimi-
lar materials.

Slugs arc a fort of vermin that are frequently found
harbouring about tlic foundations of walU, and abor.t the
roots of peas, lettuce, &c. They may, Mr. Forfyth thinks,
be picked oil, and killed, by putting them into a pot in
whicli is a little fiiie unflaked lime : or the ground »vhere
they are ftionld be well watered witli foap-fuds .ind urine,
mixed with tobacco-water. When they arc numerous on
the furface of the ground, which frequently happens after
rain, or in a dewy morning, fine undakcd lime thrown over
the borders, &c. will, he contends, deftroy them. But he
prefers the above mixture, which, if the ijround be well
watered with it, will bring them up out of their holes, when
they very foon die ; it will alfo deftroy their eggs, which

ihey always d'pofit in the earth.
H

Snails,

V E R

V E II

Snails, alfo, during the winter, the fame writer alTures us,
gather themfelves together in cluilers ; and in that feafon
are frequently found in great numbers behind wall-trees,
and in holes of the walls. They fliould be carefully picked
off and crufhed, which is the only effeftual way of getting
rid of them. If any (hould efcape, they ftiould be de-
ftroyed as they make their appearance in the fpring. As
they alfo depofit their eggs in the ground, the borders
fhould be well watered in the above manner.

Wafps and flies are highly dellruftive of all forts of fruit ;
therefore, as foon as the wafp and large fle(h-fly make their
2ppearance, it is proper to get ready feveral bottles or
phials ; then mix up grounds of wine or beer, with fwecp-
iags of fugar, honey, or grounds of treacle, and with this
mixture fill the bottles half or three-quarters full ; then place
fome of them at the bottom of the wall, and hang a fuffi-
cient number up by a piece of yellow willow, or pack-
thread, on the nails againft the walls in different places, ob-
ferving to empty them frequently as they fiU with flies and
wafps ; firft pour the liquor into an empty bottle, and then
fhake out the dead infefts, crufhing them with your foot,
that none of them may revive ; then poiu- back the liquor
into the bottles and phials as at firft. In this manner a
great many may be deftroyed, it is fuppofed, before the
fruit becomes ripe. If you begin to hang up the bottles as
foon as you fee the fly, which comes much earlier than the
wafp, you will be able to deflroy great numbers of them,
and will have the bottles ready for the wafps when they
make their appearance. The fly will be found as deftruc-
tive as the wafp to grapes. And when the weather is hot,
and the wafps are numerous, if they do not enter the bottles
faft enough (which will happen when the fruit is very ripe),
a little oil may be put in a cup, and with a feather dipped
in it touch their backs, and they will inftantly drop down ;
when you will find them turned black and green by the
effects of the oil. See Wasp.

Birds attack fruit much when it begins to ripen. The
beft preventive in this cafe is, Mr. Forfyth fuppofes, to
cover the trees with nets, or bunting, a fort of cloth of which
fhips' colours are made. See Vitis.

There are many other vermin of the infeft tribe that are
likewife highly deftruftive to fruits and garden-crops, but
which are noticed under the articles which they are found to
injure in moft cafes. In fome they may be beft deftroyed,
however, by gathering them by the hand as foon as they
begin to appear in a fmall number, by plentiful fteammg or
watering ; in others, by fmoking and powdering with tobacco;
and in others by different compofitions, as thofe of foap-fuds
and fulphiu-, or lime-water, and other fuch matters. Some
are beft taken by artifice, as ear-wigs and others of the fame
kind, as in the cafes of wafps and flies. See Caterpillar,
Aphis, Coccus, Thrips, &c.

Vermin, in Sheep, the different fmall animals which are
troublefome and hurtful to them. The maggots produced
from the ova or eggs of the flefti or fheep-fly, are a fort of
vermin which are to be particularly guarded againft in the
later fummer months, as they are then foon hatched in any
wound, filth, or dirt, that may be in or hang about the fliins
of them, often producing great pain, uneafinefs, and eating
into the flefti and deftroying the ftieep, when not fpeedily
removed. Confequently, when they are feen to be uneafy
and difturbed, to frequent rubbing places, negleft their
food, he down frequently, and bite themfelves with their
teeth, they fliould be carefully examined ; v.-hen, in fome
cafes, large bUftcrs may be difcovered, under which the
vermin are conceded ; or the part is fou]id of a dark colour,

and quite wet ; and even fometimes large holes are eaten
into the bodies of the ftieep.

In all fuch cafes the wool is to be carefully chpped off,
tlie bhfters, when prefent, opened, and the vermin picked
out from the injured parts, which fliould then be gently
waftied, either with foap and water, with fpirits and vinegar,
with lime-water, with ftale urine and black foap, or with
infufion of tobacco, being afterwards anointed with tar, or
the fame fubftance mixed with butter and fulphur or red
precipitate. In this way the vermin are foon removed and
deftroyed, and the ftieep reftored. In order to prevent the
vermin, whenever ftieep are wounded by the ftieers in cUp-
ping, by the bite of dogs, or in any other way, a little tar
ointment is to be applied to the pai-ts.

Dirty layers or paftures are faid to be liable to produce
this kind of vermin, which moft commonly attack lambs, and
often appear about the hips of fuch as are affefted with
loofenefs.

There are other forts of vermin which are very injurious
to ftieep. See Tick.

The fox too is an artful and formidable enemy of ftieep
and poultry, as well as the wild cat, which is extremely
fierce and ftrong, and veiy deftruftive of lambs and fowls.
The foumart is alfo very mifchievous among weak lambs.
Eagles are likewife frequent in the more northern diftrifts,
the ftrength and depredations of which are well known to
ftieep-farmers ; but ravens are probably more deftruftive,
being ready to attack ftieep in all cafes of diftrefs, and ex-
ceedingly quick-fighted in difcovering fuch inftances. All
• thefe forts of vermin ftiould, confequently, be exterminated as
much as poffible, by offering premiums for their claws, Ikins,
&c. and other proper means of different kinds.

VERMINA. See Vermine, and Vermination.

VERMINATION, Verminatio, the aft of breeding
worms, and other vermin ; particularly bots in cattle, &c.

Vermination is fometimes alfo ufed among phyficians,
for a fort of tormina ventris, or wringing of the guts ; in
which the patient is affefted, as if worms were gnawing his
inteftines.

VERMINE, Vermina, a colleftive name, including all
kinds of little animals, or infcfts, which are hurtful or
troublefome to men, beafts, fruits, &c. as worms, lice, fleas,
bugs, caterpillars, ants, flies, &c.

VERMIS, Worm, in Natural Hiflory. See Vermes
and Worms.

Vermis Aureus. See Aphrodita.

Vermis Carukus. See Cjervlxvs.

Vermis Cerebri, the worm in the brain, a name given by
fome writers to an epidemical fever in Hungary, attended
with terrible deliriums.

VERMIVOROUS Animals, are fuch as feed upon
wonns.

VERMONETA, in Botany, Juff. Gen. 343, a manu-
fcript name of Commerfon's, for a fuppofed genus of hi?,
referred by Juflieu to their own Blaekivellia, which we
are much difpofed to unite with Homalium ; fee the
latter.

VERMONT, in Geography, one of the United States of
America, fituated between 40° 42' and 45° N. lat. and
3° 35' and 5° 27' E. long, from Waftiington ; and bounded
on the N. by Lower Canada, S. by Maffachufetts, E. by
Connefticut river, which divides it from New Hampftiire,
and W. by New York. Its extent from N. to S. is 152
miles, and its breadth from E. to W. 60 miles : its area is
8700 fquare miles, or 5,568,000 acres. It is divided into
thirteen counties, containing the number of townftiips and

inhabitants.

VERMONT.

iuliabitants, together with the chief towns, exhibited in the
following

Topographical ThMe.

Counties. Ti

jwnftiliu.

Population

Addifon

24

19.993

Bennington

16

15.893

Caledonia

23

18,730

Chittenden

24

18,120

Eflex

14

3.087-

Franklin

19

16,427

Grand Ifie

5

3.44S

Jefferfou*

Orange

20

25.247

Orleans

23

5,830

Rutland

27

29,486

Windham

24

26,760

Windfcr

23

34.879

Cliief:

Middlebnry

715

Bennington
Danville

6u

771

Burlington

804

Guildhall

685

St. Albans

729

North Hero

82

Montpelier.

Chelfca

745

Craft (bury

832

Rutland

658

Brattleborough

786

Windfor

898

242 217.89s

* Laid out fince the cenfus was taken.

The number of inhabitants returned in the fchedule of
Mr. J. WiUard, marflial, January 26th, A. D. 181 1,
»s 217,913.

In each townfhip is a referve of two portions of land,
each of 350 acres, one for the fupport of public fchools, and
the other to be given in fee to the firil minifter who fettled
in the townfhip. An exteniive chain of high mountains
runs through the middle of this ftate, nearly S. and N., be-
tween Connefticut river and lake Champlain. The natural
produce of this chain of mountains is hemlock, pine, Ipruce,
and other evergreens ; and on this account, as it has always
a green appearance, it is denominated " Ver Mons," or
" Green Mountain." On fome high parts of it the fnow
lies till May or June. The country, on the E. fide of the
mountain, is watered by Paupanhoofak, Quechey, Welds,
Wliite, Black, and Weil rivers ; and on the W. fide by the
La Moille and Onion rivers, and Oiter creek, which dif-
charge themfelves by one mouth into lake Champlain, 20
or 30 miles S. of St. John's. The adjacent lands are ex-
cellent in quality, and annually enriched by the inundation
of the water, occafioned by the melting of the fnow on the
Green mountains. The general afpeft of the country is
hilly, but it has many rich valleys, which furnifh very good
pallurage for cattle, and which, contralled with the hills,
afford beautiful fcenery. Timber-trees of various kinds are
abundant ; wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn, are culti-
vated by the inhabitants : though tiie corn on high grounds
is fometimcs liable to be damaged by the frofts. Flax and
hemp are raifed in confiderabfe quantities : and potatoes,
pumpkins, together with garden -roots and vegetables, are
plentiful. The fugar-maple affords a large fupply of ex-
cellent fugar. The metals and minerals of this country are
iron, lead, copperas, flint, marble, pipe-clay, and vitriol.
The trade of Vermont is principally carried on with Bofton,
Portland, Hartford, and New York ; whither the inhabit-
ants export horfes, beef, pork, biftter, cheefe, wlieat, flour,
iron, nails, pot and pearl afhes. The climate refemblcs that
of New Hampfhire, and is upon the whole very healthy : the
winters, however, are long and fevere, and the fummers hot.
The inhabitants are for the moft part emigrants from Con-
nefticut and Maffachufetta, and their dcfccndants. The
only foreigners are Scots, who have formed a fettlement.
A» to the character, manners, cuiloms, laws, policy, and

religion of the people in Vermont, we need only fay thut
they are Ncw-Englandmen.

B3fore the late war, this traft of country was claimed
both by New York and New Hampfhire ; but upon the
commencement of hoftilities between Great Britain and her
colonies, the inhabitants confidered themfelves as free from
any legal jurifdiftion, and affociating together, formed for
themfelves a conftitutional government ; and before it was
acknowledged by congrefs on the 4th of March, 1 79 1 , as the
fourteenth ftate; they commenced cheir political independent
exiflence as a feparate government in the year 1777. On
the 15th of December in this year, their reprefcntatives, in
convention at Windfor, declared that the territory called
Vermont, was and of right ought to be a free and inde-
pendent ftate ; and for the purpofe of maintaining reg\ilar
government in the fame, they made a folemn declaration of
their rights, and ratified a conftitution, of which the follow-
ing is an abftraft.

Their declaration, which makes a part of their conftitu-
tion, afferts that all m.en are born equally free — with equal
rights, and ought to enjoy liberty of confcience — freedom of
the prefs — trial by jury — power to form new ftatesin vacant
countries, and to regulate their own internal police : that all
eleftions ought to be free : that all power is originally in the
people : that government ought to be inftituted for the
common benefit of the community, and that the com-
munity have a right to reform or abolifh government : that
every member of fociety hath a right to proteftion of life,
liberty, and property ; and in return is bound to contribute
his proportion of the expence of that proteftion, and yield
his perfonal fervice when neceffary : that he fhall not be
obliged to give evidence againft himfelf : that the people
have a right to bear arms, but no ftanding armies fhall be
maintained in time of peace : that the people have a light to
hold themfelves, their houfes, papers, and pofleffions free
from fearch or feizure ; and therefore warrants without
oaths firft made, affording fufficient foundation for them, r.re
contrary to that right, and ought not to be granted : that no
perfon fhall be liable to be tranfported oat of this ftate for
trial for any offence committed within this ftate, &c.

By the frame of government, the fupreme legiflative
power is vcfted in a houfe of reprefcntatives of the freemen of
the ftate of Vermont, to be chofen annually by the freemen
on the flrft Tuefday in September, and to meet the fecond
Thurfday of the fucceeding Oftober : this body is vefted
with all the powers neceffary for the legiflature of a free
ftate : two-thirds of the whole number of reprefcntatives
elefted, make a quorum.

Each inhabited town throughout the ftate has a right 10
fend one reprefcntative to the affembly.

The fupreme executive power is vefted in a governor,
lieutenant-governor, and twelve counfcllors, to be chofen an-
nually in the fame manner, and vefted with the fame powers
as in Connefticut.

Every perfon of the age of twenty-one years, who has re-
fided in the ftate one whole year next before the cleftion of
reprefcntatives, and is of a quiet, peaceable behaviour, a;id
will bind himfelf by his oath, to do what he fhall in con-
fcience judge to be moft conducive to the beft good of tlie
ftate, fhall be entitled to all the privileges of a freeman of
this ftate.

Each member of the houfe of reprefcntatives, before he
takes his feat, muft declare his belief in one God, in future
rewards and punifhments, and in the divinity of the fcrip-
tures of the Old and New Teftament, and muft profefi the
Proteftant religion.

H 2 Courts

V E R

V E R

Courts of juftice are to be cIlabliHicd in every county
throughout the ftate.

The fupretne court, and the fcveral courts of common
pleas of this ftate, befides the powers ufually cxercifed by
fuch courts, have the powers of a court of chancery, fo far
as relates to perpetuating teftimony, obtaining evidence from
places not within the ftate, and the care of the perfons and
eftates of thofe who are non compotes mentis, &c. All profe-
cutions are to be commenced in the name, and by the autho-
rity of the freemen of the ftate of Vermont. The legiflature
is to regulate entails fo as to prevent perpetuities.

All field and ftaff-officers, and commiflioned officers of the
army, and all general officers of the mihtia, (hall be chofen
by the general aifembly, and be commiffioncd by the
governor.

Common fchools and academics are liberally encouraged
in Vermont; and in 1800 a college was incorporated in
Middleburg, which is now in a flouriftiing ftate. See
College. Morfe. Melifh.

VERN, a town of France, in the department of the
Dordogne ; 10 miles S. of Perigueux. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Mayne and Loire ; 6 miles
S. of Segre.

Vekn', or Vernde, or IVerna, a town of Weftplialia,
in the biftiopric of Paderborn ; 2 miles W.N.W. of Sal/-
kotten.

VERNACIA, Vexacla, Ven'iatia, Venwtin, or Vent-
ana, in jtncient Geography, a town of Spain, uiiou the route
from Bracara to Ailuria, between Complutica and Pctavo-
nium. Anton. Itin.

VERNACULAR is applied to any thing that is pecu-
liar to fome one country.

Whence, difeafes which reign moil in any particular na-
tion, province, or diftrift, are fomctimes called vernacular
difeafes; though more frequently fw//m;V difeafes.

Such are the plica Polonica, Jcorbiitus , tarantifm, &c.

VERNAL, fomething belonging to the Ipring feafon.
(See Spring.) Hence, vernal leaves are tliofe leaves of
plants which come up in the fpring, &c.

Vernal Signs and Equinox. See Sign and Equinox.

Vernal Grafs, in Botany. See Anthoxanthum, and
S'WT.s.T-fcenlett Vernal Grafs.

Vernal, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean,
near the coaft of Mexico. N. lat. 16' 35'. W. long.

95° 50'.

VERNAMO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 35 miles N.W. of Wexio.

VERNANTOIS, a town of France, in the department of
"the .Tura ; 3 miles S. of Lons le Saulnier.

VERNASSA, a town of Genoa; 5 miles S.W. of
Spezza.

VERNE, a town of France, in the department of the
Doubs ; 3 miles N.of Beaiime les Dames.

VERNET, Joseph, in Biography, the beft landfcape
painter of the French fchool, was born at Avignon in 1 7 12.
He was educated in his native country, and afterwards fent
to Rome, where he ftudied under Adrian Manglard, a painter
of fea-pieces and landfcapes of fome note. He foon fur-
paffed his inftruftor, and the ftyle which he adopted was as
elofe an imitation of nature as he knew how to make ; and
his views of Rome and Naples, &c. will always plcafe, from
the frelhnefs and fpirit with which they are painted. His
colouring, however, is not exaftly true ; the hues are too
pofitive and crude, and lack the foftnefs and delicacy of
Claude or Wilfon ; but his compofitions are excellently
arranged, and he gave great truth of aftion to water ; he
' 6

alfo adorned his pifturcs with groups of figures, arranged
with tafte and freely executed.

He remained many years in Italy, till at length the repu-
tation he had acquired induced Louis XIV. to invite him
to return to France, where he was engaged to paint a fet of
views of the fea-ports of that kingdom. However correft
thefe views may be, it is evident that Vernet did not labour
con amore at them, as they by no means rival the pictures he
painted of other fubjefts, where he was more free to follow
his own tafte. He was very much employed and honoured,
and enjoyed the exercife of his talents till he arrived at the
age of 77, when he died, in 1786.

Vernet, in 'Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eaft Pyrenees ; 4 miles S. of Prades.

Vernet k Bas, a town of France, in the department of
tlie Allier ; 1 3 miles N. of Digne.

VERNEUIL, a town of France, and principal place of
a diilrift, in the department of the Eure ; 18 miles W. of
Dreux. N. lat. 48° 43'. E. long. i'. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Allier; 15 miles E. of
Montmarault.

VERNEY, Guichakd-Josepii du, in Biography, an
eminent anatomift, was the fon of a phyfician at Feurs in
Forez, and born in 1648. From Avignon, where he ftu-
died medicine for five years, he removed to Paris in 1667,
and there acquired high reputation, not only as an anatomical
demonftrator, but as an eloquent lefturer. His manner was
ardent and interefting, and this, together with his youth and
agreeable perfon, rendered the ftudy of anatomy fafliionable.
After his admiflion into the Academy of Sciences in 1676,
he employed himfelf in an affiduous profecution of I he na-
tural hillory oi animals, and the refult of his refearches may
be found in the Memoirs of the Academy. About this time
he was engaged in communicating anatomical inftruftion to
the dauphin and his learned attendants ; and in 1679 he was
nominated profeftor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens, where
his auditors were very numerous, many of whom were
foreigners. In this and the following year he was occupied
in Lower Brittany and on the coaft of Baj-onne in the diftec-
tion of fifties. His work entitled " Traite de I'Organe de
I'Ouie, contenant le Strufture, les Ufages, et les Maladies
de toutes les Parties de TOreille," was publifhed in 1683,
and tranllated into various languages. In his anatomical
refearches he was indefatigable, and he made many difco-
veries, the honour of which has been claimed by others.
Having abfented himfelf for a long time from the meetings
of the Academy, he returned to it again, in his 80th year,
on the repubhcation of his Hiftory of Animals, and entered
into its bufinefs with his former vivacity. In advanced age
he undertook a work on ir.fefts and reptiles ; and though
he was afflifted with a pulmonary complaint, he expofed
himfelf to the injurious effefts of the damp and night air,
in order to obferve the aftions of fnails, with a view to the
perfeAion of the w'ork in which he was engaged. Although
his health could not but be impaired by this pradlice, his life
was prolonged to his Szd year, as he died in September
1730. He bequeathed his valuable anatomical preparations
to the Academy, leaving a character held in high eftimation
by contemporary anatomifts and phyfiologifts, and by all who
had enjoyed the benefit of his inftruftion in their youth.
After his death, Senac pubhftied from his MSS. " Traite des
Maladies des Os," in 2 vols. l2rao. ; and all his memoirs and
pofthumous papers were collefted in his " CEuvres Ana-
tomiques," 2 vols. 410. Paris, 1761, publifiicd by Berlin, to
whom his MS. remains were entrufted by Senac. Haller.
Gen. Biog.

VERNI,

V E R

VERNI, in Geography, a town of the republic of Lucca ;
12 mik-s N. of Lucca. „ „

VERNIA, in Ancient Geography, a name which bulta-
thius gives to one of the Britift illes, fuppofed by Ortehus
to have been Hibernia. „ , , t c ^

■ VERNICIA, in Botany, fo called by Loureiro, trom
^,erms, varnirti, becaufe the nuts of this tree afford by pret-
furea kind of oily varnifn, either ufed by .tfelf to proteft
wood from the weather, or employed to f d"'f ^f/'^Vr r!
Chinefe or Japan varnilh.-Loureir. Cochmch. 5S6^Llals
and order, Monoecia Monadelphia. , Nat. Ord. Tncocct,

Linn. Euphorbia, JufT. . , . j j „iv

Gen. Ch Male, Cnl. Periaoth tubular, m two rounded, eredt
fegments. Cor. bell-fliaped, of five oblong fpreading petals,
longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten, combmed at the
bafe, the inner ones longeft ; anthers as many, arrow-fliaped.
Female flowers few, on the fame branch, Ca. and C«r.
unobferved. P^/?. Germcn fuperior, roundifli, three-lobed ;
ftyle none ; ftigma obtufe, three-cleft. Pmr. Drupa round-
ifli, warty. Seed. Nut bony, bluntly triangular, rugged, ot
three cells, with an ovate-oblong kernel in each.

Eir. Ch. Male, Calyx two-lobed. Petals five. Stamens
ten. -Female, Calyx .... Corolla . . . . St.gma obtufe,
three-cleft. Drupa warty, with a triangular tln-ee celled nut.
I. V. montana. Cay deau fon, of the Coch.nchinefe.
Tone x6, of the Chinefc.-Native of mountainous woods in
Cochinchina, as well as in China. A large tree with amend-
ing branches. Lea.es fcattered ftalked, fl.ghtly heart-

fliaped, pointed, entire, undulated, f'J'°<^;V.P"r/'" J/i
two glands at the infertion of the jootjlalk. Fh-^'er-Jialks
terminal, many-flowered, (hort. Flo'wers ^^t.

The wood IS of little ufe for building. The nuts afford
a copious expreffed oil, which is yellow, vifcid, tranfparent
moderately liquid, ufed as a fort of varmili for arrows, and
any wood expofed to the weather. It alfo ferves to increafe
the bulk of the far more valuable Chinele varni h, obtained
from the Augia of Loureiro ; as well as to render that lub-
ftance more fluid and manageable. For lamps it is "Mel^, be-
caufe it burns too fiercely and confumes too fpeedily— We
have not been able to reduce tliis plant to any known genus.
All our knowledge refpeding it is derived f/om Loureiro

VERNIER, is a graduated index which lubdivides the
fmalleft divifions on any ftraight or circular fcale, in the
reading of which greater accuracy is reqmred, than can be
obtained by fimple eftimation of a fradional part, as indi-
cated by a pointer, or fiducial edge. The vernier vvas hril
invented by Pierre Vernier of Franche Comte, and made
known to the world at Bruxclles {or Brufl-els) in the year
1 6? I, through the medium of a pamphlet entitled l.a Uon-
ftruftion, I'Ufage, ttles Proprietes du Quadrant nouveau dc
Mathematique," &c. Itfoon gained the preference over the
fcale of Nonius, which was a circular diagonal fcale, and
which by fome writers is yet confounded with a Vernier s
index, though there is no greater refemblance between the
two, than exifts between the dial of a clock and the hand
that points to it. The vernier is applicable to any ftraight
or circular line, provided the divifions be equal ; but the con-
trivance of Nonius was in the graduated line or fcale itlelt,
and required the aid of a fiducial edge as an index. We
have (riven the reprefentation of a wrm^r in feveral ot our
aftronomical plates, when we were defcribing CnuMC,
Equatorial, QuADHANT,TKANsiT-/,^r»mc«/, and 1 iiKO-
DOLITE, therefore it will not be neceiTary to introduce any
other figure for the purpofe of lUuitrat.on ; particularly
as X.\^e principle of its application can be made clearly intel-
ligible by cither arithmetical or algebraical notation. Let
us fuppofe two lines, either ftraight or portions of circles, to

V E R

be exatlly alike in dimeniions, one called A, and the other B,
and let one of them be divided into more equal parts than the
other by unity ; then will the difference of any two of the
equal parts of the two lines, or arcs refpeaively, be a frac-
tion, the numerator of which is the common length of the
equal lines, or arcs, and the denominator the produd of the
numbers of parts into which each is divided. For if we
put A for the common length of the equal lines, or arcs,
with « and n -f- I for the equal parts into which each is
divided refpeftivcly, the length of the divifions of each will

be — and

n + 1

and their difference — —
n

n -H I

A

n X n + 1

To exemplify this principle in an arc of fmall radius, let
each degree be divided by an engine into three parts, of
each 2o', and let it be required that the vernier fliall read to
the accuracy of one minute ; in this cafe the fhort fcale of
the vernier muft be divided into 20 parts, and,the equal arc
on the hmb of the inftrument either into 21 or 19 parts, fo
that the diff'erence of the two equal arcs, in divifions, may
be = I ; if 21, the former number, is adopted, the reading
will be in a backward diredion ; but if the latter {-viz. 1 9),
it will be forward ; let the arc on the hmb be 6° 20', and let
each degree be divided into three parts, of 20' each ; alfo let
19 be the number of fuch parts or divifions; and let the
equal arc on the vernier be divided into 20 equal parts ;
then n = 19, and « -t- I = 20 will make a difl'erence be-
tween a fingle divifion of the limb, and one of the vernier

_ ^°^°' = ^ = i', as was required. This dijerence

19 X 20 380
becomes the index for fubdividing the fmalleft divided fpace
of the limb, and it is afcertained how often it muii: be taken,
by infpcdling the place on the divided vernier, where a ftroke
oil it exaaiy coincides with a dividing ftroke on the divided
limb of the inftrument ; for inftance, if the zero, or ftroke
marked o, be the coincident one, the reading may be had
from the divifions of the limb only, without any addition
from the vernier ; but if the coincidence happens at any
other place, fay at ftroke 5, ftroke 8, or ilrokc 10, as num-
bered on the vernier, then 5', or 8', or lo', as the cafe may
be, muft be added, as the meafure of a fraa.onal part of a
divifion, to the meafure read from the divifions only, that
are contained between zero on the lim.b and zero on the
vernier: the difl'erence, which we have faid is = l' when
taken once, is 5' when taken five times, and 8' when taken
eight times ; and as the point of coincidence can never be
miftaken, wherever it may fall, it will always determine how
many minutes muft be added for the fradtional portion of a
divifion, that zero of the vernier has advanced into an entire
divifion ; and as the eye will form a rough judgment at once,
whether zero of the vernier is near ^, -J, \, j, or j ot a Ipace
on the limb, this notice will at once guide the cbiervcr
to that part of the vernier's fcale, where the coincideiKe
will be immediately found ; for as zero of the vernier ad-
vanccs in any divifion of the limb, by the flow motion of the
taneent-fcrew of any inftrument, the point of coincidence
of the ftrokes of the two arcs advances with it. till the ftroke
at zero becomes itfelf coincident with a new dividing ftroke
of the arc on the limb, which coincidence denotes the addi-
tion of another 20', in onr example, without reference to the
vernier: but ftiould there be any doubt about the exaai ti.de
of the coincidence, 20". 30", "r 40". -^ay be taken mftead
of the laft minute, accordingly as the eye can bcft indge^^

VERNIER.

the fmall quantity fliort of perfeA coincidence ; and examin-
ing the places of the preceding and following ftrokes will
greatly affift in forming this judgniient.

If we were to fubftitute 21 for 19 fpaces on the limb,
the refult would be the fame, with the inconvenience of
reading backwards, and of fubtrafting inftead of adding ;
7° _ 420' _
420

for

as before ; but inftruments of

21 X 20

modern conftruftion are exempt from this inconvenience, by
having always one more divilion on the fcale of the vernier,
than on the equal arc of the liir.b.

In Troughton's fnuff-box fextant, which is a ver)"^ con-
venient inftrument for the pocket, the radius of the divided
arc is only about ij inch, and the degree is divided, there-
fore, into two fpaces only, fo that 30' are neceffarily indi-
cated by the vernier ; and as 29 fpaces on the limb are taken
equal to 30 on the vernier, the fmallell quantity indicated

. 14° 30' 870' , ^ r , , ,■ r ,

IS z= — ■ :^ 1 , as before ; and the readincroi the

29 X 30 870 ^

coincidences that indicate the laft 30' is progrefllve, like the
reading on the limb of the inftrument.

In the common ebony fextant, the degree is fometimes di-
vided into four parts, by reafon of the increafed length of the
radius ; confequently, when the reading is in a forward direc-
tion, fifteen divifionson the vernier occupy the fame arc as four-
teen on the limb ; and the fmalleft. quantity indicated thereby is

3° 30' 210'
■ = =1'; but the brafs fextants made and

14 X 15 210

divided by the beft makers, have the minute fubdivided into
twenty, fifteen, ten, or even five feconds, according to the
length of the radius, by means of a vernier with divifions and
fubdivifions, afting with divifions and fubdivifions on the
limb, which is a refinement of the original invention, intro-
duced by Troughton, in confequence of the fuperior excel-
lence of modern dividing. We have now before us one of
Ramfden's beft brafs fextants of 95 inches radius, on the
limb of which the degree is divided into three parts, and
40 divifions on the arc of the vernier meafure 39 divifions

780' 46800"

on the limb ; therefore

13

30"

39 X 40 1560 1560
is the fmalleft quantity that the vernier will indicate, and
every alternate ftroke thereon counts one minute as the coin-
cidence advances. This mode of reading the vernier doubles
its former accuracy. But on the hmb of this fame inftru-
ment, the late Mr. W. Walker prevailed on Mr. Troughton
to divide a fecond arc, within the former, which by our mea-
furement is only of nine inches radius : in this inner arc,
which reads with the inner arc of the vernier, the degree is
firft divided into halves, and then each half is fubdivided into
five fmaller divifions, by fhorter ftrokes very delicately cut,
fo that the degree is di\'ided into ten fmall fpaces, of 6' each,
which are to be read before the vernier's fubdivifion of one
of thefe fpaces is examined. On the fcale of the inner
vernier are 7 2 fmall divifions, co-extenfive with 7 1 on the
limb ; and as each of thefe is = &, we have 71 x & = 426',
or 25560" for the whole arc of meafurement : confequently

25560" 25560"

= = 5" is the fmalleft quantity that can

71 X 72 5112 n 7

be indicated by fuch a vernier, and accordingly we obferve
on the fcale of the Vernier twelve fmall or fubdividing fpaces
between each minute ftroke ; i. e. every twelfth ftroke is a
long one, and they are numbered i, 2, 3, &c. up to 6, which
is the value of one of the faialleft divifions on the limb, and

8

confequently the value of each fubdivifion on the fcale is t't
of i', or 5" : and yet, by the help of a high magnifier, placed
in the centre of an illuminating rcfleftor of plaifter of Paris,
this fmall quantity may be clearly difcriminated. When
Ramfden firft faw this wonderful application of the powers
of the dividing engine, he called his workmen together, to
witnefs what he at firft confidered the folly of attempting
greater accuracy than was prafticablc ; but a clofe examina-
tion of the divifions convinced him, that his preconceived
opinion had ftood in the way even of his own improvements.

Sometimes a divided head or nut has been fixed on the
end of the tangent-fcrew of flow motion, particularly by the
older makers of pillar and mural aftronomical quadrants, in
order to fubdivide the divifions of the vernier, as may be feen
at Greenwich, Richmond, and other obfervatories ; but when
this apparatus has been in ufe fome time, the parts become loofe
and inaccurate, even allowing that the mealuring fcrew itfelf
can be confidered as perfeft in all refpefts. On an examina-
tion of fome of Graham's, the Siflbns' and Bird's quadrants,
we find that though the accuracy of i'' is profefTed by the
conftruftion, yet very little dependence can be placed on
fuch profeffion after the parts have been for years in ufe. Of
this conclufion Ramfden was no doubt fenfible, when he
introduced into his larger inftruments the microfcopic read-
ings, with a good fcrew at the focus of the eye-piece of a
compound microfcope, where there is not fo much ftrefs on
the fcrew as at the periphery of the arc, where the fcrew
forms alfo a part of the clamping apparatus. To this adop-
tion of the ufe of a compound microfcope, in conjunftion
with the fubfequent improvements in the art of dividing,
much of the claim to fuperior excellence in our Englifh aftro-
nomical inftruments is to be attributed, which claim is ftill
further fupported by the invention of the achromatic objeft-
glafs and improved eye-pieces of the telefcopic portion.

Hitherto we have confidered the principle and application
of a fingle vernier only, which is in itfelf an ufeful and
beautiful contrivance ; and, as we have faid, may be ap-
plied with advantage to fubdivide a ftraight line ; as, for in-
ftance, the fcale of a barometer into hundredth parts of an
ir.ch, or the fcale of Dollond's divided objeft-glafs micro-
meter into the five-hundredth parts, or more ; but with an
entire circle that is graduated all round, the accuracy of
an obfervation is greatly augmented, nay enfured, by the
ule of different verniers reading at different parts of the
limb at the fame time. At firft two diametrically oppofite
verniers were introduced, as has been afferted, by one of the
SifTons, though, we underiland, not with a view to reading
at oppofite fides of the circle, by way of correfting the ob-
fervation by an average ; feeing that the remote end of the
vernier bar had only a fingle ftroke anfwering to zero of the
other ; but fubfequently, in tranfit and other inftruments
ufed with a fpirit-level, the double vernier became a valuable
appendage, partiqularly when the conftruftion of the inftru-
ment admitted of inverfion of the pofition of the axis, fo
as to procure a double obfervation ; and thence the true
zero of the graduation of the meafuriiig limb. This ufeful
property was extended, we believe, by Troughton, firft by
introducing four, and then, with equal advantage, three
equidiftant verniers of fimilar powers. We have fhewn the
great ufe of additional verniers, at confiderable length,
under our article Circle, particularly with refpeft to the
property that three pofTefs of correfting for the excentricity
as well as inequality of the divifions of a circular inftrj-
ment ; and that as great accuracy may be expefted from
one fro^^ obfervation with Troughton's reflefting circle, or
from a pair of reverfed obfervations with a theodolite, with
either circle, that has three verniers, as can be obtained by

a repe.

V E R

V E R

a repetition of obfcivatioiis on the repeating circle ; for, by
the mode in which Troughton's circular inflruinents are
ufcd, the readings will be had at fix different points of the
circle, though very little time is expended in making the
obfervations. It is hardly neceiTary to add liere, that when
an inftr,ument is of the refledling kind, its divilions are
doubly numerous for the fame radius, when compared
with an inftrument that meafures only by diredl vifion ; and
that therefore the divifions on the vernier mud be calculated
to have their dimenfions accordingly. In Troughton's re-
flefting circle of five inches radius, the degree is divided into
three parts, and fifty-nine of thefe are commenfurate with
fixty on the fcale of each of the three verniers ; therefore
the excefs of a fpace on the limb over, one on the 'Vernier is

IO° 40' 70800" „ , . , . , r „ n

— — = = 20 , which IS the Imallelt quantity

59 X 60 3540

that a fingle vernier will indicate ; but as there are fix read-
ings in the crofled obfervation, which obfervation annihilates
the errors of zero, and of the darkening glafles when ufed,
it is to be inferred that the rcfult will be accurate to

20"

-— , or little more than tLres feconds, if we difregard the

probable errors of reading, and of taking contafts in the
obfervation, common to all inftruments. The figures of
the vernier fcales in this circle count both ways, from each
end, becanfe the figures read both to the right and left of
zero on the limb, but there can be no miftake if the figures
of the vernier are counted the fame way that the liml) of the
circle reads. Formerly the zero of the vernier was placed
at the middle of its fcale ; and when it read out at one end,
it commenced at the other, and finifhed again in tlie middle ;
but this method, being liable to mifapprehenfion, is now
difcontinued.

In an eighteen -inch aflronomical circle, by Troughton, at
prefent under our examination, which has four verniers at
equal diftances, and turns in azimuth, the degree is divided
by Engine into twelve divifions, of which 59 fill the fame
arc as 60 on the verniers refpeftively ; hence we have 59 x 5'
^ 295', or 17700" for the numerator, and 59 x 60 =

q", the fmalleft

? ?40 for the denominator, and •

354°

quantity that one vernier will indicate ; and accordingly
the fpace between zero and i' on the vernier is fiibdivided
in 12 fmaller fpaccs, fo that each fucceflive coincidence will
mark out 5" on each feparate vernier ; but as there are four
verniers, and as the circle will rcverfe in pofition iiy means
of the azimuthal motion, there will be virtually eight read-
ings from which to take an average of 5", fo that the pro-
bable accuracy rcfulting from fuch average comes ivilhin the
fecond, and would have done fo if there had been only three
verniers. Hence the advantage gained over the average of
the verniers by microfcopic readings, is probably not fo great
as is generally fuppofed.

VERNIO, in Geography, a town of Etruria ; 1 1 miles
N.W. of Pifloya.

VERNIS Maktin. See Co/a/ Varnish.

VERNISH. See Varnish.

VERNISSON, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Loing, near Montargis.

VERNODUBRUM, in /Indent Geography, a river of
GaUia Narbonnenfis. Pliny.

VERNOIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mayne and Loire ; 14 miles S.E. of
Bauge.

VERNON, in Bingrnphy, an Englifli finger, brought up

at St. Paul's under Savage, was felefted from among the
chorillers of that cathedral, in 1750, to perform the part of
Puck the fairy in Queen Mab. When his voice broke into
a tolerable tenor, he was engaged at Drury-lanc theatre to
fupply the place of Lowe, who was degraded into a finger
at Sadler's Wells and Cuper's Gardens. Vernon, with a
voice much inferior to that of Lowe at his beft, was a mucli
better mufician and adlor, and had not only all Lowe's parts
afligned to him at Drury-lane, but fucceeded him at Vaux-
hall, where, and at the theatre, he continued to perform till
the time of his death.

Vernon was not only the profefiional fucceflbr to Lowe,
but heir to his imprudence and debauchery.

Vernon, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure, on the fouth fide of the Seine ; 15 miles
E.N.E. of Evreux.

Vernon, formerly Hinfdah, a town of America, in Wind-
ham county and ftate of Vermont, on the W. bank of Con-
nefticut river ; containing 1 159 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town
of Suflex county, in the Hate of New Jerfey, 2 1 miles N.E.
of Newtown ; containing 1 708 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town
of Trumbull county, in the diftrift of Ohio ; containing
606 inhabitants.

Vernon, Mount. See Mount Vernon.

VERNONBURG, a town of the ftate of Georgia ; 1 1
miles S. of Savanna.

VERNONIA, in Botany, was fo named by Schreber,
in memory of Mr. William Vernon, fellow of St. Peter's
college, Cambridge, who towards the end of the fevcnteenth
century made a voyage to Maryland, in company with Dr.
David Kreig, a German phyfician, of which botany was
the principal objeft. Their herbarium, confifting, it is faid,
of feveral hundred new plants, came into the pofieffion of
fir Hans Sloane, and contributed to enrich the iupplcment,
or third volume, of Ray's H'ljlorui Plantarum. A North
American genus therefore is peculiarly proper to comme-
morate Mr. Vernon ; whofc merits as an accurate and in-
duftrious EngHfh botanift are, moreover, recorded by Ray
in the preface to his Syttopfis, ed. 2d, and his name often
occurs in the cryptogamic part of that work. We find no
further mention of this gentleman, nor does he appear any-
where as an author Schreb. Gen. 541. Willd. Sp. PI.

V. 3. 1632. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.
502. Michaux Boreal. -Amer. v. 2. 94. Purfh 511 —
Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-itquaUs. Nat. Ord.
Compofita capitatte, Linn. CinarocephaU, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, imbricated, with nume-
rous, ovato-lanceolate, pointed, coloured fcales. Cor. com-
pound, uniform, all the florets, tubular, equal and perfeft,
of one petal, funnel-fliaped ; the tube inflexed ; limb with
five recurved fegments. Stam. Filaments five, capillary,
very (hort ; antliers united into a cylindrical tube. P'lJI.
Germen oblong ; flyle thread-fliaped, the length of the fta-
mcns ; ftigmas two, reflexed. Peru, none, the calyx re-
maining unchanged. Seeds folitary, ovate. Down capil-
lary, coloured, feflilo, longer than tlie calyx, furrounded at
its bafe witli a vej-y (hurt crown, of many chaffy brillles.
Recept. naked, flat.

Elf. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx ovate, imbricated.
Florets tubular, five-cleft. Seed-down double ; the outer
chaffy, fliort ; inner capillary.

The fpecies of this geiuis, as far as they were known to
Linnarus or JulTieu, were referred by both to Sehratula ;
fee that article and Liatri.s. Thefe genera differ very
clearly from Vern'miii in their featlicry feed-down, deftituie
of furrounding fcah s or brillles, and the firll of them has,
moreover, either a fcaly or a villous receptacle. Seven fpo

cics

V E R

V E R

cies of Virnonta have been determined, all of thdm, except
one, natives of North America, and all herbaceous and per-
ennial, except that one, which is annual and of Eaft Indian
origin.

l.W.tioveboraanfis. Long-leaved Vernonia. Willd. n. i.
Ait. n. I. Purfli 11.5. Bigelow Boft. 187. ( Serratula
noveboracenfis ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1146. S. novrt)oracenfis
maxima, foliis longis ferratis ; Dill. Elth. 355. t. 263.
Pluk. Phyt. t. 109. f. 3; fee Dill.) — Leaves lanceolate,
rough, finely ferrated. Corymb level-topped. Calyx-fcales
with fiender points. — By road-fides, and in old paftures,
from Canada to Carolina, flowering from Auguft to Ofto-
ber. PurJ]:. Stem four or five feet high, ereft, furrowed,
purpliili, clothed with abundance of fcattered, nearly feffile,
lonp- and narrow leaves ; paler underneath. Floivers nu-
merous, dark purple, turning nearly black in decay. Scales
of the calyx ending eacli in a fine flender awn. B'lgehiu.

2. V.prieaha. Tall Vernonia. WiUd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2.
Purfh n. 4. ( Serratula prsalta ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1 146. Mill.
Ic. t. 234. S. virginica, perfic^ folio, fubtiis incano ;
Dill. Elth. 356. t. 264. Eupatoria virginiana, ferr.-itute
noveboracenfis latioribus foliis ; Pluk. Almag. 141. Phyt.
t. 280. f. 6.) — Leaves lanceolate, ferrated ; downy beneath.
Corymb level-topped. Calyx-fcales ovate, pointed. — By
road-fides and the borders of woods, from New England to
Carohna, flowering from Auguft to OAober. — A tall rough-
looking plant. Purjh. Flowers purple. Calyx-fcales with
fliorter points than the laft ; and leaves more downy beneath.
Linnasus did not well diftinguifli thefe two fpecies, nor
have we been able to compare authentic fpecimens.

3. V. glauca. Glaucous-leaved Vernonia. Willd. n. 3.
Ait. n. 3. (Seriatula glauca; Linn. Sp. PI. 1146. S.
marilandica, foliis glaucis, cirfii inftar denticulatis ; Dill.
Elth. 354. t. 262.) — Leaves lanceolate, ferrated ; glaucous
beneath. Corymb repeatedly compoiuid, level-topped.
Calyx-fcales ovate, acute. — Native of North America. This
is omitted by Purfli, nor have we feen any certain fpecimen.
Dillenius reprefents it with broader leaves than either of the
former. A garden fpecimen communicated by fir Jofeph
Banks under this name, has fmooth leaves, glaucous beneath ;
but the points of its calyx-fcales are as long as in the firft.
Perhaps Willdenow's fpecific charafters, almoll entirely
founded on the calyx, may be fallacious. The points of the
fcales appear variable in length, in all the fpecimens that
have fallen in our way, all of which we fhould efteem one
fpecies, anfwering bell, on the whole, to the charadlers of
f^. twveboracenjts. The roughnefs of the leaves in any of
them is but flight.

4. Y.fafc'iculala. Tufted Vernonia. Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. v. 2. 94. Purfli n. 3. — " Leaves linear, elongated,
fparingly ferrated. Flowers corymbofe, ereft, crowded.
Calyx ovate, fmooth, with pointlefs fcales." — Native of
meadows in the Illinois country. Michaux. In Virginia,
flowering from Auguft to Oftober, xhejloiucrs fmall. Purjli.
This, at leaft, fliould feem to be a diftinft fpecies.

5. V. angujl'folia. Narrow-leaved Vernonia. Michaux
ibid. Purfli n. 2. (Chryfocoma graminifolia ; Walt.
Carol. 196.) — Leaves crowded, linear, elongated, nearly
entire. Corymb fomewhat umbellate. Calyx-fcales with

little rigid points In barren fandy woods from Virginia to

Georgia, flowering in Auguft and September. Flowers
the fize and figure of V. pnealta. PurJh. Confidering how
much fome plants, nearly related to this, though of diff^erent
genera, are liable to vary in the breadth of their foliage, we
cannot but fufpeft this as a doubtful fpecies, like fome of
fhe foregoing.

6. V, oTi^phylhi. Few-leaved Vernonia. Michaux ibid.

Purfli n. I. (Chryfocoma acaulis ; Walt. Carol. 196.)-—
" Stem fimple, nearly naked. Leaves ferrated ; radical
ones oblong-ovate ; the reft lanceolate. Corymb pani-
cled." — Native of South Carolina. Flowers purple, as in
all the preceding. PurJh. Michaux diftinguiflies two va-
rieties ; one denominated vcrna, in which both flowers (of
two that we prefume ftand together) are ftalk-\d ; the other
autumnalis, in which one of thefe flowers is nearly feflile.

7. V . anthclmintica. Worm-feed Vernon' i. Willd. n. 4.
Ait. n. 4. (Conyza anthelmintica ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1207.
Scabiofa conyzoides, foliis latis, dentatis, femine amaro lum-
bricos enecante ; Burm. Zeyl 210. t. 95. Cattu-fchiragam ;
Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 2. 39. t. 24. ) — Leaves elliptical,
ferrated, roughifti, tapering at each end ; moft downy be-
neath. Flowers terminal, about three together. — Native of
various parts of the Eaft Indies. The feeds were fent to
Kew, in 1770, by M. Richard, and have been received fince
from time to time. This fpecies, well removed hither by
Willdenow from Conyza, is annual, or, in our ftoves, bien-
nial, flowering in fummer. The Jlem is branched, feveral
feet high, bufliy, downy. Leaves italked, coarfely ferrated.,
two or three inches long, veiny, more or lefs downy on both
fides. Flowers pale purple, larger than any of the Ameri-
can fpecies. Calyx-fcaks each tipped with a linear leafy
point, very various in length. Seed-down exaftly anfwering
to the generic charadler, and well defcribed by Burmanii.
The feeils powdered, and drank with warm water, are ufed
in India to kill inteftinal worms in children. ■ .

VERNOSOLA, in Ancient Geography, a place in Gallia
Aquitannica ; 15 miles from Aquje Siccae. Anton. Itin.

VERNOUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardcche ; 14 miles S. of Tournon.

VERODUNUM, in Jncient Geography, a town of Belgic
Gaul, on the route from Durocorvorum to Divodurum, be-
tween Ad-Fines and Axuenna. Anton. Itin.

VEROFABULA, atownof Afia, in Phoenicia.

VEROLAMUM, or Verulamium, a town of Great
Britain, mentioned in feveral routes of Antonine, fituated
between Durocobriva; or Dunftable, and Sullioniacie or
Biockley Hills. Antiquaries have no difpute aboot the
fituation of this town, which was undoubtedly at Vcrulam,
near St. Albans. It was a very flourifliiiig and populous
city in the Roman times, and honoured with the title and
privileges of a municipium or free city. Dion Caflius fays
that it was the capital of the Catuellani, whom Ptolemy
calls Catycuchlani.

VEROLI, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the
Campagna di Roma, the fee of a bifliop, under the pope ; it
contains eight churches and three convents ; 3 miles S. of
Alatri. N. lat. 41° 42'. E. long. 13° 20'.

VEROMANDUI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Belgic Gaul, according to Caefar and Pliny. Their habi-
tation was S. of the Nervii, N. of the Sueflbnes, E. of tlie
Ambiani, and W. of the foreft of the Ardennes. They were
able to furnifli no more than 1000 men in a common war
againft the Romans.

VEROMETUM, a town of Great Britain, in the fixth
Iter of Antonine, between Ratae or Leicefter, and Margi-
dunum, near Eaft Bridgeford ; placed near Willoughby.

VERON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Yonne ; 5 miles S.S.E. of Sens.

VERONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Ve-
netia, towards the W., upon the Athefis. It was founded
by the Eugenians, from whom it paflTed to the Cenomans,
who driven from Brixia, fettled here. Martial fays, that
Verona was no lefs indebted to the birth of Catullus than
Mantua to that of Virgil. Under the reign of ViteUius, the

partifans

V E R

partifans of Vefpafian made it a place of arms. Towards
the year 249 A.D., the emperor Philip was put to death in
this city, or its environs, by order of Decius. Under the
empire of Carus, in 284, Sabinus Julianus revolted and took
poffefllon of Verona, but he was defeated by the emperor
near the walls of the city. It (hut its gates againft Con-
ftantine, when he took poflcffion of the empire againft Max-
entius ; but opened them after the defeat of the latter to the
conqueror, who treated the inhabitants with moderation after
his viftory. In 56S, Verona was transferred to the Lom-
bards. See the next article.

Verona, in Geography, a city of Italy, and capital of
the Veronefe, the fee of a bilhop, fituatcd on the Adige.
It is fortified in the ancient manner, and defended by three
cailles ; two of which, namely, St. Felix and St. Pietro,
ftand on a hill ; and the third, called IJ Caftello Vccchio,
and a kind of citadel, lies in a plain along the river Adige,
which runs through the city, and over which are four ftone
bridges, of which the principal, near the laft-mentioned
caftle, is 348 feet long. The city makes a better appear-
ance by its delightful outlets than within, moll of the
ftreets being narrow, crooked, and dirty, and the houfes but
mean. The number of its inhabitants is now computed to
amount to nearly 50,000, but formerly was much greater.
The belt ftreet is that called the Corfo, which is pretty long.
The cathedral is an old building. One of the fineft churches
is that of St. Georgio, belonging to the Benediftines. The
palace in which the fociety, or academy, of Philharmonics
aflemble, as alfo the fociety of the Philati, in order to the
revival and improvement of martial exercifes, is remarkable,
particularly on account of the great colleftion of all the an-
cient infcriptions and monuments in the Etrurian, Punic,
Egyptian, Greek, and Latin languages, found or brought
here for a great many years paft. The largeil fquare in the
city is the Piazza d' Armi, in which is a marble ftatue, repre-
fenting the city of Venice. In the Palazzo della Regione,
or the Guildhall, are the ftatues of five illultrious natives of
Verona, viz. Catullus, Marcus jEmilius, Cornehus Nepos,
the elder Pliny, and Vitruvius ; but the moft valuable piece
of antiquity iicre is the celebrated Roman amphitheatre, ( fee
AMPliiTlfEATUE, j which fo far excecds all otluTs, the ileps,
or feats, on which the people fat, being Hill entire ; though,
in reality, but little of it appears ancient, having been care-
fully repaired, from time to time, at the city's expence.
The lear/ied count Maffei computed that it held 22,184
fpeflators : the outward wall and the upper llory are want-
ing. Near this city is a delightful place, called Campus
Martius, at prefent ufed for the annual fair ; it is conltrnft-
cd in a quadrangular form, with four gates, and in the
centre, along the Hands and booths, which are placed in a
direft line, one may fee all the four gates. The trade of
this city is not improved as it might be, by fupplying other
countries with the medicinal plants growing on Monte Balbo,
olives, oil, wine, and very good linen, fewing filk, and
woollen ftuffs. The Scaligeri were lords of this city for
170 years ; and one of them, for his greater fecurity, and to
keep the city in awe, built the Caftello Vecchio, and the
large ftone bridge. In 1387, Galeaflb Maria, firft duke of
Milan, drove out the Scaligeri, and ufurpcd the fovereignty
of this city ; but in the year 1409, tlie Venetians became
mafters of it. In 1796, Verona was taken by the French ;
60 miles W. of Venice. N. lat. 45° 37'. E. long. 8° 9'.

VERONESE, Ai.KssANDRO, called i,'0rif//(7, in Biogra-
phy, was born at Verona in 1582. He acquired the name of
Orbetto, from having been, vvhilft a boy, thcconduftor of a
blind beggar > from this condition he was refcoed by Do-
menico Riccio, and inftrufted in the art of painting, for
Vol. XXXVII.

V E R

which he had exliibitcd confiderable ability. After pafliiij;
fome years with Riccio, of whom he became the rival rather
than the fcholar, he went to Venice, and there ftudied under
Carlo Caghari, and acquired an excellent idea of colouring.
He then went to Rome, and drew attentively, and in the
end compofed a ftyle of his own, in which he attempted to
combine the excellencies of the two fchools in which he had
ftudied, and in a great degree fucceeded.

He had a ready imagination, fo that frequently he pro-
ceeded to paint his fmaller works without any preparatory
fketch. We feldora fee in this country any other than fmall
produdions of this celebrated mafter, and tliofe generally
painted upon marble, but it is not upon them that his fame
is founded. Lanzi, fpeakiiig of a piAure of his in the
church of S. Stefano in Verona, called the Forty Martyrs,
fays, " it is a work which, in the impafto of colour, and the
keeping, has the quality of the Lombard fchool ; it partakes
of the Roman in defign and expreflion, and of the Venetian
in colouring. It is the moft ftudied, the moft finidicd, the
gayeft, that he ever made, with a degree of beauty in the
heads, almoft rivalling thofe of Guido ; and with fo much
art in the compofition, that all is underftood, even the mul-
tiplied circumftances which are introduced in the back-
ground of the pifture."

There is alfo another fine piAure by him at Verona, a
Pieta, in the church of the Mifericordia, which is efteemed
one of the very fineft in that city. He maintained himfelf
fully in competition with Andrea Sacchi and Pietro da Cor-
tona, in the church of La ConcefTione ; and he painted feveral
other piftures for public buildings in Rome. He died at
Rome 1648.
Veronese, Paolo. See Cagliari.
Veronese, in Geography, a province of Italy, fo called
from its capital, Verona, bounded on the north by the Tren-
tin, on the eaft by the Vicentin, on the fouth and foutii-weil
by the Mantuan, and on the weft by the lake of Garda ; about
50 miles in length, and 25 in breadth. The foil is fertile,
and produces plenty of filk, corn, wine, oil, and the moft de-
licious fruits. The Veronefe was anciently a Roman colony ;
afterwards it made a part of Lombardy. After divers revo-
lutions, it became the property of the houte of Efte, from
whence it fell to the dukes of Milan ; and in 1409, to the
Venetians.

VERONICA, a term abbreviated fi-om vericenica, of
vera-icon, q. d. true image, and applied to portraits, or repre-
fentations of the face of our Saviour on handkerchiefs.
Veronicas are imitations of that celebrated original one,
preferved with great veneration at St. Peter's in Rome ; and
imagined by fome to be the handkerchief laid over our Sa-
viour's face in the fepulchre.

The firft mention we find of this famous relic is in a cere-
monial compiled in 1143, dedicated to pope Celeftine, by
IJenedift, a canon of St. Peter's : but there is no mention
made of the time when it was brought to Rome. A fcaft
is kept in honour thereof in moft churches, on the Tuefday
in Quincjuagefima week.

It is to be obferved, that the name veronica is only given to
fuch handkerchiefs as reprcfent no more of our Saviour than
his face ; for fuch as rcprefcnt his whole body, as that of
Befan^jn, which (hews his fore-part at length ; and that of
Turin, which reprcfents both his fore and hind-part, as
having covered him all over, were never called by this
name.

The painters fometimcs reprcfent the veronica as held

up by an angel, but moft commonly by a woman, which

woman the common people imagine to be a faint, called

St. Veronica ; a perfon of that name having been fup-

I pofcd,

VERONICA.

poftd, about the ninth century, to have prefented her hand-
kerchief to our Saviour as he went to Calvary, to wipe his
face, when the pifture was miraculoufly imprefled upon it.
This woman, it was added, was the perfon troubled with the
flux of blood mentioned in the Gofpel ; and accordingly,
(he was foon joined with St. Fiacrius, and invoked together
with him againll the hemorrhoids. And hence the eftabhih-
ment of featts in iionour of St. Veronica, in the churclies
dedicated to St. Fiacrius.

The miUiners have taken St. Veronica, or, as they call
her, St. Vcnljfe, or St. Fenecia, or Venifa, for their tutelary
faint.

Veronica, in Botany, an old, but not claCTical, Latin

name, whofe derivation has occupied and perplexed etymo-

logifts as much as any upon record. Linnzeus thought

it a corruption of Vetonlca, which, as profeflbr Martyn ob-

ferves, confounds it with Betonicn. The fame learned writer

gives us a Greek etymology, from Hoffmann, Cifumn, com-

pofed of (ftpf, to bear, and v.xo, viSory, or di/linaion, as if

we (hould fay in Engli(h, bearing the bell, on account of its

beauty. But we doubt whether this be more than a pun.

Its common etymology is of a mule kind, between Greek

and Latin, from verus, or rather vera, true, and hkmj, a

figure; and this, illiterate and barbarous as it is, has the

fanAion of the fuperllitious legend of St. Veronica, whofe

handkerchief is recorded to have received the impreffion of

our Saviour's face, as he ufed it, in bearing his crofs to the

place of his crucifixion. But we find nothing analogous in any

of the herbs which has borne this name, nor any charafter,

true or falfe, ftamped upon them, except that of their own

peculiar beauty. Ambrofinus fays the word is German,

and originated in the druggifts' (hops of that country,

though he favours the idea of its being corrupted from Ve-

tontca, our Betonica, or Betony. The chief objeft of this

controverfy is to learn the true pronunciation of the name in

queftion. If there be any truth in its Greek origin, the i

muft be long ; but if otherwife, the analogy of Betonica

may juftify the ufual praftice, of throwing the accent on

the 0.— Linn. Gen. 12. Schreb. 15. Willd. Sip. PI. v. i.

54. Vahl Enum. V. I. 55. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm.

Fl. Brit. 15. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. v. I. 5. Ait. Hort.

Kew. V. I. 26. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. I. 434.

Purfli 10. Tourn. t. 60. JuiT. 99. Lamarck Did. by

Poiret, v. 8. 50;. lUuftr. t. 13. Ga;rtn. t. 54. (Hebe;

.Tuff. 105.) — Clafs and order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat.

Ord. Perfonatx, Linn. Pedicuhires, Juff. Scrophularina,

Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four,
rarely five, deep, lanceolate, acute, fometimes obovate,
permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, wheel-fhaped ;
tube almoft as long as the calyx ; limb flat, in four deep,
ovate, unequal fegments, the lowermoft narroweft, the op-
pofite one broadeft. Stam. Filaments two, inferted into the
tube of the corolla, fpreading, afccnding, tapering down-
wards ; anthers roundilh-oblong. Pifi. Germen fuperior,
comprefled ; ftyle thread-fhapfed, the length of the ftamens,
decHning ; iligma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Capfule inverfely
heart-fliaped, or fomcwhat elliptical, comprefled in the upper
part, of two cells, and two, more or lefs cloven, valves.
Seeds numerous, roundiftl.

EH". Ch. Corolla four-cleft, wheel-fliaped ; its lower feg-
ment narroweft. Capfule fuperior, of two cells.

Obf. Linnaeus remarks, that the tube of the corolla,
though in mod inftances very (hort, in fome fpiked fpecies
is of confiderable length. Mr. Brown particularly indi-
cates V. virginica znifiiirifa, as having a tube longer than
their five-cleft calyx, and hence belonging to P^ederota,
10

if that genus, which moreover fcarcely differs from Wul-
FENIA, ought to be retained ; fee thofe articles. The calyx
is five-cleft in fome other fpecies, as multifida, and feveral
neighbouring ones, though others of the fame tribe have a
four-cleft caiyx. Such a difference therefore furnifhes
merely, in this cafe, a fpecific, not a generic, diflin£lion.

Veronica is a very natural genus. Thefiem, ufually her-
baceous, is in fome few inftances flirubby. Leaves oppofite,
Cmple, moftly undivided, fometimes niaiiy-cleft ; in a few
cafes whorled ; thofe which accompany the flowers, whether
true braHeas, or the proper foliage of the plant, the flowers
being axillary, are nearly all alternate. YikVUzX fiowerjlalks
alternate, fingle-flowered. Calyx more or lefs unequal.
Corolla blue, rarely white or pale red, marked with fimple,
radiating lines, not reticulated. The fpecies are very nu-
merous, natives of the cold or temperate regions of Europe,
America, New Holland, and New Zeeland. Seventeen are
wild in Britain ; about twenty-five exotic ones are cultivated
in the gardens, being moftly perennial and hardy. We have
feveral to add to thofe of Linnaeus and Willdenow, and
even to the more copious catalogue of Vahl, amounting to
fixty-eight fpecies. The fourteenth edition of Linn. Syft.
Veg. contains but forty. They are commodioufly and na-
turally arranged by their inflorefcence.

Se<ft. I . Clufiers terminal. Leaves more or lefs -whorled.

1. V.fibirica. Siberian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 12.
WiUd. n. I. Vahl n. I. Ait. n. i. (V. fpicata altiflima,
foliis verticillatis ; Am. Ruth. 20. t. 4. ) — Clufter denfe,
with nearly feflile flowers. Tube of the corolla twice as
long as the five-cleft calyx. Leaves from five to nine in a

whorl, lanceolate, feflile Native of Siberia ; fent to Kew

by profellor Thunberg, in 1779. A hardy perennial, not rare
in curious gardens, flowering in July and Auguft, and rifing
to the height of five feet. The numeroufly whorled, finely
ferrated, fmooth leaves, and the long, denfe, upright ^ii«,
rather than cluflers, of innumerable pale blue, often white,
tubular^oiofrj-, with long, projefting, capillary ^amCTJ and

Jlyle, well mark this fine fpecies.

2. V. virginica. Virginian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI.
13. Willd. n. 2. Vahl n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Purfli n. i.
" Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v. 15. 112. t. 1." (V. virginiana
procerior, foliis ternis, quaternis, &c.; Pluk. Phyt. t. 70.
f. 2.) — Clufters obfcurely whorled, with nearly feflile
flowers. Tube of the corolla twice as long as the five-cleft
calyx. Leaves four or five in a whorl, elliptic-lanceolate,

ftalked On calcareous hills of North America, in funny

expofures, flowering from July to September. Perennial.
Spikes long ; white or blufli-coloured. On the mountains
of Virginia, I obferved a very tall-growing variety, with
■fwc^lefiowers, extremely beautiful. Purjh. This is ufually
of more humble ftature than the precedmg, and more fre-
quent in gardens. The leaves are fewer in a whorl, broader,
and, in our fpecimens, downy beneath. Clujlers, or /pikes,
feveral at the top of the ftem.

3. V.foliofa. Leafy Hungarian Speedwell. Vahl n. 3.
" Waldft. et Kitaib. Hung. v. 2. 106. t. 102." — Leavei
three in a whorl, ovate, doubly ferrated. Calyx four-cleft.
Native of Hungary. Stem about two feet high, ereft,
fimple, hairy below. Leaves on fhort Italks, acute, veiny
beneath ; the lower ones downy, efpecially the rib and mar-
gin ; uppermoft rather lanceolate and fmooth. Lower
clujlers three together ; upper ones oppofite or alternate.
Braaeas linear. Corolla of a violet-blue. Capfule inverfely
heart-fhaped. Vahl.

^. V . maritima. Sea-fide Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 13.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 5. Vahl n. 4. Willd. n. 4. Fl. Dan.
t. 374? (V. mas furreiEla elatior j Barrel. Ic. t. 891. V.

fpuria ;

VERONICA.

fpuria ; Poit. et Turp. Parif. 19. t. 18. Lyfimacliia ca:ru-
k'O flore ; Cluf. Hiil. v. 2. 52. L. caerulea liortenfis ; Lob.
Ic. 344. Ger. Em. 477. f. 9. ) — Clufters terminal, with
nearly felTiIe flowers. Leaves ftalked, three in a whorl, un-
equally and Iharply ferrated. — Native of barren dry ground,
Bear the fea-coafl, in the north of Europe. Linnasus ob-
ferved it frequently on the confines of the Lapland Alps,
near the North fea, though no where more abundantly than
on the fea-coaft near Tornea. We muft take his plant as a
fixed point, by which to determme this much-confufed fpe-
cies ; which, though often feen in gardens, flowering in the
early part of fumnier, does not find a place in the Hort.
Keiu. The old wooden cut, which is the very fame in all
the old authors above cited, reprefents the Linnoean plant
mod perfeftly, even better than the plate of Fl. Dan.,
whofe leaves are too broad, and too finely ferrated. The
root of V. marllima h perennial, and fomewhat creeping.
Stems two feet high, ereft, firaple, leafy, round below,
quadrangular above, finely downy, though occafionally
fmooth in a garden, the angles being the firft part that be-
comes fo. Leaves three or four in a whorl, on elongated
rather flender ftalks, fpreading and rather dependent, linear-
lanceolate, pointed, two and a half or three inches long,
copioufly, deeply, unequally, and very fharply ferrated,
either finely downy, or quite fmooth, on both fides ; ac-
companied by axillary tufts of a few linear, or awlfliaped,
fmall, ferrated leaves. Flo'Mers blue, in one large, central,
denfe (pike, accompanied by feveral furrounding fmaller ones,
from the bofoms of the uppermoft leaves, fometimes termi-
nating fmall branches. Calyx unequally four-cleft, narrow,

longer than the tube of the corolla A fingular variety, as

it is fuppofed, of this is defcribed in Linn. Amoen. Acad.
V. 3. 35. t. 2, by the name of V. fpuria, and preferved in
the Linnxan herbarium. The leaves are deeply and vari-
oufly pinnatifid and jagged ; Jlowers fmaller than ufual in
f^. maritima, and always barren. Linnseus conceived it to
be a mule, from tlie pollen of Verbena officinalis, which
grew near the Veronica maritima in his garden. We can
neither confirm nor difprovL- this opinion. The plant muft
not be confounded with V. fpuria, hereafter defcribed.

Three dried fpecimens from Ehrhart's Herbn are before
us, V. glabra, n. i i ; nitida, n. 21 ; and elatior, n. 31.
The firft is confidered by Willdenow as the identical V. ma-
ritima, and indeed agrees well with V. reda citrulea. Bed . Ey ft .
vern. ord. 5. t. 10. f. 2. cited by C. Bauhin as the fame with
our maritima ; but the leaves are (horter and more ovate, wiih
far lefs taper ferratures than the Linnaean fpecimen, or the
authentic old wooden cuts ; being more of the ftiape of Fl.
Dan. t. 374, though with much broader ferratures. The
Jlem and leaves are very fmooth ; partial Jlower-Jlalks
elongated and flender, nearly fmooth ; tube of the corolla
about twice as long as the calyx, which laft feems an im-
portant diftinftion, fhould it prove conftant. — V. nitida,
Ehrh. n. 21, is the top of a large luxuriant plant, whofe
very Imooth leaves are oppofite, or aggregate, not diftinftly
whorled, though its lower ones perhaps might ; their form
broad-ovate, ftrongly and (harply ferrated, their length
one and a half en- two inches. CluJIers numerous and long ;
the partial Jlo-wer-Jlalhs a little downy, longer than the
calyx, whicli is full as long as the tube of the corolla. If
thefe characters may be depended on, as in other plants, the
two fpecimens in queftion muft be diftinCt from each other
and from maritima. V. elatior, n. 31, moft unaccountably
referred by Willdenow to longifolia, is more near maritima
than either of the others, having merely broader, and Kls
deeply ferrated, leaves, and agreemg as nearly with Fl. Dan.
t. 374, as a cultivated fpecimen ufually does with a wild one.

Its injlorefcence and floivers precifely refemble thofe of the
Linnsan fpecimen of maritima. This is furely V, fpicata of
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 97.

5. V. crenulata. Notch-flowered Speedwell. " HofFm.
P? ytogr. Bl'att. fafc. I. 95." Vahl n. 5. — " Leaves three
in a whorl, or oppofite, oblong-lanceolate, ferrated, downy
like the ftem. Corolla finely crenate." — A garden plant,
perennial, two feet high, with fcattered branches in the upper
part of the flcm. Lower leaves ftalked, oppofite, rarely
three together ; upper nearly feflile, alternate, pretty equally
and acutely ferrated. CluJIers hardly fix inches long.
Bradeas lanceolate. Calyx four-cleft, hair)' at the edge.
Corolla deep blue, hairy in the throat ; its fegments waved,
minutely crenate. Capfale roundifli-ovate, fmooth, of four
valves. Hf^mann, Vahl. We know nothing of this fpe-
cies, having feen no fpecimen anfwering to its name or
charafter.

6. V. fpuria. Spurious Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 13.
Willd. n. 3. Vahl n. 6. Gmel. It. v. i. 169. t. 39. (V.
fpicata anguftifolia ; Bauh. Pin. 246, Herb. Sherard. V.
refta vulgaris major ; Cluf. Hift. v. I. 347. V. refta her-
bariorum ; Lob. Ic. 473. V. alTurgens five fpicata; Ger.
Em. 628, according to C. Bauhin ; but the fame cut is in
Clufius, V. I. 346, who probably has the fame fpecies
twice.) — Leaves three in a whorl, or oppofite, on fliort
ftalks, lanceolate, equally ferrated, fomewhat downy ; con-
trafteJ at each end. Clufters lax. — Native of Siberia and
the fouth of Europe. About the ftature of the laft, but
l\\ejlem is round to the top ; leaves ftiorter, equally, though
ftrongly ferrated, on much fttorter Jlalks ; never more than
three in a whorl, often oppofite only. Calyx the length of
the tube. Vahl records an opinion of our leanjed friend
Dr. A. Afzelius, that this may be a three-leaved variety of
V. longifolia. Some botanifts of the fouth of Europe, from
whom we have fpecimens, have conceived the fame idea.
But the real longifolia is totally diftinft, as we (hall hereafter
(hew.

7. V . paniculata. Panicled Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI.
18. Willd. n.4S. Vahln.7. Ait. n. 31. (" V. dentata ;
Schmidt Bohem. v. i. 31." V. anguftifolia, floribus pani-
culatis ; Amm. Ruth. 24.) — Leaves ftalked, three in a
whorl, lanceolate, equally ferrated, fmooth. Stem amend-
ing, panicled with numerous fimple clufters — Native of Si-
beria, Tartary, and Bohemia. A hardy perennial in this
country, introduced by Mr. Hunnemann, in 1797, yet it
has never been (igured. The herbage is fmooth. Stem round,
not quite ereft. Leaves an inch or more in length, narrow,
acute, rather diftantly ferrated, on ftiortifti ftalks. CluJIers
lax, many-flowered, fmooth, on long, axillary, partly leafy,
ftalks, making a handfome terminal panicle. Floivers blue.
Vahl is certainly right in removing this fpecies to the pre fcnt
fcftion, near its moft natural aUics. It is, however, very
diftinft from the laft.

8. V. complicata. Folded-leaved Speedwell. " Hoffm.
Phytogr. Blatt. fafc. I. 98." Vahl n. 8.— " Leaves
whorled, or oppofite, linear -lanceolate, folded, toothed ;
teeth thickened." — Native of Europe. Perennial. Stem
two feet high, crcft, flightly zigzag, round, downy in the
upper part ; the flowering branches nearly oppofite. Leaves
moftly oppofite, rarely three in a whorl, fpreading, re-
flexed ; the radical ones elliptical, fomewhat ho.-ury, un-
equ.illy toothed. Bradeas linear-lanceolate. Calyx four-
cleft, downy. Corolla blue, hairy in the throat. Capfuk
invcrfely heart-fliaped, fmooth, with four v.ilvcs. Hojfm.
Vahl.

I). V. brevifolia. Short-leaved Speedwell. " Waldft. ct
Kitaib. Hung, t.— ." Marfch. a Bicberft. Taur.-Caucaf.

I 2 »• »•

VERONICA.

V. 1. 6. — " Leaves three in a whorl, broadly lanceolate,
downy, (harply and finely ferrated. Calyx and braAeas
very (hort." — Native of ftony hills of Caucafus, flowering
in May and June. Perennial. Whole herb clothed with
fine, rather glaucous, pubefcence. Akin to V.fpuria in
fioiuers and inflorefcence, but the leaves are much fhorter and
broader, with (harper more copious ferratures. Marfch.

Sedl. 2. Clujlers or fpikes terminal. Lea-ues oppofite.
10. V. longi/olia. Long-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PI. 13. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 4. Willd. n. 5, excluding Eh.
rhart's fynonym. Vahl n. 9. Ait. n. 6? " Schrad. Veron.
26. t. 2. f. I ?" (V. fpicata latifolia ; Bauh. Pin. 246.
Ger. Em. 628. V. prima ereftior latifolia ; Cluf. Hid.
V. I. 346. V. major latifolia, foliis fplendentibus et non
fplendentibus ; Bauh. Hill. v. 3. 283.) — Leaves oppofite,
ovate, pointed, doubly and (harply ferrated, fmooth, on very
fhort ftalks. Clufters aggregate, ereft. Calyx ovate,
fhorter than the tube of the corolla. — Native of Sweden,
Tartary and Auftria. Perennial. Sierm erecl, two feet
high, leafy, round, either fmooth, or finely downy, with mi-
nute recurved hairs. Leaves two and a half inches long, and
nearly one broad, with extremely numerous and (harp, un-
equal, and often double, ferratures. Footjlalis broad and
very (hort ; to the upper leaves fcarcely any. Clujlers
rather denfe, all erett and crowded, forming a fort of pyra-
midal panicle. Partial Jlower-Jlalks (lightly downy, for the
mod part longer than the calyx, whole four fegments are
broad, ovate, and nearly equal. Tube of the corolla about
twice as long as the calyx, and equal to the limb. — Such is
the real V. longifolia, the Swedilh plant of Linnsus, for
which, if we do not greatly err, authors have miftaken
the maritima of Fl. Dan. t. 374. This latter is actually
quoted for longifolia, by Mr. Dryander in Hort. Kew. on
the authority, we prefume, of Schrader, whofe work is not
within our reach, and therefore we refer to his plate with
hefitation. That the above-mentioned plant of Fl. Dan.
may be a diftintl fpecies from maritima, we are readily dif-
pofed to allow. But that both of them are perfctlly different
from our true longifolia, and eflTentially diftinguifhed from it
by the much narrower, and more unequal, fegments of their
calyx, to fay nothing of the leaves d^niifootjlalks, is certain.
A good figure of the longifolia is wanting, John Bauhin's
being the bell that we can find ; as the others are very de-
feftive in their foliage. Vahl's defcription anfwers better to
the fo often mentioned maritima of Fl. Dan. than to the real
longifolia. His variety S, p'. fpicata urtica folio, Amm. Ruth.
26, though cited likewife as a variety by Linnaeus, appears to
be the true plant, the defcription agreeing precifely, except
the " folitary fpike."

II. V.incana. Hoary Speedwell. Linn. Sp. Tl. 14.
Willd. n. 6. Vahl n. 10. Ait. n. 3. " Hoflm. in Comm.
Goett. V. 15. 123. t. 6." Marfch. Taur.-Cauraf. v. i. 7.
( V. fpicata lanuginofa et incana, floribus cirulcis ; Amm.
Ruth. 21.)

$. V. negleila ; Vahl n. 1 1 .

HoaEy and denfely downy. Spike terminal, mollly foli-
tary. Leaves oppofite ; lower ones ftalked, crenate or fer-
rated ; uppernioft entire, feiTile, tapering at the bafej — Na-
tive of the rocky fummits of mountains in Siberia and Tau-
ria, flowering in June. An elegant plant, a foot high, its
white pubefcence being ftrikingly contrafted with the denfe
fpile, rather than clujler, of dark hlue Jloivers. Calyx cot-
tony, with four oblong unequal fegments. The leaves cer-
tainly vary in acutenefs, as well as in the flrength of their
ferratures, and we gladly profit of the hint given by the
learned author of the Flora Taurico-Caucajica, to confider
Vahl's F. neghda, which is frequent in gardens, as a mete
12

variety. Still we do not concur with the fame great autho'
rity in thinking the pubefcence alone diftingui(hes this fpe-
cies from V. fpicata; even though fpecimens of luxuriant
fpicata, as they appear to us, are pinned by Linnxus in his
_ herbarium to the genuine wild incana.

12. V. fpicata. Spiked Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 14.
Willd. n. 7. Vahl n. 12. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot.
t. 2. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 19. t. 19. FL Dan. t. 52.
(V. fpicata minor; Bauh. Pin. 247. Vaill. Parif. t. 33.
f. 4. V. refta minima ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. 347. Ger. Em.
627. V. fpicata recla minor ; Bauh. Hill. v. 3. 282.)

fi. V. altera erefta anguftifolia : Cluf. Hift. v. I. 346.
(V. fpicata refta major ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 282. V. afiur-
gens, five fpicata ; Ger. Em. 628. )

Spike terminal, moftly fohtary. Leaves oppofite, ftalked,
bluntifli, witii (hallow ferratures, fomewhat downy ; the

extremity entire. Stem afcending, unbranched Native of

open, chalky, mountainous, or alpine paftures, throughout
moft parts of Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering
from July to September. The root is creeping, perennial,
a httle woody. Stems from three to ten or fourteen inches
high, each bearing ufually a fingle denfe fpike of dark-blue
flowers ; but the luxuriant variety (? has ieverdX fpikes. The
lower flowers are not feffde. The fegments of the calyx are
oblong and downy. The whole heri is more or lefs downy,
or finely hairy, but by no means cottony, or hoary, in the
manner of the laft. The leaves vary in breadth, and are
fometimes almoft entire.

13. W.hybrida. Welfti Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 14.
Willd. n. 8. Vahl n. 13. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot.
t. 673. (V. fpicata cambrobritannica, bugulae fubhirfuto
foho ; Rail Syn. ed. 3. 278. t. 11.) — Spikes terminal.
Leaves oppofite, elhptical, obtufe, roughilh, unequally and

bluntly ferrated. Stem nearly ereft Native, of feveral

parts of Europe, but rare. It is found in the AVellh county
of Montgomery, as well as in Lancafliire. Linnxus fuf-
pefted this might be a mule between V. ojlcinalis 2i\\A fpicata,
though furely without authority. It is moft akin to the
laft, but twice as large in every part, with rougher leaves
zndjlem, nor does it alter by culture. The fpiies, or rather
clujlers, are very long and denfe, feldom folitary, and con-
fift of innumerable h\\ie flowers.

14. V. incifa. Cut-leaved Speedwell. Ait. ed. 1. v. 1.
19. ed. 2. n. 9. Willd. n. 11. Vahl n. 14. "Schrad.
Veron. 33." — Clufters terminal. Bradeas as long as the
calyx and flower-ftalk. Segments of the calyx hnear-lan-
ceolate, longer than the tube of the corolla. Leaves lan-
ceolate, deeply pinnatifid, fmooth Native of Siberia.

The whole habit of this fpecies is very (lender. Stem
branched, about two feet high, leafy, round, flightly downy.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, or varioufly pinnatifid and cut,
very narrow, with axillary tufts of ftill narrower and much
fmaller ones. Clujlers folitary at the ends of the branches,
lax, many-flowered. Partial_/?a/ij capillary, a httle downy,
fhorter than the calyx, which is four-cleft, unequal, fmooth.
Bradeas linear, channelled, fmooth, various in length, but,
in the lower part of the clufter at leaft, extending beyond
the points of the calyx. Corolla blue, with acute fegments.

15. V.laciniata. Jagged-leaved Speedwell. Ait. ed. I.
V. I. 19. ed. 2. n.8. Willd. n. ic. Vahl n. 15. " Sclirad.
Veron. 32." ('• V. fpuria ; Junghajis Ic. Rar. cent. i.
fig. 2, excluding the fynonyms." Willd. ) — Clufters ter-
minal. Brafteas as long as the flower-ftalk. Segments of
the calyx ovato-lanceolate, as long as the tube of the
corolla. Leaves lineal-, pinnatifid. — Native of Siberia. Akin
to the laft, but the Ihorter more ovate fegments of the calyx
afford a clear diftiiiftion. The cluflers are very long, and

their

VERONICA.

their lower bradeaj, much longer than the upper, partake of
the nature of leaves.

16. \.pinnata. Wing-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Mant. 24.
Willd. n.9. Vahln. 16. Ait. n.7. " Schrad. Vcron. 32.
Laxmann in Aft. Pctrop. ann. 1770. 553. t. 29. f. I.
Hoffm. in Comm. Goett. v. 15. 130. t. 10." — Cluilers ter-
minal. Segments of the calyx lanceolate. Leaves pinna-
titid, with linear, acute, divaricated, entire or toothed, feg-
ments Found by Laxmann in Siberia, and by Dr. Sib-
thorp on mount Athos Like the two laft, this is a hardy

perennial in the gardens, flowering in June and July ; but
though they have been introduced about forty years,
they are not become common. The foliage of the prefcHt
fpecies abounds with copious, narrow, often capillary, feg-
ments. Cliijlcrs numerous, from a fpan to a foot long, con-
fifting of a profiifion of liandfome i\\y -blue Jioiwers, whofe
calyx is fmooth, almoft equally four-cleft. BraBeas linear,
various in length. Capfule inverfely heart-diaped, a little
longer than the permanent calyx, tumid, with four valves.

17. V. bellid'wldes. Daify -leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PL 15. Mant. 316. Willd. n. 21. Vahl n. 17. Ait.
n. 12. (V. n. 543. t. 15. f. I ; Hall. Hid. v. i. 235.
V. alpina, bellidis folio, hirfuta ; Bauh. Prodr. 116.) —
Clufter torymbofe, terminal, hairy, of few flowers. Leaves
obovate, crenate. Stem fimple, afcending. Capfule ellip-
tical, abrupt, emarginate Native-of the Alps and Pyrenees,

flowering in .lune and July. This is one of thofe numerous
alpine plants, which were firft introduced to the knowledge
of Britifh cultivators by Dr. Pitcairn and Dr. Fothergill,
who in 1775 fent a fliilful gardener abroad for tliat purpofe.
y, beUlilio'ides is perennial, with a creeping _^fm, throwing
up perfcftly fimple flowering-branches, a finger's length,
bearing two or three pair of oppofite fpatulate haves,
fmaller than the more numerous radical ones. Tlie whole
of the herbage is more or lefs hairy. Flowers pale greyifli-
blue, from five to eight in a terminal vifcid corymb, afterwards
elongated and racemofe.

18. V. grntianotdes. Gentian-leaved Speedwell. Vahl
n. 18. Symb. v. i. i. Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 13. Sm.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. I. 194. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. v. 1.5.
t. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 1002. Venten. Malmaif. t. 86. (V.
orientalis ercfta, gentianellx foliis ; Tourn. Cor. 7. V.
crcfta, blattarise fncie ; Buxb. Cent. I. 23. t. 35.) — duller
corj-mbofe, terminal, hairy. Radical leaves lanceolate, fome-
what crenate, fmooth. — Native of Cappadocia, and the
mountains of Taurida and Caucafus, as well as of the
Bithynian Olympus. Hardy, perennial, and not uncommon
in gardeirs, flowering in May and June. But this little
.^lpinc plant, originally four or five inches high, by culture
rifcs to the height of two feet, with a lax habit, and long
clufter of numerous^OTOcrj-. It may always be known by
its thick, fmooth, acute leaves, with a pale cartilaginous
edge, refembling the foliage of Gcntiana acaulis. The
corolla is large, beautifully (Ireaked ; purplifti-blue in a
wild ftate ; buieifti-white in gardens.

10. V. ihymifolia. Thyme-leaved Speedwell. Sm. Fl.
Grxc. Sibth. v. i. 5. t. 6. Prodr. n. 19.— CUiRer ter-
minal, corymbofe. Leaves revolute, hoary. Stems fome-
what Ihrubby, difl'ufe. Lobes of the capfule divaricated —
Difcovercd by Dr. Sibtliorp on the fummits of mountains
in Crete, flowering on the firll melting of the fnow. A
(hrubby little plant, wliofe Jlems are only three or four
inches high, (lightly br.uiched, clothed with thyme-like,
oppofUe, hoary, elliptical, entire, revolute leaves, tapering
down into fliort fonlMks, Flowers blue, very pretty, in
(luprs not an inch long. Capfule hairy, inverfely hcart-
fliaped, with diftant lobes.

20. V. fruUculofa. FleOi-colourcd Shrubby Speedwell.
Linn. Sp. PI. 15. Mant. 316. Willd. n. 24. Vahl n. 19.
Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 1028. Wulf. in Jacq. CoU.
V. 4. 229. t. 5. (V. n. 545 ; Hall. Hift. v. i. 235. t. 16.
f. I.) — Clufter terminal, elongated, many-flowered. Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate. Stems creft, fomewhat (hrubby. Cap-
fule ovate, of four valves. Native of the mountains of
Auftria, Scotland, Switzerland, and the Pyrenees, flowering
in July. The fleins, at leafl; their flowering branches, are
quite ereft, from four to fix inches high. Leaves above
an inch long, a little downy at their edges and veins, fome-
times quite entire, fometimes crenate or ferrated. Floiuert
numerous, in a ipiked rather than corymbofe clufier, pink
or flelh-coloured, never blue. Capfule abrupt or rather acute,
foon fplitting into four valves.

21. v. faxalilis. Blue Rock Speedwell. Linn. Suppl.
83. Willd. n. 25. Vahl n. 20. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl.
Bot. t. 1027. Bauh. Hift. V. 3. 284. Dickf. Crypt,
fafc. 2. 29. (V. fruticulofa ; Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. i.
191. Fl. Dan. t. 342. V. n. 545 /S ; Hall. Hift. v. 236.
V. tertia fruticans ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. 347. V. fruticans
ferpyllifolia ; Ger. Em. 628. ) — Clufter terminal, corymbofe,
of few flowers. Leaves elliptical. Stems fpreading, fome-
what fhrubby. Capfule ovate, of four valves. — Native of
the mountains of Norway, Scotl.uid, Auftria, Switzerland,
and the Pyrenees, more frequent than the preceding, flower,
ing in July. This is akin to the laft, with which many
botanifts, even the greateft, have confounded it. The^ems
however are diff^ufe ; leaves fliorter and rounder ; flowers of
a rich ultramarine blue, and much fewer in each fhort corym-
bofe clufter. The bmdeas too are rounder and fliorter in
proportion to the partial flalhs. The flowering branches of
both thefe fpecies are herbaceous and annual, though the
main ftem of both is ftirubby and perennial, forming woody

entangled tufts V. nummularta, Gouan. Uluftr. I. t. i.

f. 2, appears by original fpecimens from the author to be,
as Willdenow and Vahl make it, a dwarf variety of the

faxalilis, with fmall, rounded, crowded leaves. V. pygmeta,
Schranck Salilb. n. ii. t. 1. f. 1, feems fcarcely different
from the nummularta.

11. V. alpina. Alpine Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 15.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 7. t. 9. f. 4. Willd. n. 26. Vahl n. 21.
Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 484. Fl. Dan. t. 16. (V.
pumila ; Allion. Pedem. v. i. 75. t. 22. f. 5. Spec. 19.
t. 3. f. 3. V. inlegrifolia ; Willd. n. 27. V. n. 544 ;
Hall. Hift. v. I. 235. t. 15. f. 2.)— Chiller terminal, dcnfe,
corymbofe. Leaves ovate, fmoothidi, fomewhat ferrated.
Calyx fringed. Stem afcending, fimple. — Native of the
alps of Europe, from Lapland to Savoy, flowering in July
and Auguft. Vahl thinks this Teucrium fextum of Cluf.
Hift. v. I. 350, with the defcription of which it well agrees,
but there being no figure, we cannot abfohitely decide. In
general, though not unfrequent in boggy alpine fpols,
among trickling rills, in Switzerland and Savoy, it feems to
have almoft totally efcaped the notice of the earlier writers.
The root is perennial, rather creeping. Stems procumbent
at the bafc, then afcending obllcpKly, a little -zig-zag,
round, leafy, from two to five inches long. Liaves about
an inch long, more or lefs broadly elliptical, rarely hairy.
Flowers fmall, of a bright light blue, with a white tube,
ftiortcr than tlic four ovate, nearly equal, hairy fegments of
the ealyx. Capfule >ival-heart(haped, of two comprefled
valves. — We reduce to this fpecies, on the authority of Vahl,
the y. inlesrifolui ofKSchranck and Willdeiuiw, of « liitli no
fpecimcn has fallen in our way ; but we find among thofe
of indubitable V. alpina many that anfwcr to thfir de-
fcriptions.

a*. V.

VERONICA.

23. 'V . ferpyllifolta. Smooth Speedwell, or Paul's Betony.
Linn. Sp. PI.' 15. WiUd. n. 28. Vahl n. 22. Fl. Brit,
n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 1075. Curt. Lend. fafc. I. t. 3.
Purdin. 4. Fl. Dan. t. 492. ( V. humifufa ; Dickf. Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 288. V. minima repens ; Rivin. Mor.op.
Irr. t. 99. f. I. V. minor; Ger. Em. 627. V. minor
ferpyllifolia ; Lob. Ic. 472.) — duller terminal, fomewhat
fpiked. Leaves ovate, flightly crenate, three-ribbed, fmootli.
Capfule inverfely heart-fhaped, fhorter than the ftyle. —
Native of Europe and North America, in paftures, and by
road-fides, very frequent, flowering in May and June. The
herbage in moill fituatione is fmoolh, (hining, and rather
juicy ; in dry open or hilly ground it becomes downy or
hairy. The roots are perennial. Stems from two to twelve
inches long, ereA or proftrate. Clujltrs elongated, lax, with
ovate brafteas. Corolla fmall, elegantly variegated with
bright blue and white, ftreaked with dark blue.

24. V. tenella. Little Round-leaved Speedwell. AUion.
Pedem. v. i. 75. t. 22. f. i. Willd. n. 29. Vahl n. 23.

Symb. V. 3. 5 " Leaves roundifh, fomewhat rugged and

crenate, all ftalked. Stem creeping, villous as well as the
calyx." — Native of the Pyrenean mountains, and the alps
of Savoy. This is faid to differ but httle from the laft.
Indeed Plukenet's t. 233. f. 4, cited for the prefent, can
hardly be any thing elfe than the ferpyllifolia. Allioni ,
defcnbes the leaves as lefs firm and even than t!iat fpecies,
but the creeping^cm and lefs denfe clufter, are charafters of
no moment. We luve not examined the plant.

25. V . telephiifolia. Orpine-leaved Speedwell. Vahl n. 24.
(V. orientahs, telephii folio ; Tourn. Cor. 7.) — " Leaves
obovate, nearly entire. Stem creeping." — Gathered in
Armenia by Tournefort, and defcribed by Vahl from his
herbarium. Stems thread-ihaped, fmooth. Leaves ftalked,
hardly half the length of the nail, very obtufe, fmootl\, with
one or two obfcure notches about the extremity ; acute at
the bafe. Floiuers (and we prefume inflorefcence') wanting
ill the fpecimen. Vahl.

26. V. ruderalis. Round-leaved Peruvian Speedwell.
Vahl n. 25. (" V. ferpylLfoha ; Fl. Peruv. v. I. 6.")—
" Leaves roundilh, crenate, obfcurely five -ribbed ; the
upper ones [lightly fringed and entire. Stem creeping." —
Native of wafte ground, borders of fields, and cool w-atery
fituations, in Peru. Perennial. 5/t7Bj many, diffufe, thread-
fhaped, purplifh ; downy in the upper part. Lower leaves
on fhort ftalks, fpreading ; upper feffile. Partial floiver-

flalis thread-fliaped, the length of the IraSeas. Corolla
violet ; its fmalleft fegment white. Vahl. This is evidently
very near V. ferpyllifolia.
Seft. 3. Cluflers lateral.

27. V. parviflora. Small-flowered Shrubby Speedwell.
Vahl n. 26. Symb. v. 3. 4. Willd. n. 16. — Clufters axil-
lary, about the ends of the branches. Segments of the
calyx ovate, fringed. Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire,
pointed. Stem Ihrubby. — Gathered by fir Jofeph Banks
and Dr. Solander in New Zeeland. Thev gave a fpecimen
to the younger Linmus, by the name of V.floribunda. The

flem is perhaps feveral feet in height, with forked, twifted,
round, fcarred, woody branches, leafy only while young.
Leaves crowded, feffile, crofling each other in pairs, from
one to two inches long, very fmooth and even, fingle-ribbed,
deciduous. Clujlers axillary, and fomewhat terminal, ftalked,
denfe, many-flowered, nearly fmooth, longer than the leaves.
Floiuers fraall, we believe them to be white. BraHeas
minute, fringed. Calyx the length of the tube of the
corolla, and only one-third as long as the ovate, fmooth,
finally four-valved and quadrangular capfuk. The ^yle is
remarkably long and capillary, deciduous.

This is one among many Ihrubby or arborefcent white,
flowered fpecies, referrible to Juflleu's and Commerfon'i
genus of Hebe, which are indeed fo unlike moft Veronicn in
habit, that one could \vi(h their fruftification afforded any
generic diftinftion. They ferve to approximate the prefent
genus, by fome points of refemblance, to the Jafminex.

28. V. macrocarpa. Large-fruited Shrubby Speedwell.
Vahl n. 27. Symb. v. 3. 4. — Clufters axillary, about the
ends of the branches, ereft. Segments of the calyx lanceo-
late. Leaves lanceolate, entire, flat. Stem Ihrubby.

Native of New Zeeland. The leaves are four inches long,
fmooth and even, without lateral ribs, or veins. Tube of
the corolla twice, and capfule thrice, the length of the calyx.
Vahl.

29. V. falicifolia. Willow-leaved Shrubby Speedwell.
Forft. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 28. Symb. v. 3. 4. Willd.
r.. 15. — Clufters axillary, about the ends of the branches,
drooping ; partial ftalks aggregate. Segments of the calyx
lanceolate. Leaves lanceolate, entire ; tapering at each end.
Stem (hrubby. — Gathered in New Zeeland by fir Jofeph
Banks and Dr. Solander. This appears to be nearly re-
lated to the laft, but the leaves are narrower at the bafe.
In our fpecimen they are little more than two inches long,
fcarcely perceptibly undulated at the very edge. Clujlers
longer than the leaves, their capillary partial flails very
numerous, feveral from the fame point, each accompanied
by its own little fliort lanceolate bra&ea. Tube of the
corolla twice the length of the calp: ; fegments of its limb
eUiptic -lanceolate, acute ; not, as in the two preceding,
obtufe. Capfule, according to Vahl, oblong and acute,
twice as long as the calyx.

30. V. elliptica. Elliptic -leaved Shrubby Speedwell.
Forft. Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 29. Willd. n. 13 Clufters axil-
lary, about the ends of the branches, fimple, of few flowers.
Segments of the calyx ovate, acute. Leaves eUiptic -lan-
ceolate, pointed, entire, flightly revolute. Stem fhrubby

Native of New Zeeland, from whence Mr. Menzies has
favoured us with a fpecimen in feed. No writer has yet
given any detailed defcription of this fpecies. Its woody
branches are rough with very protuberant fears, where the
leaves have been, and when young are quadrangular. Leaves
crowded, croffing each other in pairs, about an inch long,
acute at each end, fingle-ribbed, fmooth, very flightly revo-
lute, or reflexed at the margin. Cluflers of not more than
fix or ei^X flowers, at firft probably fliort and denfe ; when
in fruit hardly longer than the leaves; their flalis all an-
gular and fmooth. Bradeas minute, acute, permanent.
The corolla we have not feen. The permanent calyx is
fmooth, acute, half the length of the ovate, acute, tumid,
four-valved capfule.

■^l.V. decujfata. Crofs-lcaved Shrubby Speedwell. Ait.

n. 20. Vahl n. 31. Willd. n. 19. Curt. Mag. t. 242.

Clufters axillary, about the ends of the branches, fimple,
of few flowers. Segments of the calyx ovate. Leaves el-
liptical, obtufe, entire, flightly revolute. Stem fhrubby.
— Native of Falkland iflands, and the ftraits of Magellan ;
yet it requires the ftielter of a greenhoufe in this country.
Dr. Fothergill is faid to have firft cultivated this flirub in
1776. It flowers, but not freely, in July and Auguft, and
the foliage is evergreen. This fpecies is fo nearly related to
the laft, that they muft neceffarily be placed next to each
other, nor are we well affured of a fpecific diftinftion be
tween them. The leaves of the prefent are indeed much
fliorter, rounder, and lefs pointed, but their figure is not
invariable. The inflorefcence is precifely fimilar. T^he flowers
are white, large and elegant, obferved by Mr. Curtis to have
a moft delicious fragrance, fimilar to that of Olea fragrans ,-

another

VERONICA.

anotlier point of relembkiiice to the Jafminct, fee ii. 27.
The fame writer juftly obferTes, that the fegments of the
corolla are more equal than is ufual in Veronica, and fome-
times vary to five. The eapfule is oval, fcarcely emarginate.
■>,Z.V . formnfa. Elegant Slirubby Speedwell. Brown n.i.
— Clutters corymbofe, axillary, of few flowers. Leaves lance-
olate, entire ; acute at the bafc. Stem (hrubby. Branches

with two oppofite hairy Unes Gathered by Mr. Brown in

Van Diemen's idand. The leaves are evergreen, in pairs
crofCng each other, very fmooth. Brown.

33. V. catarrada. Water -fall Shrubby Speedwell. Forft.
Prodr. 3. Vahl n. 30. Ait. n. 12. — Clufters axillary, elon-
gated, lax. Leaves ftalked, lanceolate, dillantly ferrated.
Stem fomewhat (hrubby. — Gathered by Forfter in New
Zeeland, we prefume near fome remarkable cafcade. The
leaves are an inch long, acute at each end, fmooth ; paler
beneath. Clujlers from the bofoms of the upper leaves,
four inches long, with (mooth J!ower-/lalis in dillant pairs.
Calyx with four awl-fhaped fcgments, Ihorter than the ob-
long cap/tile. Vahl.

34. V. labiata. Labiated Speedwell. Brown n, 2. Ait.
Epit. 376. Curt. Mag. t. 1660. (V. Derwentia; Little-
john in Andr. Repof. t. 531. ) — Clufters axillary, elongated.
Leaves feflile, ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed, unequally fer-
rated.— Native of Van Diemen's iiland, and the fouth coaft
of New Holland, flowering with us moft part of the
fummer. It is perennial and herbaceous, increafed by part-
ing the roots, but hitherto treated as a greenhoufe plant ;
though, not being fhrubby, it will probably bear our cli-
mate. "Thi^JIems are fimple, erect, about two feet or more
in height, round, leafy, very fmooth. Leaves oppofite,
clafping the ilem by a fort of dilat.-ition, fcarcely to be
termed a footllalk, veiny, quite fmooth, three or four inches
long, acutely and copioufly ferrated. Clujlers numerous,
oppofite, about the top of the Ilem, afcending, (talked,
many-flowered, rather dunfe, a little downy ; their partial

Jlalks fometimes aggregate. Bra^eas awl-fhaped. Segments
of the calyx four, lanceolate : tiiofe of the pale blue co-
rolla elhptic -lanceolate, unequal, acute. Capfiile of four
valves.

35. V. aphylla. Naked-ftalked Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PI. 14. Willd. n. 20. Vahl n. 32. Ait. n. il. (V. n. 541 ;
Hall. Hill. V. I. 234. V. alpina puniila, caule aphyllo ;
Bocc. Muf. 17. t. 1, and t. 9. V. faxatilis parva, caulibus
nudis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 114. f. 3. Segu. Vcron. v. i. 241.
t. 3. f. 2. Teucrium minimum ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. 350.)

/S. V. Kamtchatica ; Liiui. Suppl. 83. ("V. grandi-
flora ; Gsertn. Nov. Coram. Pctrop. v. 14. p. 1. 531. t. 18.
f. I." Vabl.)

Leaves obovate, crenate, hairy. Flower-ftalks ereft,
naked, thrice as long as the branches, about three-flowered.
— Native of alpine fituations in the fouth of Europe, and
north of Afia ; not uncommon on the mountains of Switzer-
land and the north of Italy, flowering in July ; but it has
never been found in Britain or Ireland. The perennial trail-
ing Jlems throw up fevcral Ihort leafy branches, about an inch
in length. Leaves crowded, oppofite, llalked, ufually an
inch long, fometimes much lefs, bhintifh, with numerous
fhallow notches ; their pubefccnce finely jointed. Flower-
Jlalks folitary, near the top of each branch, two or three
inches long, each bearing two or three light-blue Jlowers,
on flender downy partial ftalks, accompanied by oblong ob-
tufc Iraclcas. Calyx hairy, in four obovale fegments. Cap-
fule twice the length of the calyx, obovate, cmarginati-,
thin, comprefTed, hairy. The variety 6 differs merely in
the fomewhat larger fize of every part ; the pubcfcence
being not more articulated in this than tht common V.

aphylla, as we have long ago remarked ; Tr. of Linn. Soc.
v. I. 190.

36. V. Beccabunga. Brooklime Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PI. 16. Willd. n. 30. Vahl n. 33. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl.
Bot. t. 655. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 3. Woodv. Med.
Bot. t. 7. Purih n. 5. Fl. Dan. t. 5 1 1. (Beccabunga;
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 100. Anagallis feu Becabunga ; Gcr.
Em. 620. Sium ; Fuchf. Hiit. 725.) — Clufters lateral.

Leaves elliptical, flat. Stem creeping Native of clear

ditches, and limpid ftrcams, throughout Europe, from
Sweden to Greece, as well as in North America, flowering
in June and July. Perennial. Stews procumbent or float-
ing in their lower part, fending out long fibrous radicles
from the joints ; round, fucculent, fmooth and Ihiiiing, like
every other part of the herb, and extending two or three
feet. Leaves flightly lerrated, of a bright rich green, from
one to two inches long, on fhort broad ftalks. Clujlers
axillary, oppofite, ftalked, longer than the leaves, of feve-
ral, not very brilliant, h\\xe Jloiuers . Segments of the calyx
ovate, as long as the roundifti, emarginate capjule. De
Theis fays, the old name Beccabunga is corrupted from
Bach-punghen, the German appellation of this plant ; bach
meaning a rivulet ; from whence comes the word beck, ufed
for a brook in Yorkfliire and Norfolk. However this may
be. Dr. Sibthorp found Becabunga the Turkifll name of this
Veronica; adopted perhaps from fome European doftor.

37. V. Anagallis. Water Speedwell, or Long-leaved
Brooklime. Linn. Sp. PI. 16. Willd. n. 31. Vahl n. 34.
Fl. Brit. n. 9. Engl. Bot. t. 781. Curt. Lond. fafc' 5.
t. 2. Purfli n. 6. Fl. Dan. t. 903. (Anagallis aquatica
major; Ger. Em. 620.) — Clullers lateral, oppofite. Leaves
lanceolate, ferrated. Stem ereft. — Native of ditches, the
borders of rivers, and other watery fituations, throughout
Europe ; more general in North America than the fore-
going ; and found alfo in Japan. Perennial, and apreeing
in habit with V. Beccabunga, but taller, more ereft, and
readily known by its long, acute, lanceolate leaves. The
clujlers alfo are longer and more pointed, and the Jio>uiers
fmaller, occafionally flefh-coloured.

38. V . fcutcllata. Narrow-leaved Marfli Speedwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 16. Willd. n. 32. Vahl n. 35. Fl. ferit. n. 10.
Engl. Bot. t. 782. Curt. Lond. fafc. y. t. 3. Purlh n. 7.
Fl. Dan. t. 209. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 15. t. 13. (V. pa-
luftris anguftifolia ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 96. f. 1. Ana-
gallis aquatica quarta ; Lob. Ic. 467. Ger. Em. 621.) —
Clufters lateral, alternate ; partial flower-ftalks div.iric.ited.
Leaves linear, flightly indented. — Native of watery places,
efpecially on fpongy bogs, or a fandy foil, in various parts
of Europe and North America ; much lefs common in
England than the two laft ; flowering in July and Auguft.
A (lender, weak, often purph(h, perennial herb, with long
narrow leaves, occafionally downy. Fluivers pale flcfli-
coloured, with purple veins ; ihcWJlalls bent quite b.ick as
the eapfule ripens. The clujlers are axillary, rarely oppofite.
V. parmularia, Poit. et Turp. Parif. 16. t. 14, is only the
hairy variety of this fpccies, mentioned in Fl. Brit., which
is rather of a fmaller fize, and hairy or downy in every part
of the herbage ; but even the authors cited elteem it only a
variety.

39. V. gracilis. Slender New-Holland Speedwell. Br.
n. 4. — " Corymbs lateral, of few flowers. Leaves linear-
lanceolate, nearly entire, very fmooth as well as the nearly
fimple ftem." — Native of Port Jackfon, New South Wales.
Partition of the eapfule contrary to the valves. Brown.

^o. V . pi-rfoliata. Perfoliate Speedwell. Br. n. 3. Curt.

Mag. t. 1936 Clufters later;il, (lalkcd, many-flowered.

Leaves entire, very tmooth, ovate, pointed ; combined ;it

I he

VERONICA.

the bafe. Capfule of four valves. — Native of Port Jack-
fon. New South Wales Flowers dark blue.

41. V. Billardkrl. Sharp-leaved Syrian Speedwell. Vahl
n. 36. — Clutters axillary, many times longer than the lance-
olate-oblong, entire, hoary leaves. Stems proftrate, hoary.
— Gathered in Syria by M. Labillardiere. The j}(ms are
feveral, thread-(haped, fomevvhat branched, hoary and vil-
lous, like the foliage and flovver-ftalks. Leaves nearly
feffile, hardly the length of the nail, fliarpifh, without ribs
or veins, and accompanied by axillary rudiments of linear
leaves. Clujlcrs after flowering two or three inches long.
BraBeas linear, the length of the partial italks. Calyx in
four linear, equal fegments, the length of the fame. Cap-
fule inverfely heart-ftiaped, compred'ed, as long as the calyx,

becoming fmoother as it ripens. Vahl.

42. V. macrojlncbya. Blunt-leaved Syrian Speedwell.

Vahl n. 37 Clufters axillary, many times longer than the

linear -oblong, obtufe, deeply ferrated, hoary leaves. Stems
proftrate, hoary. — Native of Syria. Labillardiere. Every
part of the herb is villous and hoary. Stems feveral, a fpan
long, thread-fliaped, fomewhat branched. Leaves feflile,
the length of the nail ; a httle dilated, and deeply ferrated,
towards the extremity. Clujlers long. BraSeas linear.
Calyx in four linear fegments. Capfule as in the laft. In a
garden the flem becomes eighteen inches, and each clufler
two feet, in lengtii ; with very foft downy leaves. Vahl.

43. V. pedinata. Pectinated Speedwell. Linn. Mant. 24.
Willd. n. 36. Vahl n. 38. Sm. Prodr. FI. Grxc. Sibth.
n. 25. (V. conftantinopolitana incana, chamsdryos folio;
Tourn. Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. i. 25. t. 39. f. i.; — Clufters
lateral, on leafy ftalks. Leaves oblong, with deep parallel
ferratures. Stems proftrate. — Gathered by Buxbaum, and
fince by Sibthorp, on craggy flielvy mountains, bordering
both fhores of the Bofphorus, flowering in fpring. Mr.
Hawkins met with this plant on the higheft fummits of the
Sphaciote mountains of Crete. It has a woody perennial
root, and feveral woody flems, a finger's length, chiefly
hairy on two oppofite fides. Leaves nearly feffile, not an
inch long, with parallel, bluntifli, rather deep incifions.
Flowers blue, in long, loofe, downy clujlers, whofe Jlalhs
bear feveral, alternate, partly entire, leaves. Segments of
the calyx linear, obtufe, hairy, two of them much longer
than the other two.

44. V. orientalis. Various-leaved Speedwell. Mill. Dift.
ed. 8. n. 10. Ait. n. 27. Willd. n. 39. Vahl n. 39.
Marfch. Taur.-Cauc. v. i. 12. (V. auftnaca /S ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 17; the fpecimen marked V. cappadocica, fohis laci-
niatis ; Tourn. Cor. though no fuch name occurs there.
V. heterophylla ; Salilb. Ic. 7. t. 4. V. montana, foho
vario ; Buxb. Cent. I. 24. t. 38.) — Clufters lateral, lax, on
partly leafy ftalks. Leaves pinnatifid, fmooth, acute ; ta-
pering at the bafe ; the uppermoft linear -lanceolate, nearly
entire. Partial ftalks capillary, longer than the bra6teas. —
Native of grafly paftures in Armenia, Georgia, and Tauria,
flowering in June and July. Miller cultivated it in 1748,
and it is ftill preferved in the gardens ; but there was no
reafon for retaining his unmeaning name, which had not
come into general ufe, inftead of the expreflive one of he-
terophylla. This evil it is now too late to remedy. The
plant is hardy and perennial, bufliy, of a pale and fmooth
appearance, the leaves varioufly cut, thin, flat, and pliant.
Flowers copious, rather large, light blue, prettily ftriate4.
Calyx and bradcas linear, ratlier downy. Capfule kidney-
Ihaped.

45. V. taurica. Narrow-leaved Taurian Speedwell. Willd.
11.42. (V. orientalis /3 ; Vahl n. 39. Marfch. Taur.-Cauc.
V. I. 12.) — Clufters lateral, lax, on naked ftalks. Leaves

linear, revolute, downy, tapering at tho bafe ; entire, or
fomewhat toothed. Partial ftalks longer than the obtufe
brafteas Native of Tauria, on chalky ftony hills, flower-
ing from June to Auguft. We cannot agree with Vahl in
reducing this to V. orientalis. Our wild fpecimens, from
the Chevalier de Steven, fliew it to be a more firm and rigid
plant, with woody roots. The decumbent _/?^mx are not a
finger's length. Leaves almoft coriaceous, bright green,
an inch long, fomewhat downy on both fides, very narrow
and revolute in their lower part ; fome of them cut into
two, rarely more, ftrong, lateral, tooth-like fegments. Cluf-
ters axillary, greatly overtopping the branches, as in the
foregoing ; but the lower part of their long firm ftalks is
naked, never leafy. The bradeas, and fegments of the
calyx, are obovate and obtufe, not linear. Flowers but half
the fize of the laft ; according to Willdenow rofe-coloured,
as they feem in our fpecimen. Capfule abrupt, fcarcely
lobed.

46. V. parviflora. Small-flowered Oriental Speedwell.
Vahl n. 40. (V. orientahs minima, foliis laciniatis ; Tourn.
Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. i. 26. t. 41. f. 2.) — Clufters feveral,
lateral, on naked ftalks. Leaves pinnatifid, linear, revo-
lute. Brafteas hnear, obtufe, as long as the partial ftalks.
— Native of Cappadocia and Armenia, in grafly hilly paf-
tures, flowering in June. Linnsus confounded it with V.
pedinala, though nothing can be more diftinft ; nor can
there be lefs difficulty in diftinguifhing this fpecics from the
two laft. m\ie flems are hardly a finger's length. Leaves
deeply and regularly pinnatifid, thick, obtufe, revolute, and
in our fpecimen rather downy, as in taurica; Vahl fays
fmooth. Clujlers from four to fix about the top of the
ftem, and rifmg far above it, downy all over, on long,
round, downy, leaflefs ftalks. Partial Jlalks rather fliorter
than the braSeas. Flowers blue, much fraaller than even
the laft. Calyx with four hnear, obtufe, very unequal feg-
ments. Capfule inverfely heart-ftiaped, more deeply divided
than in taurica.

47. V. rofea. Rofe-coloured Speedwell. Dcsfont. At-
lant. V. I. 13. Vahl n. 41. — Clufters denfe, axillary, nearly
terminal, on naked ftalks. Leaves unequally pinnatifid,
minutely hairy ; lower ones wedge-fliaped, obtufe, toothed.
Brafteas linear, nearly as long as the partial ftalks. — Found
by Desfontaines, on mount Atlas, near Tlemfen. 'Y\\sjlenti
are ftirubby, numerous, afcending, from four to eight inches
high. Leaves an inch long, acute, tapering at the bafe into
a Short footjlali. Calyx in four linear-lanceolate unequal feg-
ments. Corolla rofe-coloured, the fize of V. Teucrium, here-
after defcribed.

48. V . aujlriaca. Auftrian Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 17.
Willd. n. 41. Vahl n. 42. Ait. n. 28. (V. multifida et
auftriaca ; Jacq. Auftr. v. 4. 15. t. 329. Chamaedrys fpuria«
tenuiflim^ laciniata ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 287. Morif. feft. 3.
t. 23. f. 17.) — Clufters lateral, on long naked ftalks. Leaves
flightly hairy, varioufly pinnatifid, or bipinnatifid ; moft
deeply towards the bafe. Partial ftalks capillary. Calyx
very unequally five-cleft, fomewhat hairy. — Native of Auf-
tria, Silefia and Carniola, a hardy perennial in our gardens,
flowering from June to Auguft. The herbage is more or
lefs downy, but fcarcely hoary, except the Jlems, which are
round, leafy, a fpan or more in height. Leaves various in
their divifions,' the fegments generally broader upwards, all
decurrent, fometimes as narrow and compound as m V. mul-
iijida, with which moft botanifts have always confounded
the prefent fpecies. Flowers light blue, in feveral long,
lax, axillary clujlcrs, rifing high above the ftem. Segments
of the calyx acute, the two lowermoft very long, the fifth
oppofite to them, between the two others, much fmaUer

than

VERONICA.

tlian either, but, as far as we can difcern, always prefcnt.
Divifions of the corolla elliptic-obloiig, acute. Capfuk fmall,
fhorter than the calyx, cUiptic-obcordatc.

49. V. mullifida. Fme-cut Speedwell. Linn. Sp. PI. 17,
excluding the fynonym. Willd. n. 40. Vahl n. 43. Sm. Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. i. 191. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. I. 12.
Curt. Mag. t. J679. (V. n. 38 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 222 ; ex-
cluding the fynonym of Tournefort.) — Clufters lateral, on
long naked ftalks. Leaves deeply and doubly pinnatifid,
downy, with linear revolute fegments tapering downwaids.
Calyx very unequally five-cleft. Segments of the corolla

rounded Native of open fields and hills, in Siberia, Tau-

ria, and about mount Caucafus, flowering in April and
Mav. A much fmaller plant, more delicate in its herbage,
than the laft, as well as more downy. The narrow revo-
lute fprcading fegments of the leaves, refembling fome kinds
of Arlem'ifia, readily diftinguifh it. Tht Jloivers are bright
blue, with rounder broader divifions than in V. aujlriaca.
The calyx is very fmooth in every flower of the original Lin-
nian fpecimen, but in moll others, from various quarters, it is
more or lefs downy. The fifth fegment is minute, fcarcely
half fo long as the fliorteft of the others. Baron Marfchall
a Bieberilein obferves, that all this tribe of Veronicit, with
cut leaves, have a five -cleft calyx.

50. V. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Georgian Speedwell.
Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 13. — " Clufters lateral.
Leaves pinnatifid, with linear-threadfliaped divifions. Seg-
ments of the calyx awl-fhaped ; three upper ones very
ftjort. Stems afcending." — Gathered in Georgia, by the
Chevalier de Steven. Perennial. Akin to the laft, but the

Jlems are more elongated ; leaves lefs fubdivided ; their feg-
ments, efpecially thofe of the lower ones, longer ; partial

Jlalks equal to the braHcas, or longer ; three upper fegments
of the calyx minute. May this be V. parviflora of Vahl ?
(fee n.46. ) The Jlo-wers however are by no means fmaller
than mulliJitLi'or orientalis. Marfchall.

51. V. caucafica. Slender-leaved Caucafian Speedwell.
Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 13. — " Clufters lateral.
Leaves doubly pinnatifid, with lanceolate or linear feg-
ments. Partial ftalks capillary. Segments of the calyx
lanceolate, nearly equal. Stem almoft ereft." — From the
fame country. Perennial. The leaves are like muUifida,
but the divifions of the lower ones are broader. Partial
jlalks longer than the braSeas. Segments of the calyx four,

almolt equal, broader than in the neighbouring fpecies.
Lobes of the corolla rounded. Marjchall.

52. V. ytUionii. Shining-leaved Speedwell. Villars
Dauph. v. 2. 8. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. i. 190.
Willd. n. 18. Vahl n. 44. Ait. n. 19. (V. pyrenaica ;
AUion. Pedem. v. i. 73. t. 46. f. 3. V. repens, ex alis
fpicata, &c. ; Spec. 21. t. 4. V. officinalis /3 ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 14. V. n. 2 ; Gcr. Galloprov. 332. V. mas repens
pyrenaica, foho longiori glabro ; Slierard Schol. Bot. 46.
Tourn. Inft. 143. Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. I.)— Clufters
lateral, very denfe, obtufe, on long fmooth ftalks. Leaves
roundifh-oblong, crenate, rigid, fhining, fmooth as well as
the creeping ftems. — Native of mount Cenis, and the alps
of Switzerland, Dauphiny and Savoy, flowering in Auguft.
Rout perennial, creeping. Stems round, procumbent, leafy,
creepmg alfo to a great extent. Leaves roundifh, or obo-
vate, firm and coriaceous ; paler beneath : on fliort broad
fooljlalks. Clujlers axillary, folitary, fcarcely more than one
to each branch, on a round, naked, firm, afcending ftalk,
thrice the length of the leaves ; the clujler itfelf an inch
long, downy, elliptic-oblong, obtufe, of numerous, crowded,
violet-blue Jlowers, with very fhort partial Jlalks, not half
the length of the obtufe brafleas. Calyx in four oblong,

Vol. XXXVIL

unequal fegments. Villars mentions a hairy variety. This
fpecies, confounded by Linnxus witli the following, is of a
much more rigid, compact, and fmooth habit, of a darker
hue, and unqueftionably very diftniCl. Its infufion, ufed
medicinally in the fouth of France, for colds, coughs, de-
bihty of the ftomach, &c. is faid to be more fragrant and
aromatic than that of V. ojicinalis, a popular medicinal tea
in the northern parts of Lurope.

53. V. officinalis. Common Male Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PI. 14. Willd. n. 17. Vahl n.45. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl.
Bot. t. 765. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. 1. 1. Purfti n. 2. Woodv.
Suppl. t. 219. Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 93. Fl. Dan.
t. 248. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 12. t. 8. (V. mas; Fuchf.
Hift. 166. V. vera et major; Ger. Em. 626.) — Clufters
lateral, ftalked, flender, acute, rather lax. Leaves elliptic-
oblong, ferrated, rough, ftem procumbent. — Native of dry
fandy banks, heaths and woods, on a barren foil, through-
out Europe and North America, flowering in May aud
June. Perennial. Stems traiHng, branched, forming broad
tufts or fcattered patches. Whole plant hairy. Leavet
more oblong, acute, pliant, paler, and more deeply ferrated,
than in the former. Flowers pale blue, or light pink,
ilriated, in long, rather lax, alternate, axillary clujlers, on
hairy ftalks, about twice the length of the leaves. Capfule
inverfely heart-fliaped, fplitting into four valves.

The late Mr. Mackay has fent us from the mountains
above Blair in Athol, and from Ireland, a fort of inter-
mediate variety between this and V. /Illionii, partaking of
the rigidity and fmoothnefs of the latter, but even more
ftrongly ferrated than ojjicinalis. We fcarcely hcfitate to
which fpecies to refer it, though we have never compared
living fpecimens.

54. V. reniformis. Kidney-leaved Speedwell. Purfli
n. 3. — Spikes lateral, ftalked. Leaves kidney-heartfliaped,
deeply crenate, fmooth. Stem creeping. — Collefted by
Meflrs. Lewis and Clark, in boggy foil, on the banks of
the Mifl^ouri, flowering in June. Perennial. Stem creep-
ing, thread-ftiaped, taking root at the joints. Leaves op-
poiite, on long ftalks, deeply cut and notched. Floiuer-

Jlalks axillary, alternate, round, fmooth, the length of the
leaves, bearing towards the top a fingle, oblong, crenate
braSea. Spike oblong, fliort. Floiuers large, crowded,
pale blue. Calyx four-cleft ; the two upper fegments ob-
long ; two lower linear, much fmaller. Corolla flat, with
oblong acute fegments, thrice the lengtli of the calyx ; the
lower one linear. Filaments the length of the corolla.
Purjh. '

ij^. V. projlrata. Trailing Germander Speedwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 17. Willd. n. 35. Vahl n. 46. Ait. n. 24.
Ehrh. Herb. n. 71. Roth in Sims and Kon. Ann. of
Bot. V. I. 137. (V. anguftifoHa minor; Rivin. Monop.
Irr. t. 95. f. 2. Chamsedrys fpuria minor anguftifolia ;
Bauh. Hift. V. 3. 287.)

0. V. fatureiaefolia ; Poit. et Turp. Parif. 18. t. 17.

Clufters lateral, moftly oppofite, corymbofe. Leaves ellip-
tic-oblong, varioufiy ferrated, nearly feffile ; upper ones n.ir-
rower and entire. Stem afcending, partially naked at each
fide. Calyx five-cleft, very unequal — Native of Germany,
Switzerland, Italy, France, and the Levant. A h.irdy
perennial, flowering in May and June. The herbage is
light green, more or lefs downy, (lightly hoary. Stems
not a fpan long, clothed with fliort dciife recurved pu-
befcence, which is partly fmoothed away, here and there,
in oppofite lateral lines. Leaves three-quarters of an inch
long, rarely more, rather blunt, crenate or deeply ferrated
for the moft part ; the upper ones only being linear, revo-
lute and entire ; but in the variety, aa we judge it, moft of

K ihc

VERONICA.

the leaves are of the latter defcription. 'V\\e flowers are
bright blue, rather ihowy, in corymbofe denfe tufts, fubfe-
quently lengthened out into long lax cJuJlers. The calyx
feems to vary in aeutenefs, but is generally fmooth.

56. V. pilofa. Hairy-ftalked Germander Speedwell.
Linn. Sp. PI. 1663, excluding the defcription. Willd.
n. 34. Vahl n. 47. (Chamaedn-os falfa fpecies, Teucrium fe-
cundum aut quintum Clufii ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 286.) — " Cluf-
ters fomewhat fpiked. Leaves ovate, obtufe, plaited. Stem
proftrate, hairy." — Native of Auftria. Linmeus. This is
a very doubtful fpecies, not to be found in the Linnaean
herbarium ; and the defcription in Sp. PI. 1664. is erafed by
Linnseus himfelf, from his own copy.

Willdenow's defcription of a Bohemian fpecimen, m his
pofTeffion, anfwers very nearly to one of thofe pafted toge-
ther as the projlrata, in the Linnasan herbarium,\vhofe haves
are more cut, and calyx rather {harper than the three others ;
but we cannot think there is any fpecific diftinclion between
them. The calyx of this fpecimen has five fegments, though
that charafter is not invariable. Willdenow defcribes four.

57. V. Teucrium. Upright Germander Speedwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 16, fynonyms confufed. Willd. n. 33. Vahl n. 48.
Ehrh. PI. Off. 51. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 16. t. 15. (V.
montana; Rivjn. Monop. Irr. t. 95. f. i. Chamxdrys
fpuria major anguftifolia ; Bauh. Pin. 249. Bauh. Hift.
V. 3. 285. chap. 58. Ch. fylveftris ; Dod. Pempt. 45.
Ch. vulgaris mas ; Fuchf. Hift. 871. Teucrii quarti tertia
fpecies; Cluf. Hift. v. i. 349. ^—Clufters lateral, oppofite,
cylindrical, on long ftalks. Leaves feffile, oblong-lanceolate,
bluntly ferrated, rough. Stem afcending, hairy. Fifth
fegment of the calyx very minute. — Native of Germany,
Bohemia, and France, on a dry foil, flowering in May.
The root is perennial. Stems feldom quite ereft, a foot long,
round, hairy, partly fmooth on two oppofite fides, leafy.
Leaves an inch and a quarter long, veiny, hairy, itrongly
ferrated, but not cut ; a little dilated at the bafe. Clujlers
axillary, ufually two near the top of the ftem, rifmg high
above it, on long, parallel, naked, downy ftalks. Flowers
copious, rather crowded, large, handfome, of a fine blue.
Segments of the calyx oblong, the fifth minute, various,
often obfolete.

Mr. Sieber has fent as a variety of this fpecies the V.
dentata of Schmidt, whofe leaves are narrow, linear, and
nearly all entire. Yet it is probably not fpecitically
diftind.

58. V. latifolia. Great Germander Speedwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 18. Willd. n.44. Vahl n. 49. Ait. n. 30. Marfch.
Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 10. (V. Teucrium; Roth in Sims
and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. i. 137. V. pfeudo-chamaedrys ;
Jacq. Auftr. t. 60. Chamadr^-s fpuria major altera, five
frutefcens ; Bauh. Pin. 248. Teucrium majus pannonicum ;
Ger. Em. 659. T. quartum ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. 349.)—
Clufters lateral, oppofite, tapering, on long ftalks. Leaves
feflile, ovate, fomewhat heart-lhaped, rough, deeply ferrated
and cut. Stem ereft, hairy. Calyx unequally five-cleft,
l^ative of Auftria, Bohemia, Germany, and the Levant ;
a common hardy perennial in gardens, flowering in June and
July. We have long fuppofed this not fpecifically diftinft
from the laft. Vahl and Roth confound them ; Willdenow
feems to have been acquainted with their differences, and
the old authors were clearly fo. The prefent is a more
robuft plant, with broader more jagged leaves. The Jlem is
quite fmooth on two oppofite fides, denfely and equally
hairy on the intermediate ones. Flowers large, copious,
very brilhant, in denfe more tapering clufters. Fifth feg-
ment of the calyx half as long as the two next, but on this
mark we have Uttle reliance. Linnseus has led Jacquin and

4

others aftray, by citing fynonyms of F. urticiefoHa for his
latifolia, of which latter, as above defcribed, the original
fpecimen is preferved in his herbarium, nor can we concur
with the learned Dr. Roth iu transferring tliis name to the
urticlfoUa ; fee his excellent remarks in Ann. of Bot. above
cited. Neither do we by any means alTrrt our Teucrium ^d
latlfoUum to be more than varieties of each other, Schmidt's
dentata perhaps excepted, which is too unlike the latter.
We have only aimed at collefting their fynonyms, and in-
dicating what diftinaions we could find, for future inquiry.

59. V. peduncularls. Long-ftalked Germander Speed-
well. Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 11. Sims and Kon.
Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 401. (V. pedunculata ; Vahl n. 50.
V. chamadryos fohis parvis ; Buxb. Cent. 1. 26. t. 41. f. I.)
— Clufters lateral, oppofite ; with long capillary partial
ftalks. Leaves ftalked, ovate, deeply ferrated and cut ;
their fegments toothed. Calyx in four, nearly equal,

bluntifli fegments Native of fliady thickets and groves of

mount Caucafus, flowering in May. Perennial. Akin to
V. Chamtedrys hereafter defcribed, but the Jlems are hairy
almoft all round ; leaves ftalked, fmaller, and yet more cut,
in an unequal or compound manner. The partial Jlotiier-

Jlalks are alfo longer ; the bradeas and fegments of the calyx
broader and more obtufe. The variety y of Fl. Taur.-
Caucaf. fent by the Chevaher de Steven, is of a very differ-
ent and diminutive afpeft ; the leaves fcarcely ftalked, or
cut.

60. V. umlrofa. Wood Germander Speedwell. Marfcli.
Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 11. — " Clufters lateral, of few flowers.
Leaves oblong, obtufe, diftantly ferrated, rough ; upper-
moft linear-lanceolate, entire. Stems creeping. Calyx as
long as the corolla."— Native of the denfe ftiady forefts of
Tauria, about the town of Karaffubafar, flowering in
April and May. Perennial, forming loofe tufts. Par-
tial fower-Jlalks thread-fhaped. Segments ^of the calyx
linear.

Specimens fent by the Chevalier de Steven from Tauria,
under this name, have fmooth leaves, except the edges ;
clufters of rather numerous, though diftant, large and hzxid-
iome hXue flowers ; braSeas ovate, as well as the fegments
of the calyx, which laft is but half the length of the
corolla.

61. V. Michauxii. Michauxian Speedwell. Lamarck
Illuftr. V. 1. 44. Dia. V. 8. 532. Vahl n. 51 — " Cluf-
ters lateral. Flowers fomewhat crowded. Leaves ovate,
toothed, feffile. Herbage hairy and glutinous." — Brought
from the Eaft by Michaux to the Paris garden. Stems four
to fix inches long, clothed with whitifli vifcid hairs. Leaves
oppofite, obfcurely toothed, bluntifti, an inch and a half
long, fix lines broad, without ribs. Stalks axillary, op-
pofite, fome of them at the ends of the (hort lateral leafy
branches all downy, hardly fo long as the leaves. Flowers
on very fliort downy ftalks, crowded. BraSeas lanceolate.
Segments of the calyx four, oval, ftiarpifh, fcarcely downy.

62. V. Chamxdrys. Wild Germander Speedwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 17. Willd. n. 38. Vahl n. 52. Fl. Brit. n. 12.
Engl. Bot. t. 623. Curt. Lond. fafc. I. t. 2. Mart. Ruft.
t. 66. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 13. t. 9. Fl. Dan. t. 448.
(V.pratenfis latifoUa; Riv. Monop. Irr. t.94. Chamaedrys;
Brunf. Herb. v. 1. 125. Ch. vulgaris foemina ; Fuchf.
Hift. 872. Ch. fylveftris; Ger. Em. 657. •— Clufters
lateral. Leaves ovate, feflile, rugged, deeply ferrated.
Stem difi"ufe, with a narrow hairy hue at each fide. Calyx
four-cleft, lanceolate — Native of graffy paftures, groves,
and banks throughout Europe, and even in Japan, peren-
nial, flowering in May. Few of our •ivild flowers can vie
with this in elegance and brilliancy, nor can the pencil eafily

do

VERONICA.

do it juftice. The wsLvyJlems fpread in every direction, and
are merely fringed at each fide with a line of longifh hairs,
not only partially naked, as in y. Teucrium and iatifolia. The
foliage is akin to the latter, but lefs cut. Clujitrs numerous,
generally oppofite, on hairy ilalks, taper-pointed, many-
flowered. Bradeas lanceolate, ufually rather (horter than
the partial llalks. Flowers large, bright blue, molt ele-
gantly veined ; paler at the back. Capftile inverfely heart-
ffiaped, fmall.

63. V. urtictefolia. Nettle-leaved Speedwell. Linn.
Suppl. 83. Willd. n. 43. Vahl n. 53. Ait. n. 29.
Jacq. Aultr. t. 59. (V. n. 535; Hall. Hift. v. i. 232.
V. pratenlls, omnium maxima ; Buxb. Cent. i. 23. t. 34.
V. maxima ; Dalech. Hift. 1165. Charaaedrys fpuria
major Iatifolia; Bauh. Pin. 248.) — Clufters lateral, lax,
with capillary ftalks. Leaves felTile, heart -ihaped, pointed,
fharply feri-ated. Stem quite ereft. Calyx four-cleft,

ovate Native of woods in Auftria, Bavaria, Switzerland,

and Bithynia, flowering in May and June. This fpecies
was not known to Linnseus, till Jacquin, who originally
took it for lat'ifolia, fent him a fpecimen. Under this latter
name it ia defcribed by Dr. Roth, in Sims and Kon. Ann.
of Bot. V. I. 137, but was never what Linnaeus intended.
No fpecies is better defined nor better named. The large
nettle-like leaves at once determine it. The roots are
perennial, moderately creeping. Stems ereft and ftraight,
flender, eighteen inches or two feet high, quite fimple,
marked with a flight hairy line. Clujiers numerous, axillary,
oppofite, ereft, loofe and flender. Flowers fniall, flelh-
coloured, with crimfon lines. Capfule of two femi-orbicular
lobes.

64. V. Pon<c. Rock Germander Speedwell. Gouan
lUullr. I. t. I. f. I. Willd. n. 23, excluding the variety.
Vahl n. 54. (V. petrea; Pon. Bald. 1 79 ? Cluf. Hill.
V. 2. ^36?) — duller nearly terminal, lax, of few flowers.
Leaves feflilc, heart-fliaped, obtufe, coarfely lerrated. Stem
ereft. Calyx fivc-cleft, fmooth. — Native of the Pyrenees,
and perhaps of mount Baldus. Perennial. Stem four or
five inches high, quite fimple and upright. Lower leaves
fmalleft, roundi(h,crenate; the rell an inch long, very blunt,
coarfely ferrated, entire at the extremity, befprinkled with
diftant clofe-preiTed hairs. BraSeas linear, the length of
the partial llalks. Flowers diftant, the fize of /^. Cha-
niiedrys. Such is Vahl's defcription of Gouan's plant,
which lie received from that author, and found himfclf alfo
on the Pyrenees. He alftrts it to be a dillinft fpecies, nor
do we doubt his accuracy. We neverthelcfs have great
doubts refpcfting Pona's plant, which may be a Linnasan
Paderola, as Linnxus fuppoled ; for the figure very clofely
agrees with Micheli's Buonarota, t. 15. Gouan himfclf
feems not quite certain of Seguier's plant, from mount
Baldus ; nor do we imphcitly confide in Gouan's learning
with regard to fynonyms. The references to Plukenet,
Phyt. t. 233. f. 2. and 3, are beft omitted. Willdenow is
furely wrong in referring hither Allioni's F. pum'tla, which
Vahl more judicioufly conlidcrs as F. alpina; fee our n. 22.

65. V. montana. Mountain Germander Speedwell.
Linn. Sp. PI. 17. Suppl. 83. Willd. n. 37. Vahl n. 55.
Fl. Brit. n. I I. Engl. Bot. t. 766. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4.
t. 2. Jacq. Auftr. t. 109. HofTm. Germ. ann. 1791.
t. I. Fl. Dan. t. 1201. ( V. procumbens; Rivin. Monop.
Irr. t. 93. Alyfl^um Dioicoridis montanum ; Column.
Ecphr. V. 1. 286. t. 288.) — Clufters lateral, elongated, lax,
of few flowers. Leaves ovate, ftalked, ferrated. Stem
diffufe, hairy all round. Native of fliady rather mountain-
ous woods, cfpecially on a calcareous foil, in Denmark,
England, Germany, and Italy, flowering in May and June.

A very diftinft perennial fpecies, which fome botanifts have
incautioufly confounded with V. Chamitdrys. Scopoli, ftill
more unaccountably, united them both with V. Teucrium.
Slierard, who firft noticed the montana in England, and
Curtis, have been more exaft in their obfervations. The
Jlem being hairy in every direftion, and the large capfule
formed of two orbicular lobes, not obcordate, are abun-
dantly fufficient dillinftions. The leaves are thinner, and
more Ihining, than in ChamxJrys ; Jinwers fmaller, paler,
much lefs beautiful ; fegments of the calyx obovate. We
regret that a niiftake of the late very accurate Mr. W.
Brunton is recorded in Turner's and Dilhvyn's Botanift's
Guide 666. He feems to have taken up a portion of the
root of Chamedrys along with montana, and thought the
latter was, in the following feafon, transformed into the
former. His fpecimens are before us ; and of the obvious
and abfolute diftinftnefs of the fpecies there can be no
doubt, however thev came together.

66. V. calycina. Long-cupped New Holland Speedwell.
Br. n. 5. — Clufters lateral, of few flowers. Leaves ftalked,
ovate, rugofe, unequally crenate, hairy as well as the creep-
ing Item. Calyx hairy, fringed, longer than the capfule.
Obfrrved by Mr. Brown, in Van Diemen's ifland, and on
the fouth coall of New Holland.

67. V. dijlans. Diltant-flowered New Holland Speed-
well. Br. n. 6. — Corymbs lateral, ftalked, of few flowers.
Leaves ovate, broadly ferrated, fmooth. Footftalks fringed.
Stem decumbent, with a hairy line at each fide. — Gathered
on the fouth coaft of New Holland, by Mr. Brown.

68. V. arguta. .Sharp-toothed New Holland Speed-
well. Br. n. 7. — Clufters lateral, lax. Leaves ovato-lan-
ceolate, fmooth, unequally ferrated. Stem downy on two
oppofite fides. Lower footftalks one-third the length of
the leaves — Gathered by Mr. Brown at Port Jackfon,
New South Wales. A fpecimen from the fame country,
communicated by Mr. Lambert, anfwers in every refpeft
to the above definition, except that the leaves are triangular-
heartfliaped ; but perhaps it may be a variety only. TTie
calyx has four obovate fegments, rather longer than the
nearly orbicular capfule.

69. V. pleheia. Common New Holland Speedwell. Br.
n. 8. — Clufters lateral, lax. Leaves ovate, unequally and
deeply ferrated, fmooth. Stem very finely downy. Lower
footftalks half as long again as the leaves. — Gathered at
Port Jackfon, by Mr. Brown, who fpeaks of it as very
clofely related to the lail.

Seft. 4. Stalks Jingle-jlowered, axillary.

70. V. biloba. Two-lobed Speedwell. Linn. Mant.
172, excluding the fynonyms of Columna and Bauhin.
Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. i. 193. Willd. u. 46. Vahl
n. 56. (V. orientahs, ocymi foho, flore minimo ; Tourn.
Cor. 7. V. arvenfis annua, chamsedryos folio ; Buxb.
Cent. I. 24. t. 36.) — Flower-ftalks thread-fliaped. Leaves
ovate, acute, ferrated, nearly fmooth. Calyx of the fruit

in four deep, ovate, three-ribbed, almoft equal, fegments

Gathered by Tournefort in corn-fields in Cappadoeia ; and
by the Chevalier de Steven on the cailern mountains of
Caucafus. The rnol is annual. Stems two to four inclies
high, ereft, branched, downy. Leaves fomewhat heart-
fhapcd ■at the bafe, half or three-quarters of an inch long,
on ftiort ftalk-s. Flowers axillary, folitary, alternate, about
the lop of the iKm and branches, the leaves which .iccom-
pany them being more entire, and felfilc, than the reft.
Segments of the ralyx lanceolate while in flower, the two
uppcrmoft fliorteft ; afterwards they become much larger,
ovate, fringed, marked with two evident hter.il ribs belides
the central one. Corolla fmall, white. Cap^le hairy, of

K 2 ' two

VERONICA.

two diftinft, divaricated, rounded lobes, much fhorter than
the permanent calyx. Linnxus feems to have taken his
fpeciiic charafter from Columna's Ecphrafis, t. 290, which
reprefents a widely different fpecies, akin to Chamitdrys,
poffibly the Pontc of Gouan ; fee n. 64.

71. V. amoena. Handfome-flowered Annual Speedwell.
Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 14. — " Flowers folitary.
Leaves ovate, crenate ; floral ones oblong, entire, mucii
fliorter than the flower-ftalks. Segments of the calyx
linear. Stem fpreading." — Gathered by the Chevalier de
Steven, in the fields of Georgia, flowering early in fpring.
Root annual. Herb the fize of V. arvenfis. The floral
leaves are minute and entire, fo different from the reft, as to
caufe a doubt whether they be other .than braBeas, and the
tnflorefcence racemofe. This is the moft beautiful fpecies of
the prefent feftion, on account of its very large blue

fiotvers, white in the middle. Marfch.

72. V. glauca. Glaucous Three-cleft Speedwell. Sm.
Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1.6. t. 7. — Flowers folitary. Leaves
heart-fhaped, deeply ferrated. Stems procumbent. Seg-
ments of the calyx three-cleft. — Native of the fummit of
mount Hymettus, above Athens. Mr. Ferdinand Bauer.
Root annual. Stems fpreading on the ground in every
direAion, much branched, reddifh, with a denfe hairy line
at each fide. Leaves glaucous, ftalked, more or lefs deeply
cut, fcarcely an inch long, moft hairy at the bafe and under-
neath ; the lower ones oppofite ; upper alternate. Flower-

Jlalks capillary, fmooth, fliorter than the leaves. Calyx in
four very deep, nearly equal, wedge-fhaped fegments, re-
markable for being three-cleft, which well marks the
fpecies. Corolla deep blue, white in the centre.

73. V. agrejlis. Procumbent Field Speedwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 18. WiUd. n.47. Vahl n. 58. Fl. Brit. n. 13.
Engl. Bot. t. 783. Curt. Lond. fafc. I. t. I. Fl. Dan.
t. 449. (V. folio chamaidryos ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 99.
f. 2. Alfine foliis triffaginis ; Ger. Em. 616.)

(3. Sm. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. v. i. 6. t. 8. (V. perfica; Poir.
in Lam. Dift. v. 8. 542. V. flofculis oblongis pedicuhs
infidentibus, chamxdryos folio, major ; Buxb. Cent. i. 26.
t. 40. f. 2.)

Flowers fohtary. Leaves ovate, deeply ferrated,
Ihorter than the flower-ftalks. Stems procumbent. Seg-
ments of the calyx ovate. Seeds cupped Native of cul-
tivated and wafte ground, throughout Europe, annual,
flowering from April to the end of autumn. ,3 was
gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, in Prince's iflands, near Con-
ftantinople. Root fmall. Stems proftrate, fimple, except
at the bafe, round, leafy, hairy, from fix to twelve inches
long. Some of the lower leaves are oppofite, but the
greater part are alternate, all ftalked, roughiftl. Flowers
deep blue, rather fmall. Segments of the calyx ovato-lan-
ceolate, fringed, generally quite entire, now and then irre-
gularly toothed ; becoming broadly ovate as the fruit ad-
vances. Capfule rough, of two round fwelling lobes. Seeds
about fix in each cell, externally rugged, hollowed out

underneath, where their ilalk is inferted We would gladly,

if poffible, have made a diftindl fpecies of the V. byz,antina
of Sibthorp's manufcripts, our variety ^ ; but no difference
is to be found, except the greater fize of every part. The
corolla is much larger, paler, more elegantly ftreaked.
The form of the calyx, tumid capfule, and curious ftrufture
of t\ii feeds, are all the fame as in our common kind.

74. V. arvenfis. Wall Speedwell, or Speedwell Chick-
weed. Linn. Sp. PI. 18. Willd. n. 48. Vahl n. 59.
Fl. Brit. n. 14. Engl. Bot. t. 734. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2.
t. 2. Fl. Dan. t. 515. Purfli n. 8. (Alfine foliis vero-
nicie; Ger. Em. 613. Alyffum ; Column. Phytob.

t. 28.) — Flowers folitary, nearly feflile. Leaves ovate,
deeply ferrated ; the floral ones lanceolate, entire. Stem
ereft. Seeds flat. — Native of Europe, North America and
Japan, on walls, banks, and dry gravelly or fandy ground,
flowering in May. The herbage is of a pale green, rough.
Stem about fix inches high, branched from the bottom.
Loweft leaves on fhort ftalks ; the reft felTile ; the floral
ones fo fmall, as to feem like braSeas only, but their true
nature appears from the analogy of other annual fpecies.
Flowers fmall, pale blue ; their very fhort ftalks more or
lefs elongated as the fruit advances. Segments of the calyx
lanceolate, fomewhat unequal. Capfule inverfely heart-
fhaped, compreffed. Seeds eUiptical, flat, with a little
dimple in the centre of one fide.

75. V. rotundifolia. Round-leaved Peruvian Speedwell.
" Fl. Peruv. v. 1.6." Vahl n. 60. — " Flowers fohtary,
ftalked. Leaves orbicular-kidneyfhaped, crenate. Stem
thread-fhaped, creeping." — Plentiful in boggy fituations in
Peru. Hairy. Stem flender, branched, round, purple.
Leaves two or three, often but one, from each joint, on
long ilalks, fomewhat peltate, deeply notched. Flower-

Jlalks twice the length of the footflalks. Segments of the
calyx lanceolate. Corolla of a rofy purple, with ovate feg-
ments. Stamens three, the length of the tube. The

flowers are occafionally five-cleft, with four ftamens. Vahl
from the Fl. Peruv. There is no figure, and having feen
no fpecimen, we are very ready to concur with Vahl, in his
opinion, that the genus of this plant is doubtful.

76. V. cymbalaria. White Oriental Speedwell. Sm.
Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. i. 7. t. 9. (V. cymbalarisefolia; Vahl
n. 61. V. cymbalarifolia ; Gmel. Tubing. 6. V. hederi-
folia S ; Linn. Sp. PI. 19. Willd. n. 49. V. chia, cym-
balariae folio, verna, flore albo umbilico virefcente ; Touni.
Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent. i. 25. t. 39. f. 2.) — Flowers folitary.
Leaves heart-fhaped, deeply crenate. Segments of the

calyx rounded. Seeds cupped, nearly fmooth Native of

fields about Conftantinople, and in the Greek iflands, as
well as in Morocco. Annual. Stems fpreading or pro-
cumbent, branched at the bafe only, a fpan long, fquare,
with a hairy fine at two oppofite fides. Leaves all ftalked,
oppofite, rounded, obtufe, with two or three deep notches at
each fide, but fcarcely lobed. Flowers white with a yellow
centre, on long, oppofite, capillary ftalks, reaching beyond
their correfponding leaves. Segments of the calyx obovate,
obtufe, fringed, entire. Capfule turgid, of two round lobes,
hairy. Seeds only two in each cell, large, hollow at one
fide, nearly fmooth externally, chiefly wrinkled at the
margin. Very diftinft in its calyx from the following.

77. V. hederifolia. Ivy-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PI. 19. Willd. n. 49. Vahl n. 62. Fl. Brit. n. 15.
Engl. Bot. t. 784. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. i. Poit. et
Turp. Parif. 23. t. 26. Fl. Dan. t. 428. ( V. folio hederx ;
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 99. Alfine hederacea ; Ger. Em.
616. Alfines quartum genus ; Fuchf. Ic. 13.) — Flowers
fohtary. Leaves heart-fhaped, flat, five-lobed. Segments
of the calyx heart-fhaped, acute. Seeds cupped, wrinkled.
— Native of fields and wafte ground throughout Europe,
flowering in April and May. Annual, in habit like the
laft, but the leaves are more decidedly lobed, and ivy-like,
though of a pale green. They are alfo, except a very few
of the lowermoft, all alternate, moftly longer than their

footjlalts. Flowers pale blue, on long, folitary, axillary
ilalks. Segments of the calyx nearly equal, pointed, three-
ribbed, with a very broad heart-fhaped bafe. Seeds much
more wrinkled at the outfide than the laft, but agreeing
with that fpecies and agrejlis in their reverfed cup-like form.
— The late Mr. Crowe obferved to the writer of this, after

the

VERONICA.

tlie prefent fpccies had appeared in Engl. Bol., that it is
fcarcely to be found with us in flower later than May, and
that the Norfolk farmers call it Winter-weed.

78. V .jiltform'ts. Capillary-llalked Speedwell. Sin. Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. i. 195. Willd. n. 50. Vahl n. 63.
Marfch. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. ij. (V. orientalis, foliis he-
derx terreilris, magno flore ; Tourn. Cor. 7. Buxb. Cent.
I. 25. t. 40. f. I.) — Flowers folitary. Leaves heart -ihaped,
crenate, much fhorter than the long flender fiower-ilalks.
Segments of the calyx lanceolate. — Native of the Levant ;
found by the Chevalier de Steven in mountainous fields of
Georgia, flowering early in the fpring. We have com-
pared his fpecimens with Tournefort's, nor is there any
difference, though the reference to this author is direfted
in the Fl. Taur.-Caucaf. to be (truck out. The root is
annual. Stems long and trailing. Leagues a quarter of an
inch long, alternate, on fliort llalks, and fliaped more like
thofe of arvenjls or agrejlis than of heJerifolia. Floiuer-

Jlalhs four times as long as the leaves. Segments of the
calyx elliptic-lanceolate, obtnfc, (lightly three-ribbed. Cap-

fuk inverfely hcart-(haped, reticulated with veins. Seeds
fomewhat cupped.

79. V. Crifla-galU. Crefted Speedwell. Stev. Tr. of

Linn. Soc. v. 11. 408. t. 31 Flower-ft.alks folitary, as

long as the ovate, ferrated, nearly feffile, leaves. Calyx of
the fruit divided to the bafe into two heart-(haped, cloven,
ferrated, conipre{red leaves. — Found by the Chevalier de
Steven, to whom we are obliged for a fpecimen, very plen-
tifully in the denfe fhady forefts of Eaftern Caucafus, above
Kubam, flowering in May. The root is annual. Stem a
fpan high, afcendmg, fimple,or alternately branched, (lender,
downy, on two oppofite fides. Leaves mod like l^. agreflis,
uniform ; the floral ones alternate, the reft oppofite. Stalks
axillary, flender, downy. Floiuers extremely minute and fuga-
cious, blue. Calyx greatly enlarged after flowering, of two
flat, parallel, llrongly ferrated, venied, heart-fliaped valves,
each with two points, being altogether peculiar in this
genus, and about the diameter of the leaves. Capfule of
two nearly orbicular lobes, (horter tlian the permanent
calyx, very minutely fringed. Seeds folitary in each cell,
black, rugged ; concave, or umbilicated, at one fide ; in-
ferted nt the top of the cell.

80. V. Iriphyllos. Blunt-fingered Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PI. 19. Willd. n. 51. Vahl n. 64. Fl. Brit. n. 16.
Engl. Bot. t. 26. Sm. Fl. Grsc. Sibth. v. 1.8. t. 10.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 2. Fl. Dan. t. 627. (V. folio rutae ;
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 96. Alfine refta; Ger. Em. 612.) —
Flowers folitary. Upper leaves in deep, finger-likc, obtufe
fegments. Fiower-ilalks longer than the calyx. Seeds
flat. — Native of fandy fields, here and there, throughout
Europe ; rare in England, occurring chiefly in the fandy
confines of Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering in April. Dr.
Sibtliorp found it, very luxuriant, in fields bordering on the
Euxine fea. A fmall upright annual plant, more or lefs
branched, leafy, downy, a little vifcid .ind hoary. Lower
/iTfltw oppofite, undivided, fcarcely lobed ; upper alternate, in
three deep fegments, the lateral ones often cloven. Flowers
of a rich dark blue. Two fegments of the calyx fometimes
notched. Capfule alinoft orbicular, emarginate. Seeds nu-
merous, obovale, flat. Tliis plant turns black in drying,
like moft of the following fpecies.

81. V. verna. Vernal Speedwell. Linn. S]). PI. 19.
Willd. n. 52. Vahl n. 65. Fl. Brit. n. 17. Engl. Bot.
t. 25. Rote Elcm. app. 444. t. 2. f. 1. Fl. Dan. t. 252.
Poit.etTurp. Parif. 21. t.22. (V. Belludi; Willd. n.56.
AUion. Pedem. v. 1. 77. t. 85. f. I. V. fuceulenla ; ibid.
78. t. 22. f. 4. ) — Flowers folitary. Leaves pinnatifid.
Flower-ftalk* (horter than the calyx. Stem crcd.— Native

of dry open fandy fields in various parts of Europe, flower-
ing in April. In England it chiefly occurs about Bury,
Thctford, and the fame fandy country as the lad, but there
in the grcatell abundance, though fooii difappearing after
the feed is flied. This diminutive fpecies is moR akin to
F. ar-ueti/is, in the flat elliptical form of its feeds, general
habit and colour ; not turning black in drying, hke triphyllos
and mo(l of its allies. But the leaves, iinlefs fl.arved, are
deeply fingered, or pinnatifid, their terminal lobe often large
and rounded, hke triphyllos ; even the floral ones are deeply
three-cleft. The_/7m, whether branched or not, is iliff and
ereft, from one to four inches high. Calyx in four nearly
equal, lanceolate, acute fegments. Capfule inverfely heart-
fhaped. TJie herb varies fo much in luxuriance, and confe-
quenlly in the divifions of its haves, that fcarcely two re-
prefentations of it are alike.

82. V.digitata. Slender-fingered Speedwell. Vahl n. 66.
Symb. V. I. 2. (V. verna ; Cavan. Leccion. 22. V. aci-
nifolia; Ait. n.37. V. chama;pithyoides; Lamarck lUuftr.
V. I. 47.) — Flowers folitary, feflile. Leaves all in deep,
finger-hke, linear fegments. Stem ere<ft. Capfule wedge-
(baped — Native of the fouth of Europe. We have ga-
thered it in Lombardy, and received it from near Aranjuez
in Spain, by favour of the late abbe Cavanilles, who has
defcnbed this fpecies for verna. The plant is annual,
flowering in April. Stem branched from the bottom only,
from three to fix or eight inches liigh, rigid, round, downy,
leafy, rather woody. Leaves alternate, feflile, generally
cut, more than half way down, into three, five, or feven,
linear, obtufe, flefliy, fomewhat rough or hairy, entire feg-
ments ; the bafe narrow and linear, which Vahl confiders,
perhaps juftly, as a footflalk. Flrrjiers final!, axillary.
Calyx in four deep, lanceolate, fringed fegments, the length
of the capfule, two of them fliorter than the red. Capfule
inverfely heart -fhaped, but with ftraight fides, rough, abrupt,
rigid. Seeds pale, roundifli, not comprefled.

83. V. precox. Early Jagged Speedwell. AUion. Auc-
tuar. 5. t. I. f. I. Vahl n. 57. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 22.
t. 24. (V. acinifolia ; Willd. Prodr. Berol. 11. V. minor
annua, ocymi caryophyllati foHo, fubtus rubro ; Vaill. Parif.
202.) — Flowers folitary, ftalked. Lower leaves oppofite,
ftalked, heart-fliaped, deeply ferrated and notched ; upper-
mod oblong, alternate, nearly entire. Stem ered. Style
longer than the lobes of the capfule. — Native of fields
about Turin, Paris, and Berlin, flowering in March and
April. Mr. Davall found it alfo in the Lower Valais, in
April, 1787. An annual upright plant, aboilt tiie fizc of
v. arvenfis, but with more of the habit and red hue of tri-
phyllos, much larger and ftronger tlian verna. Stem chiefly
branched from the bottom, round, downy all over, but
mod denfely on two oppofite fides. Leaves rough, rather
flefhy ; the largeft half an inch long, and nearly as broad,
obtufe ; varioufly toothed or jagged ; floral ones hardly fo
long as thcjlovjer-jlalks. Flowers blue or purplilTi. Seg-
ments of the calyx obovate-oblong, hairy, two of them
r.ither the fliortell. Capfule inverfely heart-fliaped, hairy,
tumid, rounded at tlie fides, fo as to be fomewhat orbicuLir,
the permanent_/?yf extending far beyond its lobes. Seeds
numerous, roiindifli, cupped and umbilicated. — No wonder
that thofe botai.ids, who had not feeii both fpecies, iiave
always taken this for the following, and yet they arc clTcn-
lially didinCl.

t<^. V. acinifolia. Bafil-leaved Early Speedwell. Linn.
Sp. PI. 19. Willd. n. 54. Vahl n. 67. Dickf. Dr. PI.
n. 1. Poit. et Turp. Parif. 22. t. 23. Allioii. Ped. v. i.
79. (V. romaiia ; ibid. t. 85. f. 2. V. minima, clinopodii
minoris folio ; Vaill. Parif. 201. t.3^. f. 3. V. minima, clino-
podii minoris folio glabro, romana ; 13ocp. Muf. 19. t. 102.)

— Flowurs

V £ R

V E R

— Flowers folitary, (talked. Leaves oppofite, ovate, flightly
crenate ; lower ones oppofite, partly ftalkcd ; upper feffile,
alternate, entire. Stem erect. Style about as long as the

lobes of the capfule Native of France, Italy, Turkey,

and, as it is reported, of Germany ; though we have never
received from that country any thing but arnyenfts or precox
under this name. In (hady neglefted garden walks, and gra-
velly ground, about Rome, nothing is more common than this
little annual, flowering in April. What Mr. Davall fent to
Kew for acinifolia, in 1788, was certainly the pmcox. The
prefent is by far the molt delicate and flender plant of the
two, though nearly of the fame height. Leaves fmoother,
paler, ovate, and much more entire. Flowers much fmaller,
on rather longer, more capillary, (talks. Segments of the
calyx ovate, or obovate. Capfule fhort, broadly obcordate,
with round diftant lobes, between which the permanent _^^/c
is fituated, fcarcely, if at all, extending beyond them. Seeds
numerous, oval, flat. The authors of the fplendid, but too
foon difcontinued, Flore Parifienne, have well diitinguifhed
thefe two laft fpecies, by the proportion of the Jly/es to their
refpeftive, very differently (haped, capfules. It is curious
to obferve how authors have erred and copied each other's
errors, in their citation of Boccone. See Linna;us, Willde-
now, Vahl, and Poiret in Lamarck.

85. V . peregrina. Purflane-leaved Speedwell. Linn. Sp.
PI. 20. Willd. n. 55. Vahl n. 68." Ait. n. 38. Sm.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. i. 192. Purfli n. 9. Fl. Dan. t. 407.
(V. romana ; Linn. Sp. PI. 19. Mant. 317. V. mari-
landica ; Linn. Sp. PI. 20. " Murr. in Comm. Goett: for
17*2. II. t. 3." V. caroliniana ; Walt. Carolin. 61. V.
terreltris annua, folio polygoni, flore albo ; Morif. v. 2. 322.
feft. 3. t. 24. f. 19.) — Flowers folitary, feflile. Leaves
oblong, fmooth, obtufe, toothed or entire ; the lower ones
oppofite. Stem erett. Style (Korter than the lobes of
the capfule — Native of cultivated ground in feveral parts
of Europe, Britain excepted, as well as of North America,
Lima, and the Brazils, flowering in fummer. The root
is annual. Herb very variable in habit and fize, fometimes
partly decumbent ; it is branched from the bafe, fmooth in
every part, rather fucculent, vaftly more like Purflane, tlian
any fpecies of Polygonum. Leaves an inch or more in
length, for the moil part feffile, fome of them coarfely and
diilantly toothed, the upper or floral ones generally entire.
Flowers nearly or quite feffile. Segments of the calyx ob-
long, bluntifli, a little unequal. Corolla fmall, white.
Capfule inverfely heart-fliaped, with a very fhort Jlyle, not
reaching quite fo far as the lobes. Seeds numerous, fmall,

oval, flat Linnaaus was Angularly unfortunate with refpeft

to this fpecies and the acinifolia. His original fpecimcn of
J^. romana, anfwering to the character, as well as the num-
ber, in Sp. PI. ed. i, is, notwithfl;anding Vahl's doubts,
precifely the fame as his peregrina, of which a third fpecimen
IS marked acinifolia ; but this lall fpecimen is not an original
one. The fynonyms oi romana are properly referred in Sp.
PI. ed. 2. to acinifolia, io that the I.,innaean romana is to be
entirely excluded. Whetlier the V. ereda acini folio glabro,
Jloribus e^ruleis, DHL Gijf. app. 39, be the acinifolia, as com-
monly fvippofed, or the pmcox, we have fome doubts. V.
marilandica, adopted from Gronoviuj, is univerfally allowed
to be t}ae peregrina, which therefore embraces three Linnsan
fpecies, none of them entitled to rank even as varieties of
each other.

Veronica, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the her-
baceous, perennial, and (hrubby kinds, among which the
fpecies cultivated are, the Siberian fpeedwell (V. fibirica) ;
the Virginian fpeedwell (V. virginica) ; the baltard fpeed-
well (V. fpuria); the fea fpeedwell (V. maritima) ; the
long-leaved fpeedwell f V. longifolia) ; the Welfli fpeedwell

(V. hybrida) ; the cut-leaved fpeedwell (V. incifa) ; and
the crofs-leaved fpeedwell (V. decuflata).

In the fecond fort the Items are terminated by long flender
fpikes of white flowers, which appear late in July ; and it
varies with the blufli-coloured flowers. The third is peren-
nial in root, having the fl:ems terminated by long fpikes of
blue flowers, wliich appear in June and July. A variety of
this has a flefh-coloured flower. The fourth has the ftalks
of lefs length than thofe of the preceding, but the flowers
are of a bright blue, and appear in July. There are varieties
with leaves oppofite, in threes or in fours, wdth blue, blueifli,
flefh-coloured, and with white flowers. The fifth has the
items a foot and a half high, which are terminated by long
fpikes of blue flowers, which appear in June. The fixth
has very white and woolly ftalks about a foot high, the
flowers of which are deep blue in terminating fpikes. A
variety has white flowers. The laft fort is a bufliy ftirub,
about two feet in height.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be raifed by feed
and parting the roots. In the annual forts the feeds fhould
be fowii in the autumn, or very early fpring, in the borders
or places where the plants are to grow, being lightly covered
in : if the feeds be permitted to icatter, good plants may be
raifed : fometimes they are fown on beds, to be afterwards
removed. In the perennial forts the roots may be parted
in the autumn or early fpring, and planted out where they
are to grow, or in nurfery rows to be afterwards removed.
They fhould not be parted too fmall, or oftener than every
two years : the large-growing forts are proper for the bor-
ders, clumps, &c. and the traihng kinds for banks and (hady
flopes, or other fimilar places : they are hardy, and require
only to be kept clean afterwards. The eighth fort is readily
increafed by cuttings in the fpring and fummer, being ma-
naged as a hardy greenhoufe plant, in the fame way as the
myrtle. In very mild winters it fometimes ftands iecure
in the open air. The annual and perennial forts afford
variety in the borders, clumps, and other parts of pleafure-
grounds, and the laft among plants of the hardy potted
greenhoufe kinds.

Veronica, in the Materia Medica. The Beccabunga was
formerly ufed in feveral difeafes, and applied externally to
wounds and ulcers ; but its fuppofed efficacy muft depend on
its antifcorbutic quality. As a mild refrigerant juice, it is
deemed ferviceable in an acrimonious ftate of the fluids ; and
it is ordered in the Lond. Ph. as an ingredient in the fuccus
cochliarix compofitus. Its benefit depends on taking the
juice in large quantities, or eating the frefli plant as food. The
leaves of the officinalis have a weak, not difagreeable, fmell,
and a bitterifli tafte : an extraft from them by reftified
fpirit is moderately bitter and aftringent. About a century
ago, this plant was much recommended as a fubftitute for
tea : as a medicine, it had confiderable reputation in coughs,
afthmas, confumptions, &c. ; but, as it is a lefs powerful
aftringent than many others, it is now difregarded. Lewis.
Woodville.

VKRONUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by many to a
fmall river-fifh, well known in England by the name of the
mino'w.

VEROVITZA, in Geography, a town of Sclavonia.
This is a ftrong town, fituated near the Drave ; 36 miles
S.S.E. of Camfcha.

VERPILLIERE, La, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifcre ; j miles S.E. of Lyons.

VERPLANK's Point, a fortified fpot in the ftate
of New York, on the left bank of Hudfon's river, in Weft
Chefter county, which was taken, in 1779, by the Britifh
troops ; 34 miles N. of New York. N. lat. 41° 15'. W.
long^ 74".

VERRANA,

V E R

V E R

VERRANA, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto ; lo miles S.S.E. of Oria.

VERREGINUM, or Vekkuco, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Italy, in Latium, in the country of the Volfci.

VERRETZ, in Geography, a fcttlement of the illand of
Hifpaniola ; 30 miles N.E. of St. Marc.

VERREZ, a town of France, in the department of the
Dora, or in Piedmont, fituatcd at the foot of a hill, on a
ilream of water, which divides into three branches, traverf-
ing the town on both fides, and the centre. The inhabitants
have no other ramparts than the neighbouring mountains, and
no other fod'cs than the beds of the rivers, made by nature :
the houfes arc about 150 in number. In the moft elegant
part is a fquare fortrefs, built on a (harp rock, furrounded
with a wall of Hone, a parapet, and a good rampart, which
furrounds the fortrefs and the gate of entrance, fo that no
one can arrive at this gale till they have paffed the rampart
and a drawbridge upon the fofle. When the bridge is up,
the fortrefs is fuppofed to be impregnable, being furrounded
on all fides with frightful precipices, while the accefs is only
by narrow palTes in the valley, which a fmall garrifon can
obftruft and annoy the enemy far and near ; 15 miles S.S.E.
of Aofta.

VERRIE'RES, a town of France, in the department
of the Vienne ; 13 miles S.E. of Poitiers. — Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Marne ; 3 miles S. of
St. Menehould. — Alfo, a town of Neufchatel, on the bor-
ders of France, t!ie environs of which are famous for cheele.
Near it is a narrow pafs of only five feet wide, with in-
acceffible rocks on both fides ; fo that a few men could
defend it againft great numbers.

VERRIO, Antonio, in Biography, was born at Naples
in 1634. After he had acquired the management of the
pencil, he went to Touloufe, and there was engaged to
paint the high altar in the church of the Carmelites. He
was invited by Charles II. to England, the king intending
to engage him in defigns fortapeftry, to be made here ; but
he changed his mind, and ordered him to paint moft of the
ceilings of Windfor caftle, the great hall, and the chapel ;
all which he loaded with heterogeneous compounds of gods
and goddelfes, vices and virtues, and all the emblematic
imagery which fcholaftic pompofity could muftcr up, to
fupply the place of common fenfe ; and this he executed
with great freedom and great frefhnefs of colour, but in a
manner devoid of any other good quality of art. For thefe
labours he was paid nearly 6000/.

The Revolution was not to his mind : he declined to
ferve kijig William, and went to the earl of Exeter at Bur-
leigh, where he painted feveral apartments, which are
efteemed his beft works. He afterwards painted at Chatf-
worth, and at Lowther : at length he was perfuaded by the
earl of Exeter to engage to paint for the king the great
ftaircafe at Hampton-Conrt ; and Walpole obfcives, " lie
painted it as ill as if he had fpoiled it out of principle."
His eyes failing him, queen Anno gave him a penfion of
200/. per annum for life ; but he did not long enjoy it,
dying at Hampton-Court in 1707.

VERRO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Riga ; 124 miles N.E. of Riga. N. lat. 58° lo'.
E. long. 27"" 24'.

VERROCHIO, Andrea, in Biography, was among
the early Florentine artifts who prepared tiie way for the
greater talents of fubfequent painters. He was born at
Florence in 1432, and didingiilrtied himfelf both as a
fculplor and painter. He had the honour to be the in-
ftrnCior of P. IVrugino and I-ionardo da Vinci, and was
nruch employed j till, as Vafari reports, being engaged by

the monks of St. Salvi, at Valombrofa, to paint a pifture
of the Baptifm of Chrift, he fet Lionardo da Vinci, then iiis
pupil, to put in the figure of an angel from his defign, and
he executed his talk in a manner fo fnperior to the work of
his mailer, that Verrochio, in dilgud, refolved to paint no
more, but apply himfelf entirely 10 fculpture and drawing.
His llyle of defign was grand and free, and Lionardo
took great plcafare in copying his drawings, particularly a
battle-piece, on account of the peculiar airs of the heads,
the difpofition of the hair, and the aftions of the figures.
Fie died in 1488, aged ;6.

VERRUA, in Geography, a town of Piedmont, or lately
of France, in the department of the Tanaro, on a high hill,
near the Po, oppofite Creicentin : the fortifications were
once very ftrong, and the cattle was called impregnable ; 18
miles N.E. of Turin. N. lat. 45° 14'. E. long. 8°.
VERRUCA, in Medicine. See Wart.
Hence, verrucous is applied to any excrefcences which
have a refemblance to warts. There are alfo verrucous
ulcers, &c.

VERRUCARIA, in Botany, fo called by Perfoon, from
•verruca, a wart, in allufion to the protuberant form of its
fruftification. The fame name had been previoufly applied by
Wiggers in his Primitix Fl. Holfat. 85, in an extremely vague
manner, to many of the cruttaccous Lichens of Linnarus ; but
it is now limited, as Perfoon intended, to a very natural genus.
— Perf. in Uft. Annal. fafc. 7. 23. Schrad. Spicil. lo8.
Achar. Prodr. 13. Meth. 113. " Lichenogr. 51. t. 4.
t. 2, 3." Syn. 87. — Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Alga.
Nat. Ord. Lichcnes.

Gi-n. Ch. Frond cruftaceous, expanded, flat, uniform,
clofely attached. Receptacles nearly globofe, or fomewhat
hemifpherical ; their bafe funk in the frond ; their coat
double ; outermott rather cartilaginous, thick, black, cloth-
ing the upper, or expofed, half, and furniihed with a fmiall
prominent mouth ; inner vt-ry tliin and membranous, entirely
inclofing a globular, cellular nucleus.

EIT. Ch. Frond cruftaceous. Receptacles half-immerfed,
globofe, concave, black, with a cellular nucleus.

We have, under Endocarpon, adverted to the near
agreement between the fruftification of that genus and tlie
prefent. Their habits and fronds however are very different,
and Schrader has long ago indicated another diftintUon, that
the receptacle is always doled in Verrucaria, while in Endo-
carpon Its contents are difcharged, he fays "exploded," by
a fmall, but dilliiift, orifice. On thefe characters this great
cryptogamift would found his generic diftinitions, regardlefs
of the nature nf ihc frond, and the greater or Icfs degree of
prominence of the receptacles funk therein. But the learned
Achariiis, fo peculiarly devoted to this difficult department
of botany, has defined Verrucaria by more obvious, and as we
think more natural limits, by which we have proiited above.
He defines forty-five fpecies of this genus, in his lateft pub-
lication, the Synopjis Melhodica Lichenum. They are diflri-
buted into four ieclions, according to the nature of the
crujl, or frond.

Seft. I. Frond membranous, or fomewhat carldaginous,
contiguous and fmooth. Twenty-one fpecies.

Thefe all grow on the fmooth barks of various trees, in
Europe, Africa or America, in the form of a thin infepa-
rable membrane, generally of a different colour from the
cuticle of the bark, by which, more than the bhick dot-like
fruftification, thefe plants are generally r : dered confpi-
cuons. Examples of this fedtion are

V . pnnaiformis. Ach. Syn. n. 1. (Lichen puniftiformis ;
Engl. Bot. t. 2412. L. myacoproides ; Ehrh. Crypt. 264. )
— Crnll determined, very thin, fmooth, rully-brovrn. Re-
ceptacles

V E R

V E 11

ceptacles minute, black, hemifpherical, umbilicated. — Found
by Mr. W. Borrer, on the fmooth bark of afh-trces.

V. analepta. Ach. n. 2. ( Lichen analcptus ; Engl. Bot.
t. 1848.) — Differs from the foregoing chiefly in the central
deprefllon of the receptacles being more minute.

V. gemmata. Ach. n. 12. Meth. 120. t. 3. f. 1. (V.
melaleuca; ibid. 117. V. alba; Schrad. Spicil. 109. t. 2.
f. 3.) — Cruft undefined, thin, fmooth, of a hoary white.
Receptacles fcattered, hemifpherical, polifhed, beaked ; nu-
cleus globular, pellucid. — Found on the barks of the taller
kinds of t.-ees. Achar'ws. Mr. D. Turner has met with
this fpecies in England. The black and (hining prominent
receptacles are ftrongly contrafted with tlie white, fomewhat
mealy, cruft.

Seft. 2. Frond rather folid, more or lefs gelatinous. Three
fpecies.

V.mucofa. Ach. n. 22. Meth. fuppl. 23. " Wahlenb.
Lapp. 466." — Cruft gelatinous and flimy, very fmooth,
blackifti-green. Receptacles minute, nearly globular, funk,
with a prominent beak ; dirty white internally. — Found by
Mr. Wahlenberg, on rocks and ftones wafhed by the moun-
tain ftreams of Lapland and Sweden. When dry it is hard
and almoft black, but moifture reftores the crujl to a flimy
ftate, and the fruSification is vifible, in botli ftates, to a
careful obferver.

The other fpecies of this feftion are named gelatinofa and
ceuthocarpa.

Seft. 3. CruJl fomeiuhat tarfareous and friable, uninterrupted,
cracking into fmall portions, or powdery. Seventeen fpecies.

V.Schraderl. Ach. n. 25. Meth. 114. (V. rupeftris;
Schrad. Spicil. 109. t. 2. f. 7. Lichen Schraderi ; Engl.
Bot. t. 17 II. L.immerfus ; Hoff'm. Enum. Lich. 24. t. 3.
f. 5. L. fufco-ater /3; Hag. Lich. 49.) — Cruft tartareous,
hard, whitifli, fmooth. Receptacles minute, crowded, nearly
globular, umbilicated, funk ; femitranfparent within. — This
is often to be feen on chalk or lime-ftone. The cavities in
the very hard cru/l, feem formed by the growth of the recep-
tacles, and remain empty and unclofed after the latter fall
out ; juft as happens in the true Lichen immerfus, or Lecidea
immerfa. In this ftate our prefent Verrucaria muy fre-
quently be obferved, on wrought ftones in expofed fitua-
tions ; its hard cruJl being fcarcely diftinguiftiable from the
ftone, except by its internal green hue when rubbed.

V. Harrimanni. Ach. n. 26. Lichenogr. v. i. 284.
(Lichen Harrimanni; Engl. Bot. t. 2539.) — Cruft tarta-
reous, contiguous, limited, moufe-coloured, with very mi-
nute deprefted dots. Receptacles minute, immerfed, globofe,
with a prominent bordered orifice ; brownifti within. — Native
of hard, grey, calcareous rocks, in the county of Durham,
where it was difcovered by the Rev. Mr. Harriman, a very
ftdlful Britifti botanift. The cruft of this is thicker, with a
more defined black edge than ufual in Verrucaria, yet it
cannot be feparated in any entire portions from the ftone.
The dotted furface is peculiar. The dilated rim of each
receptacle is all that is vifible of the fruftification.

V. maura. Ach. n. ^6. Meth. fuppl. 19. (Lichen
maurus ; Engl. Bot. t. 2456.) — Cruft thin, continued, im-
perfeftly circumfcribed, coal-black, fmooth, with innumer-
able minute cracks. Receptacles black, immerfed, fwelling
under the cruft, marked by an umbiUcated point ; nucleus
blackifh. — Mr. W. Borrer has noticed this frequently on
rocks on the Scottifti coaft, and his fpecimens agree with
thofe fcnt by Mr. Wahlenberg, the original difcoverer of
the prefent fpecies, on the rocky ftiores of Sweden. It
compofes footy infeparable blotches, on ftones expofed to
the flux and reflux of the tide ; but when examined, will be
found as diftinft in charaftcrs as any of its tribe.

Seft. 4. CruJl foft, Jibrous, fomeiuhat fpongy, or like a
thin cobweb. Four fpecies.

V . epigea. Ach. n. 43. Meth. 123. ( Spha;ria epigaea ;
Perf. Syn. Fung, append. 27. Lichen terreilris ; Engl.
Bot. t. 1681.) — Cruft fomewhat fibrous, gelatinous, un-
even, pale greenifli-grey. Rtceptacles minute, globofe,
immerfed, with a prominent orifice ; internally black. — Not
unfrequent on earthy or muddy banks. When dry the cru^
is fmooth and even, without any fign of the fibrous texture,
which becomes vifible on the admiflion of wet. The recep-
tacles are fcattered like little black dots over the furface,
being moft prominent in a dry ftate.

V . byffacea. Ach. n. 45. Meth. 116. ( Sphseria byf-
facea ; Weigel Obf. Bot. 42. t. 2. f. 9. Perf. Sj-n. Fung.
append. 27. ) — Cruil fomewhat leprous and fibrous, dirty
white. Receptacles minute, nearly globular, half immerfed,
perforated ; black within. — On the trunks of old oaks, and
other trees. This feems to be a very doubtful Verrucaria.
We have never examined it, but the cru^ is defcribed more
of a leprous tlian fibrous texture, refembling Byjfus ladea
of Linnaeus. Receptacles full of black powder. It is one
of thofe ambiguous produftions, partly allied to the Liclunes,
partly to the Fungi, which the ftudents of each tribe prefs
into their own fervice. From an attention to the fibrous
bafes of fome oxher Spharia, we ftiouldinchne to think this
3^ fungus, efpecially if the receptacles be really full of powder :
but on the other hand, the mealinefs of the cruJl is much
more of the nature of the genus under confideration. Acha-
rius now confiders as a variety of this, his V. JliHica,
Meth. 118; and indeed they appear very nearly akin.

VERRUCINI, in Jncient Geography, a people of the
Maritime Alps, N.W. of the Sueltari, mentioned by Pliny.
They are placed at Verignon.

VERRUCOLA, La, in Geography, a town of Etruria;
4 miles E. of Pifa.

VERRUCOSUS, Warty, in Botany and Vegetable Phy-
ftology, is a term applied to any part of the furface of a
plant when furniftied with fcattered protuberances from its
own fubftancc. Euonymus •uerriuofus of Scopoli and Jac-
quin has a warty bark. The young branches are firft be-
fprinkled with little black fliining oblong fpecks, which
foon enlarge, crack longitudinally, and become tumid rough
warts, having much more of the appearance of a parafitical
fungus, than many produftions that are fo denominated. In
Aloe perlata the cuticle of the leaves is ftudded with hard
cartilaginous fmooth warts, exhibiting a moft genuine ex-
ample of z. folium •verrucofum. So in Echium, feveral fpecies
bear hard, almoft bony or ftielly, warts, fometimes elegantly
ftellated, from which the briftly clothing of the herbage
originates. Thefe are all lefs ftrong and remarkable, the
more luxuriant the plant. The papillary coat of the Ice-
plant, Mefembryanthemum cryftallinum, can fcarcely come
under the above denomination ; being an aftemblage of cu-
ticular bladders full of a watery fluid, without any cuticular
or flelhy folidity.

VERRUYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Two Sevres; 7 miles N.N.W. of St.
Maixens.

VY.RRY,m Heraldry. See Vairy.

VERS du Gard, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Gard ; 6 miles S.E. of Uzes.

Vers en Montagne, a town of France, in the department
of the Jura ; 18 miles N.E. of Lons le Saunier.

VERSA. SseVicKVerfd.

VERSAILLES, in Geography, a city of France, and

capital of the department of the Seine and Oife. In the

beginning of the laft century, it was a fmall village, when

II Louis

\^ E R

Louis XIII. built here a hunting feat, which Louis XIV.
enlarged into a palace, in a foreft 30 miles in circumference,
which became a place of frequent refidence of the royal
family till the revolution. The palace is magnificent, with
beautiful gardens, adorned with ftatues, canals, fountains,
&c. and a park five miles in circumference, furrounded with
a wall. Since the revolution, it has been eredcd into a
bilhop's fee ; 3 polls S. W. of Paris. N. lat. 48' 49'. E.
long. 2° 1 1'.

Versailles, a towndiip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Alleghany; containing 883 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town
of Woodford county, in the ftate of Kentucky ; containing
488 inhabitants.

VERSAK, a diftrid of Afiatic Turkey, in the S. part
»( Carainania, fo named from a mountain, 60 miles S.E.of
Cogni.

VERSAMEYRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Cutch ;
20 miles E. of Boogebooge.

VERSARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 32
miles S. of Amedabad.

VERSAUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 6
miles N. of Pernalla.

VERSCHORISTS, in Ecdefajlkal Hiftory, a rehgious
feft, deriving its denomination from Jacob Verfchoor, a na-
tive of Fluihing, who, in the year 1680, out of the tenets
of Coccius and Spinofa, produced a new form of religion ;
for the leading tenets of which fee Hattemist.s.

The difciples of Verfchoor were alfo called Hebrews, on
account of the zeal and diligence with which they applied
themfelves to the fludy of the Hebrew language.

VERSE, Versus, in Poetry, a hne or pan of a dif-
courfe, confifting of a certain number of long and fhort
fyllables, which run with an agreeable cadence ; the like
being alfo reiterated in the courfe of the piece.

This repetition, according to F. BolTu, is necefl'ary to
diftinguifh the notion of verfe from that of profe ; for in
profe, as well as verfe, each period and member are parts
of difcourfe, confifting of a certain number of long and
fhort fyllables ; only, profe is continually diverfifying its
meafures and cadences, and verfe regularly repeats them.

This repetition of the poets appears even in the manner
of writing ; for one verfe being finilhed, they return to the
beginning of another line to write the verfe following : and
it is to this return that verfe owes its name ; -verfus coining
from •verlere, to turn or return.

Accordingly, we find the fame word ufed to fignify any
thing that is placed in a certain regular order : Cicero ufes
■verfus for a line in profe ; Virgil for a row of trees, and
even of oars in a galley. But as the regularity of verfe
carries with it more charms, and requires a greater degree
of exadlnefs, the word has, in time, become appropriated
to poetry.

To make verfe, it is not enough that the meafures and
quantities of fyllables be obferved, and fix juft feet put, one
after another, in the fame line; there are fartiier required
certain agreeable cadences, particular tcnfes, moods, regi-
mens, and even lometimes words unknown in profe.

But what is cliiefly required, is an elevated, bold, figura-
tive manner of diftioii ; tiiis manner is a thing fo peculiar
to this kind of writing, tiiat, without it, the moft cxaft ar-
rangement of longs and Ihorts does not conftitute verfe fo
much as a fort of meafured profe. See Poetry.

Dr. Blair ( Leftures, vol. iii. ) obferves, that nations, whofe
language and pronunciation were of a mufical kind, refted
their verfification chiefly upon the quantities, that is, the
length or (hortnefs of their fyllaliles. Others, who did not
make the quantities of their fyllables to be fo diftimftlv per.

Vol. XXXVII.

V E R

ceived in pronouncing them, refted the melody of their vcric
upon the number of fyllables it contained, upon the proper
difpofition of accents and paufcs in it, and frequently upon
that return of con-efponding founds which we call rhyme;
which fee. The former was the cafe with the Greeks and
Romans ; the latter is the cafe with us, and with mofl; mo-
dern nations.

The Greek and Latin verfes confift of a certain number
of feet, difpofed in a certain order ; fo that every fyllable,
or the greateft number at leaft, was known to have a fixed and
determined quantity ; and their manner of pronouncing
rendered this fo fenfible to the ear, that a long fyllable was
counted precifely equal in time to two fhort ones. Upon
this principle, the number of fyllables contained in their
hexameter verfe was allowed to vary. The mufical time,
however, was precifely the fame in every fuch verfe, and was
always equal to that of twelve long fyllables. In order to
afcertain the regular time of every verfe, and the proper
mixture and fncceffion of long and fhort fyllables which
ought to compofe it, were invented what the grammarians
call metrical feet, daftyles, fpondees, iambics, &c. And
the hexameter verfe was fcanned or meafured by fix me-
trical feet, either daftyles or fpondees, with this reftric-
tion, that the fifth foot was regularly to be a daftyle, and
the laft a fpondee. And fome have attempted to make
French and EngHfh verfes on the fame foundation, but with-
out fuccefs.

The iiitroduftion of thefe feet into Englifh verfe would
not fiiit the genius of our language, which does not corre-
fpond, in this refpeft, to the Greek or Latin. Hence mere
quantity is of little effed in Englifh verfification. The only
perceptible difference among our fyllables is owing to that
ftronger percufhon of voice, called accent, with which fome of
them are uttered : and accordingly, the melody of our verfe
depends much more upon a certain order and fucceffion of
accented and unaccented fyllables, than upon their being
long or (hort.

If we take any of Mr. Pope's lines, and, in reciting them,
alter tiie quantity of the fyllables as far as our quantities are
fenfible, the mufic of the verfe will not be much altered ;
but if we do not accent the fyllables as the verfe diftatcs, its
melody will be totally deflioyed. (See Lord Monboddo's
Treatife of the Origin and Progrefs of Language, vol. ii.)
In the conllitution of our verfe, the cafural paufe is an
eflential circumftaiice, and this falls towards the middle of
each line. In the French heroic verfe this is very fenfible.
This is a verfe of twelve fyllables, and in every line, jull after
the iixth fyllable, there falls, regularly and indifpenfably
a csefural paufe, dividing the hne into two equal hemiftichs.
Thus the one-half of the line always anfwers to the other,
and the fame chime returns inceffantly on the ear, without
intermilfion or change ; which is, without doubt, a dcfeft in
tlieir verfe, and renders it unlit for the freedom and dignity
of heroic poetry. For the difference of the Englifh verfe
in this refped, fee Pause. See alfo Accent, Pkosodv, and
Quantity.

VofTius is very fcverc on the modern verfe, and makes it
altogether unfit for mufic : our verfes, fays he, run all, as it
were, on one foot, without diftinftion of members or parts,
and without regard to the natural quantities of fyllables.
We have no rhythmus at all ; and we mind nothing, but to
have a certain number of fyllables in a verfe, of whatever
nature, and in whatever order.

Mr. Malcolm vindicates our verfe from this imputation.

It is true, he fays, we do not follow the metrical co^ipofi-

tion of the ancients ; yet we have fuch a mixture of ftrong

,ind foft, long and ftiort fyllables, as makes our verfe flow

L fraootJi

V E R

fmooth or rumbling, (low or rapid, agreeable to the fub-
jeft. Inftances of all which we have in the following lines.

" Soft is the drain when Zephyr gently blows.

The hoarfe rough verfe (hould, like the torrent, roar.

The line too labours, and the words move flow.

Flies o'er th' unbending corn, and fld-Tis along the main."

By making a fmall change, or tranfpofition of a word or
fyllable in any of thefe verfes, any body who has an ear
will find, that we make a great matter of the nature and
order of the fyllables.

Voffius adds, that the ancient odes were fung, as to the
rhythmus, (fee Rhvthm,) in the fame manner as we fcan
them ; every pes being a diftina bar, or meafure, feparated
by a diftina paufe, though, in reading, that diftindion was
not accurately obferved.

Laftly, he obferves, that their odes had a regular return
of the fame kind of verfe ; and the fame quantity of fylla-
bles in the fame place of every verfe ; whereas, in the mo-
dern odes, to follow the natural quantity of our fyllables,
every flanza would be a diftinct fong.

It is next to impoffible to write profe without fometimes
intermixing verfe with it ; fo that Vaugelas's rule, which en-
joins us to avoid them, is next to impracticable. This may
be farther faid, that for (hort verfes they are fo little per-
ceived, that it is fcarcely worth one's while to ftrain one's felf
to avoid tHem ; and as to long verfes, they are chiefly to be
avoided in the ends of periods, for, in the middle, they are
fcarcely felt. In the general, rules of this kind muil be con-
fidered as principally regarding numerous verfes, and fuch
as are readily diftinguifhed by their cadence : thus, iu Latin,
it is fcarcely poffible to avoid iambic verfes ; but hexameters
muft, by all means, be avoided, their cadence being more
fenfible and more ftudied.

Verfes are of various kinds ; feme denominated from the
number of feet of which they are compofed ; as the nwiio-
mekr, d'lmeUr, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter,
hendecafyHabum, SiC. Some from the kinds of feet ufod in
them ; as the pyrrhichian, proceleujmatie , iambic, trochaic,
Jadylic, anapajlic, fpandaic or mallojfean, choriambic, iambi-
daSylic, or dahylotrochaic. Sometimes fi-om the names of
the inventors, or the authors who have ufed them with moll
fuccefs : as the Anacreontic, jirchihchian, Hipponaclic, Phe-
recratian, Glyconiaii, Alcmanian, Afclepiadean, Alcaic, Sie/t-
chorian, Phalijean, Arijlophar.lan, CaUimachian, GaUiambic,
Phalitcian, and Sapphic. Sometimes from the iubjed, or
the circumftances of the compofition ; as the heroic, elegiac,
Adonic, &c. See Hexameter, Pextametek, Iambic, 5cc.

In reckoning the feet of iambics, trochaics, and ana-
paeftics, each meter is a dipody, or comprehends two feet.
In other verfes, a meter is but a fingle foot. Hence it ia that
the iambic trimeter is alfo called y^n£jWum,becaufe compofed
of fix feet. See Versification, infra.

The ancients invented various kinds of poetical devices in
verfe, as centos, echoes, and monorhymes.

Verse, Atexandrin ot Alexandrian. See Alexandrix.

Verse, Blank, is a noble, bold, and difencumbered fpe-
cies of verfification ; free from that full clofe which rhyme
forces upon the ear at the end of every couplet, and allow-
ing the lines to run into each other, with as great, if not
greater, liberty than the Latin hexameter. Accordingly it
is fuited to fubjefts of dignity and force, which demand
more free and manly numbers than rhyme. The conftraint
and ilrict regularity of rhyme are unfavourable to the
fublime, or to the highly pathetic ftrain. An epic poem or a
tragedy would be fettered and degraded by it. As this kind
of verfe is naturally read with lefs cadence or tone than rhyme,

V E R

the paufes in it, and the effeft of them, are not always fo fen-
fible to the ear. It is conftructed, however, entirely upon
the fame principles, with refpeft to the place of the paufe.
See Pausb;.

Verses, Concordant, Dadylic, and Elegiac. See the
adjeftives.

Verses, Equivocal, thofe where the fame words contained
in two hues carry a different fenle.

Verses, Fefcennine. See Fescennine.

Verse, Heroic. See Heroic.

Our Englifh heroic verfe is of that kind which may be
denominated iambic ftrudlure ; that is, compofed of a nearly
alternate fucceffion of fyllables, not fliort and long, but un-
accented and accented. The line often begins with an un-
accented fyllable, and fometimes, in its courfe, two unac-
cented fyllables foUow each other. But, generally, there
are either five or four accented fyllables in each line. The
number of fyllables is ten, unlefs an Alexandrian verfe be oc-
cafionally admitted. In the Itahan heroic verfe employed
by Taffo in his Gierufalemme, and Ariofto in his Orlando,
the paufes are of the fame varied nature with thofe that be-
long to Englifli verfification. See Pause, and Versifj-
CATIOX, infra.

Verses, Metrical. See Metrical.

Verses, Reciprocal, are thofe which read the fame back-
wards as forwards. See Retrograde.

Verses, Rhopalic, Serpentine, and Technical. See the ad-
jectives.

Verse is alfo ufed for a part of a chapter, fedlion, or
paragraph, fubdivided into feveral little articles.

The whole bible is divided into chapters ; and the chap-
ters are divided into verfes.

The five books of the law are divided into fifty-four
feftions. See Parasche and Pentateuch.

Many of the Jews maintain, that this was one of the con-
ftitutions of Mofes fi-om mount Sinai ; and fome modern
Chrillian writers, fuch as Buxtorf, Leufden, PfeifFer, and
their admirers, infift upon it, that the div'.fion of the verfes
of the Old Tcftamcnt was not a work merely human, but
had the peculiar privilege of being fixed by the infpired au-
thor of each book, or at the latefl by Ezra. Others,
with greater probability, afcribe it to Ezra, and fay that it
was made for the ufe of the fynagogues, in which one fec-
tion was read every Sabbath-day, and thus the whole law
read over every year. When the Jews were forbidden, in the
time of the perfecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, to read the
law, they fubftituted in its room fifty-four feftions out of
the prophets, which were afterwards continued ; and when
llio reading of the law was reftored by the Maccabees, the
ledlion wliich was read every Sabbath out of the law,
ferved for their firft leflbn, and that out of the prophets for
their fecond leflbn ; and fo it was practifed in the lim.eof the
apoftles.

Thefe feftions were divided into verfes, which the Jews
call pefukim. They are marked out in the Hebrew bibles
by two great points at the end of them, cMedfoph-pafui,
i. e. the end of the -verfe. If Ezra was not the author of this
divifion, it is certainly very ancient, and was probably in-
vented for the fake of the Targumifts, or Chaldee inter-
preters. Mention is made of thefe verfes in the Mifchna.
Prideaux's Conn. vol. ii. p. 479. For the more modern di-
vifion, fee Chapters.

That the modern divifion could not be of infpired autho-
rity is undeniable, for no infpired author could feparate
words which the fenfe determines to be infeparable, feveral
inftances ot which occur.

It is probable, fays Dr. Kennicott (State of the printed

Hebrew

V E R

Hebrew Text, vol. i.), that the divifion of the verfes of the
Old Teftamcnt has been different at different times ; and it
feems certain, that verfes were not the fame in St. Jerom's
time as at prefent : for that learned father, in his preface to
the book of Job, obferves, that there were feven or eight
hundred verfes (fome think the true reading to be feventy
or eighty) wanting in the ancient Latin tranflation of that
book ; which cannot be eafily fuppofed of fuch verfes as the
prefent, the whole book containing no more than one thou-
fand and feventy of our verfes. But the nature of verfes
having varied, and the prefent verfes, as terminations of, or
paufes in the fenfe, having been probably fixed in the Hebrew
text, or in the Greek verfion, fome ages after the publica-
tion of the books of the Old Teftament, as they confefledly
were with regard to the New Tcilament ; we fhall the lefs
wonder that fome of the wiler Jews made no fcruple to alter
the received divifion where they found it to be erroneous.
F. Simon tells us that Elias Levita, the bell Jewirti cri-
tic, affirms, the prefent diilinftion of verfes was made by
the Maforet Jews, after the Talmud ; and thai Aben-Ezra
mentions amongft others, R. Mofes Cohen, a learned gram-
marian, who took the liberty of joining fome verfes of the
bible otherwife than they were joined by thofe who had marked
them ; affirming that they were miftakcn in thofe places.

The divifion of chapters into verfes has been found fo
convenient, that it has been ufed in all the editions of the
bible, ever fincc it was liHl introduced. It is not, however,
without its difadvantages. By this divifion the fenfe is
often interrupted, and the reader m.iy be thus le'd into mif-
takcs, by fancying that every verfe completes the fenfe.
Befides, fome perfons are lience led to conceive, that every
verfe contains a myftery, or fome effential point, though
there is frequently no more than fome incident or circum-
ftance recorded in that place. Moreover, it has proved the
occafion of that wrong method which fometimes prevails
among preachers. Many imagine that one verfe is a fuffi-
cient uibje<fl for a fermou ; and when they find that it does
not furnifh folid and inftruclive refleftions enough, they are
conftrained to wander from their point, and in order to fill
up their difcourfe, difplay their wit and learning, wliicli
often adminifter but little edification to their hearers, and is
undoubtedly contrary to the end of preaching.

It is then much to be wiflied, that fome judicious perfon
would divide the chapters otherwife than they are at prefent
divided. If the verfes were fuffered to remain, they (hould
be fo divided, as to make always a complete fenfe, though on
this account they migiit happen to be longer or fhorter than
they now are. But perhaps it would be better to fupprefs
the verfes entirely, and to divide the chapters into certain ar-
ticles, wliich (liould contain fuch a number of verfes as
would complete the fenfe. When any word or patfage of
fcripture is quoted, it would be no great trouble to look
over a whole article, which could not require much time.
To which we may add, that fuch a method of divifion would
much affill the memory, which is now overburdened with
fuch a great number of verfes as preachers arc, occafionally,
obliged to remember.

The divifion of verfes in the New Teftament was firll
made by Robert Stephens ; and fo negligently was it done,
that his fon, Henry Stephens, alTures us, he worked at it
as he travelled from Paris to Lyons. Many learned men
find great fault with this divifion, and yet it is every where
followed.

F. Simon obferves, that the Greeks and Latins meant by
verfe, a line, containing a certain number of words. He
adds, that the authors of thofe days, to prevent any thing
being added or taken away from their works, ufed to mark,
at the end, the number of verfes they contained ; but the

V E R

books themfelves were written all running, without any di-
vifion, points, or the like.

Vekse, Ned: SeeNECK-Verfi.

Verse, in Chureh Mufic : as, a verfe anthem is diftinft
from a folo anthem, an anthem for two or three voices, and
from a full anthem. A verfe anthem confifts of choruffes,
with folo movements between them, for one, two, or three
voices, fo that in this fenfe verfe is equivalent with folo.

VERSED Sine ofnn Arch. See Verfed SlNE.

Co-Verseo Sine. See Co-versed Sine.

VERSHIRE, in Geography, a town of Vermont, in the
county of Orange, containing 131 1 inhabitants; 16 miles
N. of Hanover.

VERSHOCK, or Wekshock, a Ruffian meafure equal
to \'-\ of an Englifh inch. An arfliecn is divided into 16
verfhocks, or werfliocks, and equals 28 Eng. inches : thus 9
arfhtens = 7 Eng. yards, and 4 verfhocks =: 7 Eng. inches.
A face, fafhc, or fathom, is :::3 3 arfhcens, or 7 Eng. feet.

VERSIFICATION, tlie art or manner of making
verfe ; alfo the tune and cadence of verfe.

Verfifiealiiin is properly applied to what the poet does
more by labour, art, and rule, than by invention, and the
genius, or furor poeticus. See Poetry.

The mailer of verfification is long and fliort fylhibles, and
feet compofed of them ; and its form is the arrangement of
them in eorreft, numerous, and harmonious verfes ; but
this is no more than a mere tranflator may pretend to, and
whieli the Catilinarian war, put in meafure, migl'.t merit.

It is with reafon, therefore, that thei'e fimple matters are
diiUnguilhed from the grand poetry, and called by the name
verfification.

In efieft, there is much the fame difference between
grammar and rhetoric, as there is between the art of making
verfes, and that of inventing poems.

Hiflory of Ferjijicalion It appears that verfe has been

cultivated from the carlieft period of literature, and among
all people, from the moil barbarous to the mod refined ;
and to it principally we are indebted for moft of the original
accounts we have of the ancient nations of the earth.
Equally meafured lines, with an harmonious collocation of
exprefiive and fometimes highly metaphorical terms, the al-
ternate lines either anfwering to each other in fenfe, or
ending with fimilar founds, were eafily committed to me-
mory, and eafily retained. As thefe were often accom-
panied with a pleafing air or tunc, the fubjeft being for the
mofl part a concatenation of ftriking and interefting events,
hiltories formed thus, became the amufement of youth,
the palliative of labour, and the folace even of old age. In
fuch a way, the hiflories of moft nations have been pre-
ferved. The interelling events celebrated, the rhythm or
metre, and the accompanying tune or recitativo air, rendered
them eafily tranfmiffiblc to pollcrity ; and by means of tradi-
tion, they paffed fafely from father to fon, through the
times of comparative darkncfs, when the various tribes of
mankind had no method more effeftual of communicating to
their defcendants the principles of their worfhip, their re-
ligious ceremonies, their laws, and the renowned adions of
their fages and heroes, till they arrived at thofe ages in
which the pen and the prcj's have given to them, by multi-
plying the copies, a fort of deathlcls duration.

The propriety of affigning the priority to Hebrew verfi-
fication is obvious. The moft intelligent confider the
Hebrew to have been the primeval language, or at leaft the
moil ancient of which we have any knowledge ; and, there-
fore, it is here that we muft look for the earlicft dawn of
the poetic art. The addrefs of I.aniech (Gen. iv. 23.),
which is in hemiftichs in the original, is doubtlefs tlie moft
ancient verfe in the world.

L 2 Of

VERSIFICATION.

Of the fame kind is Noah's prophecy concerning his
fons (Gen. ix. 25 — 27.), Jacob's bleffing to the twelve
patriarchs (Gen. xlix. 2 — 27.), the fong of Mofes (Exod.
XV.) ; and the book of Job, of Pfalms, the fongs of Solo-
mon, Ifaiah, &c. afford ample proof not only of the ex-
iftence of vcrfe among the ancient Hebrews, but that in its
origin and earlier hiflory it was intimately connefted with
mufic ; that is, it was frequently fet to fome air or tune,
for vocal or inftrumental performance.

Having thus pointed out the origin of verfe, at an early
period, among the Hebrews ; we fhall now endeavour to
trace its rife amongft other nations, affigning the precedence
chiefly to thofe where we are moil likely to find it in a
native, rather than in a borronued or ingrafted ftate.

Tcho-Yong, the fixteenth emperor of the ninth period,
is the firlf on record among the Chinefe for his attachment
to the Mufes. Feu-Hi compofed verfes on the pifcatorial
art. Chin-Nong, a fucceeding emperoi', wrote verfes on
the fertility of the earth. Here we find what is frequently
remarkable in the early hiftory of the ancients, the office of
a chief or legiflator and bard or poet united in one perfon :
for many of the ancient poems were of a legiflative call, and
contained, in verfe, the mofl elTential parts of their rehgious,
moral, and political fyftems. The laft emperor whom we
find to have retained the poetical charafter was Chao-Hao.
After him the complex office feems to have feparated, as the
next bard we meet with is in the perfon of the philofopher
Confucius, who lived about fix hundred years before the
Chriftian era. (See Extraits des Hift. Chinois, and Du
Halde Hift. Chinois.) The Chinefe ode, therefore, tranf-
lated by fir William Jones, muft be of high antiquity, as
Confucius confidered it as very ancient in his time. About
one century before the fame epoch, Calidas, who has been
termed the Shakfpeare of India, wrote his poems. Such
being the ftate of oriental verfe at thefe early periods, it is
not more than we might expeft, that the Portuguefe mif-
fionaries ftiould meet with it on the coaft of Proper India,
where they found the natives poffefled of a fpecies of rude
verfe fet to mufic. They compofed, in the Malabar tongue,
a long ode, containing a hiftory of the Portuguefe prelate,
and a defcriptive detail of what had pafTed at his fynod.
This nation had preferved the ancient cuftom of tranfmitting
to pofterity, by this kind of poem, all the moft remarkable
events. (La Croze's Hift.) The miffionaries, who vifited
the oppofite coaft of Coromandel, give us fufficient proof
that the culture of verfe vpas not inconfiderable at that early
period. (Lettres Edifiantes, rec. xviii. p. 28.) With
refpedl to Egypt, the origin of the belles lettres is fo loft
in the antiquity of that famous kingdom, that we know no-
thing of the firft advances made there in verfe. We naturally
exped. that it met with the fate of its kindred fcience,
mufic ; which, in an early period, had all its forms un-
alterably fixed by law, and, therefore, improvement and
corruption were alike prevented.

In adverting to thofe points of the poetic horizon, where
we ai-e moft hkely to defcry the early dawn of the art of
verfe, it is now incumbent on us to notice the Arabs, whofe
language, from its manifeft afBnity, unqueftionably had a
common origin with the Hebrew and Chaldaic ; and, confe-
quently,_is one of the moft ancient in the world. Count
Reviczki, however, was of opinion, that with refpeft to
the metrical art of the Arabs, it was an invention of a date
much later than that of the Hebrews, and that it afl'umed its
form only a fhort time before Mohammed. At the begin-
ning of the feventh century, the Arabic language was
brought to a high degree of perfeftion, by a fort of poetical
academy, that ufed to aftemble at ftated times in a place
called Ocadb, where every poet produced his beft compofi-

tion, and met with the applaufe which it deferved The
moft excellent of thefe poems were tranfcribed in charafters
ot gold upon Egyptian paper, and hung up in the temple
ot Mecca, whence they were named mozahebat, or solden
and moallakat, or fufpended. The poems of this fort were
called cafieidas, or eclogues, feven of which are preferved in
our libraries, and are confidered as the fineft that were
vvritten before the time of Mohammed. Concerning the
Arabic and oriental verfe in general, count Reviczki re-
marks, that he " anticipates the mortification of all our
European poets, when they difcover that the oriental dia-
lefts had a greater variety of feet, and confequently the true
fcience of metre and profody." After the above-mentioned
period, however, the Mufes difl"eminated their gifts with a
prohhc hand, and many were fignalized with their favours
Amongft the reft, the caliph Almamon, fometimes termed
the Arabian Auguftus, for the protedion he aff'orded to the
belles lettres, bore an early and a diftinguiflied rank. We
have only to confult the .abbe Andres, in his luminous work
" DeU' Origme, de' progreffi e dello Stato attuale d'Ogni
Letteratura," to afl"nre ourfelves, on the authority of the
authentic manufcripts which he cites, that the Arabs had
now become pre-eminent for their cultivation of the Mufes.
Scoppa affirms that there is no exaggeration in the expref-
fion of the " Hiftoire de la Poefie Fran^aife," which, from
undoubted evidence, afferts " that there had been more
poets amongft the Arabs than in all the reft of the world."
Abilabba-Abdalh, fon of the caliph Motaz, recapitulates
the hves of an hundred and twenty-one poets of the firft
rank. Another work, entitled " Theatre des Poetes,"
forms a hbrary of twenty-four volumes. Cafiri, the cel'e-
brated author of the " Bibhotheque Arabico-Hifpana de
I'Efcurial," does not hefitate to maintain that the excel,
lencies of the Arabian poets rofe as high in the fcale of
merit as thofe of the Greeks and Latins.

In our endeavour to trace the hiftory of verfification
where it is more likely to be found in its native and unbor-
rowed ftate, we now turn to the northern nations of Europe
Tacitus mentions the verfe and hymns of the Germans, at a
time when that rough people inhabited the woods^ and
whilft their manners were yet favage. The Arthur of Teu-
tonic romance is the hero Dieterich of Berne, who lived
about the year 450 A.D. It is thought that his deeds of
high enterprife were fung in the ancient and barbarous verfes
fome of which were colleded by Charlemagne. The flight
of Theodoric to the Huns is related in an exceedingly
curioiis fragment, from the language and metre of which
we infer, it muft have been compofed in the eighth century
We learn from a Latin fragment, written by Du Chefne
that Lewis the Pious, fon of Charlemagne, being defirous'
that all his fubjeds fpeaking the Theotifc language fliould
be enabled to read the fcriptures, " ordered a Saxon, who
was reputed to be no vulgar bard, to make a poetical tranfla-
tion of the Old and New Teftament into the German
tongue." li ,s fuppofed by Eccard and the German phi-
lologifts, tnat the " Harmony of the four Evangelifts '' in
the Cottonian library, forms a part of this tranflltion.
Ottfried's Paraphrafe of the four Gofpels, made about the
year 870, aff'ords a proof that alliteration had fallen into dif-
ufe, and prefents us with the earheft fpecimen of German
rhyme.

^ Nor is this early produdion uninterefting. The infant
Saviour IS defcribed as growing amongft men as a hly
amongft thorns.

The vidory gained in the year 883 over the Normans,

by Louis III., was recorded, as is ftated by a contemporary

chronicle, " not only in our annals, but alfo in our national

fongs." The Franks had cot yet adopted the language of

S their

VERSIFICATION,

tlieir vaflal Gauls ; and one of tlieir national foiigs, which
has been fnifjularly prcferved, is written in the pure Franco-
Thcotifc dialcft, and coiifequcntly belongs to the hiftory of
German poetry. From thefe ftanty remains we pafs on to
the period 'from 1 1 36 to 1254) during which the imperial
dignity was held by the houfe of Hohen-StaufFen. Upon
the acceffion of Conrad III., the founder of the Swabian
line, the banquet-hall fuddenly unfolds its portals, and we
behold the fathers of romantic verfe, in the pcrfons of
" kings and dukes, mailed knights and trufty fquires,"
each of whom

" took the harp in glee and game.

And made a lay, and gave it name."

Under this new race of rulers, the dialefts of the fouth
and weft of Germany obtained a decided preponderance.
The Swabian or Allemannic became blended with the
Franco-Theotifc, and thus formed the bafis of the language
of the prefent day ; which, as in the parallel inftance of the
" Volgare illuftre" of Italy, has fuperfeded its filler idioms,
and become the fole vehicle of information.

Whatever literary impulfe may have been given by the
firft crufade, it appears that the fecond produced a more
decided effed, by generally diffiifing the cultivation which
had been maturing in the more propitious regions of the
fouth. The population of the empire was brought into
clofer conneftion with the fongilers of Provence and Cata-
lonia, and their poliflied ttrains were foon re-echoed in the
harHier tones of the " Minne Singers," or bards of love, as
they were pleafed to call themfelves, of the Swabian era.
A noble author is now confidered as a rare occurrence.
But in the age of the " Minne Singers," hardly any one
dared to cultivate the art of verfification, unlefs he could
prove his fixteen quarters. The fovcreigns of Germany
themfelves, emulating perhaps the example of our captive
Richard, fliared in the fame fervour. The coUeftion in the
volume of Rudiger Manifs is headed by the poems of the
emperor Henry ; the next place is held by Wenceflaus,
king of Bohemia. A ballad, diftinguilhed for its tender-
ncfs, is given as the produftion of the duke of Breflau.
The verfe of Henry, duke of Anholt, is by no means de-
void of tafte and elegance ; and a fingle lay bears witnefs to
the talents of the unfortunate Conradinc. The " Gefte" of
king Rother connects itfclf both with the Helden-buch and
the Cycle of CharlemagiKV This poem, and a fragment of
the hiilory of the expeditious of the French monarchs agauill
the Saracens, are the earlieft fpecimens now extant of the
German metrical romance.

The Swabian era produced upwards of two hundred
poets, many of whom are deferving of attention. Under
Rodolph of Hapfl)urg (1273) and his fuccclTors, they
began to lofe ground ; and the brilliancy which had diftin-
guifhcd the preceding era gradually died away.

It is difficult to eitablifli a definite boundary for the dif-
ferent periods of literary hiftory ; they melt into each other,
like the colours of the rainbow. In Conrad of Wiirz-
burgh, who flouriftied towards the conclufion of the 13th
century, we find the glow of better days united to fome of
the peculiarities of the later " Mafter-Singtrs" of Augf-
burg and Nurcmburg. At this time a few princes and
highborn lords, amongft whom Otto the marquis of Bran-
denburg, and the count of Leiningen, may be named
as the moft diftinguiftied, ftill continued to imitate the ftyle
of the Swabian poets. But they had no fucceftbrs. The
art expired amongft the nobility, and the fccue was fud-
denly changed. Poetry certainly never had fo fingular a
iorlunc ill any other country as in Germany. It adually

became one of the incorporated trades in the German cities •
and the burghers obtained the freedom of it, as of any other
corporation. By M. Grimm the " Minne-Singers" and the
" Mafter-Singers" are fuppofed to have originally formed
but one clafs of poets. At all events, thefe focieties offer a
moft fingular phenomenon. Compofed entirely of the lower
ranks of fociety, they obtained a monopoly of verfe-craft,
and extended their tuneful fraternity over the greater part
of the empire. The candidate for admiffiou into thefe fo-
cieties was introduced with prefcribed formahties. The
four " merkers," or examiners, fat behind a filken curtain,
to pafs judgment on his qualifications. One of thefe had
Martin Luther's trandation of the bible before him, it being
confidered as the ftandard of the language. His province
was to decide whether the diftion of the novice was pure,
and his grammar accurate. The others attended to the
rhyme and metre of the compofition, and the melody to
which it was fung. And if they united in declaring that
the candidate had comphed with the ftatutes and regulations,
he was decorated with a filver chain and badge, and admitted
into the fociety.

Bouterwick remarks, that the rude inferiority of the
German poetry, during the i6t!i century, foiTns an un-
pleafing contrail to its ftate in Italy and Spain. In the age
of Ariofto and Cervantes, Hans Sach continued to rank as
the firft German poet ; and the only dignified epic which
Germany poffeffed was the ftiff allegory of Melchior Pfuit-
zing.

Having traced the rife and progrefs of the art of verfifica-
tion in Germany, we fiiall now ftill purfue the fame fyftcm,
in noticing, firft, thofe places where its early dawn was un-
mixed with the rays of neighbouring conftellations. She-
ringham and Bartholine inform us, that the fcaldi or bards
were highly honoured among the Danifli tribes ; that their
verfe was of the legiflative call ; and that they fung the great
aftions of their anceftors, and kindled the flame of war by
the influence of poetic recitation. The " Welkina" and
" Niflunga Saga" were compiled in the 13th century from
the fongs of the D.anes and Swedes. We alfo meet with
the poetical and mufical office united in almoft every northern
clime. The union of the logiflator's and bard's charafter
is exemplified in the perfon of Snorro Sturlefon, who, about
fix hundred years fince, was at once the chief legiflator and
moft eminent bard in the ide of Iceland. Odin, the
Scythian legiflator, boafted that the Runic fongs had been
handed to him by the gods. Slrabo tells us, that through-
out the wliole diftridl of Gaul, there were three kinds of men
held in high eftimation, the Bards, the Vates, and the Druids.
Diodorus Sicnlus adds, that " the bards fung to inftruments,
praifing fome and fatyrizing others." The Britifli bards, about
the fame time, were of the fame charadler ; and their genius
is fufficiently evinced by their verfe yet extant under the name
of Offian, if Offian's work be genuine. In Ireland they were
endowed with eftates, and lived by public patronage, inde-
pendent and free from temporal care. Ollainh Fodlah, one
of their kings, fummoned them to a trieimial feftival, for
the pnrpofe of traufmitting to pofterity the authentic re-
cords contained in their verfe ; which were from them
felefted and prcferved in the cuftody of the king's antiquary.
In the year 558, the Irifli bards, being extremely numerous,
and infolently powerful, had attained the fummit of their
influence. Even in the time of Spenfcr, they were the
fubjtct of fcrious complaint. ( Ke;itiiig's Hiftory, and
Spenfer's View of the State of Ireland. ) Nor are we with-
out inftanccs of the native and ungrafled ftate of verfe in
the tranfatlantic world. In the ancient empire of Peru,
GarcilafTo dc la Vega informs us, that their fongs wore iii-

nuuierable {

VERSIFICATION.

numerable ; tliat he had heard many, and learned fome from
bis anceftors, who were the laft of the royal family of the
Licas. Their Licas or chiefs had been poets or muficians
in the early periods of their hiftory. The fame author pre-
fents us with fome fpecimens of their verfe, which bear every
character of aboriginal texture. Father Lafitau (Mocurs
des Sauvages, torn. ii. p. 213-) has given a circumftantial
account of the feftivities of the Iroquois, Hurons, and fome
lefs confiderable tribes of North American Indians, in which
yerfe and fong bore an effential part. Thefe, for the moil
part, confill of the fables of ancient times, and are com-
pofed in a ftyle fo antiquated as to differ materially from
their colloquial dialect. They were obferved alfo to re-
trench or ftrike off fome fyllables from their words, to pro-
duce the requilite meafure ; and ttie audience beat the time
with a correfponding motion of the head, accompanied with
fhouts, repeated at certain intervals with fuch accuracy that
they never err.

It is eafy to perceive that our remarks have hitherto been
confined to trace the earlieft fource and rife of verfification
amongft thofe nations only, where we were moft likely to
difcover it in a (late unmixed with borrowed ftreams. The
taflc is evidently not a little difficult, to fay exactly where it
can be contemplated in a Itage purely nafcent. Its diftant
courfe has gradiially receded from our view, and ultimately
loft itfelf in the remote and vifionary forms of aborigmal
tradition. Nor do we mean to afBrm that the fubfequent
meanders, which, from each infulated fountain, we have
for a while been led to purlue, has, in every inilance, re-
mained unblended with the confluence of adventitious chan-
nels. It is futficieiit if, by the preceding remarks, we
have, in any degree, developed thofe features which appear
to be uniformly pecidiar to its infant ftate. This, however,
will not only apologize for, but even warrant, our omitting,
until this, to mention the Greek and Roman verfification,
where we can contemplate it only in an engrafted predica-
ment. It is admitted, that knowledge and ufeful arts the
Greeks received from the Eall ; yet it is the opinion of
fome, that fince " the Greeks ftudied no foreign language,
it was impoffible that any foreign literature (hould influence
their's. Not even the name of a Perfian, AfTyrian, Phoe-
nician, or Egyptian poet is alluded to by a Greek writer.
The Greek poetry was, therefore, whoUy national. The
Pelafgic ballads were infenfibly formed into epic, tragic,
and lyric poems ; but the heroes, the opinions, the culloms
mentioned in them, are exclufively Grecian ; as they had
been, when the Hellenic minftrels knew little beyond the
Adriatic and the Egean." This argument, however, is not
fo conclufive as to lead to the inference, that the Greeks
had no preceding example from which to copy. No more
can we fuppofe that Homer was the moft ancient poet : for
as the Pavadil'e Loft of Milton plainly implies that other
epic poems exiilcd prior to this, and that Milton had read
them ; fo do the Ihad and OdylTey of Homer. It is con-
trary to all the phenomena of the human mind, that fo
finiflied a work fhould have been the Jirfl efTay of the kind.
There can be no room to doubt but many poets flouridied
before Homer. As the Paradife Loft neceffarily fuppofes
Spenfer's Fairy l^ueen ; that, TafTo's Gerufalemme Libe-
rata ; that, Virgil's ^neid ; and the TEneid, the Ihad of
Homer ; fo the Ihad itfelf may ftand in reference to as
many preceding poems as the Paradife Loft does. As the
.£ueid never could have exifted, had not the Iliad gone
before, after the model of which it is entirely conftrufted ;
and as the Jervifalem Dehvered is a proceed from the
^neid, as the Fairy Queen is from the poem of Taflo,
and the Paradife Loft from the whole ; fo we may conjec-

ture, tb.at tUe Iliad is iron tlie works of preceding poets,
and that we are left to lament the irreparable lofs of a v^ft
mafs of intelleft in the deliruftion of the works which pre-
ceded and gave birth to thofe of Homer.

In the art of verfification, the Greeks and Romans claim
that eminent and difhnguifhed rank, which has already fe-
cured to their memory that renown and celebrity to which
they were fo unqueftionably entitled. But as they pof-
feifed this art only in an engrafted ftate, and as their fuc-
cefs in this department of literature is fo univerfally known,
and as we fhall have a future opportunity to notice it, our
limits compel us here to pafs to that which is more recondite
and lefs generally underftood.

According to the teftimony of the abbe Andres, and the
authentic MSS. which he cites, it is to the Arabs that Spain,
France and Italy, were not a little indebted for tiie cultivated
ftate of their verfification. Thefe nations had for a long
time groaned under the yoke of the barbarians of the North ;
and according to the teftimony of the abbe Andres, it is
chiefly to the inftrumentality of the Arabs that we owe the
return of the fciences into Europe. Amongii the French
and the Spaniards who have cultivated with the greateft fuc-
cefs the poetry of which the Arabs gave them the exam-
ple, the Troubadours of Provence, for the harmony of their
enchanting verfe, which has been received with fuch eclat
through Weftern Europe, ftand pre-eminently diftiiiguiflicd.
The hitlory of the Troubadours is replete with the names
of thofe exalted perfonages, to whom it had become a de-
lightful recreation to compofe verfe in the Proven(;al dialed.
We may mention, amongft others, Wilhain, duko of Aqui-
tania, whofe verfes were coinpofed in the yeai- 1 100 A.D. ;
Peter I. ; Alphonfe I. ; J.imes the Conqueror ; James I. ;
Thibaut, king of Navarre ; Charles of Anjou, brother of St.
Louis, king of Naples and Sicily ; Henry, duke of Brabant ;
Peter Mauclerre, earl of Brittany ; Raou], count of Soif-
fons. There exifts yet at the Efcurial a code, of which
Cafiri (tomei. p. 126.) makes mention, and which notices
the literary difpute between Abu-Jahia, fon of the king of
Toledo, and Almotemed, king of Cordova, to obtain the
poetic prize. Neither muft we omit to mention the name
of Frederic II., who patronized the Mufes, and was himfelf
a poet. Nor the poems compofed by king Alphonfe X.
fon of St. Ferdinand, who fignalized himfelf for the protec-
tion lie afforded to the Troubadours.

The encouragement which the- Provencal poets enjoyed
under the aufpices of the great, induced them to traverfe
Europe in every direction. They reforted to the caftles and
palaces of kings, they were received with tranfport, and their
melodious ftrains were hftened to witli enthufiaftic plaudits.
Nor was England without fome fhare of the general fervour.
It was by the aid of the Troubadours, fays Dryden, that
Chaucer enriched and poliihed that language, which the fame
Dryden calls " fterile." Richard I. was furrounded by the
Troubadours and cultivated their verfe. In fhort, fays the
fame Andres, every king and emperor accounted it an honour
to become accomphihed in Provencal poetry.

From the intercourfe of the Provencals throughout Italy,
their verfe obtained the honour of becoming the mother of
Italian poetry. This is afferted by Bembo, Equicola, Varchi,
and by many other Itahan authors, and efpecially by Baftero
(Prefaz alia Crufca Provenzale. ) There is no Itahan au-
thor who has more frankly pronounced his opinion in favour
of the Provencals than Bembo. (Prof. I.) He favours us
with a long detail of all that the Itahans had borrowed from
.the Provencals. Redi alfo enumerates thofe amongft the
Itahans, who had blended in their Tufcan compofition, a
multitude of words and phrafes pecuhar to the Provencals.

The

VERSIFICATION.

The cclfbi-aled Tirabofclii, in liis Hiflory of Italian Litera-
ture, fpcaks alfo of the rhyme and the different kinds of
poetic compofitioii wliich the Itahans had borrowed from
the Provcn^ils. On this fubjeft may be read the work of
Vicenzo Gravina della Ragpon Poetica, liv. ii. p. 132, and
L'lftoria della volgar Poelia del Crefcimbeni. The three
fp.tliers of Italian litcratnre, Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca,
were eminently convorfant with this exotic verfe. The
laft lived a long time in Provence, and ftiulied for a while at
Paris ; and Taflbni afTiires us, " il Petrarca molto prefe da'
rimatori Provenzali." As to Boccaccio, it is generally ac-
knowledged, that in his Decameron, he excels by the riches
lie has culled alike from the Roman and Proven5al poets.
But of the three, it is more efperially Dante who has clearly
decided, that it is Italy which has borrowed from the
French, and more particularly from the Troubadours.

It is not without foundation that the count Caylus ac-
cufes the Italians of plagiarifm ; and it is not without rcafon
that Millot fays, that the Provencals opened the road to the
Italians and furnifhed them with models for imitation.

Ncvertheleis, whatever may be the degree of plagiarifm
of which the ancient Italian poets are accufed ; whatever
may have been the anteriority of the time in which the belles
lettres flouridied among the Provencals ; and the time when
it palled to the Italians ; we cannot refufe to the latter the
honour of being pre-eminently diftinguifhed for the pecuhar
care they have bellowed on the fupcrftrufture, and for their
advancing to the acme of cultivation thofe arts and fciences
which had been fepuh-hred under the ruins of the Roman
empire. The Arabs, the Spaniards, the French, the Eng-
lifli, and all other nations, fays A ndres (tome i. c. 1 2. p. 339.
edit, de Paime), have been as the Egyptians and the
Afiatics who claim the- right of oiigmality in the invention
and culture of their vi"rle ; lint the Italians maybe regarded
as the Greeks, who wilii the indullrious bee culled their
honey from every furrour.dJiig flower.

We muil not forget, however, that with regard to this
right of priority, the Provencals have formidable rivals in
the Sicilians. The authorities on each fide of the qncltion
fccm paradoxically equal. Sicily has always boalled herfelf
to have been the cradle of Itahan poetry. She encircles
lierfelf with a cloud of authorities, which ferve as a (hield to
protcft her from the defign to rob her of that title of which flic
defires the exclufive enjoyment. To this end, (he frequently
offers to confideration the following paffage of Dante.
(Volg. Eloq.) " Ex acceratis, quodammodo, vulgaribus
[talis, inter ea qus reman ferunt in cribro comparationem
facientes honorabiliils ac honorificentiils, breviter feligimus :
et primo de Siciliano examinemus ingenium : nam videtur
Sicilianum vulgarem libi famam prx ahis adfcifcere, eo quod
quidquid poetantur Itali Sicilianum vocatur."

Petrarch, who in the next age lucceeded Dante, both in
his profe and poetic works, confirms the fame opinion. Nor
does he exprefs himfelf with lefs decifion in the epiftle which
he compofed about the year 1 36c.

Petrarch alfo informs us, that in his poems, he had fol-
lowed that fpecies of verfification, which had made its re-
appearance feme ages before in Sicily, or at lead two or
three hundred years before the twelfth century.

But to afford the clearell light in the difcuifion of this
fubjeCl, it is ncceffary to tranfport our ideas tci the period of
the decline of the Roman empire. The Italian language
took its radical elements from the nature of the Latin.
Even before the fpleiidour and the authority of the emperors
had been impaired, t!ie language was adulterated by that ad-
mixture of barbarifms which feemed the neceffary confc-
quence of foreign intcrcoiirle. But all limits to this cor-

ruption were overthrown, when the Goths, the Huns, the
Greeks, the Lombards, the Franks and Germans in rapid
fucceflion inundated the empire. Hence arofe a new jargon
which ferved the vulgar and the plebeian tribes in their col-
loquial intercourfe, whilil the learned and the polite circles
of fociety endeavoured to maintain the dignity and purity
of the Latin language. The former, however, compofed
the majority, and carried the day. This, according to Mu-
ratoii, happened about the nth century.

But whilil this revolution happened in Italy, France and
Spain, where the Latin language, the common genus,
branched into three kindred fpecies, each receiving fuch
modifications as were fuited to the circumftaiices and
temper peculiar to each nation, Sicily had alfo been long
fubjecl to a fimilar revolution by the frequent invafions of
the Saracens from the year 649 to 827 ; and again to 1060.
And befides this, the Latin language had been already cor-
rupted by the influence of the Vandals, who made a defcent
on this ifle in 440, and by tlie dominion of the Goths, who
governed it from 493 to 535, when Bclifariiis refcued the
ifland. The Sicilians had alfo their plebeian dialeft ; and
they had, from the dominion of the Arabs, imbibed a pre-
dilcftion for that peculiar fpecies of verfification, which the
latter had been equally fucccfsful in communicating to the
Spaniards. The Sicilians, guided by that delicacy of the
ear for which they are always remarkable, difcovered thcm-
felves to be the firfl that had in their native language a cer-
tain melodious order, rcfulting not from that profodial quan-
tity which defines merely fyllables to be long or fhort, but
r.^thcr from another meafnre, which is the effeft of the acute
accent, artificially diftributcd within the limits of a definite
number of fyllables. They were thus enabled, without any
other effort, to imitate the tafte and the verfification of the
Ar.abs their conquerors ; and the example of the latter was a
fpnri to fet on fire what till this was but latent in their imagin-
ation, and thus the genius and natural difpofition of their
minds received an unexpeifled and brilli.int developement.

It is, at leail, affirmed, that the Sicilians have far exceeded
the Spaniards and the French in the culture of this modern
verfification. And Caftelvctro and Muratori maintain, that
it was not Italy and Sicily that received from the Provencals
the elements of this new fpecies of verfe, but that the latter
were indebted for it to the Sicilians. We learn, however,
from the authority of inconteftible witneffes, that the Sici-
lians made great progrcfs in the culture of the fine arts either
during the 9th or loth century ; vvhilft Fauchet could not
find among the poetry of the French a writer more ancient
than Euftache, who flouriflied about the middle of the 12th
century. And Galland (Ace. Infer, tom. iii.) could not
quote an author anterior to the fame. And whilil the learned
Andrews could not fix the birth of the fame art .imongd the
Spaniards earlier than the i ith century.

The .Sicilian verfification, at firll rude, uncultivated, and
barbarous, became, by degrees, a iludied and polifhed art,
replete with brilliant images, and with thouglits noble ;iih1
fublime. It was, in fliort, the verfe of the ye.ar 1220 that
was feeii to (hinc with peculiar lullre in the mind of Fre-
deric II., who, after he had received the inveftitnre tnim
pope Celellin, came to reign in Sicily. The Sicilians pre-
fcrve even yet his poems, thofe of Euzo his ion, king of
Sardinia, and thofe of Pier d<.lle Vigne, fecret.ir)- to the
fame. From th.e centre of Sicily, this art dilfeminated itfelf
over all Italy. The more learned Italians, attrrftcd by the
virtues of a generous prince, came in a crowd to Sicily,
frequented the court of Frederic, became themfelycs poets,
and carried the tafte of the novel verfification into their
native country'.

Crcl-

VERSIFICATION.

Crefcimbeni dates the commencement of this art about
the year 1 189. But Quadrio fixes its origin about the year
1135. And this he proves by an infcription in verfe, which
he found in the cathedral church of Ferrara.

It is not improbable, however, that when Frederic II.
arrived in Sicily, which happened nearly a century after this,
he was already well inftruited in this new fpecies of verfiti-
cation, which he had learned in Provence, his native coun-
try ; and alfo that he polTeiTed an art which he had derived
from the Arabs eftablitlied in Spain, whilft the Sicilians
boafted the poirelTion of the fame art, which they had ori-
ginally received from the Saracens.

Thefe two points of hiftory being reduced to thefe paral-
lel terms, it will become eafy to refolve what would other-
wife appear to be contradictory and paradoxical in thofe
apparently oppofite opinions, of which the one attributes to
the Sicilians, the other to the Provencals, the honour of
having been the firft who communicated to Italy the know-
ledge of this modern fpecies of verfification. The faft
doubtlefs is, that both the one and the other, nearly at the
fame time, received from the Arabs that new acquifition for
which their own dialefts were found to pofTefs a certain in-
nate congeniality, and fubfequently became reciprocally in-
ftrumental in confirming and maturing that art, which foon
became celebrated throughout Europe, under either the
Italian epithet " lettere amene e leggiadre," or the Proven-
cal " guai faber," ;. e. the gay fcience.

Having now, perhaps, executed the moll difficult part
of our taflc, in tracing from this remote and obfcure period,
the earliefl fource of this new fpecies of verfification, our
limits and our readers will exempt us from entering into a
long detail of the fubfequent progrefs of this art amongft
two neighbouring nations, efpecially as this part of the fub-
jeft is more acceffible through the medium of the pens of
the literati of France and Italy.

Before we proceed to treat on the nature of verfe, it will
be neceffary to premife the following explanations of fuch
technical terms as will occur in the fequel.

A Syllable.
By a reference to the article Quantity, the reader will
difcover that we have already had an opportunity of diftin-
guifhing between a (hort and a long fyllable, and of Hating
that the former is ufually denoted by a fmall curve, as " ;
and the latter by a da(h, as "

Feet.
A foot, (fo called from the ancient cuftom of beating
time by the foot,) is a part of a verfe, and confifts of two
or more fyllables, as here exemplified.

I. Twelve Simple Feet.
I. Four feet of two fyllables.

1 7 A fpondee

2 j A pyrric...
^ 7 A. trochee, or choree.
4j

\\ A trochee,
|.J An iambus.

2. Eight feet of three fyllables.

5") A moloffus

6| A tribrac

7 ) A daftyl

8 i An anapxft

9I A bacchic

105 An antibacchic

Ill Acretic, or amphimacer

i2j An amphibrac '...,,,

II. Eighteen Compound Feet.

" Quidquid enim fupra tres fyllabas habet, id ex pluri-
bus eft pedibus." Quintil. 9. 4.

I. Four of the fame foot doubled.

13') A difpondee, or two fpondees _

14 j A proceleufmatic, or two pyrrics v. ^ ^ v,

15 1 A dichoree, or two chorees, or trochees... - v, - »
16 J Adiiambus, or two iambufes ^ - ^ .

2. Four of contrary feel.

1 7I A great ionic, or a fpondee and a pyrric „ ^

18 j A fmall ionic, or a pyrric and a fpondee... ^ ^ . -
19I A choriambus, or a choree and iambus ^ v -

20 j An antifpaft, or an iambus and a choree ... ^ . . >-

3. Four feet in which long times exceed

21 "^ Firft epitrit, or an iambus and fpondee - . • ^

22 j Second epitrit, or a choree and fpondee ... _ >, _ _
23 1 Third epitrit. or a fpondee and iambus ... . . „ _

24 J Fourth epitrit, or a fpondee and choree ... . . . „

4. Four feet in tvhichjhorl times exceed

25 1 Firft paeon, a choree and pyrric - >, „ «

26 J Second pseon, an iambus and pyrric ^ y, ^

2"! Third pason, a pyrric and choree ». v- - w

28 j Fourth pxon, a pyrric and iambus ^ ^ ^ .

5. Compound feet of Jive fyllables.

29! Dochmius, an iambus and cretic „.-^.

30 J Mefomacer, a pyrric and a daftyl ^ ^ - >, v

Metre.
A metre is compofed of two adjacent feet. In Greek
verfe of the dadylic fpecies, one foot conftitutes a metre,
according to Hephxftion ;

'* Kara Moy&TTodtaif fjnT^urai ia AaxTu^ixa."

In Greek verfe of double feet, a metre is alfo faid to
confift of only one foot ; but fince, in this cafe, each foot
comprifes tvi-o fimple feet, it forms no exception to the
general rule. Metre is divided into nine fpecies ; iambic,
trochaic, anap/ejlic, dactylic, choriambic, antifpajlic, ionic a ma-
jore, ionic a minore, paonic.

Rhythm

Is a feries of fimilar feet, continued until the ear per-
ceives the order of the feries, and is able to anticipate the
pecuhar nature of the verfe. To render this more plain,
we add, that rhythm in verfe is analogous to as many terms
of an infinite feries in mathematics, as are neceffary to
render the law of the rifing order apparent, and from which
we can eafily anticipate the fequel ; or, more exaftly, if we

have the compound circulate -325 given to evolve the feries,

we eafily write or repeat -325 | 325 | 325, Sec. to as many
periods as neceffary.

Now, a metre is faid to be the commencement of this feries.
A rhythm is that portion of the feries, which brings the
whole under the recognizance of the ear. Metre refpefts
both the time and order of the fyllables. The rhythm of a
daftylic and anapxftic meafure is the fame ; the metre
different.

Verse.
A verfe is an affemblage of a definite number of feet,
and contains one, two, or more metres ; and is accordingly

termed

VERSIFICATION.

termed either a monomeUr, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pin-
tameter, or hexameter. Sec. Verfe fometimes receives its name
from a reference to the number of feet, not of metre, which
compofes it ; as, the fenartus, oBonarius, novenarius. Sec :
fometimes from a noted author who was particularly attached
to that fpecies ; as, Sapphic, /Inacreontic, ylkaic, HipponaBic.

A verfe is alfo faid to be acatnleBic, if it be neither de-
feftive nor redundant; eatalc&ic, if it want 3. final fyllable ;
IrachycatalcBic, if it want two ; hypcrcataktlic or hypermeter,
if it exceed the regular meafure ; acephalous, if it want an
initial fyllable.

Hence the complete name of a verfe neccflarily confifts of
three terms ; the firft referring to the Jpecies, the fecond to
the number of metres, the third to the apothefis or ending.
See Verse.

Schmidius and Triclinius, in their Analyfis of die Metres
of Pindar and Sophocles, generally recite firft the general
name, confifting of the three terms above-mentioned, and
then fubjoin the particular feet.

A hemiflich is, properly fpeaking, a half verfe : yet the
name is commonly applied to either portion of an hexameter
verfe divided at the penthemimer.

The triemimeris is that portion of a verfe (meafured from
the beginning of the line ) which contains three half feet, or
a foot and a half; penlhemimeris, five half feet, or two feet
and a half ; hepthemimeris, feven half feet, or three feet and
a half ; ennemimeris, nine half feet, or four feet and a half.
A dijlich is a couplet of two verfes.

KJlanza, orjlrophe, is fuch a feries of two or more verfes
of different kinds, as comprifes every variety employed in
the compofition. /

When only one fort of verfe is ufed throughout the ode or
poem, fuch an ode, &c. is called monocolos; when fevcral forts,
polycolos: or more precifely, if there are two forts of verfe in
a poem, it is called dicolos ; if three, tricolos ; if four, tetracohs.
When the ftanza, or ftrophe, is compofed of two verfes,
it denominates the ode dijlrophos ; when of three, trijlrophos;
when of four, tetrajlrophos. Sec.

By a complex ufe of thefe terms, the ode is dicolos dijlro-
phos, when in a ftanza there are two verfes of different
kinds ; it is dicolos tri/lrophos, when the ftanza contains three
verfes, but only of two kinds, one fort being twice ufed ;
dicolos tetrajlrophos, when the ftanza has four verfes, but of
only two forts, one fort being ufed thrice. Again, the ode
is tricolos trijlrophos, when the itanza confifts of three verfes,
each of a different kind; and tricolos tetrajlrophos, when in
the ftanza there are four verfes, but of only three kinds,
one being ufed twice.

Helreiu Verfijication.

On the very firft attempt to elucidate the nature of
this verfification, a queftion prefents itfelf uncommonly
difficult and obfcure. If it be cffential to the exiftence
of verfe that it be meafured by a definite number of feet or
fyllables, it appears abfolutely ncceffary to demonftratc that
thofe parts at Icaft of the Hebrew writings which we term
poetic are in a metrical form, and to inquire whether any
tiang be certainly known concerning the nature and princi-
ples of this verfification or not.

It is well known, that an hypotliefis was invented by
biihop Hare concerning the Hebrew metres ; and the argu-
ments which he had advanced in its favour appeared lo
conclufive to fome perfons of great erudition, as to pcrfuadc
them, that the learned prelate had fortunately retrieved the
knowledge of Hebrew verfe, after an oblivion of more than
two thoufand years. The following are the rules or canons
of hifhop Hare.

Vol. XXXVII.

N

1. In Hebrew verfe all the feet are diffyllabic.

2. No regard is paid to the quantity of the fyllables.

3. When the number of the fyllables is even, the verfe is
trochaic, placing the accent on the firft fyllable.

4. If the number of the fyllables is odd, the verfe is
iambic, and the accent is to be placed on the fecond fyl-
lable.

5. The periods moftly confift of two verfes, often three
or four, and fometimes more.

6. The verfes of the fame period, with few exceptions,
are of the fame kind.

7. The trochaic verfes moftly agree in the number of feet ;
there are, however, a few exceptions.

S. In the iambic verfes the number of feet are moftly un-
equal, though in fome inftances they are equaL

9. Each verfe does not contain a diftinft fenfe.

One of the examples given by biftiop Hare for the illuf-
tration of thefe rules, is the mth Pfalm, which the learned
reader may confult in any pointed Hebrew bible.

The fame example is alluded to by biftiop Lowth, in the
following confutation of the principles of biihop Hare.

1. In the firft place, the feet are not all diftyllables.

2. Attention muft always be paid to the quantity of the
fyllables, for the fame word, as often as it occurs, is always
of the fame quantity.

3. The verfes are either trochaic which admit a daftyl,
or iambic which admit an anapaeft. But it by no means
follows, that a verfe is either the one or the other, from its
confifting of an even or odd number of fyllables. Thofe,
indeed, which confift of an even number of fyllables, are,
for the moft part, iambic ; but they are alfo fometimes
trochaic. And thofe which confift of an odd number of
fyllables are moftly trochaic ; but they are, however, fome-
times iambic, contrary to the third and fourth canons.

4. The verfes of the fame period are of different kinds,
a few only excepted ; and thofe which are of the fame kind
feldom agree in the number of fyllables and feet ; and
thefe fafts are contrary to the fixth, feventh, and eighth
canons.

5. All the periods confift of only two verfes : this is con-
trary to the fifth canon.

6. Each verfe has one particular fenfe ; contrary to the
ninth canon.

And in the fame manner, perhaps, may every hypothefid,
which pretends to ftate the laws of Hebrew verfe, and to
prefcribe the numbers, the feet, the fcanning of the lines, be
confuted. For to that hypothefis another direftly contrary,
yet confirmed by arguments equally forcible, may be fuc-
cefsfully oppofed.

Subfequently to bifhop Hare, John Robcrtfon, M.D.
publidicd his trcatife on tlie Hebrew verfification. To give
any idea of his method, it is requifite to premifc, that he, in
common with the antimaforctico, fupplies the pointed vowel
by f ; to 1 he gives the power of U or V, and to V, O.
His rules are as follow :

" 1. Every fyllable is long in which there is a written
vowel. 'Tis true that I and U are fometimes joined in one
fyllable with the vowel before, but oftener with that ajter
either of them. But in that cafe the 1 and U arc not
vowels, but confonants.

" 2. Every fyllable having the inferlcd or implied vowel
t is ftiort, if only one confonant follows it before another
cxprefled or implied vowel occurs.

" 3. Every fyllable having only an infcrtcd rowel in it is
long, if two or more confonants intervene bctx\cen it and tlie
next expreffed or implied vowel, cither in the fame or fnU
lowing word.

M " 4. In

VERSIFICATION.

" 4. In all Hebrew verfes, every alternate fyllable muft be
long ; the others may be long or fhort.

" 5. The laft fyllable of every verfe is common ; i. e. either
long or fhort."

On laying down thefe preliminaries, it was eafy for
Dr. Robertfon to reduce Hebrew verfe to the iambic or
trochaic metre. But fo long as the true Hebrew pro-
nunciation and the quantity of their vowels remain un-
known, to attempt the analyfis of Hebrew verfe by iambic,
trochaic, anapaeftic, or any other metre, is to lay a fuper-
ftrufture without a foundation. But whilft we prefer to
profecute the fequel rather with biftiop Lowth ; we do not
in the mean time withhold from our readers the pleafure of
perufing Dr. J. Robertfon's " Treatife on the true and
ancient Manner of Reading Hebrew, and on Hebrew
Verfification," Lond. 1757.

As to the real quantity, the metre and rhythm, thefe from
the prefent ftate of the language feem to be altogether un-
known ; which is the neceflary confequence of our uncer-
tainty of the ancient pronunciation. To fome of thofe,
indeed, who have laboured in this matter, thus much of
merit is to be allowed, that they have rendered the Hebrew
metre, which, without their methods, founded uncommonly
harfli, in forae degree polilhed and more agreeable. They
indeed have furnifhed it with a fort of verfification and metrical
arrangement, when baffled in their attempts to difcover the
real. That we are warranted in attributing to them any
thing more than this, is neither apparent from the nature of
the thing, nor from the arguments with whicii they attempt
to defend their conjeftures.

It is, however, undeniably apparent, that certain of the
Hebrew writings bear not only evident figns of poetic
animation, but alfo fuch charafterlRics of verfe, as leave us
little difficulty in pronouncing them of the poetic clafs.
There exiited, amongft the Hebrews, a icind of verfe, in-
tended, perhaps, for the memory ; in v/hich, when there was
little connexion between the fentiments, an alphabetic order
was preferved by the initial letters of each verfe or ftanza.
Of tliis there are fcveral examples, where the verfes are fo
exaftly marked and defined, that it is impoflible to miftake
them for profe, efpecially if we compare the correfpond-
ing parts of tlie proximate verfes, where word anfwers to
word, and almoll fyllable to fyllable. This being the cafe,
though no appeal can be made to the ear, yet the eye re-
mains competent to perceive the poetic fymmetry and
arrangement.

Hebrew verfification alfo exhibits another property pecu.
liar to metrical compofition. Writers confined to the limits
of verfe, are generally indulged with the licence of ufing words
in a fenfe and manner remote from their common accepta-
tion, and of retrenching or adding a fyllable for the purpofe
of reducing the line to their afCgned limits. Next to the
Greeks, none, perhaps, have admitted thofe liberties more
freely than the Hebrews, and efpecially by the ufe of cer-
tain particles peculiar to metrical compofition, fo as to form
to themfelves a dialeiJl diftinftly poetical. There may be
further obferved a certain conformation of the fentences,
fo that a complete fenfe is almoft equally infufed into
every component part, and every member conftitutes an
entire verfe. So that as the poems divide themfelves in a
manner fpontaneoufly into periods, for the mod part equal,
fo the periods themfelves are divided into verfes, moll com-
monly couplets, though frequently of greater length. The
Hebrew verfe too vras adapted to their cullom of finging
correfponding parts by alternate and oppofite choirs. ( See
Nehcm. xii. 24. 31. 38. 40. and the title of the 88th Pfalm. )
Verfe conftrufted in this manner, is fimilar to the Grecian

proafm or epode. And it was thus, it is thought, that
Mofes with the Ifraelites chanted the ode at the Red fea.
( Exod. XV. ) For " Miriam the prophetefs, the filler of
Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand ; and all the wom.en
went out after her, with timbrels and with dances. And
Miriam anfwered them, fing ye to the Lord, for he hath
triumphed glorioufly : the horfe and his rider hath he-
thrown into the fea." (Exod. XV. 20, 21.) Onfomeocca-
fions, one of the choirs fung a fingle verfe to the other,
which was anfwered by the other by a verfe in fome refpedt
correfpondent to the former.

The 135th Pfalm is obvioufly adapted to three choirs ; the
high prieil with the houfe of Aaron conftituting xhe frjl ;
the Levites, the fecond ; and the congregation, the thin! ;
each ha\Hng its diftincl part, and all at dated intervals
uniting in full chorus.

From an analyfis of this pfalm it might eafily be Ihewn,
that the Hebrew hymn is a compofition not lefs regular
than the Grecian ode. One cannot but obferve too, that it
was from tlie Jewifh, that the ChrilHan church derived the
cullom of finging in alternate chorus. Pliny (1. x. epiil.
97. ) obferves of the primitive Chrillians, that " they re-
peat alternate verfes to Chrift as to a god." And the
remains of this ancient cullom are yet evident in the alter-
nate or refponfive parts of the liturgy of the ellabliflied
church. See Bingham's Antiq. xiv. i.

The peculiar conformation, already alluded to, in the
ftrufture of Hebrew verfe, confills chiefly in a certain
equality, refemblance, or paralleUfm between the members
of each period ; fo that in two verfes, or members of the
fame period, things for the moll part fhall anfwer to
things, and words to words, as if fitted to each other by a
kind of rule or meafure. This parallelifm confifts of three
fpecies. See Parallelism.

Greek Verjification.

It is necefTary, before we prefent the reader with a fyftem
of the Greek verfification, to apprize him, that the fecond,
fourth, and fixth foot, ixc. of a verfe are commonly called
the even places ; and the firft, third, and fifth foot, &c. the
odd places.

I. Jamb'u Metre.

1. An iambic verfe admits in the even places an iambus^
in the odd, an iambus or a fpondee.

2. An iambus in the odd places may be refolved into a
tribrach ; the fpondee, into a daclyl or anaposll.

3. An iambus in the even places (^except the laft) may
be refolved into a tribrach. An anapseft is fubilituted for
it in the cafe of a proper name only.

4. A daftyl muft be avoided in the fifth place ; and re-
folved feet muft not concur.

Dimeters cataletlic.
Beginning with an anapxft.

Ai« TouToy ovK ccdiX^O';^

<iKe TouToy ov TO)i)iij*.^Anacreon.

Trimeters

VERSIFICATION.

Trimeters or fenarii.

Kaxiov ovSiVy xa^TTOf ou xo/aw^eoj.

Am; ajoi/ja 9aj»aTov Exxajm^sTat

H yxf |i/»iiTteaj ffXoiov euo-£^ri; awBj

NauTjiT* vEgjutci; xai 'jravov^yix T*vi,

OXaiAsv a»Jj«)ii OT/n Ssotti/A 7£>£»* — ^fchylus.

II. Trochaic Metre.

1. A trochaic verfe admits trochees in the odd places,
trochees and fpondees in the even places.

2. The trochee may in any place be refolved into a
tribrach ; and the fpondee into a daftyl or anapseft.

3. A daftyl in the odd places occurs only in the cafe of a
proper name.

4. Ill trochaic tetrameters, the fecond metre fhould
always end with a word.

Dimeters cataleftic.

TavTa T*; ra;^* av ffarw^

H TExouya vE07ra9»;

OtxTow oiKTirratr'. etei-

-in TTiTvEi ^0^0,- Aixa;.— ^fchylus.

Tetrameters cataleftic.

Ou ya^ av |ufi^ai(isv aXKin;, n' iri loi; EHjn^iEKjjf,
n<rrE /AE aiinTTT^-jiv x^aTouiiTa, Tyicrd' avaxT* Eivxi )^Qok^.
Tuv paxcwv d a^raXAayEtaa vot/G£T>jjuaTwv /x' Ea.
Ka* o"u Twvd' e|w xo/xi^iti TEt;^t:t'?, ti xarOav*:.

III. Anapxjlic Metre.

1. An anapasftic admits cither in the even or odd places
an anapi^ft, a fpondee, or a daftyl.

2. Except the dimeter catalcftic, called parsmiacus,
which requires an ajiapxft only in the laft place but one.

3. Anapseftic verfes are fometimes intermixed with other
fpccies.

4. A fyftem is chiefly compofed of dimeters, and is moft
correft when, firft, each foot, or at leaft each fyzygy, ends
with a word : fecondly, when the laft verfe but one, is
monometer acataleftic ; and the laft, dimeter cataleftic;
with an anapseft in the fecond metre.

5. In a fyftem, the laft fyllable of each verfe is not (as
in other fpecies) common ; but has its quantity regulated
by the foot of which it is a part.

6. Tiie monometer acataleftic is termed an anapaeftic
bafe. This, in a fyftem, is fometimes difpenfed with. In
the paraemiacus rarely.

7. A fcries of anapxftic verfes, confifting of one or more
fcntences, muft be conftrudlcd as if each fentence were only
a fingle verfe. Therefore, if the laft foot of a verfe, in the
middle of a fentence, begin as an anapseft or fpondee, its laft
fyllable muft be long ; but as a daftyl, fhort. This rule,
however, may be difpenfed with, when a tribrach, cretic, or
trochee, fupplies the place of an anapxft, daftyl, or fpondee.

8. An anapjeftic verfe has fometimes in the laft place a
proccleufmatic, which foot is ifochronal to an anapaeft ; as,

ITjo; £f40> 0 I jKoysi'ETO | ^a. — £ur. Ph. 1 69.

Anapaeftic fyftem with the bafe.

AnXov E/xo< y ui ^^{ffns x?"?'
ZTibfiv oy^ivu TovdE Tn\a; irov.
TauT)i» ya^ 'X'" ^"'''■•n ai/xov
Aoyo? Eoli (Tuo'ii', OnjoCoXouvra
riTtivoi; io»; o-li/yifov (Avyt^in:.
OudE Ti»' ayrtiJ
rioewvK KccKWi nciWjUit,

Anapaeftic fyftem without the bafe.

12 dEivOV idE(v TraOoi avfi^i;7f0ij,

n dEivoTaroi' TravTtov ocr' iyi4

TTjOiTEt*! ^av*a ; t*5 0 TrnorTaj
^Ci^CilV JLtEi^Ova Tijy jxYtKivruv

<l>w, (ptu, dua-Tccv'. aW' cuj' EaiJEin
Auwajuai a-e, QiXm n'oXX' avi^tT^xt,
TlaKXx sruflEo-Gai, :roW.» cf aB^no-ai.
Toi«» ^fixw T«(i;^Ei; juoi.^Sophocles.

Syftem of paraemiaci.

Siyay *iiv a^ra-j fj^e a-iyxy
K&A Tavra Xo") ov raj^a cteutii*

H/UIV d'lOxX>1 TaT^ig EiTTi.

TiXiof^it ^ ajj.' oJuiro-Ei Sehu. — Cratiu.
Tetrameters cataleftic.

Oiwu t' «tr{;^Ei xai yt/iwao-iuv xai tiuv aWut atomm,
Kai /SsXtiitIoi'. toi/to w^ii^eij, ot£{ eixo; SeJioh a»J^a,
N*xay ^aaTTOJv xxi ^ouXeucv xat rn yXwTT)! TToXt^t^wv.

Ariftoph.
IV. Daaylic Metre.

1. A daftylic verfe confifts only of daftyls and fpondees.

2. The common heroic is hexameter acatalettic, having
in the fifth place a daftyl, in the laft, a fpondee.

3. In the heroic verfe, feveral licences are allowed, which •
are not admitted in iambic metre ; as, firft, the lengthening
a fhort final fyllable not only at the place of the cacfural
paufe, but fometimes even on other final fyllables, whofe
empliafis is increafed by their beginning a foot ; as,

To|' uifj-OitTtv E;^£tJV a//[p*^E^£a. te (^a^Fx^nv. — 11. a 4J.

Secondly, the hiatus, or tlie concurrence of two vowels in
contiguous words ; as wlien the word ends with a fliort vowel,
AXX" axsaadj xa&ns-o, euiw5' eottteiSeo (i/i/9w. 11.3565. Or when
the word ends with a long vowel or diphthong, in which
cafes ^lie fyllable may either be long without ellfion, or
fhort, on the fuppofition that the latter of the component
vowels is cut ofl ; as,

Ka^i^jn; aXo^Hf ete* u eGev 65"* ^s^Eiwy

Ot/X eQeXoV dE|«9ai' ETTEi vToXv WaXojLt«l aUTHV.

4. The Ionic dialeft affords great variety in the form of
epic verfes. And that irregular fort of daftylics, called
jeolics, admits in the firft place any foot of two fyllables :
the reft muft be all dadtyls, except when the verfe is cata-
leftic, and then the cataleftic part muft be a trochee.

5. Hephaeftion terms that fpecies of daftyhcs, logoocdics,
which requires at the end a trochaic fyzygy ; but every where
elfc a daftyl.

Daftyhc trimeters.

Ai Moutrat Toy EjenTa
Ari<rcei7»i clsifawiiff'i,
Til KaXXu trafsJo/xa*
Ka> >i» <i Ki/Oe^eik
Zhtii, Xut{* ^EfOUira,
Ai/eratrSai Toy E^iuTa..— Anacr.

Daftylic hexameters.

E» !>' Birto-', lu'c oTB KUfta, fieri ev yni irirmt
Aaff{0» vTcai n^imi, axjiioT^iipii* » "' " irac*
A;^v>) VTtx^v^Qyij avE^o»o di diivo; ccnrti;

I(7T1U/ IfiC^llilTCtt. TfOfXIOVO-i Jl TE <?{(»« VabTai

.^Eioicnsi- TuSou yaf v'lr' i« Oa»«TOio (fifoyTat.— Horn.

M 2 Elegiac.

VERSIFICATION.

Elegiac.

Av5«acTi», a^^' aisi tuv ayaSw* tx^°' — Theogn.

V. Choriamlic Metre.

1 . A choriambic verfe requires in every place but the laft
a choriambus, and in the laft, an iambic fyzygy, entire or
cataleftic.

2. Sometimes the iambic fyzygy occurs in the firft place,
and in long verfes in other places ; but this happens lefs
frequently.

3. Either two iambic feet, or a fpondee and iambns, or
the third epitrite, form the iambic fyzygy : it is ufed here
for the former cafe.

4. Any other foot of four fyllables joined with a chori-
ambic conllitute tlie epichoriarabic verfe.

Dimeter cataleftic.

Oux £To?, Ill yi/vaiKs;,
TTa(7i x«xo*^*v >]/x»;
<I>Awo"iv exo^tIot' avJ^fj.

hci.jj,Qa,iofz(7y Vic' aairm, — Ariftoph.
Sapphic fyftem ; confifting of epichoriambic and Adonic
verfes.

TTai Aioj do^o7^^oxE, ^i(7tf•0JLta* or,
M>) /x' XTXiat, fjtytd' aviv.i!Ti 0Xjj.v%

— TLX^i ^oi XXI vvv, -y^xX^Tx-j dE Xuj-ov
Ex u^Piuvxv oycjx 61 y.ot 7iXi^Tat
&vij.t>f ijuFij!! riXiCot, au ^' xurx

Bu^^xy(p: itjffo.

VI. Antifpafik Metre.

An aucifpaftic verfe admits in the laft place, an iambic
fyzygy complete, or cataleftic, or an incomplete antifpaftus ;
and in the firft place, befides the proper foot, is admitted any
foot of four fyllables ending like an antifpaftus in the tvro

laft fyllables ; ;. e. either ^ - - - -^ - - - >-^ - >- - -_ g^^

in the intermediate places only an antifpaftic.

The following are the moft ufual varieties in this fpecies
of verfe.

1. In (hort verfes, the proper foot frequently vanifties,
and the verfe is compofed of one of the above-mentioned
feet, and an iambic fyzygy.

2. Every epitrite, except the fecond, is occafionally fub-
ftituted in the. different places of the verfe, efpeciaUy the
fourth epitrite in the fecond place.

3. If an antifpaftic begins the verfe and three fyllables of
any kind remain, the verfe is antifpaftic ; becaufe the remain-
ing lyllables may be confidered as a portion of fome of the
admiflible or refolved feet.

4. Long verfes fometimes contain an iambic fyzygy in the
fecond place, and then the third place admits the fame varie-
ties as Xhejirji.

Dimeter acataleftic and hyperacataleftic.

JI*j ^va* Ton a:rxvTa w-
-HCfc Xoyov" Te ^ tTTfi ^ayn,
Bnvasi xii6iv cfl;» Tff u'xii,

rloXi; dEl/T!^OV, Wf Tx^i^rx.

0.1; £ut' av TO >£oy n-a^*],
Kou^a; xtf^oavtai ^s^oi'.

0<r1is Tou vXiovxi ini^Oui
Xftj^E* Tcu ^xn^iov irx^uc^
ZwEiv, crxaiooTJwa? <P'jXx(T!TWi
En jpoi XBTaJriXo; tclat. — Soph.

VII. Ionic Metre a Majore.

An Ionic verfe a majore admits a trochaic fyzygy pro
mifciioufly with its proper foot.

Var. I. The fecond paeon is fometimes found in the firil
place.

2. A moloffus in an even intermediate place, foUov/ed
by a trocliaic fyzygy.

3. The fecond paeon is fometimes joined to a fecond o
third epitrite, fo that the two feet together are equal v..
time to two Ionic feet. This is called an Asx^Xxai;, the dc-
feft in time of the preceding foot being fupplied by th -
redundant time of the fubfequent. And the verfe fo dil
pofed is called A»a<\»if/Ey5;.

4. Refolutions of the long fyllables are allowed in all
poiTible varieties.

If the three remaining paeons, or the fecond pxon in any
place but the firft, without an xvzuXx^ri; ; or if an iambic
fyzygy, or a third epitrite, a choriambus, or any ol the dif-
cordant feet of four lyllables, be found in the fame verfe with
an Ionic foot, the verfe is then called Epionic.
Trimeters bjachycataleftic.

TlXv^y,' fMiv E^aiyET' a erfXava,

Aid ui "TTi^i ^iiiixov £5-7at9«3-av. — Sapph-

Tetrameters brachycataledlic.

"ZvK^StTW 0 XO(r/iO; TE^inXEV (TO^CV Fivaf,

Ka» xax(v( aveiXEv tov Swx^aT»3v 0 xocr^o?,

Ev T^} ^i;Xa«»i, xwvioy oti ^twv T£0v«xf. — Sotad.

VIII. Ionic Metre a M'more.

1. An Ionic verfe a minore is often compofed entirely of
its proper feet. It begins fometimes with the third paeon,
followed by one of the epitrites, for an i;vaxXa<n;. And it
admits an iambic fyzygy promifcuoufly.

2. In the odd places, a moloifus preceded by an iambic
fyzygy fometimes occurs : and in the firft a moloflus alone.

3. In the intermediate places, a fecond or third paeon
is prefixed to a fecond epitrite, and this conftruftion is alfo
called avax\a<ri{.

4. The long fyllables admit of refolutions, as in the other
Ionic metre.

5. An epionic verfe a minore is formed by intermixing
with the Ionic foot a double trochee, fecond epitrite, or
pajon without an ayaxXxo-i;.

6. When a choriambus precedes or follows an Ionic foot
of either kind, the verfe is called profodiacus : which name
is applied to a verfe confifting of an alternate mixture of cho-
riambic and Ionic feet, or of their refpeftive reprefentatives.

7. The two fpecies of lonrc feet are not to be intermixed
in the fame verfe.

Dimeters.

AoXljLlCs d OUT*; vxtnAxi

yityaXm ^EUjuari ^wtoiv,

E;^i/^oib E^'-u<7i» it^yuv

AfJLX^ov x'j^x BxXucr^n^*

AxfOffOKTTas ya^ 0 Tls^trun

XrfXTOc, xXxit^nin T£ Xaof.— AvaxXayi.

AoXofiHTiv i' atrxzxv Oioi

Tif amj 6>aTo; xXv^ii ;

Tt$ 0 x^aiTTva- vodi ffi*d»i-

-/.iBTc; EUTTETMs «yaIo'(rii)v.— .iEfchylus.

IX. Pdonie

VERSIFICATION.

IX. Peonlc Metre.

1 . A psEonic verfe requires all the admifTible feet to have
tlie fame rhythm with the proper foot, i.e. to confift of
five times.

2. The conftruftion is moft perfeifl: when each metre ends
with the feveral words of the verfe.

3. Verfes called Bacchiac and Cretic are referrible to
this head.

Tetrameters cataleftic.

OiXTOjj EytXwv ^Ey% XExjayora ^e 65W|[xevoi,
OudEF a^ tfzov fjLiXov. otrov ds juovav £(^£vat,

Sxi>/X^XT>OV El !r07£ Tl S\l?0^£K)S !X?«\Xir..^ Arlftopll .

2. An iambus in a trochaic, &c.

3. Scazon.

" Fit fcazon, fi fpondeo prior exit iambus."

0/" t&e Figures ufed in Verjification.

The fyllables compofing a verfe are afiefted feven different
ways : by ctefiira, by fynalxpha, by eahlipfis, by fyn;e-
nfis, by disrefis, by fyltole, and by diaitole.

V C^fura — When, after finiftiing a foot, there remains
one fyllable of the word, this circumltance is called csefura ;
3 term which is alfo fometimes applied to the fyllable itfelf"
thus cut off, and which forms the firll part of the follovsnng
foot.

There are four fpecies of cxfura ; the triemimeris, penthc-
mimerij, hepthemimeris, and ennemimcris.

The triemimeris is when, after the firll foot, or two half
Befides the divifion of a verfe into metres and feet, writers feet, there remains a fyllable terminating a word or a third
have taken notice of another divifion into two parts only, half foot.

X. Of the Paufe.

The penthemimeris is when, after two feet, or four half
feet, there remains a terminating fyllable, or fifth half foot.

The hepthemimeris is when, after three feet, or fix half
feet, a fyllable remains, which is the fevenlh half foot.

The ennemimeris is when, after four feet, or eight half
feet, a fyllable remains, which is the ninth half foot.

The firft three caefwse are in the following line :

..3 57

Silvef-|trem tenuj-i Mu-jfam medi|taris a|vena. — Virg.

All are in the following line :
Ille la|-tus nive]-um mol|-li ful|-tus hya|-cintho Virg.

On x^ri I ■aix,yivxi\w fu|JEiv /?i(\ii!pofoy avjja.

Horn. II. /S. 24.

WKtt fx'.\-yd ii[-;^OT (pXoyt e<x£A» tivx^"' wa-AX™.

Hefiod. Suet. 451.

The preceding are named fyllabic cxfuras. To thefe
In fome fpecies, the portions of an admifllble foot of .""^y ^^ ^^^^^ the trochaic cxfura, which is formed either

■arifing from the natural intermiffion of the voice in readinj^
it. This is called the paufe, which neceffarily ends with a
word. Heroics and trimeter iambics are efteemed moft har-
monious, when the paufe falls upon t\ie firfl fyllable of the
third foot. In iambic and trochaic tetrameters, its place is at
the end of the fecond metre. Thefe rules, which are far from
being general, are more obferved by the Roman than the
Greek poets. In anapxftic and paonic verfes, and the verfe
Ionic a minore, no place is alligned to the paufe ; becaufe
the efFe£l of a paufe will be produced at the end of each
regularly conftrufted metre.

XI. Of the different Combinations of Metre.

I . The firft is a long fyllable between the parts of a rerfe,
as in the common pentameter ; thus.

four fyllables are feparated by the intermediate metres.

3. It frequently happens that two fpecies totally dif-
fmiilar are united in the fame verfe, which is then deno-
minated Aj-ujKjTmtif.

We (hall employ the mark 4- to conneft the diflimilar
portions, in the following inllances.

1. Daftyl. tetram. + troch. hemihol.

2. Iambic penth.' -f troch. hemihol.

3. Daftyl. dim. + troch. monom. or logooedic verfe.

4. Daftyl. comma prefixed to an iambic dim. which

is called elegiambus.
f Iamb. dim. T prefixed to a daftylic comma,

5. < or >■ the convcrfe of the former, and
{_ Iamb, pcnth. J called iambelegus.

6. Daftyl. comma -f iamb, hemihol.

7. Iamb, penth. -)- daftyl. dim.

4. When the parts thus united are an iambic and tro-
chaic fy7ygy> the verfe is called periodic or circulating ;
the quantity being the fame as if fcanned from the end.

5. A verfe agreeing with none of the preceding infti-
tutes is termed II(;?ivcr;]t;>:^aTio1o;, or anomalous ; to which
<;lafs wc may refer,

I. A verfe, otherwifc iambic, having a fpondee in the
fecond or fourth place.

by a trochee remaining at the end of a word, after the com-
pletion of a foot, or by a word confifting of a trochee ; as,

Cunfta pri|us tenj-/J/<;; fed | immedicabile vulnus Ovid.

Per con|-nubia | ndflra per | incasptos Hymensos Virg.

And the monofyllabic ca;fura ; as,

De grege | nunc tibi ( vir nunc | de grege | natus ha'-
bendus. — Ovid.

The principal effcfts of ca:fura are, firft, to impart
fmoothnefs and elegance to a verfe, by connefting the dif-
ferent words harmonioufly together ; fecondly, to caufe a
fhort fyllable to become long, efpecially after the firft,
fecond, or third foot ; as,

Peftoril-bus inhians, fpirantia confuht exta Virg.

Of SynaUpha — Synalaepha cuts off the final vowel or
diphthong ot a word, when the following word begins with
a vowel or a diphthong ; as.

Terra an|-tiqua, potens armis atquc uberc glebsc Virg.

As though it were.

Terr' anjtiqua, &c.

The

VERSIFICATION.

The Greeks never employ the fynalaepha, unlefs they join
the apoftrophe ; as,

Iliad, a 33.

Synalspha is fometimes omitted. Firft, regularly, as in
the intcrjeftioiis O, heu, ah, proh, vx, vah, hei ; as,

Neu ubi pafta fides, ubi qus jurare folebas — Ovid.

Secondly, by poetic licence ; as,

Et ivLCCUi pecori, et lac fubducitur agnis. — Virg.

Long vowels and diphthongs, when they are not cut off,
become common ; as,

Infuli lonio in magno quas dira Celino Virg.

Ante tibi Eose Atlantides abfcondantur. — Virg.

Of Eahlipfts. — Efthlipfis cuts off the final m, and the
preceding vowel, wlien the following word begins with a
vowel ; as,

Difce puer, virtut^m ex me, verumque laborem For-
tunam ex aliis Virg.

This figure is not employed in the Greek language.
The ancients fometimes retained the m, and its preceding
vowel, which they made fliort ; as,

Corforum officium eft quoniam premere omnia deorfum.

Lucret.
But the urn of officium is elided.

5 was formerly elidtd, not only before a vowel, with the
lofs of a fyllable ; but alfo bel'ore a confonant, without the
lofs of a fyllable ; as,

Vicimus, O focii ! et magnam pugnavimu' pugnam. — Enn.
Nam, fi de nihilo fierent, ex omnibu' rebus — Lucret.

Both fynalxpha and efthlipfis are found in the lafl fyllable
of a verfe, when the following verfe begins with a vowel,
provided no long paufe intervene to fufpcnd the fenfc ; as,

Jamque iter emenfi, tunes ac tefta Latinoru/n
^rdua cernebant juvenes murofque fubibant — Virg.

Sternitur infelix alieno vulnere ccdwmgue

.^picit, et dulces tnoriens reminifcitur Argos — Virg.

Of Synierefis Syna»refis is the contraAion of two fyl-

lables in the fame word into one fyllable ; as inxTi for thxh ;
11 for i i, deinde for deinde ; abiete pronounced abyete for
abiete, &c.

And in the following verfes for parietibus, tenuius, vin-
demiator, pronounce par-yetibus, ten-wTus, vindem-yator.

Hacrent parietibus fcalx ; poftefque fub ipfos — Virg.
Qila nee mobilius quidquam neque tenmus exftat. — Lucr.
Vindemiator et inviAus cui fspe viator. — Hor.

Of Dlarefu. — Dixrefis is the divifion of one fyllable into
two ; as rvTzl'.o for tutT., aura'i for aurse, ftlefco for fuefco,
filux for filvae, foluit for folvit, fubiefta for fubjefta,
Jupiter for Jupiter,' &c.

Of Syjlcle Syiiole is the fhortening of a fyllable, other-
wife long by nature or pofition ; as -ras Ttp^ia; iyn^tri,
Theocr. ; vidfin. for vidcs ne, hodie for h5c die, obicis for
objicis, &c.

Of DiaJIole, — Diallole is the lengthening of a fyllable,
otherwife naturally fhort ; as U^uut auras ^ iXu;gi» tf^x'

xujEo-o-M, Horn. II. a. 4. So are the firft fyllables in Prl-
amides, Arabia, occafionally lengthened ; without which
licence, thefe and fome fimilar proper names would fcarcely
be admiffible in lieroic verfe.

There are other figures which may affedl a verfe, but
thefe belong to etymology.

Latin Verfification.

I. An hexameter or heroic verfe confifts of fix feet, of
which the fifth is ufually a dattyl, the fixth a fpondee : the
reft may be either fpondees or daAyls, at the option of the
poet. The following fcale exhibits the conftruftion ;

I. 2. 3. 4. c. 6.

At tdba I terribl-j-lem f5ni!tum pr6cul|aEre ca-'-noro

' Virg.

Sometimes when the defcription is grave, flow, majeftic,
mournful, &c. a fpondee is admitted in the fifth place, and
the verfe is called fpondaic. In this cafe, a daftyl ufually
occupies the fourth place, and the verfe terminates with a
word of three or four fyllables. It is but feldom other-
wife ; as,

. *
Conftitit atque oculis Phrygia | agm'ina | circum[-

fpexit. — Vu-g.

Hexameters abounding too much in fpondees may appear
to drag, as it were, heavily ; and thofe in which dactyls
prevail feem fometimes to have a light and fluttering effeft.
An equal admixture, therefore, has been thought to afford
the juft and moft harmonious medium.

A proper regard to the caefura, in the ftrufture of an
hexameter, is indifpenfably neceffary. The term caefura is
ufed by grammarians in two fenfes. In the former, it fig-
nifies the divifion of a verfe into two portions, affording a
little paufe or reft for the voice, at fome convenient place,
wliere the paufe may take place without injury to the fenfe
or harmony of the line. This kind of csefura is fometimes
called a lome, which term, for diftinftion's fake, we (hall ill
this former fenfe exclufively employ.

Tantae molis erat J^ Romanam condere gentem. — Virg.

Errabant, afti fatis J^ maria omnia circum. — Virg.

From thefe examples, it is evident that the tome is not
exclufively confined to a particular part of the hexameter, as
in the pentameter, which, hke the Englirti and French
Alexandrine, is invariably divided into two equal portions.

But the tome moft approved in heroic verfe was the
pcnthemimeral ; as,

Liiftan-]-tes ven-j-tos, J^ tempeftatefque fonoras. — Virg.

Inftead, however, of the tome at the exaft penthemi-
mcris, a different divifion was admitted after a trochee in
the third foot ; as,

EffigT-|-em ft;1tij-l-ere, J^ nfifas qux trifte piaret. — Virg.

This, however, is generally cenfured, as the ear feeras to
require that there fhould be no pa\ife immediately after a
trochee in this place, cfpecially as the voice, which would
find an agreeable reft on a long femifoot, is difagreeably
fufpended on a Ihort fyllable.

The

VERSIFICATION.

The hepthcmimeral tome was alfo approrcd as heroic ; as, it is then generally unneceffary, and when it occuri the verfe

is not harmonious ; as,

Clamo[-rc3 stniiil | horren-]-d5s J^ ad fidcra tollit. — Virg.

The tome after the third foot has been the fubjeft of
critical cenfure, though Virgil, the princeps facile poetarum,
has on a fezu occafions employed it. The penthemimeral
or hepthcmimeral tome is, however, unquellioiiably pre-
ferable.

The tome between the fourth and fifth feet has been con-
fidcred as pecuharly adapted to paftoral verfe, and therefore
called tome Bucolica ; as,

Slant vitii-|-li, et tene-|-ris rau-[-grtibiis)43 aera com-
plent. — Nemefian.

But this paufe occurs as frequently in iieroic as in paftoral
verfe.

In the fecond acceptation, the casfura means the divifion

Omnes innocux ; fed non pupj/iif tua Tarchon Virg.

Vertitur interea coelum, et ruit ocean|o nox. — Virg.

Wlieii formed by a monofyllable, and wlien the verfe iD
fpondaic, it is unobjeftionable ; as,

Explorare labor : mihi jufla capeflere fas eft. — Virg.

Perfolvit pendens e verticiibiis praeruptis.— Catul.

II. Negkded Hexameters.

In the epiltles and fatires of Horace are hexameters,
which, from their ftudied negligence, and their want of all the
charadleriftic majefty of the heroic, have received this appel-
lation. Tiiey are not, however, deroid of either beauty or
fimplicity ; and Horace has fuccefsfuUy employed them ui

or reparation which takes place in a foot, when that foot is occaf.onall'y drawing the portrait of the foibles and paffion
compofed of lyllables belongmg to dinerent words. - . . . = »

A verfe in which this cafura is neglected, in which the
infulated and unconnefted feet fcem to fhun all fociety with
each other, is held to be ftiff and uncouth in the extreme,
and devoid of all poetic elegance ; as.

Sparsis I haftis | late | campus | fplendet et | horret.

Ennius.

On tlie contrary, thofe verfes are the moft pleafing in

of mankind ; as,

Rure ego viventem, tu dicis in urbe beatum :
Cui placet alterius, fua nimerum eft odlo fors.
Stultus uterque locum immeritum caufatur iniqie
In culpa eft animus, qui fe non efFugit unquam.

The following verfe confifts either of the beginning or
latter part of an hexameter.

I. The Archilochian penthemimer or dimeter, named

Yhich this figure abounds ; and this effcd is equally pro- f^„^ Archilochus, its inventor, confifts of two daayls and

duced, whether the divifion take place before a femifoot or
before a folid trochee.

A^. B. By a folid trochee is meant a trochee confifting of
a fmgle word, or the laft two fyllables of a word ; not a
femifoot joined with a (hort monofyllable.

Te fpec-j-Zc^m, {vi'\prema mi-jliT quum | venerit | hora.

Tibullus.

But two fucceffive trochees of this kind occurring in the
fecond and third, or in the third and fourth feet, fliould be
avoided ; but in the firft and fecond, or in the firft, third,
and fifth, they are unobjeftionable.

After the firft foot, the negleft of the cajfura is no blemifli,
provided that foot be a daflyl ; as,

Regia I folis erat fublimibus alta columnis. — Ovid.

Nor after a fpondee is it much felt, efpecially if it be an
emphatic word ; as.

Tandem | progreditur, magna ftipante caterva. — Virg.

one fyllable, and therefore named hypercataleftic ; as,
PSlvis et I umbril fCi-|-mus. — Her.

2. The Alcmanian daftylic trimeter, firft ufcd by Ale-
man, confifts of three dadyls and a liypercataleftic fyl-
lable ; as,

Noftra d^-|-us canet ) harm6ni-|a. — Prudent.

This verfe, like the hexameter, of which it is a part,
admits a fpoiulee in the firft, fecond, and third places.

3. The Alcmanian dartyhc tetrameter ac.italec'tic admits
in tlic firft, fecond, and lliird places, either a daftyl or fpon-
dee ; in the fourth, a daftyl only ; as,

Lrimlni-|bufqiie pri-[-or r6di-|-3t v'fgor.
Nimbof-|-Tlqiie po-|-lfis ftftift | imbribtis '
DcsCiper | In tcr-j-rfim nox | filnditiir. — Boet.

Solvitiir I acris hy-]ems gra-|-ta vice. — Hor.

^, . , r , r r , ^ , . , . 4. The Alcmanian tetrameter acataleftic contains the laft

Nor 18 the want or the cxiura telt after the lecond foot, r r . r 1 . r v i r r„ .i„ .1,; s

• 1. c A ) J- -1, r 11 1,1 •""'> jQjir (j,(.^ (,f 3,, liexametcr, ot which, ot courle, the tnirii

if it be a fpondee concluding with a monofyllable ; as,

Ah quojties per j faxa canum latratibus afta eft. — Ovid.

The cxfura, at the third foot, is held to be, if not ab-
folutely neceftary, h';Thly dcfirable. When the tome, how-
ever, takes place at the penthcmimeris, and there is no paufe
at tlic clofe of the third foot, no obgeftion can be made to
its terminating, cither with a long monofyllable, two fliort
monofyllables, or a diftyllabic word ; as,

Contem-|-nuntque fa-j-ijox, J^ it | frigida tedla relinquunt.

Virg.

Scindit I fe iva\bes, J^ el in | sethera purgat apertum.

Virg.
£t femel | emif-j-/am J^ volat | irrevocabile vcrbiim.

Hor.
The csfura is feldora introduced after the fourth foot ;
12

is a daftyl, and the laft foot a fpoudce ; as,

Ibimils I o f6cI-|-T comi-[-tt}fque. — Hor.

A fpondee may precede the laft foot, provided a driiftvl
precede it ; as,

Menf5-|-rem ctShJ-|-bcnt Ar-]-chytii. — Hor.

5. The Alcmanian tetrameter cataleftic conliiins one-
long fyllable, or two (hort fyllables, then a daftyl or Ipon-
dee ; afterwards a daftyl ; and lallly a fpondee.

Qui I fe volet I ijftc p6-j-tcntcn»

AnI-l-mos domel | ilk: fe-|-roce8. — Boct.

6. The Alcmanian tetrameter hypercataleftic contains an
heroic penthemimer ind an adonic (fee N" VI.) ; as,

Hcu quam | priccipl-|-ti || merfj pro-l-fimdo. — Boct.

7. The

VERSIFICATION.

7. The tetrameter acataleftic confifts of three daftyls
and a pyrric, or iambus ; as,

Qui fSre-j-re ingSnu-|-ujn volet ( agrum. — Boet.

8. The Bucolic hexameter has in the fourth place a
daftyl ; as,

Ab Jove principium, Mas^ ; Jovis omnia plena. — Virg.

Fortunatianus obferves, that Theocritus adhered to this
rule in his paftorals, and that Virgil often neglefted it.

9. The hexameter, which is named miurus or teliambus,
having for its laft foot an iambus inftead of a fpondee ; as,

Dirige odorifequos ad caeca nubilia canes. — Liv. Andron.

The two alcaics will be noticed hereafter.

III. Of the Pentameter.

The pentameter verfe confifts of five feet, of which the
firft two may be either daftyls or fpondees, the third niuft
always be a fpondee, the fourth and fifth anapxfts.

It appears from Quinftilian that this was the ancient mode
of fcanning the pentameter. (Inft. ix. 4.) But among
the moderns it is fcanned otherwife. By dividing the verfe
into two hemiftichs or penthemimers, the firft hemiftich
muft contain two daftyls or two ^ondees, or one of each
indifcriminately, and a long fyUable, or csefura ; in the latter
hemiftich, two dadlyls with another caefura ; thus,

Carmlnl-jbus vl-jves |{ tempiis in | omne me-|-is. — Ovid.

1. The firft hemiftich ought to end with the entire word,
that the caefura belonging to the penthemiraer may take
place ; otherwife it will not be a legitimate pentameter,
according to Quinftihan, ix. 4. " In medio pentametri fpon-
deo, qui nifi alterius verbi fine, alterius initio conftet, verfum
non efficit." Therefore Terentianus condemns the following
line.

Inter | noftros | gen-|l-tili8 d-|-berrat ejquus.

2. An elifion immediately after the penthemimer is harfti ;
as.

Mi mife-]ro eripu-I-£/7J |{ omnia | noftra bo-j-na.

which verfe is rendered ftill more harfti by the elifion in the
preceding foot.

3. Neither hemiftich (hould end with a monofyllable,
except it be preceded by another monofyllable, or an
elifion.

4. The moft eligible conclufion of a pentameter is a
diifyllable, or a word of four or five fyllables. But the
verfe of Ovid, Propertius, or Tibullus, feldom ends with a
trifyllable.

5. A pentameter fubjoined to an hexameter conftitutes an
elegiac diftich ; as,

Flebilis indignos, elege'fa, folve capiUos.
Ah nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit !

6. Every diftich (hould terminate \vith a period, or colon.

7. Rhyming muft be avoided in this and every other kind
of Latin verfe ; as,

Quaerebant fla'uoj per nemus omne fa-roj.

Such verfes are called Leonine, or monkifti, from Leo-
iiius, a Benediftine monk, who is cenfured by VofEus and
others fur affecting this mode of verfifying.

7

IV. Of the Afclfpiadic, cr Choriambir.

This verfe, invented by the poet Afclepiades, confifts
of four feet, a fpondee, two choriamb!, and a pyrric ; or,
confidering the laft fyllable of the verfe as long, an iambus ;
thus,

M5ce]nas atSvis | edite re'gibus. — Hor.

1 . Sometimes the firft foot was a daftyl ; as,
Effiigi-]-um et miferSs | libera mors | vehit. — Seneca.

2. Sometimes, but feldom, a fpondee was admitted
into the fecond and fourth places ; as,

Tendit in | exter-]-nas ire tenebras. — Boet.

3. Single feet are elegantly compofed in this verfe of
complete words ; as,

Quaflas | indocilis | pauperiem | pSti. — Hor.

4. The firft choriambus, or a caefura, falls iixelegaatiy
in the middle of a word ; as,

Non in-|cendia Carth|aginls im]-piae.

Unlefs there be an efthlipfis, a fynalaepha, or the word be
a compound ; but even then the lines lofe not all their harlh-
nefs, and are but feldom to be imitated.

There are, hkewife, the following vaiieties in choriambic
verfe.

1. The Ariftophanian choriambic dimeter acataleftic,
confifting of a choriambus and a bacchic, or an amphibrac ;
as,

Lydia die | pSr omnes. — Hor.

2. The Alcaic pentameter acataleftic, confifting of a
fpondee, three choriambi, and a pyrric ; as,

Seu plujres hifimes | feu tribult | Jupiter ul-|-timam.

Hor.

3. The Alcaic epichoriambic tetrameter acataleftic, con-
fifting of the fecond epitrite, (a choree and a fpondee,) two
choriambi, and a bacchic ; as,

Te De6s o-]ro Sybarln | ciir properes ] amando. — Hor.
V. Of the Glyconic.

The Glyconic verfe, fo named from the poet Glyco, con-
fifts of a fpondee, a choriambus, and an iambus ; as.

Sic te I diva pdtens | Cypri. — Hor.

But the firft foot was fometimes varied to an iambus, or
a trochee : but Horace, who was partial to the Glyconic,
invariably adheres to the fpondaic commencement, except in
one folitary inftance ; •viz, ode i. 15. 36.

VI. DaBytic Dimeter, or yldon'tc.

The Adonic verfe confifts of two feet, the firft a daftyh
the other a fpondee ; as,

Vif^re I montes. — Hor.

We feldom find this verfe employed alone. Terentianus
Maurus (De Metr. 439.) informs us that Sappho wrote en-
tire poems in this ftiort meafure. Terentianus himfe'f has
alfo left us a fliort piece of the kind ; and another of thirty-
one fuccefiive adonics occurs in Boethius, hb. i. metr. 7.

VII. Of the Sapphic Pentameter.

The Sapphic verfe, fo named from the poetcfs Sappho,
confifts of five feet ; the firft a trochee, the fecond a

fpondee,

VERSIFICATION.

fpondee, tlie third a daAyl, and the fourth and fifth tro- the epithet is equally fuitable to the Sapphic and to the
_i . .„ Alcaic vcrfc.

chees ; as_

Deflii-|-it fax-]-is agit-]-tatus ( humcir. — Hor.

1. Tlie pt'Dthemimeral csefura adds that elegance to Sap-
phic verfe, without vvhicli it does not flow harmonioufly.

2. Sappho and others admitted fometimes, in the firit
place, a fpondee, or a pyrric ; as,

^Aivl-' aA?i' I £ Jtitono Tu ^ in jxaKCU^x. — Sappho.

' P6si-|tis tandem levibus fagittis. — Seneca.

3. Sappho, Catullus, and Seneca, fometimes made the
fecond foot an iambus, a trochee, or a daftyl ; as,

X^V(n-\-cfxi\-r^x dxi^^m caaa-ira,, — £rinna.

rial Ai-|-o; 4o-j-\o7rXoKE, Xi^-cropai (te. — Sappho.

QuEque ad | Hefp&i-|-a8 jacet orametas Seneca.

Horace, however, who in many inftances improved upon
the invention of Sappho, invariably adheres to that form
which has the fecond foot a fpondee ; and the young poet,
if he be prudent, will not pais beyond his hmits.

4. Sapphic verfe appears fometimes to be hypercata-
leftic, but in this cafe the final vowel of the line fuffers
the elifion confequent on the following verfe beginning with
a vowel.

5. Inftances occur in Sappho, Catullus, and Horace,
of the divifion of a word between two hnes ; as,

Grofphe, non gemmis, neque purpura -ve-
-nale, nee auro. — Hor.

■ It has been conjeftured, hovcever, that the caufe of this
pecuHarity in the Sapphic is, that neither Sappho, Catul-.
lus, nor Horace, intended the ilanza to confift; of four, but
of three feparate verfes ; ■u/z. two lapphics, and one verfe
of feven feet ; as,

Otium bello furiofa Tlirace,
Otium Medi pliaretra decori,

Grofphe, non gemmis, neque purpura venale, nee auro.

Hor. Od. ii. 16. 5.

IX. Of the Pherecratic Verfe.

This verfe, invented by Pherecrates of Athens, confifts
of what may be the three laft feet of an hexameter ; •u/z. a
fpondee, a daftyl, and a fpondee ; as,

Nrgrls I Eequora \ ventis
I. Bocthius fometimes admits

an

-Hor.

anapift in the firft

place ; as,

SimJli I fijrglt ab I ortu.

2. Catullus fometimes admits in the firft place a trochee,
or an iambus, and at others, in the laft place, a daftyl ;

as,

Prodt;- -as nova | nupta.
Pu5l-|-lique ci-|-namus.

X. Of the Iambic Verfe.
Iambic verfes take their name from the iambus, which
in pure iambics was the only foot admitted. The two moft
common kinds are the dimeter and the trimeter ; as,

I.

II.

III.

•ribijs I rtlTt. — Hor.

Inar-j-sit se-l -ftiio- j-slus
Sills I gt ip-|-sa RS-J-ma vl-

1. But in order both to facilitate and dignify the com-
pofition, fpondees were admitted into the odd places ; as,

rorti seqiie- -mijr pec-' -tore I Hor.

Pars sa-] -nita- | -tis vcl-|-le sa-]-nari j fdlt — Seneca.

2. The former of thefe makes two thirds epitrits, and
the latter three.

3. And inftead of an iambus and a fpondee, their ifo-
chronal feet were admitted inftead of them, i. e. in the odd
places, an anapxft, a daftyl, and fometimes a tribrac ; and
alfo in tlie even places, (except the laft, which always re-

I.

2.

3-

4-

w -

S-

-WW

~ \J \J

^ ^ *j

'6. However, we moderns ufually confider the ftrophe to quii'es an iambus,) a tribrac : the fcale of the mixed tii-
confift of three fapphics and an adonic : fee No. VI. ; as, meter iambic is, therefore, as follows :

Quid brevi fortes jaculamur xvo
Multa ? Quid terras alio calentes
Sole mutamus ? Patriae quis exul

Se quoque fugit. — Hor. Od. ii. 16. 17.

VIII. Of the Phalacian Verfe.

The Phalajcian verfe, denominated from the poet Pha-
laecius, confifts of five feet, -viz.. a fpondee, a daftyl, and
three trochees ; as,

Non eft 1 vivcrti, | fed va-|lcr('!, | vita.— Martial.

1. This verfe neither rejcfts nor requires n ca:fura.

2. Sometimes the firll foot was made an iambus or
a trochee by Catullus, but by the poets poftcrior to Catul-
lus, not more than two or tiiree folitary inftances of this
anomaly can be proved from an analyfis of fome thoufand
verfes.

3. The fame poet has in fome inftances alfo fpoiled
the elegance and harmony of his meafure by introducing a
heavy fpondee into the (ccond place, but his example was
not imitated by his more polidied fucceftors.

4. The term hendecafyllabic (as employed by fome)
is not applicable exclufivcly to the Phalician verfe, fincc

Vol. XXXVII.

4. The comic poets not only admitted thefe feet, but
alfo the amphibrac, proceleufmatie, and bacchic into tlie
even as well as the odd places, the laft always excepted ;
and almoil all the fables of Phxdrus are written in the fol-
lowing manner :

Amrt-]-tit meri-'-to proprI-|-iini, qui ali-]-enum

ap-| -petit
Facit I pSren- Jtes b6nr-|-t,l3 non | neccs-|-slfta3.

The following are the varieties of the iambic.

1. The iambic monometer, or binarius, confifting of two
iambi ; as,

I 1 _

CSvc I malum

Tone I bonum.

2. The iambic dimeter confifts of two metree, or four feet,
N properly

VERSIFICATION.

properly all iatnbufes ; it admits, however, the fame varia-
lions as the trimeter ; as,

Fortu-1-na non ]| mutat ) genus. — Hor.

Aft egd I vicis-||-sTtn ri-[-ser6. — Hor.

Prudeutius, and feveral pofterior authors, wrote fi.lire
poems in this metre.

3. The Archilochian trimeter cataleAic, which in the firft
place has an iambus or fpondee, in the fecoad an iambus, in
the third a fpondee, in the fourth and fifili an iambics with
a common fyllable ; thus,

3 4

c^rt-

prili

-nas
-nis.-

-Hc

Trahunt-l-qiie sic-l-cas ma-]-chinse
Nee pra-]-ta ci- | -iu3 al-|-bicarit

4. The Archilochian trimeter cataleftic differing from
the laft in this, that it admits a fpondee or iambus in the
third pkce ; as,

Premunt

renl-l-det i'n [ domo
colum- -nas Ql- -tima

Iacu-|-nar.
recif-'-as. — Hor.

5. The Galliambic trimeter (fo named from the Galli or
priefts of Cybele) acataleftic confifts of fix feet, of which
the firft is an anapajft, the fecond and third an iambus, the
fourth and fifth a daftyl, and the fixtli an anapaeli ; as.

.Super al-I-ta vec-'
Phrygium nemus
Adiit- I -que opa-

•tus A-!-tys cele-|-ri rate

cita- -to cupi--d^ pedt
-ca fil- -vis redi- -mita lo-

maria
tetlgit

•ca Diz.

Catullus.

This verfe has always an iambus in the third verfe place,
in the fifth a daftyl, and in the fixth a fpondee. In the fecond,
however, it admits an anapaft or a tribrac ; and in the
fourth, a fpondee. It is but feldom that other feet are ad-
mitted, i>iz. in the firft place a fpondee, a cretic, or a pro-
ccleufmatic ; in the fecond, a fpondee and its ifochronal
foot, a daftyl ; in the fourth an iambus.

6. The Saturnian trimeter hypercataleftic, which has a
fpondee in the fourth place, and in the other five iambi,
v/ith the hypermeter fyllable at the clofe ;_ as,

Dabunt I malum ] Metel-|-l5 Nse-|-vio j Poe-|-t!E.

Ter. Maur.

7. The Hipponaftic tetrameter cataleftic confifts of
feven iambi and a long fyllable, and fometimes admits a
fpondee mto the odd places ; as,

becaufe in it the cadence is inverted, or maimed, by tlie
change of feet in the two laft places, confifts of fix feet,
of which the fifth is invariably an iambus, and the fixth a
fpondee, the others being the fame as in the iambic tri-
meter i as,

O quid I rdlii-|-tis eft | bfia-j-tms | ciirTa ! — Catul.

Of the jinacnontic.

The name' of the celebrated lyric poet Anacreon forms
the diftinguifhing epithet that charafterizesthis verfe ; which
is nothing elfe but the iambic dimeter cataleflic. The firft
foot is an iambus, often a fpondee or anapaeft, fomeumes a
tribrac or a cretic ; the fecond and third are iambufcs, with
an additional fyllable at the end ; as,

'OiTC(7ct, I <p£fOU-]-^iv t/-j-Xai. — Anac.

Lex hiec | data eft | cadu-f-cis. — Prudent.
Habet om-j-nis hoc | v61iip-|-tas — Boet.

Of the Trochaic.

The trochaic verfe admits, in the odd places, a trochee
or a tribrac ; but in the laft place a trochee only ; in the
even places, befides the trochee and tribrac, a fpondee, a
daftyl, or an anapaeft, but a proceleufmatic was feldom
admiffible. It rejefts the iambus, as the iambus does the
trochee.

The moft common trochaic verfe is the tetrameter cata-
leftic, which confifts of feven feet, (properly all trochee*,)
followed by a cataleftic fyllable ; as.

Et in
Depren-

folen-
-fa na-

-ter xf-i-tues
-vis in I main

velut I minu-l-ta mag-j-no.
vesfi j nien-|-te ven-]-to.
Catullus.

8. The tetrameter, or oftonarius acataleftic, contains
eight feet, of which the laft is always an iambus; in the
other even places are iambnfes or tribracs ; in the odd
places, iambufes or fpondces, or their ifochronal feet, tri-
bracs, anapaefts, or daftyls ; as,

Siifpi-|-cio-l-fi ad con-j-tume-|-ham om-,-nia ac-

|-cipiur,t I magis. — Terence.

Comic writers admit not only in this, but alfo in the
trimeter and cataleftic tetrameter, fuch feet, in the even
plicti, as are generally ufed in the odd places, and vice vcrja;
the laft place excepted, in which there is always an iambus.

Of the Sca%on, or Choliambus.
The fcazon or choliambus (». e. lame iambic), fo named.

Juftiis I eft in-]-ermis | ire :

piiriis | Ire | juffiis eft.
CafuUus.

1. Although iambic and trochaic verfes feem oppofite
in their nature, yet as in each, fingle Ihort and long
fyllables alternately recur, the retrenchment of the initial
fyllable of either, transforms it into the other, /. e. the-
iambic into the trochaic, and the trochaic into the iambic.
This circumftance has induced fome, particularly the author
of the Port Royal grammar, to deny the exiftence of trochaic
verfe, and to denominate them acephalous iambics.

2. In the trochaic tetrameter, the casfura ought to
be altogether avoided after the fourth foot, which divides
the verfe into two hemiftichs.

3. The comic writers ufe, in trochaic verfe, the fame
liberties in regard to the choice of the feet as in iafnbics,
planting promifcuoudy, in the odd places, fuch feet as
others admit in the even places, the feventh foot alone
excepted.

Of trochaic vjrfe we have the following fpecies.

1. The trochaic monometer hypercataleftic contains two
trochees and the hypermeter fyllable ; as,

Nulla I jam f i-|-des. — Scalig.

2. The trochaic dimeter brachycataleftic contains three
trochees ; as.

Hue a-|-des Ly-|-xe. — Scalig.

3. The Euripidean dimeter cataleftic confifts of three
trochees, (in the fecond place fometimes a fpondee or a dac-
tyl, ) with a cataleftic fyllable ; as, •

Dona I c6nfci-|-enti-|-Ee — Prudent.
Vita I deciir-]-rens vi-|-a. — Seneca.
Lenis I ac ajbdi-|-cum flii-]-ens.— Idem.

4. The Alcmanic dimeter acataleftic contains four tro-

chees ;

J

VERSIFICATION.

chf es ; but it admits, in the fecond place, a fpondee, or its
ifochronal feet, a dactyl or anapill ; as,

Non fa-l-clt qiiod | optat | ipse — Boct.
^re I torvo | commi-]-nante3. — Boet.
Confci-|-5s fcele-l-ris ne | fandi Buch.

5. The Anacreontic dimeter acataleftic has, in the firll
place, a pyrric, in the other three trochees ; as,

Redi-]-mita | vere | tellus Claud.

6. The Hipponaftic tetrameter acataleftic confifts of
eiirht trochees ; but it admits in the even places a ipoiidee
and its ifochroiial feet, an anapaelt, a daftyl, and fometimes
a proceleufmatic, and in the odd places a tribrac ; as,

Appe-|-tente | vcrc | pnmo | cum te- -ner v!-!-reicit
I annus. — Scahg.

But the comic writers referved to themfelves tiie fame
licence which charafterizes their cataleftic iambic tetra-
meters, and introduce all the above-mentioned iiidifcrimi-
nately in any place.

Of the Anapxjllc.

Anapaftic verfe is fo named, becaufe in any place of it
an anapaeft may be ufed. It admits, however, fo freely the
ifochronal feet, (the fpondee and the daftyl,) that there is
frequently not one anapaeft in an anapasftic verfe.

1. The anapxllic dimeter acataleftic is feldom found in
ks pure itate ; as,

Pharetrae-[-que graves | datfi f3e-|-va fero. — Seneca.

But the fweeteft and moft common kind, is that which is
named the Ariftophanian or Pindaiic, which confifts of an
admixture of daftyls, fpondees, and anapxfts, excluding,
however, generally the daftyl from the fecond and fourth
places ; as,

Qiiantl | casQs | huma-]-na rotant :
Minus In I parvis | fortii-l-na fiirit,
Leviuf-|-que ffirit | levi6-|-ra Dfius Seneca.

The pyrric, the trochee, and the tribrac, were occaiionallv
fubftitutcd for the anapa:ft. The young poet muft here
obferve, that thofc an-ipseftics are the moft harmonious
which are without the caefura ; and next to thefe in elegance
are the lines in which each dipodia terminates with a word.

2. The Simonidian dimeter acataleftic confifts of an
anapa;ft, a daftyl, or a fpondee, in the firft place, and in
the laft an anapaeft or fpondee ; as,

Defle-|-tt viriim

Quo non { <ilTus

PotiiTt j cituis

Difcerc | causas

Una I tantum

Parte au-]-dita

Sspe et I neutra. — Seneca.

3. The Parthenic tetrameter cataleftic, having in the
firft and fecond places either an anapxft or a fpondee ; in
the third only an anapxft ; and, laftly, the cataleftic fyl-
lablc ; as,

ITtinam | modo n6f-|-tra ri!di-|-rcnt

In m6-|-rcs tem-|-p6r!l prif-|-cos. — Boet.

4. The Archebuliau pentameter acataleftic, (denominated
from the inventor Archebiilus, ) confifts of four anapsits
and a bacchic ; thus,

Genfiri I dStiir auc-|-t6r huic | vetus Ar-|-chebulus.

Terent.
Of the greater Alcaic.

The greater Alcaic is an hypercataloftic tetrameter, con-
lifting of an iambic pcnthemimer, foUov/ed by a choriambu-.
and aa iambus ; as,

Coelef-|-tis ar-|-cTs || nobilis in-|-c61a. — Prudent.

The caefura more frequently occurs in the laft fyllable of
a word at the cataleftic lyllablc, as above. In Horace,
however, the caefura is fometimes found in the beginning of
a word, fometimes in the middle, and fometimes it is a
monofyllable.

In the firft place, Horace has feldom an iambut, but gene-
rally, and Prudentius altvays, a fpondee.

Of the Iff Alcaic.

This metre confifts of two daftyls, followed by two
trochees ; and is, therefore, a daftylico-trochaic tetrameter ;
as,

Levia I pers6nCi-|-ere | faxa. — Horace.

Of the Pyrric.

In Terentianus and Aufonius we find a pyrric tetrameter
cataleftic ; as,

Perit I abit I avi-|-pedis | ani-j-miila | lep6-[-ris.

Terent.

Of the Ionic a Majorc.

1. The pure great ionic tetrameter acataleftic confifts of
four great ionics ; as.

Fecit fatis I aegriinr. rabi-|-em qui d6m6-j-It femlnx.

Scalig.

2. The mixed great ionic,, (or Sotadic, from the poet
Sotades, ) confifts of three great ionics and a fpondee ; as,

Vocalia I quaedam memo-j-rant consdnS | qua-darn.

Terent.

This kind of verfe oftener admits, in the third place, a
dichoree inftcad of a great ionic ; thus.

Has cum gemi-j-na compt-de | dedicat ca-]-tenas.

Mart.

It admits alfo, in all the places but the laft, the fecond
paeon, the fecond epitrite, and the dichoree ; and in almoft
every place a long quantity may be refolved into (hort
fyllables.

Of the Ionic a Minore.

This verfe receives its name from the foot, the ionic a
minore, which it employs in every place. It is more ufiially
either a trimeter or tetrameter. Thus Horace, Carm. iii.
12. after two trimeters places a tetrameter ; as,

MtfCrarum eft, | ncque ilmori | dare ludum
Neqiie dulci | m.nla vino | lavcre aut ex-
anTmari | metiientes ] patrux ver-|-bcra llngux.

The learned Bentlcy was, however, of opinion, that this
compolition of Horace's confifts of ten fmall ionics, withinit
any paufe, and that, therefore, tlie whole of the ode is
fintftied in four decnpodis of this kind.

N 2 Of

VERSIFICATION.

O/Mixt Verfcs.

Verfes are faid to be mixt, when two of different kinds
are united. Amongft the Latin poets we find the foUow-
sjig variety.

1. The Archilochian pentameter oonfifts of two mem-
bers, the firft a dadlylic tetrameter a priore, the latter is a
trochaic dimeter brachycatalettic ; as,

Solvilur I acris hi-] -ems gra-^-ta vice 1| verts | et Fa-'i
-voni. — Hor.

2. The Archilochian elegiambic ; of which the firft
member is the latter part of an elegiac pentameter, or the
Archilochian daftylic penthemimer, (confiftmg of two
daftyls and a fy liable,) the fecond member, the iambic di-
meter acataleAic ; as,

Scrlberg | versicu- 1 -los, || am6-|-re per-|-ciiffum j gravi.

Hor.

which is commonly thus divided into two verfes ;

Scribere verficulos
Amore percuffum gravi.

3. The dadiylic hexameter acataleftic confifts of two
divifions of an hexameter, each of three feet, but in fuch
a manner, that in the firft place of each there is a fpondee,
or a trochee, or iambus ; in the fecond and third place of the
firft divifion, there is a daftylus ; in the fecond place of the
fecond divifion a daftyl, and the third or laft a fpondee.
In this kind of verfe the laft' fyllable of the firft divifion is
accounted common ; as,

Nam te | pricipu-J-e In silis || urbi-[-bus colit | ora.

Catul.

4. The iambelegiac (the converfe of No. 2.), in which the
firft divifion is iambic, and the fecond elegiac ; thus,

Nivis-'-que de-|-duciint.| jQvem : |i nunc marc | niinc
silii ae. — Hor.

Commonly thus divided,

Nivefque deducur.t Jovem :
Nunc mare nunc Cliias.

5. The choriambic daftylic ; in which the firft divifion
is the Glyconic, having generally in the firft place a tro-
chee ; the fecond divifion is the Pherecratic, with a trochee
alfo in the beginning ; thus,

O Colloniaqux | ctipis || pontg | liidere | longo Catul.

6. The choriambic trochaic ; of which the firil divifion
is the choriambic dimeter, or two choriambufes : the fecond,
the trochaic dimeter brachycataleAic, of which the firft foot
is a daftyl, the other two trochees ; thus,

Veftiat Al-'-pintis Spex || et rube.|-ant prii-|-insE.

Claud.

7. The trochaic daftylic ; of which the firft divifion is a
trochaic penthemimer ; that is, in the firft place there is a
trochee, in the fecond a fpondee or daftyl, with an addi-
tional fyllable ; and the fecond part is an adonic ; as,

in the fecond a tribrac ; and in the laft part an adonic ;
thus,

PropTn-'-qua fum-|-m6
Mergat-|-que se-j-ras ||
Stilpet-|-qile filbi-|-tis ]

Si quis I Arftii-l-ri l| sldera | nefcit.

Cum ni-!-mIs cel6-'-res |i explicet I ortus. —

-Boet.

II cardine | labi
aequdre | flammas. — Boct.
I mobllfi I vuljcus.

8. The iambic daftylic ; of which the firft is an iambic
penthemimer, confifting of two iambi, with a long fyllable,
but oftener in the firft place a fpondee, and fometimcs
4

Of Compofit'wns in ivhich the Verfe is varied.
From what has been already faid, it appears that there
are five different fpecies of compofition, confifting of a com-
bination of various kinds of verfes, and in each there are
generally feveral varieties. '

I. Of the Carmen Diction Diftrophon.

1. The elegiac diftich is already explained. See Pen- 1
tameter, Obf. 5.

2. An hexameter with an Archilochian daftylic pen-
themimer ; as,

Diffugere nives ; redeunt jam gramina'campis
Arboribufque comae. — Hor.

3. An hexameter with an Alcmanian daftylic tetrame-
ter acatalaftic ; as.

Tunc me difcuffa liquerunt nofte tenebrae,
Luminibufque prior rediit vigor Boet.

4. An hexameter with an Alcmanian daftylic tetrameter
cataleftic ; as,

Laudabunt alii claram Rhoden, aut Metylenen,
Aut Ephefum, bimarifve Corinthi. — Hor.

5. An hexameter with an Alcmanian da£lylic tetrameter*
cataleAic ; as,

O qui perpetuis orbem moderaris habenis
Placidos bonus exfere vultus. — Buchan. Pfal. 68.

6. An hexameter with an iambic dimeter acataleftic ; as,

Nox erat, et ccelo fulgebat luna fereno
Inter minora fidera Hor.

7. An hexameter with an iambic trimeter ; as,

Altera jam teritur bellis civilibus xtas ;
Suis et ipfa Roma viribus ruit. — Hor.

8. An hexameter with an Archilochian elegiambic
afyn ; as,

Horrida tempeftas coelum contraxit ; et imbres
Nivefque deducunt Jovem : nunc mare, nunc filiiae. — Hor.

9. An Alcmanian daftylic trimeter hypercataleftic, vnih
a Pherecratic daftylic trimeter acataledlic ; as,

Omne hominum genus in terris
Simili furgit ab ortu. — Boet.

10. The Alcmanian daftylic tetrameter acataleftic, with
an Archilochian daftyhc dimeter hypercataleftic ; as,

Quam thalamo, taedifque jugalibus
Invida mors rapuit. — Aufon. Parent 2.

11. The Alcmanian dactylic tetrameter acataledlic, with
n iambic dimeter acataleAic ; as.

Sunt etenim pennae volucres mihi
Qux celfa confcendant poll Boet.

F2. The Anacreontic iambic dimeter cataledlic, with the
Pherecratic daftylic trimeter acataleftic ; as,

Quifquis volet perennem
Cantus ponere fedem.— Boet.

13. The

VERSIFICATiON.

13. The iambic trimeter acataledic, with the elegiac
pentameter ; as,

Ouamvis fluente dives auri gurgite

Non expleturas cogat avarus opes. — Boet.

14. The iambic trimeter acatale£lic, with the iambic
dimeter acatale£lic; as,

Ibis Lburnis inter alta naviura,
Amice, propugiiacula. — Hor.

I J. The iambic trimeter acataleftic, with the Archilo-
chian elegiambic ; as,

Petti, nihil me, ficut antea, juvat

Scribere verficulos, amore percuffum gravi. — Hor.

i^. The fcazon iambic, with an iambic dimeter acata-
leftic ; as,

Verona dofti fyllabas amat vatis
Marone fehx Mantua eft — Martial.

17. The Euripidean trochaic dimeter cataleftic, with an
iambic dimeter acataleftic ; as,

Orbis omnes inqolx

A fole Ego ad Hefperum. — Buchan.

18. The Euripidean trochaic dimeter cataleftic, with an
Archilochian iambic trimeter cataleftic ; as,

Non ebur, neque aureum

Mea renidet in dome lacunar. — Hor.

19. The Alcmanian trochaic dimeter acataleftic, with a
Pherecratic daftylic trimeter acataleftic ; as,

Quos videa federe celfos
Solii culmine reges. — Boet.

20. The trochaic tetrameter cataleftic, with an iambic
trimeter acataleftic ; as.

Ore pulchro, ct ore muto, fcire vis quae fim ?
Imago Rufi rhetoris Piftavici — Aufon.

2 1 . The Sapphic pentameter acataleftic, with an iambic
dimeter acataleftic ; as,

Gentis humanx pater atquc cuftos
Quam fanfta majoftas tui. — Buchan.

22. The Sapphic pentameter acataleftic, with the Gly-
conic choriambic trimeter acataleftic ; as,

Cum polo Phoebus rofuis quadrigis
Lucem fpargere caeperit. — Boet.

23. The Phalaecian pentameter acataleftic, with an ele-
giac pentameter ; as,

Quid tantos Juvat excitare motus

Et propria fatum follicitarc manu. — Boet.

24. The Phalxcian pentameter acataleftic, with an
Alcaic daftylic tetrameter acataleftic ; as,

Quamvis fe Tyrio fuperbus oflro
Comeret, et niveis lapillis. — Boet.

25. The Phalxcian pentameter acataleftic, with a Sapphic
pentameter acataleftic ; as.

Hie partus placida manens quiete,

Hoc patens unura miferis afylum.— Boet.

26. The Ariilophanian choriambic dimeter acataleftic,
with an Alcaic epichoriambic tetrameter acataleftic ; as,

Lydia die per omnes

Te deos oro, Sybarin cur properes amando. — Hor,

27. The Glyconic choriambic trimeter acataleftic, with
the Afclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acataleftic ; as.

Sic te diva potcns Cypri,

Sic fratres Hclenae lucida fidera. — Hor.

28. The Afclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acataleftic,
with the Pherecratic daftyhc trimeter acataleftic ; as.

Si quantas rapidis flatibus incitus
Pontus verfat arenas. — Boet.

29. The Afclepiadic choriambic tetrameter acataleftic,
with an iambic dimeter acataleftic ; as,

Eheu, qu3E miferos tramite device
Abducit ignorantia. — Boet.

30. The daftylic-trochaic feptcnarius, with an Archilo-
chian iambic trimeter cataleftic ; as,

Solvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Favoni,
Trahuntque ficcas machinje carinas. — Hor.

3 1 . The trochaic daftylic, with an iambic daftylic ; as,

Si quis Arfturi fidera nefcit
Propinqua fummo cardine labi. — Boet.

II. Of the Carmen Dkolon Trijlrophon.

1. Two Ariftophanian anapxftic tetrameters acataleftic,
and an Adonic dimeter acataleftic ; as,

Tu quoque in asvum, Crifpe, futurum
Msefti venies commemoratus
Munere threni. — Aufon.

2. Two Alcmanian trochaic dimeters acataleftic, and an
Euripidean trochaic dimeter cataleftic ; as,

Incolaj terrarum ab ortu
Soils ultimum ad ciibile,
Eia Domino pfalhte Buchan.

3. Two fmall Ionic trimeters acataleftic, and a fmall
Ionic tetrameter acataleftic ; as,

Miferarum eft, neque amore dare ludum

Neque dulci mala vino lavere ; aut ex-

-animari metuentes patruoe verbera linguae. — Hor.

III. Of the Carmen Dicolon Telrafrophon.

1. Tliree Anacreontic trochaic dimeters acataleftic, and a
clioriambic trochaic quinarius ; as.

Age cunfta nuptiali
Rodiniita vere tclliis
Celebra toros heiiles
Omne nemus cum tluviis, omnecanat profundum. — Claud.

2. Three Sapphic pentameters, and an Adonic dime-
ter ; as,

Jam fatis tcrris nivis, atque dira;
Grandinis milit pater, et rubeote
Dextera facras jacula(.i6 arctb
Terruit urbem. — Hor.

-,. Tl.reo

VERSIFICATION.

3. I'lircc Gluconic choriambic trimeters acataleftic, and
a Pherecratic dadlylic trimeter acataledic ; as,

Dianae fiimus in fide
Puella?, et pueri integri :
Dianam pueri integri,
Puellxque canamus. — Catull.

4. Three Afclepiadic choriambics and a Glyconic ; as,

Aurum per medios ire fatellites,
El peirunipere amat faxa potentius
Itlu fulmineo. Concidit auguris
Argivi doraus ob lucrum. — Hor.

IV. Of the Carmen Ti'tcolon Trijlrophon.

1. An hexameter, an Archilochian dactyhc dimeter
hypercataleftic, and an Iambic dimeter acataledlic ; as,

Te regem Dominiimque canam, dum lucida volvet

Lucidus aftro pclus,

Et unicum colutn Deum. — Buchan.

2. An hexameter, an Iambic dimeter acataleftic, and an
Archilochian daftylic penthemimer ; as,

Horrida tempeftas ccelum contraxit ; et imbres
Nivefque deducunt Jovem : «

Nunc mare, nunc filiiaf. Epod. 13.

Thus Heinfius fcans tlie 13th Epod.

3. An Iambic trimeter acatale(Elic, an Archilochian dac-
tylic penthemimer, with an Iambic dimeter acataleftic ; as.

Petti, nihil me, ficut antea juvat

Scribere verficulos —

Amore perculfum gravi. — Hor.

But others term this a carmen dicolon diftrophon.

4. A Glyconic choriambic trimeter, an Afclepiadic
choriambic tetrameter, and an Alcaic choriambic pen-
tameter ; as.

Per quinquennia jam decern

Ni fallor, fuimus ; feptimus infuper

Anno cardo rotat, dum fruimur Sole volubili Prudent.

V. Of the Carmen Tricolon Telrajlrophon.

1. Two great alcaics, an Iambic dimeter hypercatalec-
tic, and a fmall alcaic ; as,

Odi profanum vulgus et arceo :
Favete hnguis : carmina non prius
Audita, Mufarum facerdos,
Virginibus puerifque canto. — Hor.

2. Two Afclepiadic choriambics, a Pherecratic daftylic
trimeter, and a Glyconic choriambic ; as,

Prima nofte domum claude, neque in vias

Sub cantu querulae defpice tibiae :

Et te faepe vocanti

Duram, difficilis mane. — Hor.

There is likewife a third kind formed by a certain ar-
rangement of ode 12. lib. 3. of Horace; for which fee the
Carmen Diocolon Triftrophon, No. III.

As the literature of Italy and France is allowed to hold
fuch diftingui/hed rank and importance in the republic of

letters, it is now incumbent on us to offer fuch re.Tiarks a»
may tend to develope tlie nature and principles of

Italian and French V erjificatwn.

I. If tlie reader will take the trouble to confult the abbe
d'Ohvet on the French Language, (edit, of 1807, p. 6 —
10. ) he will find a detail of thofe who attempted the coni-
poiition of verfe after the principles of the ancient Greeks
and Romans. This praftice, however, h;i3 long fince be-
come quite obfolete, and fvllabic quantity has been fuper-
feded, in the ilrufture of verfe, by accentuation, and there-
fore the definition of modern verfe mav be given in the
following words.

II. A verfe is an aflemblage of fuch a definite number of
lyllables or feet, and comprifes fuch a ferics of regularly
recurring accents, as may be eafily remarked by the eai" ;
whofe pleafing fucceflion is regulated by our innate per-
ception of what is mufical and harmonious ; and it, there-
fore, admirably ferves to delight the ear, to expand the
foul, to folace the heart, to aid the memory, and lo adapt
the language of difcourfe to that of long and mufic.

The extent or the meafure of verfe ought to be fuch, that
it may be eafily and fenfibly felt by the ear ; otherwife verfe
differs not from profe. For if the number of feet or fyl-
lables conftituting the verfe be fuch, as to prevent the eafy
recognifance of the fame returning feries, the ear fail-to be
delighted, or the memory to be afGfled by the recurrence of
what it is only fatigue or difficulty to anticipate.

That an intimate analogy exifts between verfe and mufic
is manifeil to the moft fuperficial obferver. They receive
their exiftence from the fame laws, and their objeft is to
gratify and delight the fame organ. Amongll the ancients,
miific lent its numbers to poetry. It was to the, lyre that
Apollo, Orpheus, and Homer fung their verfe. " Illud
quidem certum," fays Voffius, " comnem poefim olim can-
tatum fuifie." It is, therefore, to mufic that we mull refer
for the bafis, the rationale, of verfification.

It is affirmed too, by the definition jull given, tliat verfe
admirably ferves to delight the ear, to expand the foul, and
to aid the memory. Verfe aims to render the truths and
fentiments exprefled by its language, amiable and intcrciling.
And this it effefts by the medium of an accurately meafured
and agreeable fucceffion of accented and unaccented founds,
which addrefs the ear ; and by the means of fuch images and
fentiments as delight and affeft the foul : and the memory-
is powerfully affifted as well by the one as by the other.

III. To explain the nature of Italian verfe, it is neceffary
to remark, that they divide all the words contained in their
language into three claffes, termed words tronchi, piani, and
fdruccioli. Words having the accent on the laft fyllable are

called tronchi; as bontk, virtu, fa, fenti. Thofe having
the accent on the penaltimate are termed piani ; as uomo,
animale, impero, ^c. And thofe that are accented on the
antepenultimate are narrted fdruccioli ; as docile, abito, an-
cora, &c. The firft are denominated tronchi, [tronques
coupes, cut Jhort,^ becaufe they were originally entire, as
bontade, virtute, face, fentis. The fecond clafs, piani,
receives this diftinftion from the circumftance of the words
compofing it being pronounced [pianamente] more gently
than thofe of the other two claffes ; and the laft, the fdruc-
cioli {coulans or glijjons), becaufe the words of this kind
feem to flow or Aide fwiftly from the antepenultimate fyllable
to the end.

IV. Hence alfo it follows, that a verfe alfo receives its de-
nomination, according as it is terminated by a word of one
or the other of thefe kinds : confequently, verfes termed
tronchi are terminated by an acute accent ; thofe called

piani

VERSIFICATION.

plani have a lyllable after this accent ; and the fdruccioli
have two ; to which fome add the piii che fdruccioli, which
have four fvU'iblcs after the accent.

The lad accent decides the nature and the completion of
every vcrfo. The ear meafures the extent of a verfe from
its commencement to the laft accent. The car is naturally
fenfihle at the occurrence of this laft accent, that the har-
mony of the verfe is accomplifhed : it is fatisfied, and de-
mands nothinc^ more. It is equal, whether the laft accentu-
ated fyllable be itfelf the laft fyllable, or followed by one,
two, or four fy'labl.'S ; for the meafurc of tlie verfe is com-
prifed between its commencement and tliis laft accentuated
fyllable. The fyllables remaining after this accent are re-
dundant, with refpeft to the mcafure and harmony of the
verfe. (See Ariftotle, Poet, cap. 8.) This confideralion
will render it evident, that if a verfe be piano, (which
fpccies the Italians fclcft for their regular meafurc,) it will
have the pr.'cife luimb-r of fyllables which the nature of tlie
verfe afiigns to it ; if it be tronco, it will have one lefs ; if
fdrucciolo, one more. Therefore, the verfe piano is acala-
leftic ; tlie verfe tronco, cataleptic ; the verfe fdrucciolo,
hypercataleftic.

V. The French in a fimilar manner divide their words
chiefly into two claftcs, the mafculinc and the feminine.
The mafculine (correfponding to thofe which the Italians
term troncbi) have the accent on the laft fyllable ; as verlu,
nouveau, il parla, and are generally of the maiculine gender.
The feminine (analogous to the Itahan piani) have the ac-
cent on the penultimate ; as honnete, ils parlerent, il parle,
France, &c. : and thefe are fo called, becaufe that nouns
of this defcription are generally terminated by the e mute,
a charafteriftic of the feminine gender. The words called
fdruccioli by the Italians (gliftant by the French) can only
be found in fuch phrafes as garde-le, dites-le, montre-
le, &c.

The fame epithets are alfo applied to their verfe, accord-
ing to the charafteriftic of the word which terminates it.

Thefe pieliminary obfervations, well underftood, will
reconcile the anomalies which, until the prcfent, have pro-
duced an apparent difference between the nature of the Italian
»nd that of the French verfification. For fince the Italians
feleft the verfe piano for their common meafurc, and the
French the mafculine (or tronco), which, between the com-
mencement of the verfe and the accented fyllabl'-, will con-
tain one fyllable lefs than the former ; it follows that the
Italian verfe will always exceed the French verfe of the
fame kind by one fyllable. For example, the Italian hcn-
dccafyllable piano has eleven fyllables, and the French
hendecafyllable mafculine (tronco) ten; and the French
hendecafyllable piano will have the fame, for they do not
reckon, as the Italians, the redundant fyllable.

The only fimple feet admitted in the compofition of
French and Italian verfe are the trochee, the iamb, the
daftyl, and the anapxft. It is unneceffary to repeat here
the definition we have already given of a metre and a rhythm,
in a former part of this article. We (hall, therefore, now
proceed to Ilate all the polfible combinations that can refult
from thefe four feet in the compolition of a hemiftich, which
is, by a late French writer, confidered as a fimple or primi-
tive verfe.

An iambic hemiftich may confift of three, four, or five
feet ; fo may the trochaic, the anapsilic, or the dadtylic
hemiftich : therefore, from hence we have twelve varieties,
or all the pollible combinations of the hemiftich. For each
of the four feet cannot produce more than three varieties,
the fmallr.ft of which cannot confift of lefs than three, nor
the greateft of more than five feet. Hence, then, we have

at once the minimum and maximum of their extent. At the
former, we aHert that an hemiftich cannot confift of lefs
than three feet. We have already remarked, that the ex-
tent or meafure of a verfe ought to be fuch as to admit of
its being eaflly and fenfibly remarked by the car, otherwife
it is not verfe, but profe. And every verfe or hemiftich
contains more or lefs of the rhythmical order; and, as we
have already obferved, a rhythm is a fcries of limilar feet
continued until the ear perceives the order of the feries, and
is able to anticipate the peculiar nature and recurrence of the
verfe. But one foot cannot be a feries, therefore a foot
cannot be a hemiftich. We have already affirmed, too, that
the fucceffion of two fimilar feet conftitute a metre ; and a
metre is the commencement of a feries. But the commence-
ment of a feries is not the feries itfelf: the feries fuppofes
a continuation ; therefore, the fucceffion of two feet, or a
metre, cannot be a hemiftich or primitive verfe. For the
union of two feet form a metre ; but a metre is not a
rhythm ; therefore, two feet are not a hemiftich. But if to
two fimilar feel fucceed another of the fame nature, then the
feries is decided. An hemiftich, then, cannot have lefs than
three feet. What is fmaller than this is only the element of
an hemiftich. Let us further inquire, in what confifts the
harmony of a verfe ? Doubtlefs in the regular order of the
accents in its rhythm or feries. But one foot has only one
accent ; therefore, it has no harmony, and cannot be an
hemiftich or radical verfe. So we reply concerning two
feet ; they are not an order or feries, but only the com-
mencement of a feries. We may, with M. J. J. Sul/.er,
illuftrate thefe remarks by repeating the following feries,
un deux, un deux, tin deux, un deux, un deux, &c. Here we
can eaflly perceive the rhythmical order. But uo one can
luppofe that the firft foot, un deux, is an order or feries ;
nor in the firft two feet, un deux, un deux, do we perceive
more than the commencement of a feries. But if we include
the third, un deux, un dew, un deux, we fee at once the
order, the feries, the rhythm, and, lallly, the metrical he-
miftich precifely decided. Three feet, then, is the fmalleft
number v.hich can conftitute the hemiftich or primitive
verfe.

In the fame manner we may determine the maximum of
the hcniiftich. Wc have faid that it cannot exceed five feet ;
for the number muft be fuch as may be diftinctly remarked
by the ear. Suppofe, for example, an hemiftich of fix
feet ; fince it may be divided into two equal parts of three
feet each, and fince three feet form au hemiftich, it is evident
that the line of fix feet is not one but two hcmiftichE, /. e. a
verfe. But the homifticli of five feet is incapable of being
thus divided. If it be, let the one part confift of three feet,
v/hich, as wc have juft proved, is au hemiftich ; the other
of two feet, which is only a metre ; and a metre, as we have
juft obferved, is not au hemiftich ; confequently, the line of
live feet is an hemiftich or primitive verfe. And becaufe a
verfe of fix feet is compoled ot two hemilliclis, the line of
five feet is the maximum or greateft hemiiUcli or primitive
verfe { and lines confiftiiig ol more than tiiis, after the re-
dundant fyllables are cut oft', contain two or more hemillichs
of a verfe.

VI. Some writers on verfification are in the habit, how-
ever, of treating oil verfe, which they term difylLibic, trifyl-
labic, quadrifyllabic, tlie ()uinariu8, and the feiiarius. But
thefe are not verfes, but only the elements of a regular and
complete verfe. We fhall, however, in coiiformily to their
cuftom, and to omit nothing effential, cfpecially in what
muft be admitted to form the hafis of this art, proceed to
treat on the elements here enumerated.

J. The dilyllabic member cannot have more than one ac-
cent.

VERSIFICATION.

cent. If it is tronco, it has but one fyllable (fee obf. 3.
and 4, fupra); if piano, two; if fdrucciolo, three; as,

Tronco - - - La.
Piano - - - Laflb !

Sdrucciolo - - - Penfaci.

2. The trifyllabic member, if it has but one word, has
only one accent ; if it confift of two words, it has two
accents. If it is tronco, it has only two fyllables ; if piano,
three ; if fdrucciolo, four ; as,

Troncs - - - Potra

Chifu^

Piano . . - Potranne

Si diffe.

Sdrucciolo - - - Rifvegliati "

No, di'ffero*.

3. The quadrifyllabic member tronco has only three
fyllables ; piano, four ; fdrucciolo, five ; as,

Tronco . . - lo men v6 3.
Piano - - - Belle rofe ♦

Porporine *.
Sdrucciolo - - - I di volano ^

We may here remark, that the Italians call that the ac-
cent (commun), which is placed at the end of each verfe,
and wliich accomplifhes the meafure of the fame. They
affign this epithet to it, in confequence of its being elTential
and common to all verfe. And this accent is placed on the
lad fyllable, if the verfe is tronco ; on the penultimate, if
piano ; on the antepenultimate, if fdrucciolo. Now, in the
above quadrifyllabics, we may obferve that this accent uni-
formly falls on the third fyllable.

3. The quinarius, befides the common accent, has alfo
an accent on the fecond fyllable, fometimes on the firft, and
not unfrequently it has only the common accent. It con-
tains four, five, or fix fyllables, according to the laws al-
ready prefcribed ; as.

Tronco

Porgilo a me*.

Piano

Terfi deh forgi *.

Sdrucciolo -

Ah non ti perdere '.

The difyllabic member, when it is tronco, does not con-
tain even the image of a foot ; but if it is piano, it is a
trochee, as lafTo ; and if it is fdrucciolo, it is a daftyl, as
penficl. The trifyllabic, of whatever kind it be, can have
only an iamb, as pdtra, potranne, rifceghati. Example :

Se cerca.

S' io vo'

Se dice :

» Colla forte

L'amico

Cangiando

Dov'e

Sembianza ;

L'amico

Virtu

" Infelice

" L'incoftanza

Rifpondi

Diventa

Mori

Per me, &c — Metaft.

The quadrifyllabic is a monoraeter, confifting of two
trochees, which form a metre ; and two of thefe united
form the regular oftonarius.

I. Damlgellli
Tutta bella,

Verfa verfa — quel bel vino
Fa che cada
La ruggiada
Diftillata — di rubino.

2. 0' nel feno
Rio veneno
Che vifparfe

Amor profundo,
/ Ma gittarlo

E lafciarlo
Vo' fommerfo in-
quefto fondo.

The quinarius is an iambic monoraeter, and confequently
not a rhythm. Example :

Oh quanto e facile Si fcuote il laccio,

Nella catena Ma non fi fpezza,

D'amor languir ! E amor fi vendica

Quanto e difficile Con piu fierezza

Poterne ufcir ! Del folle ardir. — Zeno.

VII. Every fpecies of French verfe is the fame as the
Italian. In each we difcover the fame number of fyllable*,
the fame accents, the fame caefui;;, the fame feet, the fame
harmony. To evince this, we (hall now ftate, in the fame
order as we have done for the Italian verfe, the following
elements or members of a verfe.

The difyllabic Tronco
Piano

Sdrucciolo

The trifyllabic Tronco
Piano
Sdrucciolo

Quadrifyllabic Tronco
Piano

Eft.
Etre.
Donn^.
Donn6-ltJ.

Sera\

Facile^.

Ri5gard«-le^

C5mbattEz3.
Consldere '' .
Sdrucciolo Considerf-le'

VIII. TheSenarlus.

The fenarius is an anapasftic monometer cataleftic, hav-
ing only an iamb for the firft foot. Befides the accent
common, (which is on the fifth fyllable,) it generally requires
an accent on the fecond fyllable ; though fometimes the ac-
cented fyllables are the firft, third, and fifth. It contains
five, fix, or feven fyllables, according as the verfe is tronco,
piano, or fdrucciolo ; as,

Tronco - Ufate pieta '.
Piano - Begli aftri d'amore*.

Sdrucciolo Da qui tu quel calice'.

The French, according to the rule which we have already
explained, call this verfe of five fyllables. The difference is
merely nominal : the verfes are virtually the fame.

Tronco - Toujours c6 zephir.
Piano - L'amour a des charmes.

Sdrucciolo (no example exifts).

IX. The Septenarlus.

If to each of the monometers, of which we have juft
treated, we add one, two, or three other feet, thefe mono-
meters become, according to the principles we have pr«-
fcribed, regular and legitimate verfe.

The feptenarius is compofed of iambic feet, and contains
fix, feven, or eight fyllables, according as the verfe is tronco,
piano, or fdrucciolo ; as,

Tronco - Che vino k quel cola'?
Piano - In un gravofo affanno'.

Sdrucciolo O liquor dolce e amabile '.

This verfe, befides the ecmmon accent, which conftantly

falls

VERSIFICATION.

falls on the fixtli fyllable, requires an accent on the fourth.
Often it has the accent on the fecond and fourth, and then
the vcrle is excecdinfrly harmonious. It is dated, however,
to be 3 pecuhar conveniency of this verfe, that it does not
abfolutely require any other accent than the accent common ;
but fincc the regular feptenarius confifts of three iambic
feet, we difcover tlie evident reafon that it fhould have the
acute accent on the fecond, the fourth, and fixth ; as.

This verfe is of extraordinary antiquity in Italian verfiti-
cation, as appears from the verfe of MelFcr Ruggcri, quoted
by Triffino.

The French, who, as we have often remarked, mcafure
their verfe by the mafculine (tronco), call the feptenarius of
fix fyllables. In reality it is only thre." iambic feet, tlie
fevcnth fyllable is redundant. With regard to the accents,
it is fubject to the fame laws as the Italian feptenarius.

Tronco - A foi-meme odieux ''.

Piano

- Le fot de tout s'irrite.

X. The ylkxandr'we Verfe.

Two feptcnarian verfes united, form what the Italians call
an Alexandrine or Martellian verfe.

Thefe verfes, called by the Italians Alefiandrini, are
an imitation of the French Alexandrine, which the French
thcmfelves, as Fauchet and Pafquier obferve, have de-
rived from an ancient rhapfody which celebrated the life
of Alexander the Great. The Italians, however, nlfo
call them Martclliani, from James Martelli, a learned and
ingenious author, who, in the compofition of his tragic
verfe, fucccfsfuUy imitated the French Alexandrine.

Altliough this verfe confifts of foi;rteen fyllables, it is
not abfolulely neccffary to divide it into two exaft fevens,
with all the rules which arc cflential to each feptenary. The
rhythm is iambic to the end of the verfe. But in proportion
as we negledt the accents, the verfe becomes more grave and
majeftic, and more free and harmonious in proportion as wre
pay ftri£l attention to the rules prefcribed for the fep-
tenarius.

There it not a literary Italian that is not perfectly aware
that the Italian and French Alexandrine arc the fame. The
moft infenfiblc ear may perceive tlie fame percuffion of the
accent, the fame number, the fame harmony.

This verfe, according to the difterent polition of the ac-
cent, preferves in French as well as in Italian a charaftcr of
dignity which equals the Latin hexameter. And the French
have made choice of the Alexandrine to treat on epic and
tragic fubjefts. Neither were they dilTuaded from this be-
caufe this verfe was iligmatized by the epithet " commun,"
in confequence of tlic fhepherds, the vintagers, and hnlband-
men having availed thcmfelves of its peculiar facilities for
their poetic etfufions.

X I . Oflonar'ius.

The oclonarius confifts of four trochaic feet. Befidcs
the common accent, which is uniformly on the fevcnth
fylLible, it requires the accent on the third. But if the
accent ftiould fall both on the third and fifth, ftill more if
on the firft, third, and fifth, the harmony will become more
fenhble.

Tronco - Vivn Bacco il noftro re.

Piano - Mufa, amor porto novella.

Sdrucciolo L'ncqua agghiaccia i corni, cgli animi.
Vol. XXXV II.

Loretto Mattel quot'':; fome verfe; from Rofpigliofi, ac-
centuated on the fecond fyllable ; but this kind of verfe ha?
few admirers ; it is fcarcf ly difcernible from profe.

The oftonarius is generally employed for lyric poems, and
airs adapted to mufic, and for the eanzonetle. But it is every
where diftinguidied by that charafteriftic of gravity which
renders it equally adapted to fublime and elevated fubjcfts.

.Since the oftonarius contains two monometers of four
fyllables each, (fee the quadrifyllabic member,) it may very
properly be divided by the Cffifura into two equal parts.

This verfe amongft the French, for the reafon already
affigned, is faid to be of feven fyllables. It is fubjeft to
the fame laws of accentuation as the Italian. The accent,
however, on the fifth, amongft the French, is fomctimes
omitted, but never that on the third.

Tronco - Belle nymphe tes attraits.

Que langueurs, que foin« jaloux.

'. ' . ^ . /

Viens m'aider a fuir les vices.

Piano

XII. Novenarius.

Some are of opinion that the Italian novenarius does
not pofiefs fufficient harmony for poetic compofition.
And I'Abb • Quadrio declares that this fpecies of verfe
ought not to be admitted in Italian poetry. On the
other hand, .lofeph Gaetan Salvatori afiirms that verfe of
this kind is by no means defeftive in point of harmony ;
and many poets of dilfinguifhed rank have employed this
fpecies of rhythm with fucccfs. Example :

Tronco - Certo che vinto a morte aiidro*.
Piano - Tormento cnidele tiranno'.

Sdrucciolo Vedi, vedi come fen fuggono'°.

This verfe, as it refpefts the accent, is fubdivided into
four varieties. The firft, bcfides the common accent, has
the accent on the third and on the fifth fyllable.

The celebrated Sacchi is inclined to fuppofe that this kind
of verfe is compofed of two iambic quinarii, of which the
former is acephalous, fo as to give nine fyllables in all.

The fecond variety has the accent on the third and fixth
fyllables.

The third variety has, bcfides that accent which is common
to every fpecies, the fourth fyllable only accentuated.

This variety is an iambic dimeter hypercataleOic. It con-
fifts of two quinarii, of which the firft is tronco : or if it is
piano, it is fubjccl to the clifion confequent on the following
hemiilich beginning with a vowel. It admits alfo the ac-
cent on the fecond and fixth lyllables, as well as on the
fourth ; and then the rhythm becomes purely iambic, and
the harmony more complete.

The fourth variety, befides the common accent, has the
fecond and fifth fyllables accentu.ited.

This variety is an aiiapxftic trimeter, having the firft. I )Jt
fupplied by an iamb.

XIII. The Dccafjllabic Verfe.

The dccafyllabic fomctimes confifts of twj quinarn,
which form a cxfura at the point of their union.

Since this verfe is compofed of two quinarii, it is ne-
ccftarily fubjedt to the fame laws. Sec f VI. J.

Sometimes it is not compofed of two quinarii, nor has n
any regular cxfura.

This fpccic3 of vcrfc is anapiftic trimeter, either catj
O hct'^,

VERSIFICATION.

leftic, acataleftic, or hypercataleftic, according as it is
tronco, piano, or fdrucciolo ; as,

Tronco - Contra morte non val frefca eta.

3 _ fl _ 9 I w

Piano - Vafto incendio fe boUe riftretto.

? . ^ . 9 10

Sdrucciolo I bon vini fon quelli che acquietano.

There is another variety of the decafyllabic verfe, of
which Chiabrera has given us an example. It has the accent
on the firft, the third, the fifth, the feventh, and on the
ninth fyllables.

The rhythm of this verfe is eflentially different from
either of the preceding ; it confifts of five trochaic feet.

XIV. The Hendecafyllabk Verfe.
The hendecafyllabic verfe is alfo called heroic ; for it is
that rhythm* whicii, from its harmony, its grave and majeftic
movement, and the variety of which it is fufceptible, offers
to the poet peculiar advantages for the expreffion of fublime
and elevated fubjefts. It is, in common with every other,
capable of three kinds ; as,

Tronco - Monte -pulciano d'ogni vino e ib re'".
Piano - T'Alzo natura in verfo al ciel la fronte".
Sdrucciolo Celebri I'acqua, e fe la bea pur Pindaro".

Redi.

1 0

Tronco - Le printems fuit, hatons-nous d'etre heureux.

10 11

Piano - Qui n'en ferait en efFet idolatre. — Petr.

This verfe is generally accented on the fecond, the fourth,
the fixth, the eighth, and on the tenth fyllable, which laft
is the accent common, or invariable.

And the verfe thus accentuated is the moft harmonious :
but as an unvaried recurrence of the fame luxuriant rhythm
would become eventually monotonous, it admits of the fol-
lowing varieties.

I. It is fufficient, if, befides the common accent, the
fixth fyllable fliould be accented.

t. The fecond variety has, independently of the com-
mon accent, the fourth and eighth fyllables only accented.

3. The third variety, befides the common accent, has
only the fourth and the feventh fyllables accented.

With regard to the apparent difference in the number of
lyllables between the Italian and French hendecafyllable,
the reader is referred to what has been already obferved at

Concerning the Intermixture of different Verfe. — Whatever
harmony may arife from the fucceffion of verfes of the fame
kind, they often acquire a new excellency when the feries is
compofed of an appropriate admixture of verfe of a different
rhyma.

It may now be reafonably inquired, why is the intermix-
ture of different verfe produftive, at one time, of an agree-
able effeft, and at another of the contrary ? In anfwer to
this inquiry it is here only neceffary to remark, that we have
already faid that the hendecafyllabic verfe and the feptena-
rius, together with the two members of which the hendeca-
fyllable is compofed, the feptenarius and the quinarius, are
of the iambic rhythm. Hence we clearly perceive, that the
tranfition from the hendecafyllable to the feptenarius, and

* RJtythm and rhyme are iwo dillin^l ililrgs : the former is defined in
the pi-eceding pages of this article, it is derived from '^vSftoi ; the latter is
only the corrcfponderee ef tlie laft found of one verfe, to the laft found of
the next. And on account of this material diftiiicTtion, not generally un-
deritood, even ly Engli/h tacicographfrs, the recent writers on this fubjetSt
ihuf orlhographically diftiiigulfli the forrtier, — rhythm.

vice verfd, from the latter to the former, preferves the fame
rhythmical order and movement. And the fame principle
will fanftion the intermixture of an oftonarius and a quadri-
fyllabic verfe, fince the rhythm of each is trochaic. It often
happens however, that notwithftanding the exaft identity
of the rhythm in the alternation of different verfes, the effeft
is not agreeable. But this only happens when we conneft
verfes, for example, of four feet, with others of five or
three feet. And here it is evident, that altliough a verfe of
five feet and another of four are of the fame rhythm, yet
they prefent an effential difference. The verfe of five feet
is indivifible, but that of four feet, which is an even num-
ber, may be divided into two equal parts, which are in
rhythmical quantity perfeftly equivalent and reciprocal to
each other. The impreflion, therefore, refulting from this
verfe, is different from that of the verfe which can only pre-
fent to the ear the rhythm of two unequal parts. And here
we may add, once for all, that all which we have faid con-
cerning the combination of verfe of the fame or of different
kinds in the Italian language, is perfeftly applicable to that
of the French alfo.

I. Of the Sonnet.

The regular fonnet contains fourteen hendecafyllabic
verfes, divided by the rhythm into four ftanzas, or ftrophes,
of which two are tetraftrophons, and two triftrophons.

The fonnet, which the Italians call ' calla coda, ' caudato,'
receives this appellation from the circumftance of its having,
after the fourteenth verfe, a train of one or more ftanzas of
three verfes each, or triflrophons. The fifteenth verfe muft
in this cafe be a feptenarius, and rhyme with the fourteenth.

Sonnets may be alfo compofed of the verfe oClonarius,
feptenarius, or quinarius.

The two rhymes of the tetraftrophon ftanza are fufcepti-
ble of four different combinations, according to the follow-
ing table. Any of which, but legitimately no other, the
poet may adopt freely at his choice.

ift. Tetraftrophon: rhyme clofed (y^rw).

1 - - ano ^ . - ano 1

2 - - ore 6 - - ore ( moft in

3 - - ore 7 . . ore | ufe.

4 - - ano 8 - - ano )

2d. Tetraftrophon : rhyme alternate.

1 - - afto J . . afto

2 - - era 6 - - era

3 - - afto 7 " - 3fto

4 - - era 8 - - era

3d. Tetraftrophon : rhyme reciprocally alternate.

1 - - idi 5 - . ezzo

2 - - ezzo 6 - - idi

3 - - idi 7 - - ezzo

4 - - ezzo 8 - - idi

4th. Tetraftrophon : rhyme alternate and clofed.

I

-

-

ente

5

-

-

eme

2

-

-

eme

6

-

-

ente

3

-

-

ente

7

-

-

ente

4

-

-

eme

8

-

-

eme

The rhyme of the triftrophon may have, at the option of
the poet, the following varieties.

I ft. Triftrophon: rhyme conoe&ed {enchainee).

I

-

-

ice

4

-

-

ante

2

-

-

ante

5

-

-

ice

3

-

-

ice

6

-

-

ante

/ moft ii
f life.

2d. Tril.

VERSIFICATION.

2d. Tiiftrophon

I

3 -

3 -

1 -

2 -

3 -

rhyme tertian (aUefzala).

etto
ente
ogno

etto
ente
ogno

Or,

4
5
6

4
5
6

etto
ente
ogno

ente
etto
ogno

3d. Triftrophon : rhyme duplex.

ate

oria

oria

4
5
6

oria

ate

ate

7fel(

feldom
fed.

There is no eflential difference between the Italian and
French fonnet. In addition, however, to the above, they
al£b employ the following rhymes.

4th. Triftrophon : rhyme tertian (a lamani^re Fran9ais).

I - - ufe 4 -

5 •

2 -

- ufe

- net

- eux

- eux

- erre

eme
eme
net

Or,

4
5
6

- crit

- erre

- crit

We may, in the reading of poets, difcover other methods ;
but every feries differing from the above, is pronounced, by
the connoiffeurs, to be not " ad unguem."

II. 0/the Ode Canzone, or Chan/on.

The ode is a compofition formed of an indefinite number
of ftanzas, which, with refpeft to the rhyme and the meafure
of the verfe, are uniformly the fame to the conclufion of the
poem. We may except, however, thofe concluding ftanzas
which have been called conge (congedo, orcommiato), as if
the poet, by this concluding ftrophe, fhorter than the reft,
took his leave of the poem, or perfon to whom it is addreffed.
Our limits will not admit of examples.

III. Of the Canzonetta.

The canzonetta (chanfonette, or the Anacreontic ode) is
an imitation of the charafteriftic, the fimplicity, and the art-
lefs ftyle of the odes of Anacreon. Of this fpecies of com-
pofition, the celebrated Taffo was the inventor ; but the praife
is due to Chiabrcra for that acme of perfcaion to which he

has advanced it. , r .,

The canzonetta differs from the ode in the following par-
ticulars. , „ r 1 • u

1. GencraUy, though not always, the ftan/as ot which
they are compofed are lefs, and contain a fmallcr number

of verfes. , . ,._ ...

2. The ftanzas confift of fmall verfes of different kinds.
n,. They are not adapted to that elevated and fubhmc

ftyle which the ode requires. The cluraderiftic of their
ftyle (hould be fimple, artlefs, and familiar ; and they are,
therefore, very well fuited to what is of an agreeable and
humourous nature, to fables, and to allegories, of which the
fenfe or moral is ufually given at the clofc.

The number of ftanzas of which the canzonetta conlills is
indefinite, at the difcretion of the poet. Tlie ftrophcs are
ufually compofed of four or fix verfes, in their meafure citlicr
mixed or uniform, but always agreeing together by the
clofeJ or allernaU rhyme. [Rime ferree ou alternee.) See
the table of rhyme under the Sonnet. Sometimes the ftanzas
contain ten verfes, and then, as well as when they have

fix verfes, the two firft and the two laft fhould rhyme to-
gether.

When the ftrophe contains verfes tronchi, piani, and
fdruccioli, we may perceive a difagreement in the rhyme.
But of whatever nature the firft ftanza may be, the fubfe-
quent ftanzas (hould ftriftly conform thereto. In lyric
poems, on the contrary, we arc at liberty to vary the ftanza,
pro re natd, as circumflances and the tafle and difcretion
of the poet may require.

IV. The Sapphic Ode.

This ode, of which the Grecian poetefs Sappho was the
inventrefs, is, when regular, compofed of feveral tetraftro-
phons, of which the three firft verfes are hendecafyllabic,
the laft a quinarius. Frcqueiuly, however, tlie feptenarius
is fubftituted for the quinarius ; in which cafe the ftrophe
has lefs elegance, and lefs conformity to the Grecian ori,
ginal, of which they ftiould be an exaft imitation. The
rhyme moft employed is the alternate or the clofed {alternee
or ferree).

'Among the feveral forms of the French ode, the follow-
ing is much admired. The reader muft be content with a
fingle ftanza for illuftration ; our limits forbid more.

Puiffantes Deites, qui peupler cette rive.
Preparer, leur dirais-je, une oreille attentive

Au bruit de mes concerts.
PuifTent-ils amollir vos fuperbes courages
En faveur d'un Heros digne des premiers ages
Du naiftent Univers ! — Rouffeau.

We are compelled, for want of appropriate epithets, to
borrow the following terms with which the Italians and the
French denominate certain ftrophes of their compofition.

Terza i?ima.— This fpecies of compofition contains feveral
triftrophons, each confifting of three hendecafyllabic verfes.
The rhyme is connefted together in fuch a manner, that the
firft verfe of each ftanza agrees with the third, and the fecond
rhymes with the firft and the third of the ftanza following.
And this order is preferved to the end.

There is no example of this fpecies of compofition in the
French language, for, by a tranfpofition of the verfes, they
convert the triftrophon into the tetraftrophon, and then call
the terza rima the

Qjiarta Rima By the quarta rima, that fpecies of poem

is denominated which contains feveral tetrallrophons, of
which each verfe is an hendecafyllabic in Italian, and an
Alexandrine in French : the rhyme is either ferree or al-
ternee. See table of rhyme under Sonnet, fupra.

Sejla Rima et Oltava Rima — Compofitions of this kind
receive their name from the number of verfes of which their
ftanzas are compofed ; the former of fix, the latter of eight.
The two laft verfes agree together in rhyme (plate) '• f • "»■
mixed; the reft in rhyme {alternee) alternate; fee table,

fupra. n J J ■ I.

Tlie French do not adhere to any regular ftandard in the
ccimpofition of the fefla rima, whicli they caU les fxains, ou
les fiances defix vers. r , t i- j

But with regard to the " Otta-ua rima" of the Itahans, and
the " Stances de huil vers" of tlie French, there is, both aa
it refpcfts the rhyme and the nature of the verfe, winch in
either cafe is liendccafyllabic, a perfea fimilarity. 1 hi»
fpecies of compofition has prevailed much fincc the tunc ot
Thibaut, who hved a hundred years before Boccacc.

V. The Madrigal and the Epigram.
The madrigal is a fmall poem confifting generally of not
lefs than fix nor more than twelve verfes, which are cither
oaonani, or more commonly feptcnani or hendecafyllabic.
O 2 •'°

VERSIFICATION.

The number of verfes, however, of which the madrigal con-
fided, was amonglt the poets of the fixteenth century arbi-
trary. The rhyme is yet ad libllum ; fometimes only the
two laft verfes rhyme togetlier.

The charafter of the madrigal is not edentially different
from the epigram of the Latins. It is contradiftinguiihed,
however, by its llyle, which, though fimple, is fo elevated
as to become equally uuadapted to the fatire, or to hu-
mourous and trivial fubjefts.

The epigram is a fmall puem confifting of an indefinite
number and kind of verfes, and terminating in a point of wit.
Generally, however, it contains not lefs than two nor more
than eight verfes, which are frequently hendecafyllabic, and
rhyme together by couplets.

VI. The Dithyramb.
The dithyramb is a fpecies of poem compofed in honour
of Bacchus : or, in faft, it is any poem written with a degree
of unufual wildiiefs and enthufiafm. It employs verfe of
every kind, piano, tronco, fdrucciolo, great and fmall, with
or without rhyme, and ftanzas of any magnitude. And the
whole is written with that liberty and freedom from rellraint,
36 indicates it to be the indigenous produttion of the devotee
of Bacchus. Its llyle at one time is elevated, at another
low. The metaphors it employs are bold ; its phrafeology
excentric and whimfical, and words are admitted either
purelj exotic, or oddly compounded of others ; as ebrifef-
tofo, egidarmato, capribarbicornipede, &c. The reader
will find many examples of the Itahan dithyrambic in the
works of Crefcimbeni, Quadrio, and Audrucci, and in the
" Bacco in Tofcana" of Francefco Redi.

VII. The Idyl.

This fpecies of poem confifts of an indefinite number of
feptenarii or hendecafyllabic verfes, and free from all rellraint
as it refpefts the rhyme. The word idyl (idillio) is derived
from noiWko-i, the diminutive of -iJof, a figure or reprefenta-
tion ; and the idyl, in faft, is nothing but the painting or
image of fome natural objeft.

There is no difference between the Italian and the French
idyl.

The Cxjura.

We ha^ now to notice what is peculiar to the cxfura
in the French and Italian verfification. Amongft the mo-
dems, it is faid to be that paufe between one word and an-
other, which divides the verfe into two equal or unequal
parts. A verfe is faid to be fo much the more liarmonious,
in proportion as it abounds in caefura; which give redoubled
energy to the accented fyllables. The ufe and defign of this
paufe, Boileau very appofitely mentions in the following
lines.

Que toujours dans vos vers, — les fens coupant les mots,
Sufpende I'hemiftiche, — en marque le repoS.

In the hendecafyllabic verfe, the caefura fhould occur be-
tween the fifth and fixth fyllable, and between the ninth and
the tenth, or between the feventh and the eighth only ; as in
the followiog verfes of Ariofto.

s , e s 1 o

II coUo k. tondo-il petto colmo-e lafgo.
Da render raolle-ogni cor rozzo, -e fcabro

7 »

Quindi efcon le cartefi-parolctte.

By adveiting to the principles of accentuation already ex-
plained, we fhall difcover that when the hendecafyllabic is
accented on the fourth and eighth fyllables, it ought to have

the cacfural paufe between the fifth and the fixth, and between
the ninth and the tenth fyllables. And when the principal ac-
cent is on the fixth only, it ouglit to have the caefura between
the feventh and the eighth fyllables ; i. e. when the verfe is
piano. But if the words on which the principal accents fall
(/. e. accent commun) are tronchi, the caefura mull follow imme-
diately after each accented fyllable.

We may, from thefe obfervations, eafily infer what are the
moil fuitable places for the caefura in every other verfe ; as
the cxfura ought to take place immediately after the principal
or charaftenftic accent [accent commun) uf the entire verfe,
the hcmillich, or of any conftiluent member.

To the above remarks, which are perfeClly applicable to
the verfification of the French language, we may add the
following. If at the place of the csfura, the preceding
word be feminine, (f. e. end with e mute, ) the following word
ought to commence with an initial vowel, in order that the
ehfion or fynalipha may take place. For example, in the
hendecafyllabic verfe, which confills of a quinarius and a
feptenarius, when the former ends with an e mute, the latter
miift commence with a vowel ; otherwifc the verfe will have a
fyllable too much, fince a quinarius and a feptenarius con-
jointly make twelve fyllables.

Engiyh Verjijicatton.

All the different feet ufed in Englifh verfification are re-
ducible to eight kinds, four of two and four of three fyl-
lables ; as,

D'tjyllalic Feet.

1. An iambus, „ .; as, betray, consift.

2. A trochee, .„; as, e'xtort, gii'iltlefs.

3. A fpondee, . .; as, the pale moon.

4. A pyrric, ,^ o ; as, on the tall tret.

Tfifyllabic Feet.

V. ^ - ; as, contr.lvcBt, acquiefce.
_ ^ ^ ; as, labourer, pofiible.
w - - ; as, delightful, domeftic.
w V, u ; as, numerable, conquerable.

5. An anapaeft,

6. A datlyl,

7. An amphibrac,

8. A tribrach,

Thofe feet of which verfe may be wholly or chiefly formed
are termed principal feet. Such are the trochee, iambus,
daily], and anapaell. The others are denominated yfcoWary
feet, becaufe their ufe in Enghlh verfiilcation, is merely to
diverfify the rhythm and to improve the verfe.

I. Iambic Verfe.

1 . Iambic Manometer CataleSic.-~Th\s verfe, which is the
fhorteil form of the Engliih iambic, confifts of an iambus
and an additional fhort fyllable. It is only found in fianzas :
we have no poem, (or monocolon,) formed exclufively of this
meafure.

Afsailing,
Availing,
Relenting,
Repenting.

2. Iambic Manometer jicataleHic. — This verfe, which is alfo
too ffiort to be continued through any great number of hncs,
contains an iambic metre, or two iambic feet ; as,

With raptiir'd ears

Thfi monarch hears. — Dry den.

3. Iambic Monameter Hypercatale(iic.—T\i\i vcrfc is the
fame as the former, with an additional fhort fyllable, zi.

Upon a mountilin
Befide a fountain.

4. .Yb

VERSIFICAIION.

4. An Iambic Dhiti-I.'f BrachycalakHk. — This form cnii-
firts of three iambic t'i:et ; being one foot lefs than the iam-
bic dimeter ; as,

Though in the utmofl peak
A while we do remain,
Amongft the mountains bleak,
Expos'd to fleet and rain,
Nor fport our hours (hall break.
To exercife our vein. — Drayton.

5. An Iambic Dimeter Galaleffic. — This verfe is only one
fyllable lefs than the iambic dimeter ; as,

OCir hearts no longer languifti.

6. An Iambic Dimeter AcataleSic. — This form contains
cxaAly, witliout redundance or defeft, two iambic metres,
or four feet ; as.

The fpacious firmament 6n high
With all the blue ethereal /ley
And fpangled heav'ns, a (hining frame,
Their great original proclaim. — Addifon.

7. An Iambic Trimeter Brachycataleaic. — This fpecies of
verfe contains one foot, (or two fyllables,) lefs than the
iambic trimeter ; as,

Defer not till to m5rrow to be wife ;
To-morrow's fun to thee may never rife.

The cobwcbb'd cottage with its ragged wall

Of mouldr'ing mud is royalty to me !

The fpider's moil attenuated thread

Is cord, is cable to man's tender tie

On earthly bhfs ; it breaks at every breeze. — Young.

This is alfo termed the heroic meafure. In its pure or
unmixed ftatc it confills of live iambic feet only. But here
we may remark, once for all, that not only this, but moll
of the EngliOi common mcafures admit, for the fake of va-
riety, of the occafional introduftion of other feet, as the
trochee, daftyl, anapscft, &c.

8. An Iambic Trimeter Acatakilic. — This verfe is com-
monly called the Alexandrine. It confifts of fix iambic
feet ; as,

Efpecial aijdicnce craves, offended with tht throng.

Drayton.

The Alexandrine verfe is now ufed only to diverfify heroic
lines ; as.

The seas fliall wafte, the (kies in fmoke decay.
Rocks fall to dull, and mountains melt away ;
But fis'd his word, his faving pow'r remains ;
Thy realm for iter Wijls, thy oiun Alcjtiah reigns.

<j. An Iambic Tetrameter Brachycata/eHic.—Tlm lad iambic
form coniifts of Cue foot lefs than four iambic metres, i. e.
of {even iambufes ; as.

And as the Trilnd of fuch ii man, that hath ^ long way gone,
And either knowcth not hia way, or clfe wdiild let alone.

Cliapman.

But it is more ufual now to break this verfe into a lyric
meafure, or ioto two verfes, confiftmg alternately of Mght
and fix fyllables ; as.

When in the flipp'fy paths of youth,

With htedltfs fteps, I ran.
Thine arm imfeen, convey 'd me fafc.
And led mc up to man.— -Addifon.

II. Trochaic Verfe.

I • A Trochaic Manometer Calaleflic. — This, which is the
fhortell trochaic verfo in the. Engliih language, confi<U of
one trochee and a long fyllable ; as.

Other joys

Are but toys. — Walton.

2. A Trochaic Manometer AcataleSic. — This verfe confitlo
of one trochaic metre, or two trochaic feet ; but both this
and tlie lall verfe are too brief to form a monocolon ; as,

In the grafsy
MeadOw verdSnt.

3- A Trochaic Manometer UypercataltSic. — This form of
trochaic verfe contains one fyllable more than the exaCl tro-
chaic mononieter ; as,

Happy farming age.
Healthy, blithe and sage.

4. A Trochaic Dimeter Brachycataleliic. — This fpecies of
trochaic verfe contains two fyllables, or one foot lefs than
two trochaic metres ; i. e, three trochees ; as.

Bloom ye fummer rofes.

5. A Trochaic Dimeter Cataleffic confifts of one fyllable
lefs than two trochaic metres ; or of three trochees with an
additional long fyllable ; as,

Faireft piece of well-f orm'd earth

Urge not thus your haughty birth.— Waller.

6. A Trochaic Dimeter AcataleSic contains two trochaic
metres or four trochaic feet ; as,

Round lis ftiine the fun-beams brighter.

7. A Trochaic Dimeter Hypercalaledic contains a long fyl-
lable more than the laft verfe ; as.

See yon clouds that now difplrfe and clear.

8. A Trochaic Trimeter Brachycatak8ic is, as well as the
lall, feldom employed ; it contains five trochaic feet, and, cf
courfe, one foot lefs than three trochaic metres | as,

AH that walk dn foot, or ride in chariots.
All that dwell in palaces or garrets.

9. A Trochaic Trimeter AcataleSic contains fix trochff'.
or three trochaic metres ; as,

On 3 mountain ftrctch'd beneath a h5ary willow
Lay a fliepherd fwain, and view'd the rolling billow.

III. Anaptflic Verfe.

The reader will recoUeft that we have already faid, that
in daftyhc and anapa'ftic meafure one foot forms a metrr,
but in every other cafe, two feet form a metre.

1. The Anapajlic Manometer Acataleflic contains, witheiit
rcdimdancc or uefeft, one anapxdic foot ; as,

Now again
They remain.

But ns by laying the ftrefs of the voice on the fiill fyl-
lable, we reduce the verfe into trochaic rhythm, this miafurc
18 ambiguous ; hence the fimpleft form of^ our reguhir ana-
pseftic verfe is the

2 . i1iiap.tflic Dimeter Acataleflic, or verfe of two anapacflic
(e(t ; ii%,

FCr no art c6uld avail.

3. The

V E R

3. Thi Anapitjlk Dlmrter HypercataleH'ic contains two ana-
paeftic feet, with an additional (hort fyllable ; as.

In the cave | of the moun-|-tain.

4. The Anapsjlk Trimeter Acataha'tc contains three ana-
paeftjc feet ; as,

d ye woods, fpread your branches apace ;

To your deepeft recefles I fly ;
I would hide with the beafts of the chafe

I would vanilh from every eye.

5. The Anaptcjlic Tetrameter Acatakak confifts of four
anapaeftic feet ; as.

May I govern my pafsions with abfolute fway ;
And grow wifer and better as hfe wears away.— Pope.

6. The Anaptfik Tetrameter HypercataUak adds to the
end of the laft verfe a fhort fyllable ; as,

On the t5p | of that hill | fee the fun | now afcend-l-ing.

Of the Cafura.
The fame advantages refult from a fuitable and appro-
priate ufe of the caefura in Englifli verfe, as in that of the
French and Italian, which we liave juft noticed. What is
peculiar to this paufe amongft us may be briefly comprifed
under the following particulars.

1 . In iieroic verfe the caefura may take place on the fourth
fyllable ; as.

Child of the fun", refulgent fummer comes.

2. Or on the fifth fyllable ; as,

He comes attended" by the fultry hours.

3. Or on the fixth fyllable ; as,

But ftiould he hide his face", th' aftonifh'd fun.

4. Or, two caefuras may divide a verfe into three por-
tions ; as.

Some love to ftray"; there lodg'd", amus'd and fed.

5. Some lines admirably admit that fubdivifion of the
caefural paufe, which may be called a demi cafura ; as.

Glows' while he reads", but trembles' as he writes.
Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the ftorm.

Warms' in the fun" refreflies' in the breeze,
Glows' in the ftars" and bloflbms' in the trees ;
Lives' through all life" extends' through all extent.
Spreads' undivided', operates' unfpent.

As we have now treated minutely on every point effential
to Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French and Italian verfification,
our readers will permit us, in accommodation to the limits
of our work, to refer them, for further information on
Englifli verfification, to what has been faid at the article
Ode, Epigram, Sonnet, Sec. in other parts of this work.

VERSIO Chemica, a term ufed by chemical writers to
exprefs a change, wrought by their art, of manifeft forms
into occult ones, which, they fay, is done by a corruption
of the fpecific form, and the generation of a more general
one ; that is, by a converfion of decompounded elements
into compound bodies, and of impure into fuch as are per-
feflly pure.

VERSION, a tranflation of fome book, or writing, out
of one language into another.

V E R

The chief objefts v»hich ought to be regarded by every
tranllator, and more efpecially by a tranllator of facred
fcripture, are the following : -viz. to give a juft and clear
reprefentation of the fenfe of his original ; to convey into his
verfion as much of his author's fpirit and manner as the
genius of the language, in which he writes, will admit ;
and, as far as may be confiftent with thefe two ends, to ex-
prefs himfelf with purity in the language of the verfion.

The ancient verfions of the New Teftament, in particular,
have been jufl;ly confidered as affording an important evi-
dence of its antiquity, and prefumptively of its authenticity.
Some of thefe are fuppofed to have been made fo early as the
firft century ; fuch as the Syriac, and feveral Latin verfions,
the latter of which, abounding in Hebraifms and Syriafms
even in a greater degree than the original, were manifeftly
made by native Jews, and rauft have been produftions of the
firft century. A book, therefore, fo early and univerfally
read throughout the Eaft in the Syriac, and throughout
Europe and Africa in the Latin tranflation, muft be able to
lay claim to a high antiquity. To the ftrange and trivial
hypothefis, that the New Teftament was forged in the fifth
century, after the conqueft of Italy by the Goths, the
Gothic verfion of Ulphilas, which was made in the pre-
ceding century, will ferve for a fufBcient anfwer. For an
account of the Anglo-Saxon, Arabk, Armenian, Coptk or
Egyptian, Ethlopic, and Gothk verfions, fee Bible.. See
alio Armenian and Cophtic.

Version of Aqulla. See Aquila and Hexapla.
Versions, Creek. See Septuagint, and Greek Bibles.
Version', Italic, called by St. Jerom the common and
vulgar, and by Gregory the Great the ancient, was made in
Italy, and for the fervice of the Latin Chriftians. As it
was ufed in the church till the fixth century, there are
feveral fragments of it extant in the quotations of thofe
Latin fathers, who wrote before that time. As this verfion
continued, partly from the influence of cuftom, partly from
refpedl to antiquity, to be regarded and ufed by many,
there is reafon to believe that a part of that verfion ftill re-
mains in the Vulgate, and is in a manner blended with it.
(See Vulgate.) From what remains of the old Italic, it
appears to have refembled almoft all the Jewifli tranflations,
and to have been verj- literal, and confequently, in a great de-
gree, obfcure, ambiguous, and barbarous. Dr. Mills fuppofes,
that this verfion was the work of feveral perfons in the fe-
cond century, by order of pope Pius I., who was an Italian.
This learned writer, in his " Prolegomena," has given an
account of the qualities of this verfion ; and how far it may
be of ufe for difcovering the true reading of the original
Greek. St. Jerom, in his tranflation, has deviated from
this verfion without fufficient reafon.

Version, Latin, includes not only the Italic, (fee the
preceding article,) but other verfions made before and fince
the time of Jerom, as well as that which he corrected and
publiflied. (See Vulgate.) It appears from the tefti-
mony of Auguftin (De Doftrina Chriftiana, lib. ii. c. 11.),
that the Latin church had a great number of tranflations of
the bible, that they were made at the firft introduftion of
Chriftieuiity, but that the authors are totally unknown.
Some of thefe Latin verfions were probably written later
than the firft ages of Chriftianity. The ftyle of thefe an-
cient verfions, ftill perceivable in the Vulgate, though
amended by Jerom, is not only devoid of clafiical elegance,
but inaccurate and impure. Falfe Latin frequently occurs,
and fuch as no native Roman could have written. Errors of
this kind, and a too fervile attention to the idiom of the
Greek, betray a tranflator, who was neither a native Italian,
nor had learned the language by the rules of grammar.

At

V E R

At other times, we find expreflions tliat feem to be im-
proper, and that nevcrthclefs are juftifiable according to the
ufage of the Italian lang-uage. Words are alfo ufed in a
fenie that is very rare in the clafTic writers. Moreover,
4hefe verfions contain very numerous Hebraifms, or rather
Syriafms, that are diametrically oppofite to the genius
of the Latin : from which circumllance we may infer, that
fome of thcfe verfions were made by Jewifh converts, whofe
native language was the Syriac. The language of thefe ver-
fions has materially influenced the Latin of the church,
which is not only unclaflical, but has a tinfture of the
oriental idiom, though in a much lower degree than the ver-
fions themfelves.

Michaelis differs from Mills, who refers the origin of the
oldeft Latin verfion no higher than to the time of pope Pius,
in the middle of the fecond century, and who fuppofes that
the Latin verfion was made by public authority, or under
the direftion of the bifhop of Rome. It is, fays the pro-
feffor, very improbable, if a trandator had been appointed
by a bifhop or a council, that a writer would have been
chofen, who was fo little mafler of the Latin. He there-
fore fuppofes, that the real ftate of the cafe was as follows.
The New Teflament was read in the Chriflian churches, in
the fame manner as the Old Tettament in the Jewifh fyna-
gogues ; and as the Jews, after reading the original He-
brew, explained it by a Chaldee paraphrafe, the Chriftian
bifhops and public teachers expounded the pafTages in Latin,
which they firfl read in the Greek. At firfl this was done
extempore ; but by degrees, in order to facilitate the public
fervice, thefe tranflations were committed to writing, and at
length communicated to the different members. By thefe
means we may account for their great variety, and the con-
fufion, which might have been avoided by a verfion ordained
by the public authority of the Chriflian church.

As it cannot be denied, that the oldefl Latin verfions are
of very high antiquity, though fome of their readings are
falfe, their principal ufe in the criticifm of the New Tefla-
ment is, that they lead us to a difcovery of the readings of
the very ancient Greek MSS. that exiiled prior to the date
of any that are now extant. The great confufion which
prevailed in the copies of the old Latin verfion induced pope
Damafus to employ Jerom in corredling it ; and among all
the Latin fathers, before and after his time, it feems that
no one was better quahfied for the tafl<. Jerom finiflied
this work about the year 384; but F. Simon obferves, that
the Vulgate, after the time of Jerom, was manifeilly dif-
ferent from the old verfion, in all the books of the New
Teflament. He partly expunged the fpurious readings,
and partly corrected the tranflations, which appeared to be
erroneous ; but it mufl be acknowledged, that, with the
beft intention, he has fometimes altered for the worfe. See
Vulgate, and Latin Bibles.

The learned and ingenious Eichorn, in his Introduflion
to the Old Teflament, fuppofes, not improbably, that the
firfl Latin verfion of the bible was made in Africa, where
Latin alone being underllood, a tranflation was more necef-
fary, where the Latin verfion was held in the higheil venera-
tion, and where the language being fpoken with lefs purity,
barbarifms might have more cafily been introduced, than in
a provincial town in Italy. But the Greek Teflament
could not have been tranflaled into Latin before the canon
had been formed, which was certainly not made in the firfl
«cntury. Michaelis by Marfli.

Of the modern Latin verfioiis, the firfl we fhall mention

is that of F.rafmus, who tranfliittd the New Teflament from

the Greek ; following not only the printed copic», but alfo

four Greek MSS., and varying very little from llie Vulgate.

9

V E R

The firfl edition appeared in 15 16, and dedicated to pope
Leo X.

Arius Montanus undertook, by order of the council of
Trent, as fome pretend, a verfion of the Old and New
Teflaments ; following, in hie tranflation of the Old Tefla-
ment, Pagninus, keeper of the Vatican library, who had
tranflated the Old Teflament from the Hebrew, by order
of Clement VIII. As for the New Teflament, he oidy
changed fome words in it, where he found that the Vulgate
differed from the Hebrew. See Bible.

A Latin verfion of the whole New Teflament, except the
Revelations, is afcribed to Thomas de Vio, a Dominican,
commonly ftyled cardinal Cajetan ; but not underflanding
Greek, he probably procured fome perfon to perform the
work in his name. This was printed at Venice in 1530
and 1531, with the cardinal's commentaries. Another
Latin verfion was publifhed by an Englifh writer in 1540,
and dedicated to Henry VIII.

The Zurich verfion is one of the mofl ancient Latin
tranflations made by Proteflants. Part of it was done by
Leo Juda, one of the miniflers of that city, aided by fome
of his learned brethren ; but being prevented by death from
completing it, he left it to the care of T. Bibliander, pro-
feffor at Zurich, who, aided by Conradus Pellican, profefTcr
of Hebrew in the fame place, tranflated the reft of the Old
Teflament. The New Teflament was continued by Peter
Cholin, profefFor in divinity, and by Rodolph Gualterus,
Leo Juda's fucceffor in the miniflerial office. This verfion
was pubhfhed in 1544. The feventh verfe of the fifth
chapter of the firfl epiftle of St. John is omitted in this ver-
fion, and placed in the margin. This paffage was not in-
ferted by Erafmus in his firfl editions of the New Teflament,
becaufe he did not find it in the Greek copies ; but having
afterwards found it in a MS. in England, he introduced it
into fubfequent editions. In the following years, Robert
Stephens pnnted this edition, with a few alteiations ; joining
to it the Hebrew text and the Vulgate, and notes from the
public ledlures of Vatablus. See Latin Bibles.

Seballian Caflalio publifhed a Latin bible, which has
been both cenfured and admired. See Latin Bibles, and
Castalio.

Theodorus Beza's Latin verfion has been much approved
by Proteflants, but depreciated by the Roman Catholics.
It has been alfo cenfured by bifhop Walton and Dr. Mills.
See Bible.

Version of Origcn. See Hexapla and Tetrapla.

Version, Perfian. See Bible.

ViSHSlON, Pejhito and Philoxinian. See Syriac Verfion.

Version, Slavonian or Ruffian. See Bible.

Version, Sahidic. See Bible.

Version, Syriac. See Syriac Verfion, and Bible.

For an account of Englifh, Flemifh, French, Gaelic,
Georgian, German, Indian, Irifh, Italian, Rhenifh, Saxon,
Sfiani/h, and IVel^ verfions, fee Bible. See alfo Poly-
glott.

VERSITZ, or Versecz, in Geography, a town of Hun-
gai-y. It is the fee of a Greek bifliop, aiid contains fome
extenfive barracks, with about 12,000 inhabitants. Near
it are the ruins of a callle ; 20 miles N.N.W. of Vipa-
lanka.

VERSMOLD, a town of the county of Ravenfburg ;
10 miles N.W. of Bielefeld. N. lat. ^2" 2'. E. long. 8-" 5'.

VERSO. Sec Folio Verfo.

VERSOIX, in Geography, a town of Fr.incc, in the
department of the Ain, at the mouth of a river of the
fame name, on the fide of the Icdte of Geneva ; 6 miles S.E.
of Gex.

Vkbsoix,

V E R

Versoix, La, or Verfoy, a river which rifes in France,
and runs into the lake of Geneva at Verfoy.

VERSOU, Le, a town of France, in the department of
the Ifere ; 6 miles N. of Grenoble.

VERSOY, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc ; 4 miles N. of St. Maurice.

VERST, or Wekst, a Ruffian meafure, containing
500 faflies or 1500 arlheens = 3500 Englifh feet. Hence
264 verfts =175 Engliih miles; fo that a verft is nearly
two-thirds of an Enghfh mile, and a degree of the meridian
is reckoned to be about 104 verfts. The Ruflian foot is =
Iji Enghfh inches, and the Mofcow foot = 13^ Englifh
inches ; but the Enghfh foot is generally ufed at Peterfburg,
and alfo the Rhineland foot =; I2j, Englifh inches. See
Measure.

VERSTEGAN, Richard, in Biography, a defcendant
of an ancient family in Guelderland, and the fon of a cooper
m London, enjoyed the advantage of a liberal education at
Oxford, and diftinguiflied himfelf by his literary acquire-
ments ; but becoming a Catholic, he left the univeriity
without a degree, and removed to Antwerp. About the
year 1585, he there publifhed a work, entitled " The.itrum
Crudelitatum Haereticor\<m nollri Temporis," adorned with
engravings, and intended as a counterpart to the Proteftant
Martyrologies. In this work he treated queen Elizabeth
with great feverity ; and when Verftegan removed to Paris,
complaint was preferred againft him by the Englifh ambaf-
fador to Henry HI., who, from motives of pohcy more
than from a difapprobation of his book, caufed him for fome
time to be imprifoned. After his relcafe, he returned to
Antwerp, where he employed himfelf as a printer, and pub-
lifhed, in 1592, a fecond edition of his Theatrum. He alfo
entered with much acrimony into a difpute between the re-
'j;ular and fecular Roman Cathohc clergy in England, taking
part with the former. But he was more honourably and
ufefuUy employed in preparing his " Reftitution of de-
cayed Intelligence in Antiquities concerning the noble and
renowned Enghfh Nation," which was firft printed at Ant-
werp in 1605, 4to. Bifhop Nicolfon's charafter of this
■work is as follows : " The writer had feveral advantages
for making of fome fpecial difcoveries on the fubjeft
whereon he treats, which is handled fo plaufibly, and fo
well illuftrated witli handfome cuts, that the book has taken,
and fold very well. But a great many miftakes have efcaped
him." Some of thefe are ftated by the bifhop ; and he
adds, they have been carefully correfted by Mr. Somner.
The lafl of three editions of this work that ifTued from the
prefs in England was that of 1674. Among fome other
works of Verftegan, we find mentioned his " Antiquitates
Belgicx," Antwerp, 161 3. He is fuppofed to have died
about the year 1625. Biog. Brit.

VERT, DoM Claude DE, was born at Paris in 1645,
and at the age of 16 entered into the order of St. Benedift,
■in the Congregation of Cluni. In the Jcfuits' college at
Avignon he ftudicd philofophy and theology ; and after his
return from z journey to Rome, he devoted himfelf to the
iludy of t)ie rule of St. Benedift, and contributed by hi«;
influence to the eftahhflmient of general chapters. In 1676
he and another monk were appointed to the office of re-
forming the breviary of the order. The refult of their la-
bour appeared in 1686; and in 1689 he pubhftied a tranfla-
.tion of the rule of St. Benedift, with a preface and learned
notes. In 1690 he wrote a letter to Juneu, who had ex-
prefTed iiinifclf contemptuoufly of the ceremonies of the
church ; and in 1690 he was rewarded for his fervices, by
the dignity of vicar-general to the cardinal de Bouillon, and
the priory of St. Peter in Abbeville. His work moft

V E R

known is entitled " Explication fimple litterale et hif-
tonq*ie des Ceremonies de I'Eglife," 4 vols. 8vo. The
writer died at Abbeville in 1708, aged 63, leaving the
charafter of a pious, as well as a mild and polilhed man.
Moreri.

Vert, in Heraldry, the term for a green colour.
It is alfo called vert in the blazon of the coats of all under
the degrees of nobles ; but in coats of nobles it is called
emerald; and in thofe of kings, Venus.

In engraving, it is exprcffed by diagonals, or lines drawn
athwart, from right to left, from the defter chief corner to
the finifter bafe.

In lieu of vert, the French heralds i'.(e Jinople, or fynoplc.
Vert, or Green Hue, in Forejt La-u;, any thing that
grows and bears a green leaf, within the forett, that may
cover a deer.

This is divided into (roir-'aeTt and nclher-'vert. The
former is the great woods, which, in law-books, are ufually
called hault-bois ; and tlie latter is the under-woods, other-
wife called fub-boh.

We fometimes alfo meet with fp:cial vert, which denotes
all trees growing in the king's woods within the foreft, and
thofe which grow in other men's woods, if they be fuck
trees as bear fruit to feed the deer.

Vert, in Geography, a river of France, which runs ia'.o
the Gave of Oleron. — Alfo, a river of Fijancc, which rur.s
into the Lot, near Cahors.

Vert St. Denis, a town of France, in the department of
the Seine and Marne ; 3 miles N.W. of Melun.

VERTACOMECORI, in Aneient Geography, a people
to whom Pliny afcribes the foundation of Navarre, in Gallia
Cifalpina, and who formed a part of the Vocon'ii

VERTiE, a people of Afia, allies of the Perfians, and
found at the fiege of Amida.

VERTAISON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Puy de Dome ; 4 miles N.W. of Billon.
VERTE Bay, or Green Beiy, a bay of the Atlantic
ocean, between Nova Scotia and New Brunfvvick, on the
north coaft. N. lat. ^6\ W. long. 63° 54'.

Verte Bay, a bay on the north-eaft coaft of Newfound-
land. N. lat. 50^ to'. W. long. 56°.

VERTEBRA, in Anatomy, the bones compofing the
fpine. They are diftinguilhed by their fituation into
vcrtebrx colli, dorfi, and lumborum ; or cervical, dorfal,
and lumbar. See Spine.

The cartilages between the vertebras of the back yield
confiderably to the preflure of the body, in an ereft potture,
and expand themfelves in the night, when perfons lie down.
Hence arifes a very fingular phenomenon, but a very true
one ; which is, that a man is confiderably taller at his rifing
in the morning, after the expanfion of thefe cartilages,
during the abfence of the preffure for feveral hours, than at
night, when they have been prefTed down all the day.

The reverend Mr. WafTe feems to have examii^jd this
difference more ftriclly than any other perfon. He found
that feveral perfons, enlifted as foldiers in a morning, had
been difcharged for want of height, on their being meafured
again before the officers in the evening ; and on this occafion
meafured feveral other people, and found the difference, in
many cafes, to be not lefs than an inch. This gentleman
obferved in himfelf, that fixing a bar of iron where he jufl
reached it with his head on getting firft out of bed in the
morning, he could lofe near half an inch in an hour, or lefs,
if he employed that time in rolling his garden, or any other
exercife of that laborious kind. He obferved alfo, that
riding often took off the height very fjddenly ; and what
was more particular .. thai m fitting clofe to iludy five or

fix

V E R

V E R

fix hours without any motion, he loft often a whole inch in
height.

People who ufe liard labour fink rather lefs ia the whole
than thofe of fedentary lives ; and the height once loft is
Tieter to be recovered that day, not even by the ufe of the
cold batli ; but a night's lying down can alone reftore it.
Phil. Tranf. N° 383. p. 87.

Thig difference in height takes place only in the human
fpecics, as they are the only creatures who walk ereft, and
throw the preffure of their whole weight upon the back-
bone. This gentleman mcafured horfes before and after
riding, and could find no difference even after the longeft
journeys.

The alteration in height is much greater in young people
than in thofe who are more aged. It is evident from this
change happening to perfons when they fit, as well as when
they ftand, that it is brought about merely by the back-
bone ; and we muft admire the ftruflure of that part of the
body, which owes its giving way thus to its being formed
together in that manner, which alone could fuit it to the
feveral purpofes it was intended for. The thicknefs and
fhortnefs of the bones, with the intervening cartilages, afllfted
by the bony proceftes, difpofe it to a motion peculiar to it-
felf; whereas, had the bodies been of any confiderable
length, upon bending the body, the articulations muft have
made a large angle upon their innioft edges, and the fpinal
marrow would have been continually liable to be injured ;
and had the cartilages been entirely wanting, it would have
been as ufelefs as if it were but one bone, by which the
trunk of the body, being rendered incapable of bending,
muft have remained for ever in an eredt pofture. Another
particular, which befpeaks the utmoft wifdom and defign in
the contrivance of this part is, the remarkable difference
there is in the cartilages placed between the feveral bones of
the fpine.

The vertebrse of the back require but little motion, and
the cartilages there are for that reafon fmall and thin, in
comparifon with thofe of the loins, which being very thick,
the loweft more tfpecially, the motion is much greater
there, and much better to be borne. This being the ftate
and difpofition of the parts during the whole fpace of time
in which we are ufually employed about our feveral bufi-
ncffes, till the time that we difpofe ourfelves to reft, the car-
tilages of the fpine will, by their compreftible and yielding
properties, become more clofc and compaft for the preflure
they fuftain, and confcquently the fpine, which is the only
liipport of the trunk of the body, will become fhorter ; but
when this fuperior weight ftiall be entirely removed, by
placing the body in an horizontal pofture, as it always is
when we are in bed, the compreffcd cartilages will, by their
natural elaftic power, begin gradually to enlarge thcmfelves,
till they, by degrees, recover the expanded ftate they had
before they gave way.

The cartilages between the feveral vertebrae are twenty-
four in number, and every one of thefe i& preftcd fomewhat
in our daily employments, fo that when they all come to
expand, the aggregate of their feveral cxpanfions cannot be
fuppofcd lefs than about an inch. Now, if this be the dif-
ference occafioncd by the preffure of the common weight of
the body alone upon itfelf, it muft neceffarily be much
greater in thole perfons whofe conftant employment is to
carry heavy burdens. The compreflion and expanfion of the
cartilages in older people being lefs than in younger, is a
neceffary confequence of the cartilages in time of age grow-
ing harder, and lefs capable of comprefnon ; for they often
grow almoft bony in length of time : and hence it is, that
old people are obferved to lofe fomewhat of their former

Vol.. XXXVII.

height, the cartilages in them fhrinking to a fomewhat
fmaller compafs as they grow bony ; and this ftiortening is,
therefore, not imaginary, as many have believed, but real,
and owing to this plain caufe. Phil. Tranf. N. 383. p. 90.
See Cartilaoe and Spine.

Vertebr*:, Difuije of the. See Spine.

Vertebra, Dijlocations of. See Luxation.

Vertebra, Fradurcs of. See Fracture.

Vertebr* of Fiji. The vertebrse of fifh are extremely
different in fhape in the feveral kinds, and even vary in num-
ber in the different fpecies of the fame genus. The anterior
vertebra in fome have three apophyfes, as in the cyprini,
efoces, pleuronedli, &c. ; and in the clupez they have no
lefs than feven of thefe apophyfes, but they are (lender and
capillary. Artedi Ichthyol.

VERTEBRAL Artery and Vein, m Anatomy, branches
of the fubclavian veffels. See Artery and Vein.

Vertebral Canal, the canal of the fpine, which con-
tains the medulla fpinalis. See Spike.

Vertebral Nerves, the nerves fent off from the medulla
fpinahs, and palTing out at the lateral holes of the fpine.
See Nerve.

Vertebral Theca, the flieath of dura mater inclofing
the medulla foinahs. See Braiv.

VERTEILLAC, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Dordogne ; 7 miles N. of Riberac.

VERTENEGGI, a town of Iftria ; it miles S. of
Capo d'Iftria.

VERTERIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Great
Britain, in the fecond route of Antonine, between Bro-
vonacae or Kirbythure and Lavatra: or Bowes, and in the
fifth route between Lavatrx and Brocavum or Brougham
Caftle, placed at Brugh under Stanemore.

VERTEUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Charente ; 3 miles S. of Ruffec. — Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Lot and Ga-
ronne ; 6 miles N.N.E. of Tonneins.

VERTEX, in Anatomy, the crown of the head, or that
uppermoft and middle part filuated between the finciput
and occiput. See Head.

Hence, alfi), vertex is figurately ufed for the top of other
things. Thus, the vertex of a cone, pyramid, conic fcftion,
&c. is the point of the upper extremity of the axis, or the
top of the figure.

Vertex of an Angle, is the angular point, or the point A,
Plate n. Geometry, Jig. 15.) in which the legs meet
of a Figure, is the
to the bafc

Vertex of a Figure, is the vertex of the angle oppofitc

Siicli is the point M [PlateXW. Geometry, Jig. 17.) op-
pofite to the bafe A B.

Vertex of a Curve, is the point A {PlateXV. Geometry,
Jig. 18.) from wliich the diameter is drawn; or it is the
interfedtion of the iliamcter and the curve.

Vertex of a Glafs, in Optics, the fame with the pole
of it.

Vertex is alfo ufed, in AJlronomy, for the point of heaven
perpendicularly over our heads, called the zenith.

Vertex, Path of the. Sec Path.

VERTIBULUM, a word ufed by fome writers to e.x.
prefs the round head of a bone, which, in its articulation, is
infcrted into the finus, or cavity of anotli'.T bone.

VERTICAL, in Botany, is technically ufed to cxprefs
the perpendicular pofition, or infertioii, of ccrtiin p.irts of
a plant. Vertical Leaves are fuch aa ftand fo erccl, that
neitlier of their furfaces can properly be caJIcJ the upper
or under, of which nature are all fword-fhaped leaves, folia
enjformia. (Sec Leaf.) But the term is ufually reftridltd
P to

V E 11

V E R

to fuch leaves as have properly an under furface, different
in nature from the upper one, and yet ftand upright ;
witnefs LaRuca Scariola, and perhaps feveral fucculent
leaved plants.

Vertical Anthers, as in the Tulip, terminate the filaments,
and being inferted by one of the extremities, ftand no lefs
upright than the filaments themfelves, being oppofed to in-
cumbent anthers, whofe infertion is generally lateral, and
whofe pofition is more or lefs horizontal, over the ftigma, as
in the Paffion-flawer. In both thefe inftances the anthers
are remarkably verfatile, anthcr.t •verfatilis ; allowing them-
felves to be turned round many times without feparating
from the filament. Vertical ftalks, &c. readily explain
themfelves.

Vertical Circle, in AJlrcnomy, is a great circle of the
fphcre, pafling through the zenith and the nadir, and any
other given point on the furface of the fphere.

TJie vertical circles are alfo called azimuths ; which fee.
The meridian of any place is a vertical circle. All the
vertical circles interfeft each other in the zenith and nadir.

The life of the vertical circles is to meafure the height
of the ftars, and their diftances from the zenith, which is
reckoned on thefe circles ; and to find their eaftern and
weftern amplitude, by obferving h.ow many degrees the
vertical, in which the ftar rifes or fets, is diftant from the
meridian.

Vertical, Primr, is that vertical circle, or azimuth,
which paffes through the poles of the meridian ; or which
is perpendicular to the meridian, and pafles through the
equinoftial points.

Verticals, Prime, in Dialling. See Prime Verticals.

Vertical of the Sun, is the vertical which pafles through
the centre of the fun at any moment of time.

Its ufe is, in dialling, to find the dechnation of the plane
on which the dial is to be drawn, which is done by obferv-
ing how many degrees that vertical is dillant from the meri-
dian, after marking the point, or line of the Ihadow, upon
the plane at any time.

Vebtical Dial. See Vertical Dial.

Vertical Line, in Conies, is a right line drawn on the
vertical plane, and pading through the vertex of the cone.

Vertical Line, in Dialling, is a hne in any place per-
pendicular to the horizon.

This is bcft found and drawn on an ereft and reclining
plane, by holding up a ftring and lieavy plummet fteadily,
and then marking two points of the (hadow of a thread on
the plane, a good diilance from one another ; and drawing
a line through thofe marks.

Vertical Line, in Perfpedii-e. See Vertical Line.

Vertical Plane, in Conies, is a plane pafling through the
vertex of a cone, and parallel to any conic feftion.

Vertical Plane, in Perfpedive. See Flake and Per-
spective.

Vertical Point, in AJlronomy, the fame with vertex or
zenitli.

Hence a ftar is faid to be vertical, when it happens to be
in that point which is perpendicularly over any place.

VERTICILLARIA, in Botany, Fl. Peruv. 69, a
Peruvian genus of plants, fo called becaufe its branches are
difpofed in regular whorls, one above the other. De Theis.
Sec Verticillus.

VERTICILLAT.E, Whorled-flowered plants, form
the 42d natural order in Linnasiis's natural fyftem, being
precifely analogous to JufTieu's Labiatje (fee that ar-
ticle)^ as well as to the order of D'ldynamia Gymnofpe»mia
in the Linnxan artificial fyftem, except that it includes alfo
feveral diandrous genera of the latter arrangement. Ray

firft ettabliftied this order, under the above name, and difttn-
guifhed it, though not by a very clear or infallible definition,
from his own Afpertfolit. Hermann injudicioufly combined
thefe two orders. Linnsus firft clearly defined their dif-
ferences. Both have four naked yj-fiij, and a monopetalous
corolla ; which is regular in all the Ajperifolia, except
EcHirM ; irregular in all the Verticillata, and alfo ringent,
or at leaft tvs-o-hpped, except Mextha and Lycopus ;
fee thofe articles. The Afpertfolid: have, moreover, alternate
or fcattered leaves ; the VerticiUatd oppofite ones ; the former
are more of a mucilaginous quahty ; the latter more aro-
matic. Linna;us however detected the 'true charafters of
the orders in queftion in ihe'njlamens. Thefe in the AJperi-
folie are five, all of equal length ; in the Verticillate either
four or two ; if four, two are longer, or more perfed, than
the reft.

For the genera which corapofe this order of Verticillatic,
and their general characters and properties, the reader is
referred to the article Labi,\tje. Their particular mode
of inflorefcence is esplair.ed under Verticillus ; though
in many inftances their whorls are fo crowded together as
to form a fpike, or clufter, the foliage diminilhing, or
changing, into braSeas. Of this, examples occur in Salvia,
Mentha, and Origanum, with Tome other genera.

This being one of the moft natural of all the orders in the
whole vegetable kingdom, few botanifts have fucceeded in
defining its genera. Linnxus has been eminently fuccefsful
in this point, having happily feixed fome eflential charaAer
by which each genus is clearly maiked, in one part or
other of the fruftification ; iuch characters being, on the
whole, as well fupported by the habit as can be expected
in fo natural an order.

VERTICILLUS, a Whorl, is a mode of inflorefcence,
in which the flowers furround the ftem in a fort of ring.
There is feldom a perfetlly whorled infertion of the flowers,
around a ftem or ftalk, independent of the leaves, though
the rare genus Gxetum, (fee that article,) may afford an
inftance. It is moil ufual for each flower to be axillary, or
accompanied by a leaf, as in Hippuris. Neverthelefs the
natural order of Verticillat.i, fo denominated from this
circumftance, is confidered as having truly whorled flowers,
though inferted on two oppofite fides of the fquare ftem ;
as they, being commonly very numerous and crowded,
fpread into one denfe uninterrupted mafs. Such may, or
may not, be^ccompanied by leaves or bracteas.

Folia verticillata, whorled leaves, arc when more than two
leaves furround the ftem at one point, or articulation.
Examples occur in Galium and its aUies, thence called by
Ray and following authors plants Jlellat£ ; as well as in
a few of the firft fpecies of Veronica. Peruvian (hrubs
are remarkably inclined to bear three or four leaves in a
whorl, though the genera, or natural orders, to which thev
refpeftively belong, have merely oppofite leaves. See uijdcr
the article I^eaf, folia, Una, terna, S:c.

Whorled Cotyledons are very rare, but they do occur in
PiNLS and DoMBEYA. — Even if fuch were, as Juflieu fug-
gefts, merely oppofite cotyledons in numerous deep feg-
ments, they might perhaps, according to the analogy of the
above-defcribed inflorefcence, be called cotyledones verticiUat4i .

VERTICITY, is that property of the load-ftone by
which it turns or direfts itfelf to fome particular point.

The attraftion of the magnet was known long before its
verticity.

VERTICORDIA, in Mythology, one of the epithets of
Venus. See Venus.

VERTIGO, in Medicine, from -verto, I turn, giddirjfi,

diT-zinefs, or fivimming cfthe head, a well-known afieftion, in

9 which

VERTIGO.

which external objefts appear to move in various direftions,
though ftationary, and there is a difficillty of maintaining
the ereft pofture, often accompanied with ficknefs.

Philofophers have differed in their opinions refpefting the
caufe of mertigo, when it is produced under various circum-
ftances, independently of internal difeafe ; as from fwinging,
turning round rapidly, looking from a high ftation, riding
acrofs a broad undulating ftrcam, or over a plain covered
with fnow, or looking at the walls of a room painted
with equal fniall figures, at a whirling wheel, &c. &c. ; cir-
cumftances which might appear upon a cafual view not ex-
plicable upon one common principle. Dr. Darwin, how-
ever, has very mgenioudy explained the origin of giddinefs
from thefe various caufes. He obferves, that in learning
to walk, we judge of the diftance of the objefts which we ap-
proach by the eye, and by obferving their perpendicularity
determine our own ; and that at all times we determine our
want of perpendicularity, or inclination to fall, by attending
to the apparent motion of the objefts within the fphcre of
diftinft vifion. Hence, when we are placed upon the fummit
of a high cliff or tower, and look down, we become dizzy, be-
caufe the objefts below are out of the fphsre of diftinft vifion,
and we are obliged to balance ourfelvcs by the lefs accurate
feelings of our mufcles. Hence alfo, on going into a room
hung with a paper which is covered all over with fimilar
fmall black lozenges, many people become giddy ; for the
objefts around being fo fmall, that they do not perceive
their minute parts, or fo fimilar, that they do not diflinguifh
them from one another, they begin to lofe their balance ;
for on inclining to one fide or the other, the next and the
next lozenge fucceeds on the eye, which they miftake for
the firft, and they are not aware that they have any apparent
motion ; but if you fix a fheet of paper, or draw any other
figure in the midft of the lozenges, the charm ceafes, and no
giddinefs is produced. Giddinefs is occafioned in a fimilar
way in riding over an extenfive ])lain of fnow or flieet of
water, in which no diftinft objedl prefents itfelf by which
we can afcertain our perpendicularity.

But the circnmftance which occafions vertigo in the other
cafes, is the difficulty of diftinguifliing our own real motions
from the apparent motions of external objcfts ; and the diffi-
culty is ftill greater, when both ourfelves and the circum-
jacent objefts are in motion. Our daily practice of walk-
ing and riding foon inllrudls us with accuracy to difcern
the modes of motion, and to afcribe the apparent motion of
the ambient objefts to ourfelves ; but thofe which we have
not acquired by repeated habit continue to confound us.
Hence whirling round, fwinging, fkating on the ice, failing,
riding backwards in a coach, and a thoufand other move-
ments, produce giddinefs, which, if long enough continued,
bring on ficknefs and vomiting. When firfl an European
mounts an elephant fixteen feet high, and wliofe mode of
motion he is not accuflomed to, the objcfts fcem to undu-
late as he pafTesj and he frequently becomes fick and ver-
tiginous. And when we firll go on fhip-board, where
the movements of ourfelves, and the movements of the large
waves are both new to us, the vertigo is r.lmoft unavoidable,
with the terrible ficknefs which attends it. Yet in perfons
habituated to thefe motions, no vertigo occurs ; even the
mofl continued whirling, as praftifed by the dervifcs in
Turkey, as a religiouu ceremony, and by European waltzers,
may be learnt to be performed without giddinefs.

Dr. Darwin mentions fcvcral other circumfLinccs, whieh
prove that we require experience in the motions of f(u-
rounding objefts, even while we are ourfelvcs at reft, in
order to determine our own perpendicularity by them.
Whence fome people become dizzy at the fight of a whirl-

ing wheel, or by gazing on the undulations of a river, if
no fteady objefts are at the fame time within the fphere
of their diftinft vifion. And he mentions the following
curious experiment, illuftrating this faft. When a child
firfl can ftand creft upon his legs, if you gain his attention
to a white handkerchief fleadily extended like a fail, and
afterwards make it undulate, he inflantly lofes his perpen-
dicularity, and tumbles on the ground. See Zoonomia,
vol. i. fetl. 20.

Vertigo, however, arifing from any of thefe caufes, is
not properly the fubjeft of medical treatment ; and it is
only when it occurs independently of external circumftances,
that it becomes the object of pathological inquiry. It is
not in itfelf, indeed, confidered as a diflinift difeafe, but is
always fymptomatic of fome other morbid affection, againft
which our remedies muft be directed. Whence Dr. CuUen
has excluded it altogether from his clafTification of difeafes.

Vertigo occurs under three different ftates of the confli-
tution,or is a fymplom of three different fpecies of difeafe,
which it is neceffary to diftinguifh, in order to apply the ap-
propriate remedies. The firfl, and the only variety of ver-
tigo that is accompanied with danger, is that which arifes
from an over-fiilnefs of the vefTels of the head, and which is
fometimes the precurfor of apoplexy or palfy. The vertigo
from intoxication is probably chiefly produced in this way,
though it may be partly explained upon the principle of de-
bilitated mufcular energy, by which the perfon is difabled
from directing the eye fleadily upon furrounding objecls,
and which even occafions double vifion.

The vertigo originating from a plethoric ftate of the
veffels of the brain will be indicated by the prcfence of cer-
tain other fymptoms. If it occurs in a perfon of fanguine
temperament, of a full habit of body, florid complexion,
in the meridian of life, or pafl that period, and in one ac-
cuflomed to free living ; and if it it accompanied by occa-
fional head-ache, throbbing of the veffels of the head, noife
in the ears, and drowfinefs ; little doubt can remain that it
originates from a plethoric condition of the veffels, and that
the proper remedies will be, the abflradlion of blood, either
from the fyflem at large, or by opening the temporal artery
or jugular vein, or by the application of leeches to the tem-
ples ; at the fame time adniiniflering moderate purgative me-
dicines, and enjoining an abftinencc from fermented liquors,
and high-feafoned food, as well as great moderation in re-
fpeft to the quantity of the latter. If thefe remedies are
not reforted to, and thefe precautions not adopted, the re-
fult may be a fudden attack of apoplexy, which may prove
immediately fatal, or leave behind it a hemiplegia, or palfy of
one fide.

The fecond variety of vertigo, to which we have alluded,
is attended with little hazard, though fometimes very dif-
treffing. It occurs in an oppofite condition of the body, a
flate of nervous debility, and accompanies many of thofe
anomalous atfeftions which arc comprehended under the ap-
pellations of b\iJii-ria and hypochondriafis. Tliis vertigo oc-
curs in perfons of a different temperament from that above
defcribed ; in thin and fparc habits, or in thofe of a certain
degree of corpulency, but pale and relaxed conflitution. It
is accompanied alfo by other fymptoms charafteriftic of the
hyflerial and hypochondriacal difeafes ; .ind cannot eafily be
millaken for the plethoric vertigo. The cure, of courfe,
will depend upon the general features of the whole com-
plaint, of which the vertigo is but a paffing fymptom, and we
need not here enlarge upon the fubjeA. See Hvi'OCiION-
UHiAsis and Hystkria.

There is a third variety of vcriigo, which is alfo tranfient

and void of danger ; whicii is a fymplom of indigeftion ; and

Pi is

V E R

is connefted with particular conditions of the ftomach. This
is not permanent, but comes on fuddenly for a few feconds or
minutes, and then goes off ; but during this (hort interval,
the perfon, if walking, will feize a rail, or poft, or fix him-
felf againft a wall, to prefervehis perpendicularity ; or even
if fitting, will be obliged to hold the back of his chair firmly,
or to lean forward on the table for the fame purpofe. This
flight attack is generally attended with a feeling of begin-
ning naufea, which fubfides with the vertigo.

As this occurs in perfons who are neither plethoric nor hy-
pochondriacal, is unaccompanied by head-ache, and generally
attended by flatulence, irregularity of bowels, or fome other
fymptom of difturbance in the digeftive organs, fo it is eafily
diftinguiihed from the preceding fpecies. It is generally
foon removed by the ule of an abforbent, and gentle laxa-
tive, in fome moderately cordial vehicle ; as by a little car-
bonate and fulphate of magnefia in mint-water, or in an in-
fufion of chamomile, or orange-peel ; or by a portion of
magnefia and rhubarb, or fimilar medicines.

Vertigo, in yinimals. See Aphplexy and Staggers.
VERTILLAGE, in Agriculture, the tilling or pre-
paring of ground to receive the feed, by turning, ftirring,
or toffing it.

VERTING, in Ancient Geography, a fmall town of
Italy, in the interior of Lucania, according to Strabo.

VERTOBRIGE,atownofHifpania,in Betica. Pliny.
VERTON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Loire ; 4 miles N.E. of Nantes.

VERTOT D'AUBCEUF, Re.ne Aubert de, in Bio-
graphy, a French hiftoriaii, was born in 1655, at the feat of
Bennetot in Normandy. Inclined to retirement, he entered,
at the early age of 1 5 or 1 6, among the Capuchins, whofe au-
fterities fo impaired his conllitution, that he was under a necef-
fity of obtaining a brief for exchanging this order for that of
the regular canons of Premontre, with which he connefted
himfelf in 1677. Some difputes, however, occurred in this
order, which occafioned his abandoning it. After feveral
changes of fituatioii, humoroufly called the " Abbe de
Vertot's revolutions," he fettled at Paris in 1701, where
he was employed in compiling the memoirs for the houfe of
Noailles, engaged in a conteft with that of Bouillon, for
which fervice he obtained a penfion. In 1 705 he became
a penConer of the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles
Lettres, which was revived in 1701 ; and afterwards occu-
pied feveral pofts in connexion with the duke and duchefs
of Orleans. In 17 15 he was appointed, by the grand-
mafter of Malta, hiftoriographer to that order, with its at-
tendant privileges, and the right of wearing the crofs ; and
the commandery of Santeny was added to his other pre-
terments. Some have faid that he was fub-preceptor to
Lewis XV., but he was deprived of this honour. As he
advanced in hfe, his infirmities increafed, fo that he died in
1735, at the age of 80. His difpofition and charafter
were highly eftimable. His principal works were, " L'Hif-
toire des Revolutions de Portugal," 1689, i2mo., much
commended by Bouhours for its llyle, though the memoirs
upon which it was founded were not worthy of confidence :
— " L'Hittoire des Revolutions de Suede," 2 vols. i2mo.
1696, which is charafterized as an interelling performance ;
though in tWs, as well as fome other works, the author
inclines to the romantic :— " L'Hiftoire des Revolutions
Romaines," 3 vols. i2mo., confidered as his principal per-
fornoance :— " L'Hiaoire do aievahers de Malthe," 4 vols.
4to., and 7 vols. i2mo. 1727, lefs efteemed than the pre-
ceding :_" Traite de la Mouvance de Bretagne :" — " Hif-
toire critique de I'Etabhffement des Bretons dans les Gaules,"
works that have not been popular :— " Origine de la Gran-

V E 11

deur de la Cour de Rome, et de la Nomination au.x EvecheS
et aux AbbSyes de France," a poilhumous publication.
Several of his learned differtations were inferted in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres. The abbe
Mably appreciates Vertot highly as an hiftorian, from a
preconceived notion that perfeft hiflor)' correfponds very
much with epic poetry ; but by others he has been deemed
a pleafing and eloquent writer, and denominated " The
French Quintus Curtius," whilll his ftyle has been extolled,
and his manner of treating his fubjeft has been regarded a;
interefting. Some of the beft judges have difputed his
thorough knowledge of mankind, and the accuracy of hu
refearch. Moreri.

VERTUE, George, an eminent artift and antiquary,
of whom we have given an account under the article Ek -

GRAVING.

VERTUMNALIA, among the Romans, a feftival cele-
brated in honour of the god Vertumnus, in the month of
Oaober.

VERTUMNUS, in Mythology, a god who prefided over
gardens and orchards, honoured among the Etrufcans, from
whom the worfhip of this deity was tranfmitted to the
Romans.

Ovid (Met. lib. xiv. ) has defcribed the various forms
alTumed by this deity, in order to obtain the love of Pomona.
Some have fuppofed that Vertumnus, whofe name they
derive a vertendo, becaufe he had power to change his form
at pleafure, marked the year and its variations ; and thus,
they fay, he pleafed Pomona, by bringing the fruits to
maturity. Accordingly, Ovid fays that he afTumed the
form of a labourer, reaper, vine-drefler, and old woman, to
reprefent the four feafons, fpring, fummer, autumn, and
winter.

Vertumnus had a temple and a ftatue near the market-place
at Rome, being reprefented as one of the tutelary deities of
the merchants. To this Horace is fuppofed to allude,
where, addreffing his book, he fays, " Methinks, my book,
you often turn your eye towards Vertumnus and Janus ;"
that is, you are longing to be handfomely bound, and ex-
pofed to fale.

Accordingly Vertumnus, fays an ancient fcholiaft on '
Horace, " deus eft preles vertendarum rerum," «'. e. " ven-
dendarum ac emendarum."

At the feaft inftituted in honour of him, he «vas repre-
fented as a young man crowned with different forts of herbs,
drelTed in a robe, which reached to his middle ; holding
fruit in his left hand, and in his right a cornucopia.

The commentators on Ovid fay, that he was an ancient
king of Etruria, who, by his diligent and fuccefsful culti-
vation of fruits and gardens, obtained the honour of being
ranked among the gods. In proof of this, they refer to
Propertius, eleg. 1. iv. At Rome, in the ftreet called
" Vicus Thufcus," was a ftatue of Vertumnus, of which
Cicero fpeaks, on occafion of Verres' avai-ice ; " who is
there but has traced thy avarice all along the way that
leads from Vertumnus's ftatue to the great Circus ?"

VERTUS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Marne ; 15 miles S.W. of Chalons-fur-
Marne,

VERU, a comet according to fome writers, refembling
a fpit, being nearly the fame as the lonchites, only its head
is rounder, and its train longer and ftiarper pointed.

VERVA, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs aa
ivory amulet to be worn for the epilepfy.

VERVAIN, in Botany. See Verbena.

The common vervain, or •verbena ojicinalis of LinnsEus,
is very common on the fides of roads, foot-patjis, and farm-
yards.

V E R

yardi, near habitations ; for although there is fcarccly any
part of Enghiiid in which this is not found in plenty, yet it
is never found above a quarter of a mile from a houfe ;
which occafioned its being called fimpkr's joy, becaufc,
wherever this plant is found growing, it is a fure token of
a houfe being near ; this is a certain faft, fays Miller, but
not eafy to be accounted for. It is rarely cultivated in
gardens, but is brought to the markets by thofe who gather
it in the fields. It is annual, and flowers in July or
Auguft.

Vervain was ufed among the ancients at their facrifices,
and was thought to contain fomething divine. The Romans,
in the beginning of the year, made a prefent of this herb to
their friends. It appears to be the li^y. (Solxvr, or fft^irrj^aiv*
of Diofcorides. It is deftitute of odour, but manifefts a
flight degree of aftringency. The root, worn at the pit of
the ftomach, an infufion, and an ointment prepared from the
leaves, are faid to produce good effects in fcrophulous cafes.
Morley's EfT. on Scrophula.

But this, fays Dr. Withering, wants confirmation from the
more rational and lefs enthufiaftic praAitioner.

Its fenfible qualities, fays Dr. Lewis, afford little or no
foundation for the abundance of virtues for which it has
been celebrated. Its ufe in medicine feems to have origi-
nated from fome fuperftitious idea of its efficacy, when fuf-
pended about the neck as an amulet. In order to obtain
its virtues more effeftually, the vervain was direfted to be
bruifed before it was appended to the neck : and of its good
effefts thus ufed for inveterate head-aches, Foreftus relates
a remarkable inftancc. In ftill later times it has been cm-
ployed in the way of cataplafm, by which we are told the
moi fevere and obllinate cafes of cephalalgia have been
cured ; for which we have the authorities of Etmnller,
Hartmann, and more efpccially De Hacn.

Notwilhflanding thefe telliinonies in favour of vervain, it
has defervedly fallen into difufe in Britain ; nor has the
pamphlet of Mr. Morley, written proflTedly to recommend
its ufe in fcrophulous affeftions, had the efleil of reftoring its
medical charafter. This gentleman direfts the root of ver-
vain to be tied with a yard of -white fattin ribiantJ round the
neck, where it is to remain till the patient recovers. He
alfo has recourfe to infufions and ointments prepared from
the leaves of the plant ; and occafionally calls in aid the
moft aAive medicines of the Materia Medica. WoodviUe's
Med. Bot.

Vervain, Mallow. See Malva and Urena.

VERUDA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Adriatic,
near the coaft of Illria ; 4 miles S. of Pola.

VERUES, in ylnciint Geography, a people of Africa, in
Mauritania Tingitana, S. of the Succofii and of the Maca-
nitae, according to Ptolemy.

VERVIC, in Geography. See Werwic.

VERVIERS, a town of France, in the department of
the Ourthe, fituatid on the river Weze. It was anciently
walled, but when the French were mafters of Limburg,
they compelled the inhabitants of Verviers to demolifh the
walls. The body of citizens is reprefented by feven 1:0m-
miiraries, appointed by the magiftrates, whofe office is for
life, independent of the birtiop. The iiiliabitants carry on
a very confiderable traffic in cloth, which they export to
Germany, th'- northern parts of Europe, Italy, and Turkey;
17 miles E.S.E. of Liege. N. lat. 50^ 36'. E. long.

5° 53'-

VERVINS, a town of France, and principal place of

a diftrift, in the department of the Aifne ; 4 ports N.N.E.

of Laon. N. lat. 49° 50'. E. long. 3° 58'.

VERUL^, or Verulanum, in jimunt Geography, a

V E K

town of Italy, in Latium, in the country of the Hernici,
according to Florus. Frontinus reckons it in the number of
Roman colonies.

VERULAM, in Geography. See St. yllian'j.

VERULAMIA, in Botany, received this appellation
from the learned Decandolle, now botanical profeflbr at
Geneva, in memory of our immortal Bacon, baron of
Verulam ; fee that biographical article. That lord Bacon's
fpeculations in natural ki.owledge may allow us to claim
him as a botanift, we are too much intrrellcd \r the honour
of our fcience to difputc ; but we mud deeply regret that
his real name, fo univerfally known and vtiieratrd, was not
preferred, to one which ferves but to perpetuate the remem-
brance of his lamentable difgrace. We fhoiilJ, on any
future occafion, prcfume to eftablilh Eaconia, \n preference
to the above, as being, in addition to the above reafons,
authorized by Linniean rule and cudom. The charafters
of this genus, in a paper read before the French Injlitute,
were communicated by the above author to M. Poiret,
from whom we adopt them. — Poiret in Lam Dift. v. 8.
543. — Clafs and order, Tdrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Rul/iace^, JuiT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fliaped,
in four obtufe fegments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhapcd,
longer than the calyx ; tube cylindrical, (horter than the
limb, its orifice befet with hairs ; limb in four fpreading
fegments. Slam. Filaments four, Ihort, iiiferted into the
upper part of the tube ; anthers prominent, linear, twilled
after difcharging their pollen. Pi/l. Germen fuperior,
nearly globular, umbilicated at the top ; ilyle thrcad-fhaped,
hardly fo long as tlie anthers ; ftigma fimple, cylindrical.
Per/c. Berry fomewhat globular, comprefTed at the fummit,
nearly dry, of two cells. Seeds folitary, hemifpherical,
with a cartilaginous albumen, and Ifraight cylindrical
embryo.

Ed. Ch. Corolla funnel-fcaped, bearded in the mouth.
Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Berry of two cells. Seeds
foil tary .

I. V. corymbofa. Decand. Mem. t. i. unpublifhed.

Poiret n. i Found by Mr. Stadman, in Africa, near

Sierra Leone. A Jhrub, differing from all the known
genera of this order befides, in having a fuperior germen.
It is faid to be moft akin to G.ertneka, but we know not
what thefc writers intend under that name ; certainly not
what we, in its proper place, have defcribed. The branchet
are cyhndrical and fmooth. Leaves oppofite, ftalked,
croffing each other in pairs, elliptical, entire, fmooth>on both
fides, fix or feven inches long, two or more in breadth.
Stipulas in pairs, entire, fcarcely pointed, permanent.
Floivers in tf-rminal branched corymbs, without bradcai.
Caly.v wide, obtufe. Berry the fize of a pea.

V'ERULUM, Veroli, in jincient Geography, a town of
Italv, in Latium, at a fmall diftance from Alatrium ; ex-
hibiting fome relics of siuiquity.

VERU-MONTANUM, in Anatomy. See Gr.Nt.RA-
TiDN and Urethra.

VERURIUM, 111 Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania,
in Lufitania. Ptolemy.

VERUS, Li;cius, in Biography, a Roman emperor, fon
of L. Verus, who had been adopted by Adrian, was bom
about A. D. 131 ; and on his father's death, in 138,
adopted by Titus Antoninus, at the fame time with M.
Aurcliiis. In early life Verus neglefted all firious fludieg,
and attached himlelf to amufement and frivolous purfuits ;
and, therefore, T. Antoninus, at his death in 161, devolved
the imperial power folely on M. Aurelius ; but this emperor,
with an almoft unexampled gencrotty, dccl.trcd Vcrus tobcan
10 nffociate

V E S

aflbciate in the empire, with the titles of Casfar and Auguftus,
and other appendages of imperial authority ; confolidating
the union by marrying his daughter Lucilla to Verus ; nor
was the new emperor infenfible of the condefcenfion and
kindnefs of his father-in-law. Upon an invafion of Arme-
nia and Syria by Vologefes, king of Parthia, Aurelius,
with a view of refcuing Verus from the temptations of
the capital, appointed him to the command of an army
which marched againft this formidable foe. His attachment
to licentious pleafure and diffipating amufements difqualiiied
him for a fervice fo important ; his march was flow ; and
on reaching the voluptuous capital, Antioch, in the year
162, he totally neglefted all military operations, and for four
years devoted himfelf to almoll every fpecies of licentious
gratification and idle amufement. At the conclufion of
the war, rendered fuccefsful by fubordiaate Roman com-
manders, he returned to Rome, and partook of a triumph
with Aurelius. Such, however, was the pernicious effeft
of the courfe he purfued in Syria, that he addifted himfelf,
without reftraint, to all the follies and excefTes which have
difgraced the moil profligate and contemptible of the
Roman emperors. Cruelty excepted, he vied in vice and
folly with Nero and Caligula, or any of the imperial monfters
that had preceded him. His virtuous colleague beheld his
condutl with regret, and ufed every effort which wifdom
coidd fugged for reftraining and reforming him. With
this view, he took Verus with him in the war againft. the
Marcomanni, which commenced in the year 1 66. The two
emperors wintered together at Aquileia ; but Verus was
foon tired of the war, and when the frontiers were fecured
from the barbarians, he determined to return to Rome.
But upon their route from Aquileia, in the year 169, he was
feized with an apople£lic fit, which terminated his life in
three days, in the 39th year of his age, and the ninth of his
partnerfhip in the empire. Aurelius interred liim with
magnificence, and culpably la^ifhed all kinds of divine ho-
nours upon his memory, whilfl in his fpeech to the fenate
he expreffed his fatisfa£tion that death had removed an im-
pediment to his defigns and efforts for promoting the public
welfare. Crevier.

VERY Lord and Very Tenant, are thofe that are im-
mediate lord and tenant to one another. See Lord and
Tevaxt.

VERZELLINO, in Ornithology, the name of a bird
common in Italy, and kept in cages for its fiuging, called
by authors citrinella, and thraupis.

VERZINO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra ; 3 miles S.W. of Umbriatico.

VERZUOLO, a town of Piedmont, late France, in the
department of the Stara, fituated in a fruitful foil and falu-
brious air, near the Vratia. The country about it feems an
agreeable garden, covered with fruit-trees, vines, puKe, Sec.
It is furrounded with an ancient wall, and flanked with
towers. It has two parifh-churches, befides feveral chapels
and religious houfes. It has alfo a caftle or palace ; 2 miles
S. of Saluzzo.

VERZY, a town of France, in the department of the
Marne ; 9 miles S.E. of Rheims.

VESALIUS, Andrew, in Biography, a very eminent
anatomift, was born at BrufTels in 15 13 or 1514; purfued
his claflical ftudies at Louvani, and with a view to medicine
and anatomy, frequented the fchools of Cologn, Montpellier,
and Paris, attending, in the lall-mentioned capital, the lec-
tures of Gunther and James Sylvius. Upon occafion of
the war between Francis I. and Charles V. he was obliged
to quit Paris, and in the Low Countries he ferved as
phyfician and furgeon in the imperial troops from 1535 to

V E S

1537. In the latter year he removed to Padua, and taught
anatomy there with great applaufe till the year 1543. He
after^vards dehvered ledlures in the fchools of Bologna and
Pifa, and in the beginning of 1544, he became phyfician to
Charles V., and refided chiefly at the imperial court. In
the midft of his career of profeffional reputation, a fingular
circumllance occurred. Being fummoned to examine by dif-
feftion the body of a Spanifli gentleman who died in 1564,
and too precipitately commencing the operation, a palpi-
tation was obferved in the heart of the fubjeft. This inci-
dent being known to the family, Vefalius was accufed be-
fore the Inquifition, and in order to avert fome dreadful
fentence, Philip II. interpofed, and procured injunftion of
a pUgrimage to the Holy Land as an expiatory penance.
Accordingly the unfortunate anatomiil went firft to Cyprus,
and from thence to Jerufalem. During his abode in that
city, he received an invitation to occupy the chair of ana-
tomy at Padua. Ha\-ing, as it is fuppofed, accepted this
invitation, the vefTel in which he was returning to Europe
was wrecked on the coail of Zante, on which ifland he died
in 1564, about the 50th year of his age. A jeweller of
the idand procured an honourable interment for his remains
in the church of the Holy Virgin at Zante.

Vefalius has been repreiented as the firft perfon who ref-
cued anatomical fcience from the flavery impofed upon it
by deference to ancient opinions, and who led the way to
modern improvements. His firft publication of note was a
fet of anatomical tables, entitled " Suorum de Corporis
Humani Anatome Librorum Epitome," Bafil, 1542, fol.
max. The plates were for the moft part given again in his
great work, " De Corporis Humani Fabrica, Lib. VII."
BafJ, 1543, fol. which has been frequently reprinted in
feveral countries. He is moft correft, fays one of his bio-
graphers, in the bones, mufcles, and vifcera ; the mufcles, fays
Haller, he defcribes more accurately than any other writer,
to the time of Window. The earlieft impreffions of the
plates ai;e confidered as the moft valuable ; but the author
corrected his explanations in the fecond Bafil edition, 1555.
His treatife " De Radicis Chinx ufu Epiftola," pubhihed
in 1546, contains a fevere critique on the anatomy of
Galen, and a correftion of his errors ; and his reply to the
defence of Galen by Fallopio is the fubjeft of his " Anato-
micarum Gabrielis Fallopii Obfervationum Examen," ic6i.
The medical and chirurgical writings of Vefalius are held
in no high eftimation. His paraphrafe on the 9th book of
Rhaze% publifhed in 1537, is a compendium of medical
praftice. After his death, his difciple, Borgarucci, pub-
lifhed " Chirurgia Magna" under his name, a work fcarcely I
worthy of its alleged author. An edition of all the anato- ■
mical and chirurgical works of Vefalius, with fine plates, I
was publifhed under the care of Boerhaave and Albinus at
Leyden, 1725, 2 vols. foho. Haller. Tirabofchi. Eloy.
Gen. Biog. M

VESBOLA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in \
the vicinity of the Ceraunian mountains, about 60 fladia
from Trebula, and 40 from Surta, attributed by Dionyfius
Halicarnaffus to the Aborigines.

VESCAVATO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Corfica ; 9 miles N.E. of La Porta.

VESCi, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
the interior of Betica, at the foot of mount lUipula, be-
longing to the Turduli.

VESCIA, a town of Italy, in Aufonia. Steph. Byz.
Livy mentions this town and its territory-.

VESCIS, a port of Hifpania Citerior.

VESCONTE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Cala-
bria Ultra ; 3 miles N.W. of St. Sevcrina.

VESCO-

V^ E S

VESCOVATO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Upper Po ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Cremona.

VESCOVIO, or Vescovfo ni Sahina, a town of the
Popedom, in the province of Sabina ; 12 miles S. of Narni.

VESCOVO, La, n town of Naples, in Principato
Citra ; 14 miles W.S.W. of Amalfi.

VESERIS, in /Indent Geography, a place of Italy, in
Campania, on the plains at the foot of mount Vefuvius.
Livy fays that it was in this place tiiat Dccius devoted
himfelf to the gods Manes, on occafion of a battle between
the Romans and Latins.

V'ESICA, in Analomy, a bladder ; a membranous or
(kinny part in which any humour is contained.

Vesica Bilaria. See GALL-BIadder.

Vesica, among Chemijls, is a large copper vefTel tinned
on the infide, ufed in diitilling ardent fpirits ; fo called, as
refembhng the figure of a blown bladder.

Vesic.5; Sph'inder, in Anatomy. See Sphixcteh.

VESICARIA, in Botany, a genus of Tournefort's, thus
named from the bladdery appearance of its very large in-
flated feed-vclfel. — Tourn. Cor. 49. t. 483. — Linn-.eus re-
duces this plant to Alyjfum ; fee that article, n. 16. Tour-
nefort makes a finguiar remark, that " if the root were
flefliy, it would belong to the fame genus as Leonhipetalon ;"
fee Leoxtice. He fubfequently perhaps difcovered it to
be a true cruciform flower, as it undpubtedly is. No other
botanifl fecms to have met witii this plant ; though Willde-
now, like ourfelves, had feen a dried fpecimen, and he finds
fault, we think unjuftly, with the figure. Tourncfort met
with this fpecies in a bare and uncultivated v.i!ley of Ar-
menia, not far from Baiboul, early in June. The root is
■woody, and appears to be perennial, crowned with tufts of
linear, channelled, toothed, nearly fmooth, bright-green
leaves, not an inch long. Stems three or four inches high,
fimple, clothed with fmaller, more entire, leaves. Fhiuers
corymbofe, fmall, yellow. Pouch fomewhat ovate, in-
flated, four-filled, an inch long, and nearly as broad, mem-
branous, fmooth, with four longitudinal angles and ribs,
and many reticulated veins, pale-green, purplith on one fide,
crowned by the permanent llyle. It coniifts of one cell,
wth two oppofite, linear, marginal, membranous receptacles,
into which the three or four oval feeils are inferted. — All
things confidered, we cannot but think this plant entitled
to rank a! a genus by itfelf, nor is the name exceptionable.
Though not furniflied v.'ith materials to draw up its full
generic character, we can give the effential diftuiftions. —
Clafs and order, Tclradynamia Siliculofa. Nat. Ord. Sili-
quofit, Linn. Crucifera, JufT.

Elf. Ch. Pouch inflated, quadrangular, acute, of one
cell, with two linear marginal receptacles. Seeds fereral.

I. V. eltntata. Toothed Bladder.crefs. (V. orientalis,
foliis dentatis ; Tourn. Cor. 49. Voyage, v, 2. 109, with
a plate. AlyfTum Veficaria ; Linn. Sp. PI. 910. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 3. 470. Mill. Dift. ed. 8. n. 9.)— Native of
Armenia. It is fcarcely necefTary to remark, that Miller
merely adopted this plant from Tournefort, witfiout having
fcen it alive, nor can we difcover his authority for faying
thejlems fpread on the furface of the ground. They appear
by our fpecimen, as well as by Tournefort's figure, to be
upright.

VESICATORY, Vesicatokium. See Blister, Can-
THAUiDEs, and Empi-astrum.

Vcficatorics are a llronger fort of finapifms, and a kind of
potential cauteries.

VESICULA, Ve.sicle, a diminutive of vefica; fignify-
ing a little bladder.

The lungs confill of veficulx, or lobules of veficulx, ad-

V E S

mitting air from the bronchix ; and not only air. but alf
dull, &c.

There are feveral parts in the body which bear this appel-
lation ; as,

Vesicula Fellis, Ciflula FeUis. See GAhh-Bladder.
Vesicul.5; Seminales. See Genekat/on.
Vesicul.t, Seminales. Thefe veffels are very evident in
filh i the females of moil fifh have double ovaria, though
in fome they are fingle, as in the ofmerus, and perca fluvia-
tihs of Bellonius ; but the vcficulx fcminalcs in the males are
two in number in all fifh, not excepting the males of thofe
here mentioned. They differ, however, very much in re-
gard to their figure and fituation. As to their fituation,
they in fome fifh occupy almoft the whole length of the
abdomen, as in the fpinofe kinds in general, and in the
pctromyzum, acipenfer, and many of the other cartilagi-
nous kinds. In fome fifh, they are placed only in the
lower part of the abdomen, as in the cetaceous kinds, &e.
As to figure, in the generality of fifh they are oblon'g and
comprefted, but in forae they are round, as in the cetaceous
kinds. The other parts of generation .ire wanting in moft
fifh. Artedi's Ichthyology.

Vesicul^ Adipofte. See Adeps, and Cellul;e Adi-
pofit.

VESICULAR Glands. See Glands.
VESIDIA, or Versiglia, in Ancient Geography, a fmall
river of Italy, in Etruria.

VESINNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Yonnc ; 10 miles S.E. of St. Florentin.

VESIONICjE, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy,
in Umbria, S.W. of Iguvium.

VESIRE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Lignon, near its union with the Loire.

VESLE, a river of France, which runs into the Aifne,
near Veilly. — Alfo, a river of France, which runs into the
Saone, oppofite Varenne-lc-Grand.

VESLING, Joiix, in Biography, a phyficinn, anatomift,
and botanifl, was born at Mindcn, in Weftphalia, in the year
1598 ; and liaving fludicd medicine at Padua, he travelled
into Egypt, and upon his vifit to Jerufalcm, he became a
knight of the Holy Sepulchre. Upon his return, he was
appointed, in 1652, to occupy the firfl chair of anatomy at
Padua, lefturing alfo in furgcry and botany, and in 1638
fuperintending tlie botanical garden. In order to enrich
this garden, he travelled to Candia, and other parts of the
Levant, where he coUefted a large number of rare plants.
At length, exhaullcd by his labours, he died at Padua in
1649, at the age of 51 years. As an anatomift, he pub-
lifhed " Syntagma Anatomicum publicis Diffeftiombus
diligentcr aptatum," Patav. 1641, and again with additions
and figures, Patav. 1647 ; a work which has been often
reprinted and tranflated into various languages, and which,
though for the moft part a compilation, contains new obfer-
vatjons, efpecially pertaining to the organ of hearing. A
pofthumous work, entitled " De PuUitionc jEgyptiorum,
et ali* Obfcrvationes Anatomies, et Epiflolx Mediex
pofthums," Hafn. 1664, is highly commended by Hallcr,
and contains fome curious obfcrvations on the hatching of
eggs in Egypt, and evolution of parts of the chick, the
anatomy of the viper, crocodile, and hyxna, the human
ladleals and lymphatics, &c. His principal publications in
botany were, " De Plantis j'Egypti Obfcrvationes, et Notx
ad P. Alpinum," Patav. 1638; " Opobalfami Veteribus
cognitiVindiciT," Patav. 1644; and " Catalogus Plantarum
Horti Pataviiii," Patav. 1642-1644. Haller. Eloy.
VESLY, in Geography. Sec Veili.v.
VESOUL, a city of France, and capital of the depart-
ment

VESPA.

ment of the Upper Saone, fituated on a mountain, called
Mott de Vefoul : near it is a medicinal fpring ; 5^ pofts N.
of Befan^on. N. lat. 47° 38'. E. long. 6° 14'.

VESPA, Waff, in Entomology, a genus of the Hymenop-
tera order of infeAs, the charafters of which are thefe : the
mouth horny ; the jaw compreffed, without probofcis ; the
palpi or feelers four, unequal, filiform ; the antennae fili-
form, the firft joint being longer and cylindric ; the eyes
lunated ; the body fmooth ; the fting concealed ; and the
upper wings plicated. This is a very extenfive genus,
comprehending, in Gmelin's Syftem of Linnaeus, 159 fpe-
cies ; but in the hiftory and arrangement of this fpecies there
remains much confufion. We may obferve in general, that
they are j^emarkable, like thofe of the apis, or bee, for the
dexterity with which they conftruft their nefts, which in
thofe of many fpecies is of confiderable fize. We fliall con-
fine ourfelves, in this article, to a defcription of two fpecies ;
•viz. the Vulgaris and Crabro.

VuxGARis ; or Common Wafp. This has an interrupted
fmall line on both fides of the thorax ; a four-fpotted fcu-
tellum, and the incifions of the abdomen marked with black
fpots. It is fuggefted by Dr. Shaw, that the V. vulgaris of
Linnaeus, which he reprefents as building its neil under pro-
jefting roofs, may not be the fame with the common Englilh
wafp, fo well known to u8, which builds jts neft under ground ;
as under the furface of feme dry bank. M. Reaumur ( Hift.
Acad. Sc. Paris, 1 7 19), and Dr. Derham (Phil. Tranf.
N° 382. p. ^i- or Abr. vol. viii. p. 404.), agrees in diilin-
guifhing three iorts of wafps ; vi-z. the queens or females,
the males, and the common labouring wafps, called mules,
which, accorduig to Reaumur, are neither males nor fe-
males, and confequently barren. The queens, of which
there is a confiderable number, though fewer than the males,
and of courfe much fewer than the neutral or labouring
wafps, are much longer in the body, and larger than any
other wafp : they have a large heavy belly, corrcfponding
in fize to the prodigious quantity of eggs vi'ith which they
are charged. The males are lefs than the queens, but longer
and larger than the common wafps, which are the fmalleft
of the fpecies : they have no ftings, with which both the
queens and common wafps are furnifhed. There are in one
neft two or three hundred males, and as many females ; but
their number depends on the fize of the neft ; and Dr. Der-
ham obferved that the males were bred, or at leaft moftly
refided, in the two cells or partings, between the combs,
next to the uppermoft cell. The antenn:E or horns of the
male wafps are longer and larger than thofe of either of
th^ other forts ; but the chief difference, fays Dr. Der-
ham, confifts in their parts of generation, which are alto-
gether different from thofe of other wafps.

The mules are the labourers belonging to the neft, and
are employed in procuring materials for the nefts, and in
conftrufting them, and alfo in fumiftiing the other wafps,
and the young, with provifions.

M. Reaumur has obfeived, that when the females that
have furvived the winter begin, at the return of fpring, to
lay their eggs, they firft lay thofe which hatch mules, and
at this time they build cells of a fmaller fize to lodge the
eggs from which they are produced : they afterwards build
larger cells, and fill them with the largeft eggs, which
are thofe of the males and females. This writer fays,
that the copulation of the males and females is vifible, and
he has given a particular account of it ; obferving that it is
performed in Oftober, hke that of all other flies.

At the beginning of winter the wafps deftroy all the eggs,
and all the young ones without exception ; all the mules and
males which have been employed in thi8 work, being unfur-

nifhed with provifions, perifti ; and none furvive, except fome
few females, which, according to Reaumur, were fecundated
in Oftober, and raife a new colony in the beginning of
fpring.

The wafps conftruft regular combs, and rear their young
in the cells of thefe combs, in the manner of bees : wliere-
ever there is a young worm in a cell, the old wafps frequently
thruft their heads into it, and caft up the food, being a coarfe
kind 6f honey, for the young one out of their mouths :
their cells are hexagonal ; and when they have a mind
to enlarge their habitations, and make more or bigger
combs in them, they are feen very bufily coming out of
the mouth of the hole, every one loaded ^v^th a parcel of
earth, till they have carried out as much as is neceflary for
the intended enlargement.

They fupport their combs, one over another, by crofs-
pieces of about an inch long, fo that there is ample room for
the wafps to pafs in their feveral bufinefies. Thofe cells
which ftand in the centre of a comb are always perpendi-
cular ; the others all ftand more or lefs obhquely ; and in
the centre, the comb is fomewhat hollowed and depreffed on
the face, and convex on the back ; and in this part is in-
ferted the principal crofs-piece that fcrves for a fupport.

A wafp's neft is commonly round, or oval, meafuring
about ten or twelve inches in diameter, and made of mate-
rials refembling the coarfer kinds of whitifh-brown paper.
Thefe materials confift of the fibres of various dry vegetable
fubftances, agglutinated by a tenacious fluid, difcharged
from the mouths of the infefts during their operations. The
common covering of it, which u formed of feveral leaves or
layers, with intermediate fpaces, is pierced by two holes at
a diftance from one another, one of which is ufed for the
entrance of the wafps, and the other only for their exit. The
fpace within this covering is cut by a number of horizontal
planes, with intervals between them of the fize of about
half an inch ; they are fufpended from one another by liga-
ments, and attached to the covering by their edges ; they
all have hexagonal cells in their lower furface.

The eggs, larva;, or maggots of the wafp are of an ob-
long form, and referable thofe of a common fly, but they
are larger ; they are always fattened to the angles of a cell,
never to the fides of it. They are ufually placed fingle : it
is very rare to find two in one cell ; and, if they are laid fo,
It feems that only one fucceeds ; for there is never found
more than one worm in a cell.

The heads of all the nymphs are turned toward the centre
of the comb, and their tails go obliquely downward toward
the bafe of the cell. They are continually feen opening
their mouths, and moving their forcipes, feeming ever hungry,
and impatiently waiting for food from their parents. The
cells are left open till the nymph is at its full growth ; then
the wafps cover it over with a thin lid, under which the
worm undergoes its transformation ; and as foon as it arrives
at the wafp ftate, it eats its way through this thin cover, and
comes to work with the reft.

The wafps do not, hke bees, prepare and lay up a ftore
of honey for winter ufe, but the few which furvive the fea-
fon of their birth remain torpid during the colder months.
Wafps in general are both carnivorous and frugivorous.

Crabro ; or Hornet. This has its thorax black on the
fore part, and unfpotted, having the incifures of the abdomen
marked with a double contiguous black fpot. This fpecies
is of a much more formidable nature than the common wafp,
and of confiderably larger fize : its colour is a tawny yel-
low, with ferruginous and black bars and variegations. The
neft of this fpecies is generally built in the cavity of fome
decayed tree, or immediately beneath its roots ; and not un-

fre-

V E S

frequently in timber-yards, and other fimilar fituations. It
is of fmaller fize than that of the wafp, and i/f a fomcwhat
globular form, with an opening beneath ; the exterior ftiell
confiding of more or fewer layers of the fame ftrong paper-
like fubltance with that prepared by the wafp : the cells are
alfo of a fimilar nature, but much fewer in number, and lefs
elegantly compofed. Tiie hornet, like the wafp, is ex-
tremely voracious, and preys on almoft any kind of frefh
animal fubftanccs which it can obtain, as well as on honey,
fruit, &c. &c. Its fting is greatly to be dreaded, and is
often produftive of very ferions confequences.

A highly elegant wafp's-neft is fometimes feen during the
fummer feafon, attached, or hanging as it were, by its bafe
to fome ftraw or other projedting fnbftance, from the upper
part of unfrequented buildings or outhoufes. It does not
much exceed the fize of an egg, but is of a more globular
form, and confifts of feveral concentric bells, with confi-
derable intervals between each, the interior alone being
entire, and furnifhed with a fmall round orifice ; the relt
reacliing only about two-thirds from the bafe of the neft.
In the centre of the complete or entire bell is fituated the
congeries of cells, built round a fmall central pillar attached
to the bafe : the cells are not very numerous, and their ori-
fices look downwards. This nell is attributed by M- La-
treille, in the work entitled " Annales du Mufeum National
d'Hilioire Naturelle," No. 4. to the Vefpa Holfatica of Fa-
bricius, and appears to be found both in England and France,'
as well as in many other parts of Europe. Shaw's Zoo-
logy, vol. vi.

Mr. Ray mentions a peculiar fpecies of wafp, which
builds a mucli fmaller neil. This is ufually fixed to a beam
of fome old building, and has only one aperture, which is
about half an inch wide, and ferves for the wafps to go in
and out at. This aperture is always cxadfly oppofite to
that part of the hive where it adheres to the beam. The
hive or neft is covered with a thin membranaceous fubftance
refembling paper, of a brown colour, with ftreaks of white,
difpofed in regular circles. The whole neft is about three
inches in diameter, and is ufually compofed of about nine
crufts ; when thefe are cut away, there appears a round
comb in the centre, and a fmaller above it, fixed up by a
pedicle arifing from the centre of each. In every one of
thefe cells, which are hexagonal, as tliofe of the common
wafp, is reared one worm, which, in fine, becomes a
wafp.

The fpecies of wafp which builds in this manner differs
from the common wafp in that it is fomewliat larger ; it is
fmoother alfo, and has rings of a deeper yellow on the
back : the black fpots are not fo regular in this as in the
common wafp ; and the forehead in this is of a pcrfeft yel-
low, without any fpots. Thefe marks, with the difference
of hanging a fmall neft againft a beam, and building a large
one in the ground, are fufficicnt to diftinguifh this as an ab-
folutely different fpecies. Bcfidcs thefe two, Mr. Ray
mentions four other fpecies of wafps.

We have an account in the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
No. 476, of fome wafp-nefts made of clay in Peiuifyl-
vania.

M. Reaumur, in his Hiftory of Infefts, vol. vi. mentions
clay-nefts from St. Domingo, fomewliat different from
thefe.

The common wafp has four wings and fix feet ; its body
is yellow, witli black triangular fpots : the common wafp
breeds in the ground.

There is another kind much more ■fierce, but very rare :
thefe breed in woods and mountains ; they are larger, and
have broader bodies, and much mote black about them ;

Vol. XXXVIl,

V E S

their fting is fo large, that it feems difproportioned to the
fize of their bodies. The application of vinegar is fcid to
be good againft their ftinging.

To thefe arc to be added the ichneumon wafps, which are
fmaller than the others, and have very flender bodies, but of
the fame colours with the common kind ; thefe ufually live
in the holes of mud-walls, and make a fort of porch of mud
before the doors of their habitations.

Of this infeft, Mr. Ray mentions not lefs than thirty -
two fpecies ; the greater part of which are common on the
fides of mud-banks in the borders of fields. Thefe have all
/lender bodies, and are armed with flings.

The origin of this creature is very ilrange ; it is ufually
found iffuing from the body of the common cabbage cater-
pillar ; the occafion of which is this : the parent fly ftrikes
her tail through the fl<in of the back of this caterpillar, and
depofits her eggs in the creature's flefti. The eggs hatch
into fmall maggots of the carnivorous kind ; and thefe prey
upon the flefh of the caterpillar till they arrive at their full
growth : the creature that fupports them keeping itfelf alive
all this time by the vaft quantities of nourifhmeiit it is con-
tinually taking in. At length, when thefe worms are ar-
rived at their full growth, they (pin themfelves a web, under
which they change into chryfales, and foon after come out
in form of the fly that laid the egg. This is not peculiar to
this fingle fpecies of fiy ; but many are formed thus in the
bodies of caterpillars of feveral kinds : fome of tliefe fpin
their webs under the flcin of the caterpillar, and eat their
way through it, when arrived at their perfctl ftate ; but
others crawl out while yet in their worm ilate, after having
eaten their full time, and bury themfelves under ground in
order to fpin their webs.

There is alfo another wafp common about Vienna ; this is
three times as large as the common kind, and feems of two
different fpecies, the one having rough anteniuc, and the
other fmooth : they are both variegated with black and a
bright yellow. MoiifTet's Hift. Iiifetls, p. 6.
V ESP A-Ic/meumon. See the preceding article.
VESPASIjE, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in
the country of the Sabines, on tlie fuinmit of a mountain,
fix miles from >Iur(ia. Many monuments indicating the an-
tiquity of the Vefpafian family, are found in this place, ac-
cording to Suetonius.

VESPASIAN, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, in Bio-
graphy, a Roman emperor, was born near Reate, in the
country of the Sabines, A.D. 7, and brougiit up by his pater-
nal grandmother near Cofa, in Tufeany. In the year 38 he
was edile, and difgraced himfelf by his adulation of the tyrant
Caligula : aftuated by the fame mean fpirit, he married Do-
mitia or Domitilla, the miftiefs of a Roman knight. In
the reign of Claudius he diftinguifhed himfelf by the com-
mand of a legion, obtained for him by the intereft of Nar-
ciffus, firft in Germany, and afterwards in Great Britain,
and he was rewarded for his iervices by the triumphal orna-
ments, a double priefthood, and at lall a confulate. During
the early years of Nero's reign he lived in retirement,
but at length lie was appointed proconful of Africa ; and
in this office he incurred the deteftation of the people, ac-
cording to Tacitus, whereas Suetonius fays, that he dif-
charged his duties with integrity and dignity. By way of
reconciling thefe contradidlory accounts, it has been Haled,
that in levying the public impofitions on the province he was
rigorous, whilft he exatted nothing for himfelf, and that he
adminiftered juilice with impartiality. Upon his return he
was reduced to pecuniar)' embarraffinenis, from which he
was relieved by mortgaging his landed property, and Dy
fome mean pratlices. In the attentions expc(fled from a
Q courtier

V E S

courtier he was defi«ient ; for he is faid to have fallen adeep
during one of Nero's public mufical performances, and to
have thus hazarded his ruin. He accompanied this emperor
in his tour to Greece, and A.D. 66, he was appointed im-
perial lieutenant in the Jewifh war. In this ftation he had
full fcope for exhibiting his good quahties as a military com-
mander. With three legions, a body of cavalry, and ten
auxiliary cohorts, he invaded Judaea, his fon Titus ferving
under him as lieutenant. His progrefs was irrefiftible ; and
after capturing Jotapa and Joppa, and reducing almoll the
whole of Galilee, he withdrew to Ctsefarea, where he wit-
neffed the conflift of two Jewifh parties, who were de-
ftroying one another. Whilft he was preparing for the fiege
of Jerufalem, the death of Nero, A.D. 68, prefented to
him new profpefts. As foon as he received intelligence of
the acceffion of Galba, he fent his fon Titus to pay homage
to the new emperor ; but on his journey Titus received an
account of the murder of the emperor. This event pro-
duced a conteft between Otho and Vitellius for the imperial
throne. Vefpafian declared for Vitelhus, who, by Otho's
death, was left in poITeffion of the throne. But the new empe-
ror was both hated and defpifed ; and Vefpafian's reputation
was fo generally acknowledged in the Eaft, that in the year
69 he Vas proclafmed emperor by the legions of Judea,
Syria, and Egvpt, and his fovereignty was every where re-
cognized. When Italy fubmitted to his name, Vefpafian
was at Alexandria ; and as the fenate and people concurred
in his elevation to the imperial throne, he left this city
A.D. 70, and haftened to Rome, where his arrival was ea-
gerly expefted. He was received with general congratula-
tion and rejoicing ; and his conduiS; confirmed the hopes
that were entertained at the commencement of his reign.
To the revival of the ancient difcipline of the army his firfl
attention was diredled ; and as foon as he affumed the cen-
forial office, he revifed the lift of fenators and knights, dif-
placing the unworthy, and augmenting the number by the
adnnrinion of feveral meritorious citizens. Whilft he re-
ftrained luxury by his example and authority, and admmif-
tered juftice with impartiahty, he manifefted in his gene-
ral conduft the clemency and mildnefs of his difpofition.
He avoided every kind of parade, nor did he ever attempt to
difguife the meannefs of his origin. With tl.e fenators he
lived upon eaPy and familiar terms, receiving and returning
their viiits ; and, as an hiftorian obferves, afting tlie empe-
ror only by his vigilance for the pubhc welfare. The prin-
cipal blemifli of his charafter was his avarice. Accordingly,
he had recourfe to various mean and opprefllve expedients
for raifing money. Neverthelefs, the wealth which he accu-
mulated by fordid methods was diftributed with munificence,
in improving the capital and the country, and in providing
for poor fenators, for literary profeftors, and for the encou-
ragement of the arts.

If we advert to the public events of his reign, the firll
year was diftinguilhed by the termination of the rebellion of
the Gauls under Civilis, and the capture of Jerufalem by
Titus ; and in the following year he fliut the temple of
Janus, and erefted a magnificent temple to Peace. In the
year 72, Comagene was reduced to a Roman province by the
depofition of its king Antiochus. The liberty granted to
the people of Greece by Nero, in recompence of their adu-
lation, was reftrifted A.D. 73, on account of fome tumults
which occurred, and they were again fubjefted to tribute
and the Roman government. The iflands of the iEgean fea
were likewife conftituted a Roman province, and Rhodes was
made the metropolis. The honour of this reign was juftly
reproached for the death of the virtuous patriot Helvidius
Prifcus, who, for freedom of fpeech, and aftion fcarcely

4

V E S

compatible with monarchical government, was firft banifhcd
and afterwards fentenced to death by the fenate, a fen-
tence which, it is faid, was executed by the contrivance
of Mucianus, contrary to the orders of Vefpafian. The
tragical fate of Sabinus, and his wife Eponina, was very de-
rogatory to the charafter for clemency by which he was
diftinguiftied. ( See Sabinus. ) Vefpafian has alfo been
blamed for the bani(hment of the Stoic and Cynic philofo-
phers from Rome, under an appreheniion that they were
enemies to abfolute power. This emperor, having enjoyed
the benefit of a good conftitution to advanced age, wus
attacked with a fever in the infalubrions cfimate of Campania,
and having drank too copioufly of a cold mineral water, he
was feized with a complaint in his bowels, which foon reduced
him to a ftate of perilous debility. Apprifed of his danger,
and jefting upon the ufual imperial apotheofis, he faid, " In
my opinion, I am going to become a god." Afterwards,
as he found himfelf fainting, he attempted to rife out of his
bed, obferving, that " an emperor ought to die ftanding."
He expired in the arms of his attendants, in June A.D.
79, in the feventieth year of his age, and tenth of his
reign ; lamented by the Roman people, who under his go-
vernment had enjoyed feveral years of peace. Titus, one of
his fons, was the great fupport of his father's throne, and
the other, Doraitian, was the caufe of much trouble and
vexation to him. Tacitus. Suetonius. Crevier.

VESPER, in yljlrommy, called alfo Hejperus, and the
e-veningjlar, is the planet Venus, when ftie is eallward of the
fun, and confequently fets after him. See Venus.

Vesper, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean,
about 36 miles in circumference, difcovered by Roggewin
in 1722 ; about 60 miles W. of Pernicious ifland.

VESPERIES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpa-
nia Citerior, belonging to the Varduli ; fituated N.E. of
Flaviobriga.

VESPERS, in the Romifi Church, Evening Song, that
part of the office which is rehearfed after noon ; anfwering
to our evening prayers ; except that it differs more from the
office of the morning, called matins.

Vespers, Sicilian, denote a famous era in the French
hiftory ; or a general maffacre of all the French in Sicily,
in the year 1282, to which the firft toll that called to vefpers
was the fignal.

Some will have it to have happened on Eafter eve ; others
on the day of the Annunciation ; but moft authors affign it
to Eafter day. It is afcribed to one Prochites, a Cordelier,
at the time when Charles of Anjou, count of Provence, was
king of Naples and Sicily. The women with child by
Frenchmen were not fpared.

After the like manner we fay, the matins of Mofconu,
fpeaking of the Mufcovites aflaffinating their prince Deme-
trius, and all the Poles, his adlierents, at Mofcow, the
27th of May, 1600, under the conduft of their duke
Choutiky, at fix o'clock m the morning ; and French matins
to the maffacre of St. Bartholomew, in 1572.

VESPERTILIO, Bat, in Zoology, a genus of the
order Primates, in the clafs of Mammalia ; which, though
ranked by Linnaeus in the order of Primates, differs greatly
from the reft." The charadlers of this genus are, that the
teeth are ereft, fharp-pointed, and approximated ; and that
the hands are palmated with a membrane furrounding the
body, and giving the animal the power of flight. Dr. Shaw
obferves, that the curious formation of thefe animals cannot
be contemplated without admiration ; the bones of the ex-
tremities being continued into long and thin procefTes, con-
nefted by a moft delicate membrane or (kin, capable, from
its thinnefs, of being contrafted at pleafure into innumerable

wrinkles,

VESPERTILIO.

wrinkles, fo as to lie in a fmall fpace wlien the animal is at
reft, and to be itretched to a very rfide extent for occafional
flight. The fpecies of this extraordinary genus ar? nume-
rous, and may be divided into the tailed and tailhfs bats.
Gmelin, in his edition of the Linnjean Syftcm, enumerates
twenty -three fpecies, and diltributes them into feveral divi-
lions, according to the number of the fore-teeth in the upper
and lower jaw.

* Bats ivlth four Fore-teeth in both Jaws.

Vampyrus. Taillefs bat, with the nofe fimple, or
without any appendage, and the flying membrane divided
between the thighs. This is the ternate bat of Pennant ;
and this, or the variety a of Gmelin, the colour of which is
chiefly black, is the V . ingens of Clufius, the V. volans of
Bontius, the chien volant of Daubenton, and rouffette of
Buffon. Gmelin enumerates two other varieties, differing
in fize and colour ; one the great bat of Edwards, or rou-
gette of Buffon, and the other the lefTer ternate bat ot
Pennant. See Vampyre.

Spectrum. TaiUefs bat, with a funnel-fhaped, (harp-
pointed membrane on the nofe. This' is the andira guacu,
vefpertilio cornutus of Pifo, the vampyre of Buffon, or
fpeftre bat of Pennant. See Vampyre.

Perspicillatus. a taillefs bat, with a nofe furnifhcd with
a plane leaf acuminated. This is found in South America,
and is fuppofed by fome to be the javehn bat of Pennant.

Spasma. .\ taillefs bat, with a doubly heart-fhaped
leaf-like membrane on the nofe. This is the glis volans ter-
natar.us of Seba, and coi-dated bat of Pennant. The co-
lour is reddifh-brown ; the extent of wing about fifteen
inches, and length of body nearly four inches : it is a native
of Ceylon and the Molucca iflands.

Hastatus. a taillefs bat, with a trefoil-fhaped upright
membrane on the nofe. This is the javehn bat of Pennant,
with large pointed ears, a membrane at the nofe in the form
of an ancient javelin, with two upright procefTes on each
fide, cinereous fur, and of the ffee of the common bat : fy-
nonimous, according to Pennant, with the V. pcrfpiciUatus
of Linnxus, and inhabiting the warmer parts of America.

SoRiciNUS. A taillefs bat, with lengthened fnout, fur-
nifhed with a heart-fhaped, leaf-like membrane. This is
the leaf bat of Pennant, and bat from Jamaica of Edwards ;
with fmall rounded ears, a web between the hind-legs ; fur
of a moufe -colour, tinged with red, and fize of the common
bat. Found in South America.

Leporinus. Tailed bat, with the upper lip bifid. This
is the Peruvian bat of Pennant. It has a head refembling
that of a pug-dog ; the ears are large and ftraight, fharp at
the ends, and pointing forwards ; tail inclofed in the mem-
brane which joins to each hind-log, and fupported by two
long cartilaginous ligaments, involved in the membrane ; co-
lour of the fur iron-grey ; body of the fize of a middling
rat, and extent of wmg two feet five inches.

* * Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw four, in the lower fix.

AuRlTUS. Tailed bat, with fimple or inappcndiculated
mouth and nofe, and double ears larger than tlie head.
This is the long-eared Englifli bat of Edwards, the oreiller
of Buffon, and the long-eared bat of Pennant. This very
much refembles the next fpecies, but is rather fmaller, and
the fur has lefs of the reddifli tinge ; but it is diftinguilhed
by the very large fize of the cars, which are more than an
inch long, and very confiderably wide ; flightly rounded at
the tips, and furnifhcd mternally with a kmd of fecondary
auricle or intern.il flap, fo placed as to fcrve by way of a
valve or guard to the auditory pafTage.

MuRiNUS. Tailed bat, with fimple nofe, and ears
fmalkr than the head. This is the chauve-fonris of Buffon,
the fhort-eared Englifh bat of Edwards,, and the common
bat of Pennant. It is about two inches and a half from the
nofe to the tip of the tail, and the extent of the wings, fully
expanded, is about nine inches : it is of a moufe-coloiir,
tinged with reddifh ; the wings and ears black, the latter
bemg fmall and rounded.

This and the former bats are the two moft common
fpecies in this country ; and they are thofe which are fecn
fluttering about in the evenings of fummer and autumn ;
often uttering a fharp, f^ridulous note or fcream during
their flight, and purfuing the various infefts on which they
feed, particularly moths. They are fometimes taken by
throwing up the heads of burdock whitened with flour,
being thus caught by the hooked prickles and brought to
the ground. The bat is, like the moufe, capable of being
tamed to a certain degree. Infefts are its favourite food",
though it will not rejeft raw flefh when offered ; fo that the
notion that bats go down chimneys and gnaw men's bacon is
not improbable. The vulgar opinion, that bats, when on a flat
furface, cannot get on the wing again, is erroneous. Bats are
commonly fuppofed to produce two at a birth, which they
fuckle for a confiderable time. When recently born, they ad-
iicre fo tenacioufly to the breafl of the parent, as not to be re-
moved without great difficulty : they lodge in great numbers
in the cavities of old buildings, under the projeftions of walls,
in the hollows of trees, in rocky places, &c. &c. In thefe
receffes they lie torpid during winter, till the warmth of the
vernal atmofphere invites them abroad to make their evening
excurfions. When taken torpid, and brought into a warm
fituation, they awake from their (lumber, and again expand
their wings. During their (late of torpidity, the circulation
of the blood is not perceivable in the fmaller veflels, but
when awakened by warmth, it becomes vifible by the micro-
fcope. Bats arc faid to drink on the wing by fipping
the furface, like fwallows, as they play over pools and
dreams. They are fond of frequenting waters, not only for
the fake of drinking, but on account of the infedls that
hover over them. The general appearance of the bat,
together with its nofturnal flight, excites the idea of fome-
thing that is hideous and difmal ; and therefore the ancients
confecrated it to Proferpinc, and conceived it as one of her
dufliy regions ; and hence painters, in their reprefentations of
fiends and demons, ufually exhibit them with the leathern
wings of the bat. It is alfo no lefs evident, that the larger
bats of India and Africa might, by a httle poetical ex-
aggeration, ferve very well in a general defcription of the
fabulons Harpies. Spallanzani, having found that bats
would fly in the darkclt chamber with piecifioii, and with-
out touching the walls, difcovered alfo the fame cxaftnefs in
their motions, when their eyes were clofely covered ; and he
even dcflroyed the eyes and covered their fockets with lea-
ther ; and in this fiate they were equally accurate in all
their movements. Similar experiments were tried by feveral
other naturalifls with the fame refult. In order to account
for thefe plienomena, profeffor Jurin of Geneva makes a
variety of pertinent obfcrvations. Neither the touch, nor
ear, nor fmell, nor tafle, is fufficient in his opinion to fupply
the want of fight ; hut from fome anatomical invelligations
of thefe animals, he concluded tiiat a very large proportion
of nerves is expanded on tiic upper jaw, tlio muzzle, and the
organ of hearing ; and tliefe appeared to him, in a gre.il
degree, to account for the extraordinary faculty above-
mentioned. Mr. Carlifle's obfcrvations on this fubjeft lead
us to conclude that th- fenfc of liearing in the bat is ex-
tremely d'.licntc, and ihkt this is one of the principal cjufcs
Q 2 of

VESPERTILIO.

of the dexterity with which thefe animals, even when
blinded, avoid objedt's which would impede their flight.
Mr. Carlifle found, that when the external ears of the
V. auritus in a (late of blindnefs were clofed, it llruck
againft the fides of the room, without being at all aware of
its fituation. Thefe bats refufed every kind of food for
four days, as was alfo the cafe with others which were pre-
ferved in a dark box for above a week. During the day-
time they were very defirous of retirement and darknefs ;
and, while confined to the box, never moved nor endeavoured
to get out during the whole day, and when fpread on the
carpet, they crawled flov^dy to a dark corner or crevice.
At fun-fet the fcene was quite changed ; every one of them
then endeavoured to fcratch its way out of the box ; a con-
tinued chirping was heard, and no fooner was the lid of their
prifon opened than each was aftive to efcape, either flying
away immediately, or running nimbly to a convenient place
for taking wing. When thefe bats were firfl; coUeAed,
feveral of the females had young ones clinging to their
breafts in the aft of fucking. One of them flew with per-
feft eafe, though two little ones were thus attached to her,
which weighed nearly as much as their parent. All the
young were deftitute of down, and of a black colour.

NocTULA. Tailed bat, with nofe and mouth fimple ;
oval ears, and very fmall valves. This is the noftule of
BufFon, and groat bat of Pennant. This fpecies is larger
than the V. auritus, its extended wings mcafuring from
fourteen to fifteen inches ; the length from the nofe to the
tip of the tail being about four inches and a half; the nofe is
nightly bilobated ; the eyes are fmall and rounded ; the
body is flefhy and plump ; the (houlders very thick and
mufcular ; the fur very foft and gloffy, and of a bright
chefnut-colour. This is an inhabitant of Britain and
France ; and is faid to be common in fome parts of RulTia,
fheltering in caverns. It flies high in the air in fearch of
food, and does not fliim near the furface, like the fmaller
bats. It has been found occafionally in great numbers
under the eaves of old buildings, and its fmell is generally
ftrong and unpleafant.

Serotinus. Tailed yellowifh bat, with fhort emar-
ginated ears. This is the ferotine of BufFon ; its length
from nofe to rump two inches and a half. A native of
France, and found in Ruflia.

PlPISTRELLUS. Tailed blackifh-brown bat, with con-
vex front and ovate emarginated ears, fcarcely longer than
the head. The pipiftrelle of BufFon and of Pennant. This
is a fmall fpecies, and found in France. The length from
nofe to rump fcarcely an inch and a quarter ; the extent of
wings fomewhat more than fix inches.

Barbastellus. Tailed bat, with elevated hairy cheeks,
and large ears angulated on the lower part. The barbafl:elle
of BufFon and of Pennant. Length about two inches from
nofe to tail ; extent about ten inches ; upper part of the
body duflcy-brown, lower part afh-coloured ; ears broad
and long ; nofe (hort ; cheeks full ; and end of the nofe
flattened. Found in France.

HisPlDUS. Tailed hairy bat, with channelled noftrils, and
long narrow ears. The bearded bat of Pennant ; a fmall
fpecies : above reddifh-bfown ; beneath whitifh, tinged
with yellow ; nollrils open ; hair on the forehead and under
the chin very long ; tail included in a very veiny membrane.

* * * Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw four, in the lower eight.

PiCTUS. Tailed bat, with fimple nofe, and funnel-
Ihaped appendiculated ears. The autre chauve-fouris of
Buffon, and ftriped bat of Pennant. A Ceylonefe fpecies,
meafuring from nofe to the end of the tail two inches j above

brown ; wings ftriped with black, or with tawny and
brown ; changing in colour of the body, which is reddifh-
brown, with the under parts whitifh ; the nofe fmall and
fhort ; the ears fhort, broad, and pointing forwards.

* * * * Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw two, in the lower Jix.

NiGRiTA. Tailed yellowifh-brown bat, with the fore-
part of the head, the feet, and the tail black. The Senegal
bat of Pennant, with a long head, nofe a little pointed, ears
fhort and pointed, head and body tawny -brown, mixed with
afh-colour ; under parts paler ; the two laft joints of the
tail extending beyond the membrane ; length from nofe to
rump above four inches ; extent of wing twenty-one inches.
A native of Senegal.

***** Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw two, in the lower four.

MoLossus. Tailed bat, with pendulous upper lip, and
long tail, ftretching beyond the connefting membrane.
This is the bull-dog bat of Pennant, which has a thick nofe ;
broad and round ears ; the upper part of the body of a
deep afh-colour, the lower paler ; the five laft joints of the
tail difengaged from the membrane ; length above two
inches ; extent of wings nine and a half. Found in the
Weft Indies.

Gmelin reckons two varieties, one greater, the autre
chauve-fouris of BufFon, and the other leffer, the autre
chauve-fouris of Buffon. . Found in the American iflands.

****** Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw two, in the lower none.

Cephalotes. Tailed yellowifh-grey bat, with large
head, extended lips, fpiral noftrils, fubocular warts, and
fmall ears without valves. This is a native of the Molucca
ifles : the end of the tail reaches beyond the membrane ;
the tongue covered with papilla and minute fpines ; the
claw or thumb joined to the wing by a membrane, and the
firft ray of the wing terminated by a claw ; the liead and
back of a greyifh-afh colour ; length from nofe to rump
three inches and three-quarters ; extent of wings about
fifteen.

******* Fore-teeth in the upper Jaw none, in the lower four.

Lepturus. Tailed bat, with tubular noftrils, flender
tail, and a purfe-fhaped cavity on the interior part of each
of the wings. This is the pouched bat of Pennant. The
colour of the body is cinereous-brown ; the under parts
paler; length an inch and a half. A native of Surinam.

Ferrum Equixum. Bat with horfe-fhoe fhapcd nofe ;
ears without valves ; and tail half the length of the body.
This is the fer-a-cheval of Buffon. The upper part of the
body is deep cinereous ; the lower part whitifh. Gmelin
mentions two varieties, greater and fmaller, which may be
the male and female, the greater above three inches and a
half long from the nofe to the tip of the tail, and extent of
the wings above fourteen. Found in France, very rarely In
England ; alfo about the Cafpian fea.

******** JVo Fore-teeth.

NovEBORACENSis. Long-tailed ferruginous bat, with
ftiort fharp nofe, fhort round ears, and white fpot at the
bafe of each wing. This is the New York bat of Pennant ;
2\ inches long from nofe to tail ; tail i [>p inch ; extent of
wings io| inches ; head fliaped hke that of a moufe ; tip
of the nofe bifid ; tail iacloled in a conic-fhaped mem-
brane ; head, body, and upper fide of the membrane in-
clofing the tail, covered with long foft hair of a bright
tawny colour ; the wings thin, naked, and dufliy, and the

bones

V E S

V E S

bones of the hind legs very flender. A native of North
America, and alfo found in New Zealand.

«»*«»**•* dumber and Order of Fore-teeth unknoiun
to Gme/i/i.

Lasiopterus. Tailed bat, with the membrane con-
ncfting the feet very broad, and covered on the upper part
with hair. The forehead of this fpecies, which is one of
the largeft, is very prominent and rounded ; nofe ihort ;
general colour ferruginous ; the upper part of the wings of
a paler call ; the ends and lower parts black.

Lasiurus. Tailed bat, with tumid lips, and broad
hairy tail. A fmall fpecies, of unknown native country,
with upright fmall ears ; tail broad at the bafe, terminat-
ing in a point thickly covered with hair ; colour reddifh-
brown.

Dr. Shaw adds the following fpecies, -viz,

AuRlPEXDLLUs. Tailed bat, with obtufe nofe, and
large pendent ears, with pointed tips. This is the flouch-
eared bat of Pennant ; tail long, included in a membrane,
and terminate<! with a hook ; colour above deep chefnut,
lighter on the belly, cinereous on the fides ; length three
inches and four lines ; extent of wing fifteen inches. Na-
tive of Guiana.

Nasutus. Taillefs ferruginous bat, with long nofe,
(loping at the tip ; and long upright rounded ears. This
is the great ferotine of Pennant ; colour of the upper
parts a reddlQi-chefnut ; fides of a clear yellow ; remain-
der of a dirty white : length five inches eight lines ; extent
of wings two feet. A native of Guiana, adembling in great
numbers in meadows and other open places ; flying in com-
pany with goat-fuckers in fuch multitudes as to darken
the air.

Speoris. Tailed bat, with a tranfverfe frontal cavity.
This is the pit-nofe bat, and from Schreber's defcription
appears to be about the fize of the common bat, and to
refemble it in its general afpett, but differing in colour,
whicli is a pale yellowifh a(h-brown. Its principal charafter,
though not peculiar to it, is a remarkable tranfverfe con-
cavity fituated on the forehead, lined with a naked blackifh
fl<in ; the nollrils leated in a fimilar concavity at the tip of
the nofe. A native of India.

Vespertii.k), in Conchology, the name of an elegant
fpecies of voluta, fuppofed to have fome refemblance to the
colour of a bat.

VESPERTILIONUM AhX, Bats' Wwgs, among
ylnatomifls, two broad membranous ligaments, with which
the bottom of the womb is tied to the bones of the ilium ;
they are fo called from their refembling the wings of a
bat.

VESPERTINE, Vespertinus, in AJlronomy, is when
a planet is fecn defcending to the weft after fun-fet.

VESPIVORUS Bi TEO, in Ornithology, a name given
by fome autliors to the bird, called in Englifli the honey-
buzzard, from its feeding its young with the maggot worms
out of honey-combs. See Apivokus.

VESPOLA, \\\ Ancient Geography. See Vesboi.a.

VESPOLATE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Gogna ; 6 miles S. of Novara.

VESPRIN, a town of Hungary, the fee of a bifliop ;
i6 miles S.W. of Stuhl WcitTei.burg. N. lat. 47= 4'. E.
long. 17^49'. ^

VESPUCCI, Amekkjo, in Biography, was the Ion of
a Florentine of noble family, and beeann- famous by giving
name to tiie largelt quarter of the world. lie was born in
1451, and iiaving been educated under a paternal uncle, he
wasfent by his father, in the year 1490, to conduA a com-

mercial concern in Spain. At Seville he vcas informed of
the difcoveries made by Columbus, and imbibed the defire
of diftinguifiiing himfelf by a fimilar purfuit. Whether he
had been previoufly engaged in any nautical expeditions has
been a fubjeft of controverfy, fince he has claimed the ho-
nour of being the firll difcoverer of the American continent.
Of himfelf he fays, that having been engaged by Ferdinand,
king of Spain, to proffcute the difcoveries in the New
World, he failed from Cadiz in May 1497, and after touch-
ing at the Canaries, arrived in thirty-fevcn days at a land
which he conceived to be Terra Firnia ; and if this account
be true, he muft have anticipated Columbus's view of the
coafl of Paria by a whole year. But this expedition de-
pends merely on his own Itatement ; and if we confider the
high eftimation in which Columbus was held, in the year
1497, at the court of Ferdinand and Ifabella, and that he
polfefled the privileges of viceroy and governor of all the
newly difcovered countries, we cannot fuppofe it credible,
that any other perfon fliould be employed to profecute the
objeft above Hated. Accordingly it has been generally be-
lieved, that Vcfpucci's account of his firft voyage is a mere
fiftion, or that it is antedated, in order to fupport his own
claims. It has alfo been difputcd, whether in the voyage
which he really made in 1499, Vefpucci was a commander
or merely a palTenger. It is moll probable that he was a
paffenger, and that being fl<ilful in aftronomy, a fcience at
that time imperfeftly underllood, he was very ufeful to the
navigators, and much efteemed by them. After his return
he refided for fome time at Seville ; and upon being re-
peatedly invited to the court of Manuel, king of Portugal,
lie fecretly quitted Spain, and went to Lifbon, where the
king engaged him to undertake a voyage of difcovery.
With this view he had the command of three veffels, and
failed in May 1501, making land 5^ S. of the equinoftial
line, which muft have been Brazil, though he has not men-
tioned it. Herrera, however, afferts, that at this time he
was with Ojedo in the gulf of Darien, and the difcovery of
Brazil is attributed by the Portuguefe to Cabral in the year
15OG. But it appears from the teftimony of Peter Martyr,
a contemporary writer, that Vefpucci really failed in the
fervice of Portugal fome degrees to the fouth of the bne.
In May, 1503, he propofed in another voyage purfuing his
courfe to the Eaft Indies, but was tiirown on the coafl of
Brazil, and moored in the bay of All-Saints, to which he
gave name ; and from thence he returned to Lifbon in 1 504.
Being again taken into the fervice of Spain, he refided at
Seville in 1507, with the title of pilot-major and a yearly
ponfion, in confideration of marking out the tracks to be
followed by navigators, with the power of examining all
pilots. This employment afforded him an opportunity of
connecling his own name with new difcoveries ; and as he
drew charts for mariners, he dillinguilhed the newly difco-
vered countries by the name of " America," as if it were
" Amerigo's Land ;" fo that the true difcoverer, notwith-
ftanding the complaints of the Spaniards, was defrauded of
the honour that belonged to him. Vefpucci, however, can-
not vie in the public eflimation with Columbus. He is fup-
pofed to have died in 1516, and to have been buried on one
of the Azores. Vefpucci drew up a compendium of his
four voyages, which was firft publilhed by Simon Grincus,
in Ills " Novus Orbis," at Bafi!, in 1537, and afterwards in
Ranuilio's CoUedions. Tlie Italian originals were after-
wards difcovered and publiflied by B.indini. Tirabofchi.
Gen. Biog.

VESSA, in Ancient Geogniphy, a large and fiourifhing
town of Sicily. Phalaris is faid to have taken pofTefFion of
it by ftratagem from Tautus, its prince.

VESSAUX,

V E S

V E S

VESSAUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardeche ; 9 miles S.W. of Privas.

VESSEL, Vas, yafc, a thing proper to hold or con-
tain liquor. See Vas.

Thus, a ton, or hogfhead, <3cc. are veflels fit to contain
ale, wine, &c.

Tbe chemifts ufe a great diverfity of veffels in their opera-
tions; as copper alembics, with their refrigeratories ; worms
and receivers ; alembics of glafs, (tone, and earthen-ware ;
adopters, or fmall receivers with two necks ; aludels, bal-
loons, bottles, glafs jars and bafohs of various fizes ; cap-
fules, or difhes of glafs, ftone-ware, cryftal glafs, crucible
earth, and plate-iron ; the cone, crucibles, glafs funnels, in-
got moulds, matraiTes, mortars, muffles, peHcans, retorts,
receivers, circulatory veffels, fubliming veffels, &c. See
each article. See alfo Laboratory.

Among anatomifts, &c. all the tubes or canals in which
the blood, and other juices or humours, are fecreted, con-
V3yed, depofited, &c. as the veins, arteries, lymphatics,
fpermatics, &c. are called veffels.

Some even extend the word veffel to the nerves ; as fup-
pofing them the conduits of the animal fpirits.

Vessel, a general name given to the different forts of
fhips, from the firft-rate man-of-war to the fmalleft, which
are navigated with mafts and fails. It is, however, more
particularly applied to thofe of the fmaller kind. Plate VI.
will reprefent moft European veffels, with little defcription.
The^r/I-rate is a (hip of the line, of one hundred guns and
upwards, having three decks or tiers of guns ; and the
fe-venty-four is alfo of the line, with two decks or tiers of
guns. The gun-vejfel is rigged Lke a (loop of war, which is
the fixth or fmallell rate. The brig has only two mafts,
which are rigged hke the main and fore mafts of a (hip, but
has a fore and aft main-fail. A fnow only differs from a
brig by having a try-fail, which hoifts upon a fmall maft
abaft the main-maft, and thereby can carry a fquare main-
fail. A ketch has two mafts, (imilar to the brig, but has
no fore-maft, but a main-maft and a mizen-maft rigged as a
(hip's. The lugger has two mafts, with fquare fails that are
hoifted by their yards, not in the middle, as veffels in general,
but at one-third of their length. Schooners are veffels of a
fimilar fize to luggers, having two mafts, whofe main-fail
and fore-fail are fufpended from gaffs at the head ; and the
foot ftretched out by a boom, like a man-of-war's long-
boat. Both luggers and fchooners fometimes carry top-fails,
as the brig. Sloops, or veffels having one maft, have a main-
fail, fore-fail, and jib, as the man-of-war's lonsj-boat. Fo-
reign veffels, not rigged like the above, are moftly like the
xebec ; which fee.

A veffel is faid to be of three or four hundred tons ; mean-
ing, that it will carry three or four hundred times two thou-
fand weight ; or that, when immerged in water, it poffeffes
the fpace of three or four hundred tons of water ; which
are equal to the weight of the veffel, and all the loading it
can carry.

A veffel is faid to draw ten or Jiftem feet of water ; mean-
ing, that when loaden, it finks fo deep under water.

The figure of veffels is an objeft of gjeat importance,
with regard to their motion, faihng, &c. ; and m the deter-
mining what form is moft commodious, the new doftrine
of infinites becomes of apparent fervice to navigation and
commerce.

A body moving in an inunoveable fluid, is obliged to fever

the parts thereof : and they refift fuch feparation Now,

fetting afide a certain tenacity, by which they are, as it
were, glued together, and which is different in different
fluids ; the whole force of the refiftance depends on that of

the (hock, or impulfe : for a body that is ftruck, ftrikes at
the fame time ; but a perpendicular ftroke is that which a
hquid refills the moft, as being the greateft ; and for a body
to move freely therein, it muft be of fuch figure, as to pre-
fent itfelf as obhquely as poflible. If it were triangular,
and moved with the point foremoft, it is certain all its
parts would ftrike the fluid obliquely ; but they would all
ftrike it with the fame obliquity ; and it were more advan-
tageous that each fhould ftrike more obliquely than the next
adjacent.

Now, fuch a perpetual augmentation of obliquity can no
where be had in a curve fine ; each point of which is con-
fidered as an infinitely fmall right hne, always inclined to
the other little right lines contiguous to k.

To find what curve it is, whofe perpetual change of ob-
liquity, or inclination in all its parts, renders it, of all
others, the fitteft to divide the fluid eafily, is a problem
much more difficult than it appears to be, and, in effeft, is
only to be folved by the new geometry ; the folution wai
firft given by fir Ifaac Newton, in his inveftigation of the
folid of the leaft refiftance.

That author, however, did not publilh his analyfis ; yet
the marquis de rH6pital hit upon it ; and afterwards M.
Fatio refolved the fame problem, though by a much longer,
and more perplexed way. See Solid of the leafl Resistance,
Ship, and Ship-building.

Vessels, Book of. See Book.

Vessel Bay, in Geography, a bay on the E. coaft of lake
Champlain.

VESSIEGONSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tver ; 48 miles N.N.E. of Tver. N. lat. 58° 20'. E.
long. 37" 34'.

VESSIGON, a term formerly apphed to the puffy fwell-
ing termed wind gall on the legs of animals. It is fome-
times written -veffion.

VEST, and Vestiture. See Investiture.

VESTA, in Aflronomy, one of the new planets, which
was difcovered by Dr. Olbers in March 1807, andobferved
by S. Groombridge, efq. at Blackheath, near London, in
April of the fame year. For an account of this planet, fee
Planet, Planetary Numbers, and Solar System.

Vesta, in Mythology, one of the principal deities of the
Pagans.

Thofe who have diligently inveftigated the religion of the
Pythagorean philofophers pretend, that by Vefta they meant
the univerfe, to which they afcribed a foul, and which they
wor(hipped as the fole divinity, fometimes under the name
of TO ^Kv, the whole, and fometimes under the appellation of
/^OTo:, unity. However, fabulous hiftory records two god-
deffes under the name of Vefta ; one the mother of Saturn,
and wife of Ccelum, and the other the daughter of Saturn,
by his wife Rhea. The firft was Terra, or the Earth, called
alfo Cybele, and derived her name Vefta, according to fome,
from clothing, becaufe the earth is clothed, veflitur, with
plants and fruits, or, according to Ovid, from the ftability
of the earth, becaufe _y?a; vi terra fua, or it fupports itfelf.
Hence the firft oblations in all facrifices were offered to
her, becaufe whatfoever is facrificed fprings from the earth ;
and the Greeks both began and concluded their facrifices
with Vefta, becaufe they efteemed her the mother of all the
gods. The fecond was fire, and Vefta, whole power was
exercifed about altars and houfes, derives her name, accord-
ing to Cicero, from Trix, fire or hearth. Accordingly the
poets frequently ufe Vefta for fire or flame ; as they do Ju-
piter for air, Ceres for corn, &c. An image of Vefta, to
which they facrificed every day, was placed before the doors
of the houfes at Rome ; and the places where thefe ftatnes

V E S

V E S

T»erc erefted wtic called vellihula, from Vcfla. Thi.s goddc■l^.
was a virgin, and fo great an admirer of virginity, that
when Jupiter lier brother gave her leave to alk what Ihc
would, Ihc btfought that flu- might always be a virgin, and
have the firil oblations in all lacrilicCii.

This goddefs is called by Horace aterna Vejia, and it was
in honour of her that Nnnia erefted a temple at Rome, and
dedicated virgins to keep a perpetual fire upon her altars,
" ut ad fimulacr\im cceleftium fiderum cuftos imperii flamma
vigilaret," as Florus fays. One way of reprcfenting this
goddefs, it is faid, was in the habit of a matron, holding in
her right hand a flambeau or lamp, and fometimes a Palla-
dium, or fmall Vitlory. Mr. Spence, however, doubts,
whether the figures, that are generally looked upon as
Veftas, do really reprefent that goddefs or not. There is
nothing, he fays, which he has feen, that would not be as
proper for one of the veftal virgins, as for the goddefs who
pref:ded over them. To this purpofe Ovid exprefsly fays
(Fail. vi. ver. 29S. 1 they had no reprefentations of this god-
defs : " effigiem nullam Vella nee ignis habent." And he
explains away another paffage in the third book of his Fnfti,
ver. 46. where he fpeaks of a figure of Veila. (Polymetis,
p. 82.) The titles that are given to Vefta upon medals and
ancient monuments are, Vefta the Happy, the Mother, the
Saint, the Eternal, &c. The worfliip oi Vefta and of fire
was brought from Phrygia into Italy by ^neas and the
other Trojans who reforted thither. To this purpofe Virgil
obfervcs (^n. lib. ii.) that jEneas, before he left the palace
of his father, had taken away the fire from the facred heartli:
" jEternumque adytis efFert penetralibus ignem."

Vefta was one of the eight great gods of the Egyptians,
often mentioned by Herodotus.

The name Vefta, called by the Greeks eVi'^, was fynoni-
mous with the Chalda;an and Perfian Avejla; and hence,
according to the learned Hyde, Zoroafter gave to his famous
book on the worfhip of fire, the name of Avejla, or Abejla,
i. f. the cuftody of fire.

VESTALIA, feafts held in honour of the goddefs
Vefta, on the fifth of the ides of June ; ;'. e. on the ninth
day of that month.

On that day, banquets were made before the houfes ; and
meats were fent to the Veftals, to be offered by them to the
goddefs. See Vestals.

The affcs, that turned the mills for grinding corn, were,
on this occafion, led about the city, crowned with flowers,
and chaplets formed of pieces of bread ; and the mill-ftones
were likewife decked with garlands and crowns.

The ladies went barefooted in procellion to the temple of
Vefta ; and an altar was eredted to Jupiter ihi; Baker, Jovi
Ptjlori, in the Capitol.

The Veftalia had their names from that of their goddefs
Vefta.

VESTALS, Vesta i-ns, in /Intiquily, virgins in ancient
Rome, confecrated to the fervice of the goddefs Vefta ; and
particularly to watch the facred fire in her temple.

Numa firft inftituted four Veftals ; and Plutarch tells us,
Scrvius TiiUuis added two more; but Dionyfius Halicar-
tiaft"us and Valerius Maximus afcrihe this augmentation to
Tarquiniiis Prifcus ; which number, fix, lafted as long as
the worfhip of the goddefs Vefta. The Veftals made a vow
of perpetual virginity ; their employment was, the facrific-
ing to Vefta, and keeping up the holv fire in her temple.
If they violated the vows of chaftity, they were punifhed
with remarkable feverity ; being fttut up, or burici., in a
deep pit, or cavern, in a place called " agger et fceleratiis
campus," with a lighted lamp, and a little water and milk,
and there left to be devoured by hunger. If they let out

liie fire, they were whipped by the pontifex maximus ; and
the fire was rekindled by the fun-beams. It is faid, that
they always lighted it anew on the firft of March in every
year, whether it had gone out or not.

To be fecure of their virginity, at their admiflion, it was
provided, that they fliould not be under fix, nor above ten
years old. They were chofen by lot, out of twenty virgins,
carried by the pontiff to the comitia, for that purpofe.

They were only confecrated for thirty years ; after which
time they were at liberty to go out, and be married. If
they continued in the houfe after that time, they were only
to be affntants, in point of advice, to the other Veftals.

The firft ten years they were to employ in learning their
fVinftions ; the ten following they were to cxercife them ;
and the laft ten, to teach them to others.

Their order was very ricli ; both on account of the en-
dowments of the emperors, and of legacies of other perfons.

The Veftals had a particular place allotted them at the
amphitheatres and games of the Circus. Their vehicle was
the carpentum, or pilentum. The veil in which they facri-
ficed was C3.\\c A fiiffiluhm.

At firft; lliey were nominated by the kings ; but after the
extinction of monarchy, by the pontifex maximus, or high-
prieft. The eldeft of them was called maxima, as the firft
pontiff was maximm.

They had divers privileges ; difpofed of their effefts by
teftament, in their father's life -time ; had the fame gratifi-
cation as a mother of three children ; and whenever they
met a criminal going to execution, they had a power to
pardon him. Whenever they went abroad, they had the
fafces carried before them, a conful, or the prsetor, being
obliged to give way to them.

The fire which the Veftals were to watch, was not on an
altar, or an hearth, but in little earthen veffels with two
handles, called capeduncula.

This fire was held a pledge of the empire of the world.
If it went out, it was judged a very unlucky prognoftic,
and was to be expiated with infinite ceremonies. Among
the Romans, Feftus tells us, it was only to be rekindled by
the rubbing a kind of wood, proper for the purpofe. But
among the Greeks, Plutarch, in the life of Numa, obferves,
it was to be rekindled by cxpofing fome inflammable matter
in the centre of a concave veffel held to the fun. For it is
to be noted, the Romans were not the only people who
kept the perpetual fire of Vefta, in imitation of the celef-
tial fires ; but the Greeks were poffeffed with the fame fu-
perftition ; particularly the Delphians, Athenians, Tene-
dians, Argives, Rhodians, Cyzicenians, Milefians, Ephe-
fians, &c.

This order of Veftals is faid to have fubfifted about a
thonfand years, ('. e. from the time of Numa to that of the
emperor Theodofius. See SiBvi.s.

Vf.stai.s Ferry, in Geography, a town of Virginia, on
the Sheiinando ; 18 miles N.W. of Leefburg.

VESTED Lkoacy. See Contingent Legacy.

ViiSTED Remainder. See Remainoer.

VESTIARIUS, Vestiakv, in Antiquity, mafter of the
wardrobe ; an officer under the Greek empire, who had the
care and direftion of the emperor's apparel, robes, &c.

TUa, proto-ve/liariut, or firft veftiary, was the grandniaftcr
of the wardrobe. But among the Romans, ve/liariui fimply
was only a falefman, or taylor.

VESTIBULE, Vestibumim, in tlie Ancient Architec-
turj, a large open fpace before the door, or entrance, of a
houfe.

Martinius derives the word from vejltt Jlabulum ; bccaufc
the fore-part of the houfe was dedicated to Vefta. Davilcr

ccnvcs

V E S

derives it from vejlis and ambulo; becaufe people there be-
gin to let their trains fall.

The Romans had places called veftibules, at the entrance
of their houfes, to fhelter people obhged to ftand at the
door from the weather ; and we have ftill veftibules of the
like kind, in many old churches, houfes, &c. called
porches.

Veftibules only intended for magnificence, are ufually
between the court and the garden : thefe are fometimesy??n-
pU ; that is, liave their oppofite fides equally enriched with
arches ; and fometimcs their plan is not contained under
four equal hnes, or a circular one, but forms feveral van-
corps, and rear-corps, furnifhed with pilafters.

Vestibule is alfo ufed for a kind of little anti-chamber
before the entrance of an ordinary apartment.

Vestibule is alfo an apartment in large buildings, which
prefents itfelf at the entrance into a hall or fuitc of rooms,
or offices. The area, in which a magnificent ftaircafe is
carried up, i? fometimes called a veftibule. And alfo when
the ends of corridores, or paflages, terminate in a room,
without being feparated from them by doors, either to
receive light or air, or for appearance ; fuch rooms are
called veftibules.

VESTIBULUM, in ylnatomy, a cavity belonging to
the labyrinth of the ear. See Ear.

VESTIGIA, a Latin term frequently ufed by Englidi
writers, to Cgnify the traces or footfteps any thing has left
behind it.

The word is particularly applied to the marks remaining
of fomething antique, gone to ruin by time.

VESTINCH, in Geography, a town of Bofnia ; 44
miles S. of Bihacs.

VESTINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, re-
garded as Samnites ; but being of Sabin origin, they were
fometimes comprehended under the name of Marfi. They
were fituated between the Praetulii, Marracini and Pehgni.

VESTINUS, a mountain of Italy, in the environs of
Minturna. — Alfo, a river of Italy, in Campania, which dif-
charged itfelf into the Sarnus.

VESTIS Angelia. See Angelic Garment.

VESTITZA, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, in the Morea ; 44 miles E.N.E. of Chiarenza.

VESTMENT. See Vesture.

VESTRY, Vestiaria, a room adjoining to a church,
where the priefts' veftments, and the facred utenfils, are
kept, and parochial affemblies are held.

Hence the term veftry is applied to the parochial affem-
bly itfelf. On th? Sunday before a veftry is to meet, public
notice ought to be given, either in the church, after divine
fervice is ended, or elfe at the church door, as the pa-
rifliioners come out, both of the calling of the faid meeting,
and alfo the time and place of aflembhng it, and fometimes
of the bufinefs for which it is convened. And it is ufual,
for half an hour before it begins, to give notice, by tolling
one of the church bells. Anciently, at the common law,
every pariftiioner who paid to the church rates, or fcot and
lot, and no other perfon, had a right to come to thefe meet-
ings, the minifter excepted, who is refponfible to the bifhop,
whether he be reftor or vicar, for his attendance, and who
prefides in evsry parifti meeting. Out-dwellers alfo, oc-
cupying land 'n the parifti, have a vote in the veftry, as
well as the inhabitants ; and when they are met, the major
part prt-fent will bind the whole pariih. The power of ad-
journing the veftry is not in the minifter or any other per-
on as chairman, nor in the churchwardens, but in the whole
affembly, to be decided by a majority of votes. Every
veftry aft, in order to prevent difputes, ftiould be entered

V E S

in the parifh-book of accounts, and every man's hand
confenting to it be fet thereto. Bum's Eccl. Law, art.
Vejlry.

VF.sTV.\-Men, a feleft number of the principal perfons
of every parifti witliin the city of London, and elfewhere ;
who yearly choofe parifti-officers, and take care of its
concernments.

They are thus called, becaufe they ufually meet in the
veftry of the church.

By thefe feleft veftries, the parifhioners have in fome
places loft not only their right to concur in the public ma-
nagement as often as they would attend, but alfo the right
of elefting the managers. And yet fuch a cuftom of the
government of parifhes hath been adjudged a good cuftom,
as the churchwardens accounting to them has been adiudged
a good account. In fome parifties, thefe feleft veftries have
been thought opprefTive and injurious, and great ftruggles
have been made to fet them afide. Prefcription and con-
ftant immemorial ufage feem to be the bafis and only fupport
of thefe feleft veftries. In the aft of the 10 Ann. c. 1 1. for
building fifty new churches, tlie commiflloners are em-
powered to appoint a convenient number of fufficient in-
habitants to be veftry-men ; and from time to time, upon
the death or removal, or other voidance, of any fuch veftry-
man, the reft, or majority of them, may choofe another.
In the feveral private afts for building particular churches,
fometimes the minifter, churchwardens, overfeers of the
poor and others, who have ferved or paid fines for being ex-
cufed from ferving thefe offices ; fometimes the minifter,
churchwardens, overfeers of the poor, and all who pay to
the poor rate ; fometimes only all who pay a certain fum to
the poor rate ; fometimes all who rent houfes of fo much a
year, are appointed to be veftry-men within fuch pariflies,
and no other perfons.

Yestrv -Cleri, an officer chofen by the veftry, who keeps
the parifti accounts, and who has the cuftody of all books
and papers relating to them. The beadle is alfo chofen by
the veftry ; and his bufinefs is to attend the veftry to give
notice to the parifttioners when and where it is to meet, and
to execute its orders as their melfenger or fervant.

VESTURE, Vestment, a garment or clotliing.

In our law-books, it is alfo ufed metaphorically ; as in
vejlura term, i. e. fegetes giiibus terra vejlitur ; the corn with
which the earth is clothed, or covered.

Vesture of an Acre of Land, is the produce on it ; or
the wood, corn, &c. growing on it. It fliall be enquired
how much the vefture of an acre of ground, and how much
the land, &c. 4 Ed. I. 14 Ed. III. &c.

Vesture, Veflura, alfo fignifies a pofteffion, or feifin.

In which fenfe it is borrowed from the feudifts ; with
whom inveflitura fignifies a delivery of pofteffion by a fpear,
or ftaff ; and -veflura, the pofteffion itielf. See Investi-
ture.

VESUBIA, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Var ; 8 miles N. of Nice.

VESUBIANI, in Ancient Geography, a people belong-
ing to Italy, though they were inhabitants of Liguria.

VESULIO, in Geography, a mountain of France, in
the department of the Stura. It is a part of the Alps.

VESULUS MoNS, Mount Vifo, in Ancient Geography,
a mountain of Gallia Tranfpadana, in which was the fource
of the Padus or Po.

VESUNI, a people of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana.
Pliny.

VESUNNA, afterwards Pelrocorii, the capital of the
Petrocorii, according to Ptolemy. The veftiges of the an-
cient town, ftill fubfifting at Perigueux, are called La Vifone.
II VESU-

V E S

VESUVIAN, in Mineralogy, {Idocrafe, Haiiy,) a mi-
neial originally found in the vicinity of Vefuvius, and clafled
by feme mincralogiils with the garnet family, of which it
forms a diftinft fpecies. It is generally cryftallized in four-
Cded prifms, the edges of which are truncated, forming
prifms with eight, fourteen, or iixteen fides, differently ter-
minated by low planes. The fides of the cryftals are ftreaked
longitudinally ; the terminating planes are fmooth. The
cryftals are generally middle-fi zed ; they occur in groups,
or lining cavities of other minerals. Vefuvian fometimes
occurs maflive. The colour of tins mineral is either a liver-
brown or reddi{h-brown, or blackifh or yellowifh-green.
The luftre of the cryftals is fplendent or vitreous. The
frafture is fmall-grained and uneven. It is more or lefs
tranflucent. It is fufEciently hard to fcratch glafs, but is
brittle. Vefuvian melts before the blow-pipe into a yel-
lowifh tranflucent glafs. The fpecific gravity varies from
3.36103.42.

Ttie analyfis of Vefuvian gives its conftituent parts as
under :

Frum Vrfuv'ms. From Siberia.

Silex
Lime
Alumine -

35-5

33

22.25

42

34
16.25

Oxyd of iron
Manganefe

7-5
0.25

5-5

Lofs

'•5

J.25

100

100

Vefuvian has been found in various parts of Europe as
well as near Vefuvius : the opinions refpeAing its formation
will be referred to under Volcanic ProduHs.

VESUVIAN.S1 Aqu;e, in Ancisnt Geography, the name
given by Tacitus to a fmall river of Campania, which
watered the town of Ncapolis.

VESUVIUS, in Geography, a celebrated volcanic moun-
tain in Italy, fituated in the kingdom of Naples, about fix
miles SE. of the capital. Vefuvius appears an ifolated
mountain, ftanding in the middle of a plain, but is con-
fidered as connefted with the Apennines. The bafe of the
mountain is about 40 miles in circumference ; the height is
ftated at from 3700 to 3900 Englifti feet. Vefuvius has
two fummits ; the moft northern is called Somma, the other
is properly called Vefuvius. Somma is fuppofed, with much
reafon, to have been part of the cone of a larger volcano, in
which the prefeut volcanic cone of Vefuvius was formed.
" It is impoffible," fays fir James Hall, " to fee the moun-
tain of Somma, which in the form of a crefccnt embraces
Vefuvius, without being convinced tliat it is a fragment of
a larger volcano, nearly concentric with the prefent cone ;
which in fome great eruption lias dcltroyed all but this frag-
ment. In our own times, an event of no fmall magnitude
has taken place in tlie fame fpot : the inner cone of Vefuvius
having undergone fo great a change during the eruption in
1794, that it now bears no refcmblance to what it wa; in
1785." Tranfadlions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
vol. vii.

From the building of Rome to the year 79 of the Chrif-
tian era, a period of feven centuries, Vefuvius appears to
have been in a ft ate of profound rcpofe, as no mention is
made of any eruption during the whole of that time ; and
the ancient writers who refer to this mountain always fpeak
of its extraordiriary beauty and fertility. There were, how-
ever, certain appearances near the funimrt which left no
doubt of its prior volcanic ftatc, and the cities in its vicinity
were paved with tlic lavas of ancient eruptions.
Vol. XXXVII.

V E S

Vitruvius, who flouriftied in the reign of Auguftus, fays
(lib. ii. cap. 6. ) " that Vefuvius had formerly been burning,
and had covered all the adjacent country' witli its fires."
Diodorus Siculus, who wrote at the latter end of the fame
reign, refers to a tradition of a volcanic eruption of Vefu-
vius feen by Hercules. Strabo, a contemporary writer,
defcribing this mountain, fays, " here rifes Vefuvius, inha-
bited through all its dehcious fields, the fummit alone ex-
cepted, which fpreads into a barren plain, difplaying afhes
and caverns formed of burnt rock ;" whence it may be con-
jeftured, that this fummit was formerly in a ftate of confla-
gration, and prefented fiery craters, which became extin-
guifhed when the materials were exhaufted. Silius Italicus,
in the time of Nero, fays, " Vefuvius, by its fires, had for-
merly caufed great ravages both on the land and at fea."

The firft great eruption on authentic record took place
in the reign of Titus, on the 24th of Auguft, A.D. 79 ; and
on the fame the towns of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae
were buried under (howers of volcanic fand, ftones, and
fcoriae. Such was the immenfe quantity of volcanic fand
(called afhes) thrown out during this eruption, that the
whole country was involved in pitchy darknefs ; and accord-
ing to Dion, the afhes fell in Egypt, Syria, and various
parts of Afia IMinor. The particulars of this eruption are
defcribed in a letter from the younger Pliny to Tacitus : his
uncle, the elder Pliny the naturalift, loft his fife by this event.
He had the command of the Roman fleet on the coaft of
Campania, and wifliing to fuccour thofe perfons who might
defire to efcape by fea, and alfo to obferve this grand phe-
nomenon more nearly, he left the cape of Mifenura, and
approached the fide of the bay nearefl to Vefuvius. He
landed and advanced towards it, but was involved in whirl-
winds of fulphureous vapour, in which he expired.

After this period, Vefuvius continued a burning mountain
for nearly a thoufand years, having eruptions of lava at in-
tervals. The fire then appeared to become entirely extindl,
and continued fo from the beginning of the 12th century to
the beginning of the i6th, a period of about 400 years.
Woods were growing on the fides of the crater, and pools
of water were collefted in its centre. Since the eruption
of 15C6, it has remained burning to the prefent time, having
\'iolent eruptions of lava and aflies at intervals. Thefc
have been more frequent during the laft century and the
beginning of the prefent, than at any former period. Of
twenty-nine eruptions which took place from the time of
Titus to 1800, fourteen occurred in the laft century: fcveral
have taken place fince the commencement of the prefent
century, and the volcano is at this time ( 1817) in a Itatc of
aftivity.

The eruptions of Vefuvius are always preceded by earth-
quakes more or lefs violent and cxtenfive, and by a fuccelTion
of fubterranean explofions, growing louder before the floncs
or lava are ejedled. SirWiUiam Hamilton, the EngUfli am-
baflador to the court of Naples from the year 1766 to the
latter end of the century, has given fcveral intereiUng dc-
fcriptions of the eruptions that took place under his own
obfcrvation, which are publiflied in the Tranfaftions of the
Royal Society. From 1 769 to 1779 tliere were nine erup-
tions, many of tliem confiderable. Moft of the eruptions
of Vefuvius take place from the crater at the fummit, but
the eruption of 1794, which dcllroycd Torre del Greco, a
city containing 10,000 inhabitants, flowed from a large
opening made near the bottom of the cone.

The volcanic produfts of Vefuvius differ confiderably
from thofe of jEtna, and ftill more from thofe of the volca-
noes in the Lipari iflands, more immediately in its vicinity.
White pumice and obfidian, a volcanic glafe, have not been
R found

VESUVIUS.

found among the lavas of Vefuvius ; but they contain im-
bedded cryftals of leucite, vefuvian, and fommite, which are
almoft pecuhar to this volcano. The lavas of Vefuvius,
befides iron, contain alfo copper, and fome of them are faid
to contain a portion of gold, filver, and other metals. See
Volcanic ProduSs.

Breiilak, an Itahan geologill, has given an account of
the prefent ilate of Vel^uvius, and an intereiUng defcription
of the very remarkable eruption of 1794; the molt im-
portant particulars of which we (hall feleA. This erup-
tion was fo great as to change the very form of Veluvius, as
we have before obferved.

" The prefent cone of Vefuvius is truncated, fo as to form
an inclined plane, (loping from the N.E. to tlie S.^V. The
, circumference of the fummit, which forms the brim of the
cauldron, is about 3000 feet ; and at the bottom is diftin-
guiflied an oblong plain, the greateft diameter of which is
from E. to W. Having fmce afcended feveral times to the
top of the cone, I perceived that its depth had gradually
diminilhed, and that the bottom of the crater became
higher daily, owing to the different matter which falls
down, efpecially from the almoft perpendicular fides on the
E. and N. One can at this time eafily fcan the extent and
depth of its mouth, but occafionally it is much encum-
bered, and fomctimcs totally clogged. In 1755, the bottom
of the funnel rofe fo confiderably, that it prefented a valt
plain only twenty-three feet beneath the brim, and m the
midft of this plain was another cone from eighty to ninety
feet high, with a fmall crater, from which the eruptions
proceeded.

" Braccini has left us a curious defcription of the ftate of
Vefuvius, after a long period of reft, and before the grand
eruption of 1631. The whole of it, or at leaft the greater
part of it, had become accefTible. Having himfelf defcended
into the crater, he fays, he found it covered with plants
and trees, and that a road down it was prafticable for the
fpace of a mile ; at this depth a very deep cavern was feen,
which having paifed, the way was again open for two
miles by a very fteep but at the fame time very fafe road,
owing to the trees growing near to each other. At
length a large plain prefented itfelf, furrounded by a num-
ber of grottoes and caverns, which might be entered, but
which the party were deterred from on account of their
darknefs. This plain, which was not acceffible otherwife
than by a very rapid (lope, nearly three miles in length,
muft afiuredly have been much beneath the level of the lea.

" When the volcano is at reft, vapours are feen to arife
from the cauldron's brim, or from the interior of its fides,
which are very perceptible.

" When the mouth of Vefuvius is obferved from any dif-
tance, and during the prevalence of moifture in the atmo-
fphere, a mafs of vapour feems to rife from it which mingles
with the clouds.

" The wellern portion of Somma muft be confidered as
connefted with the cone of Vefuvius by a hill of fmaller
eminence, denominated Monte Cantaroni, on which is the
hermitage del Salvatore. This hill is interfered by three
valleys, that deferve to be examined with attention, on account
of the quantity of primitive fubftances which the volcano
has thrown thither during old eruptions. The northern
valley is that termed La Fofta di Pharaone, near the plain,
and Vallone della Vetrana, in its more elevated part, where
the current of lava flowed in 1785. This vale, hollowed by
rains, is the only interval between mount Somma .nnd moimt
Cantaroni. South of this vale are two others, nearly parallel,
the firft called Rio Cupo, the fecond Fofta Grande, which,
taking a diredion from eaft to weft, emerge in the plain of
12

St. Jorio. Its northern fide, nearly perpendicular, rifcs
to a confjderable height above the valley, and being com-
pofed only of cemented fragments of porous lava, called
capillo, of maffes of fpongy lava, and other fubftances of an
inadhefive quality, is fiibjeft frequently to crumble and fall
in large quantities. Along the whole extent of the fouthern
fide, at its upper part, is feen an ancient current of lava,
which at firft fight appears to be feveral ftrata of lava im-
pofed one on the other, but which a little attention (hews is
but one current, in which horizontal chafms have been oc-
cafioned by refrigeration, and into which the wind has fince ■
introduced a flight quantity of vegetable earth. This lava v
is hard and compadl ; it contains but few fragments of augite
or pyroxene, arid feems to be an affemblage of leucites, the
fuperficial cryftalline luftre of which having been impaired
by decompofition, makes it refemble variolite in its exterior.
Many detached malfes of this current have fallen to the bot-
tom of the valley. Each fall of matter brings down calcareous
ftones, mica, and mixtures of felfpar and vefuvian. The lava
of 1767, which threatened the villages of La Barra and St.
Jorio, difcharged itfelf into this valley, which it filled to a
certain height, and afterwards flowed further, fpreading itfelf
to the plain. As it is already covered by the crumblings
from the flank, in order to examine it, the enquirer muft
repair to the plain of St. .Torio, in the neighbourhood of
the chapel of St. Vito. Its grain is cryftallized but fine,
and oftentimes fo clofe as to be nearly equal to petro-filex,
or horn-ftone. It contains many fmall cryftals of pvroxene
and fragments of leucite, which is rarely found in its perfe£l
form of cryftalhzation.

" The lava of La Scala paffes beneath the garden of I^a ,
Favorita. It is of the colour of afhes, whitifh, and of a
cryftallized grain. It contains many cryftals of pyroxene,
few of leucite, and fmall pieces of felfpar, in groups in its
cavities. This lava, where it is hewn on the fea-fhore near
La Cavalleria, is worthy of attention. Under an uniform
bed, from fifteen to twenty feet in thicknefs, the lava is
found divided into ftrata of from three to four feet : thefe
divifions are formed by parallel and horizontal lines ; and
where thefe are dug down to, the lava is found to have
feparated itfelf fpontaneoufly into beds. Below them are
large prilms, commonly hexagonal, which are disjoined with
great eafe : in fome places thefe prifms, inftead of the lower,
are found in the upper part of the current.

" The fame tendency to a bafaltic conformation, which is
noticed in the lava of La Scala, is obferved again in the
neighbouring current of Calattro. This, after pafling through
a defile below Vallelonga, fpreads to a broad front on reach-
ing the fea. What moft deferves obfervation in the lava
here are the fmall cryftallizations it prefents, which feem to
be the ohvine of Werner. It is moreover of a deeper co-
lour than the lava of Scala, more porous, and hke that con-
tains many cryftals of augite and fragments of felfpar.

" Next to this lava is found that of the eruption of
1794. Of the diflferent eruptions of Vefuvius, this is the
moft recent, and was one of the moft confiderable.

" Vefuvius had continued tranquil for a long time. On
the 1 2th of June, 1 794, towards eleven in the evening, a very
violent fhock of an earthquake was felt, which induced many
of the inhabitants of Naples to leave their houfes for the
night. The tranquillity of the mountain did not, however,
appear difturbed, either on the Tjth, 14th, or 15th, nor did
it exhibit any fymptom of an approaching eruption ; but
towards nine in the evening of the laft day many fymptomg
were manifefted. The houfes about the mountain expe-
rienced violent (hocks, which gradually increafed in force :
a very powerful one was felt at ten o'clock in Naples and

itt

VESUVIUS.

its environs. At this inflant, on the wellern bafe of the
cone, at the fpot called La Pedamentina, and from the
midll of ancient torrents, a new mouth difgorged a dream of
lava. This opening was 2375 feet in length, and 237 in
breadth. Scarcely had the llream of lava begun to flow,
before four conical hills, each having its fmall crater, (the
third alone excepted, which had two djllinft mouths,) arofe
out of the ftream itfi-lf. From thefe different mouths ftones
were darted into the air with great noife, and in a (late fo
highly ignited, that they refembled real flames ; the explo-
fions indeed were fo quickly repeated, that they feemed but
one, and formed a continued fheet of fire in the air, which
received no other interruption than wliat was occafioned by
the inferiority of force of fome of the ejeftions. They
fometimcs vomited fubftances, I may fay, in a fluid llatc,
for they expanded in the air hke a foft paftc, fo that one
may imagine they were either a part of the running lava, or
mafles of old lava fufed and projected. Some of thefe hills
were contiguous one to the othe" ; and it fecms as if the
force by which they were produced had met with obilruc-
tion to the difgorgement of the fubftances at one point, and
confequently effefted feveral iflues in the fame hne. The
lava flowed in one body for fome time, and at intervals
flafhes of light arofe from the furface of it, produced by jets
of hydrogenous gas, which difengaged itfelf from the lava,
precifely in the fame manner as the gafes expand from the
furface of a fluid. Its fiiil direction was towards Portici
and Refina, fo that the inhabitants of Torre del Greco
already bewailed the fate of their neighbours, and began
their thankfgivings to the Almighty for their efcape. Col-
leAed together in the church, they were ftill finging hymns
of joy, and expreffing their gratitude, when a voice an-
nounced to them the fatal news of their altered deftiny.
The ftream of lava, on flowing down a declivity it met in
its way, divided ilfi-lf into three branches ; one, bearing
towards Sta Maria de Pughano, traverfed a fpace of 2063
feet ; another, direding its courfe towards Refina, flowed to
the diftance of 3 181 feet ; while the remainder of the
ftream, falhng into the valley of Malomo, flowed towards
La Torre. On reaching the chapel of Bolzano, it formed
a branch towards the fouth-cail, which terminated in the
territory of Aniello Tirone, after having run tiie length
of 1490 feet ; the rcfidue of the lava purfuing its courfe
flowed upon Torre, prefenting a front from 1200 to 1500
feet in breadth, and filling feveral deep ravines.

" On reacliing the firfl: houfes of the town, the ftream
divided according to the different flopes of the ftreets,
and the degrees of oppofilion prefented by the buildings.
An idea may eafily be formed of the accidents confequent
on fuch a Hood of fire ; accidents which bear relation to the
fcite of the manufaftories, the ihicknefs of their walls, arid
the manner in wliich they were aflailed by the lava. Had
not the mafs of the ftream fuffered a diminution from the
diflercnt divergencies noticed, not a fingle houfe would have
been left ftanding in Torre del Greco. The lava, after a
Terpentine courfe through the town, at length reached the
fea-fliore. The contadt with the water diminiflied the fpetd
of its courfe : ftill the current flowed into the fea in a body
1 127 feet in breadtii, and advanced into it a diftance of 362
feet. Its entrance into the fea was not marked by any lin-
gular phenomenon ; it began to ifliie from the volcano at ten
at night, and reached the fea-(horc by four in the morning ;
continuing a very flow progreffive movement into the lea
throughout the whole of the i6th, and the following night.
The main ftream, from the point wiiere it iftued from the
rolcano to that at whicli it flopped in tlie fea, meafurid
i2,<j6l feet. Its brcudlh varied greatly ; in fome places it

fcarcely exceeded 322 feet, but in the plain it fpread to 1 1 1 T ;

and at a medium, without rifle of any great error, it may
be computed to have been 725 feet broad. In thicknefs
alfo it differed according to the depth of the hollows it
filled ; in the plain it was conftantly from twenty-four to
thirty-two feet thick : and if its mean thicknefs be rec-
koned at the latter number of feet, it may poffibly be neareft
the truth. According to thefe data, the mafs of molten
matter is 1,869,627 cubic fathoms. During the eruption
the convulfion of the mountain was fo great, that even the
houfes in Naples were fliaken by it. Still it was not con-
Itantly alike. At the beginning the trembling was conti-
nual, and accompanied by a hollow noife, fimilar to that oc-
cafioned by a river falling into a fubterranean cavern. The
lava, at tlie time of its being difgorged, from the impetuous
and uninterrupted manner in which it was ejcdled, by ftriking
agaiiift the walls of the vent, occafioned a continual ofcil-
lation of the mountain. Towards the middle of the night
this vibratory motion ceafed, and was iucceeded by diftindl
(hocks. The fluid mafs, diminiflied in quantity, now preflfed
lefs violently againft the walls of the aperture, and no longer
iftued in a continual and giifliing ftream, but only at intervals,
when the interior fermentation elevated the boiling matter
above the mouth. About four in the morning the (hocks
began to be lefs numerous, and the intervals between them
rendered their force and duration more perceptible. One
might compare them to the thunder heard in Italy during
ftorms in fummer, tlie loudeft claps of which are fucceeded
by rumbling founds, which gradually die away.

" While I was making my obfervations on this grand
eruption at the foot of Vefuvius, its fummit was tranqui),
and no phenomena were vifible about its crater. I pafted
the night at fea, between Calaftro and La Torre, to have a
nearer view of this great operation of nature, and to prove
the truth of the opinion generally received, that great erup-
tions are accompanied by extraordinary phenomena in the
fea. A more grand fpeftaclc there could not be. On one
of thofe ferene and brilliant nights, known only in the de-
lightful cHmate of Naples, a majellic ftream of fire, 1 1 ,868
feet in length, and 1483 in breadth, was feen at tlie foot of
Vefuvius ; its reflefted furface formed in the atmofphere a
broad and brilliant aurora borealis, regularly fpread and ter-
minated at its upper part by a thick and dark border of
(moke, which, dilating itfelf in the air, covered the difc of
the moon, the (hining filvery light of which was enfeebled
and obfcured. The fea again reflefled the illuminated flvy,
the furface of it correfponding with this portion of the at-
mofphere appearing as red as fire. At the fource of this
river of fire, inflamed matter was inceftantly fpouted out to
a prodigious elevation, which, as it diverged on all fides,
refembled an immenfe fire-work. On tlie fea-fliore, finally,
the mournful fpeftacle of the conflagration of La Torre
completed the pidure. The vaft clouds of thick black
fmoke which rofe from the town, the flames which occa-
fionally crowned the fummits of the houfes, the ruins of the
buildings, the noife of the falling palaces and houfes, the
lumblinfj of the volcano, — thefe were the principal incidents
of this horrible, yet fublime fcene. The ruins of Pompeia,
buried beneath heaps of droftes and powders, did not cer-
tainly prefent a fpeftaclc near fo ftriking. To thefe objeAs,
fo powerfully calculated to fix the fenfcs, was added an-
other, which forcibly touched the heart : this was a doleful
group of fifteen thoufand perfons, bewailing the dcftruftion
of their city and property, who li.id had but a moment's
notice to flee and abandon their homes for ever, and were
reduced to become wanderers, and dipendent on the world
for refuge.

R a " About

VESUVIUS.

" About dawn, the fummit of Vefuvius ceafed to be
Tifible : it was covered with a thick cloud, frequently fur-
rowed with lightning. This cloud gradually fpread itfelf,
and in a little time overfhadowed tlie gulf, the city of
Naples, and its vicinage. It was formed of a large quantity
of that fine fand called aflies, and prevented all fight of the
fire of the volcano. The fun, as it appeared above the
horizon, prefented a ftill more difmal pifture. From the
abundance of afhes in the air, it feemed more pale than
during the ftrongeft eclipfe ; and a black fcarf appeared to
be fpread over the whole of the gulf and the country. At
the extremity of the horizon, towards the weft, the day was
more clear, while the light at Naples was fainter than twi-
light ; and, with Pliny the younger, one might have faid,
*' Jam dies alibi illic nox omnibus nigrior denfiorque."

" During this mournful night the air was perfeftly un-
agitated, and the fea calm : it was not difturbed even in the
flightefl degree, at leaft in the gulf of Naples. The flighteft
aftion of the volcano on it would have been perceptible at
the bafe of the mountain, and I was within a diftinft view
of this part of the fea ; but its influence on that element was
abfolutely null.

" While one current of lava flowed over the weftern flank
of Vefuvius, fpreading ruin and defolation ; another fell
down its eaftern Hope, from an opening of inferior height,
and a greater diftance from the fummit. Tliis current was
not vifible at Naples : all that was perceived of it was a
great light in the atmofphere, produced by reflcftion from
the rolling fire. At firft it took an eaftern diredtion, turned
afterwards to the fouth, and defcended to the fpot called
Cognolo. There it fortunately found the valley of Sorienta,
65 feet wide, 121 deep, and 1627 long. This valley the
lava filled ; but as the volcano ftill continued to emit frefh
matter, the current afterwards fpread into the plain of
Forte, near to PozzeUe, where it divided into three
branches : one proceeded towards Bofco, another towards
Mauro, and the third to the plain of Mulara. The length
of this current of lava was not lefs than an Italian mile ; but
as it flowed conflantly over old lavas, it did but little harm,
merely laying wafte and occupying a fmall extent of vine-
yard. From the fpot where it diverged from its firft direc-
tion, it projefted a fmall branch in a continued line : falling
to this point over a very rapid iiope, the fpeed with which
it flowed muft have been confiderable ; and a portion of its
mafs preferving its firft impulfe, naturally fell in this fmall
ftream, in which were four' mouths in the fliape of an in-
verted cone, the bafe of which is in the furface of the lava.
This ftream terminates in a imall and regular hill of a conical
figure, on the fummit of which are two mouths in form of
inverted cones. The dimenfions of this fecond current are
nearly half thofe of the firft ; confequently the mafs of the
whole is adequate to 2,804,440 cubic fathoms.

" The coincidence and perfeft refemblance of thefe two
currents of lava fufficiently prove that they had but one
common origin, and but one cauldron in which the matter
was fufed of which they wei-e compofed. How great
then muft that recipient be in which fuch an enormous
mafs could be contained ! And what powerful exertion of
ftrength muft have been required to break through the
mountain in fuch oppofite direftions ! The lava agitated by
the expanfion of elaftic fluids made its firft eff^orts to libe-
rate itfelf on the eaftern flank, and found a paflage ; but the
refiftance it met with from the mountain no doubt occafioned
its reflux or rebound againft its oppofite flank.

" The weftern current, taking its departure from a more
elevated mouth, more quickly terminated its courfe ; but
the cauldron chiefly emptied itfelf by the eaftern opening.

The lava iffued from it very flowly, compared with the
celerity with which that flowed which proceeded from the
eaftern mouth, becaufe it was no longer driven forward, or
comprefled by the total mafs, which was already greatly
diminiflied.

" On the morning of the i6th, the lava ceafed to flow
over the weftern fide, and the mouth of the volcano began
to refume aAivity. The whole of its cone was covered with
a very thick rain of afties or powders, which totally hid it
from fight, fo that nothing could be diftinguiftied on Vefu-
vius, which was wholly inacceflible. In this ftate it con-
tinued four days, during which many fliocks of earth-
quakes were felt, and loud claps of thunder were heard.
Thunders raged in every part of the adjacent country, and
the flafties of lightning by which they were accompanied ■
at intervals, for an inftant allowed a view of the mountain a
through the darknefs in which it was involved by the rain
of powders. This darknefs was fo prodigioufly great, that
at Caferto, and other places ten or twelve miles from
Vefuvius, it was impoflible to walk the ftreets at mid-day
without torches, and that circumftance v/as renewed which
is related by Pliny on the occalion of the eruption in the
time of Titus, " faces multae, variaque lumina folvebant
obfcuritatem." It is utterly impoflible to determine with
precifiou the quantity of afties or powders that fell in the
courfe of thefe days, as it was different in different places,
according to the direction of the wind ; it is, however,
computed, on the bafe of oblervations at different places,
that fourteen inches and fix lines in depth fell on an area,
the radius of which is three miles, the fummit of Vefuvius
being the centre."

It would be erroneous to conclude, that all this mafs of
matter proceeded from the entrails of the mountain, the
greater part was the offspring of the ruins of the crater,
which during the three laft days fell into the abyfs. For,
after the rain of volcanic fand had ceafed, and the mountain
became vifible, its appearance excited much furprife, the
fummit had fallen, and its mouth was confiderably en-
larged.

Inceflant rains followed this eruption, which continued
to the 3d of July. Whenever a cloud appeared above the
horizon, it feemed attracted by the volcar.o, and fcarcely
did it reach its fummit, ere immenfe ftreams were vifible,
precipitating themfelves with horrible roarings to the bafe
of the mountain. Thefe impetuous torrents of water, min-
gled with volcanic powders, overturned the bridges, har-
rowed up the roads, tore up the trees, and utterly devaf-
tated the fields of one of the moft rich and fiourifliing
countries in the world. Mephitic vapours were alfo exhaled,
which deftroyed all other vegetation, except the olive and
the pear-trees, which retained their verdure and ftrength.
It is remarkable, that during the whole of tliis eruption the
barometer at Naples was not fenfibly affected, and exhibited
no change, although the temperature and moifture of the
atmofphere experienced confiderable variation.

Though the quantity of matter thrown out of Vefuvius,
during any fingle eruption, is not fo great as from ./Etna,
Vefuvius being of diminutive fize, compared with the latter
mountain ; yet the magnitude of fome of the ftones ejefted
is truly furprifing, and the quantity prodigious. Accord-
ing to fir William Hamilton, during the eruption of 1779,
the town of Ottacaiio, at the foot of Somma, was half
buried under the ftiowers of fand and fragments of volcanic
matter. A ftone, meafuring one hundred and eight feet in
circumference and feventeen feet in height, was thrown a
quarter of a mile clear of the mouth of the volcano. One
of ninety-two feet in circumference was tlirown much far-
ther.

V E T

V E T

ther, and lay in the valley between Vefuvius and the Her-
mitage. From the fragments which furroundcd this mafs,
it appeared to have been much larger when m the air.
For further obfervations on the volcanic phenomena of Vefu-
vius and the adjar- nt country, fee Volcano.

VETAS, a town of South America, in New Grenada;
15 miles E.S.E. of Pamplona.

VETAVELUM, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 12 miles N. of Tricalore.

VETCH, in Botany, a word of one common origin with
ViciA ; fee that article, as well as Lathyrus, Orobus,
and Astragalus.

Vetch, m ^gricu/tiin; a well-known wild plant of the
fodder kind, which in fome of its forts promifes, from the
few trials that have yet been made with it, to be beneficial
when cultivated in the field. In this view, it has been fug-
gefted, that fome of the plants of this kind may be ufeful
to the farmer either as affording a good full pafturage for
live-ftock, or as fnpplying large quantities of green food to
be confnmed in other ways; though nothing fatisfadlory
has hitherto been done in afcertaining how far they may be
of fuperior utility in feeding or fattening, pafturing, and
being eaten green in the cut ftate by animals, to fully jullify
any decifion as to their particular merits in anv of thefe
modes of application. They are, however, in general, plants
that are, in their nature, not only very produftive as to the
quantity of food, but from many trials, extremely nutritious
and fattening in their properties. In addition too, they
have moftly the very defirahle quality of being fed upon by
almoll all forts of live-dock with great avidity ; and it is
not by any means to be concluded in confequence of their
appearing of a coarfe nature and quality, tiiat they may not
be of advantage even as pafture herbage, as it is now well
known that clofe, hard, judicious feedmg or eating down is
capable of bringing tlie coarfeft and roughcft kinds of her-
bage into a fine grady ftate of produce. Of thefe wild plants,
that which is ufually known by tiie name of bufli vetch, is
a fort which would feem capable of being introduced as a
pafture plant with confiderable benefit in different cafes. It
is afferted by fome, that its roots fpread much in a lateral
manner juft under the furface of the foil of the land, and
fend forth numerous ftems or fprouts at the fpring of the
year, clofe to each other, which, as they have a broad bulhy
top, covered witli many leaves, a clofe pile or furface grafs
is formed without the affiltance of any other plant. It is
a plant which is not found to rife to any great height of
growth ; but from its Ipringiiig up rapidly, after being
cut over or cropped and eat off by animals, it would feem
not ill fuited to the purpofe of pafturage. On fuch lands
as are of the more rich and fertile kind, it, however, grows
to a good height for the produftion of hay ; but as the
flalks rile fo clofely together, there is fome danger of its
rotting at the bottom in moift rainy feafons. It affords
great abundance of feed, but which is very liable to be de-
Itroycd in the pod by infefts while in th ir vermicular or
worm ftate. It is contended by fome, that it would appear
to fucceed beft in lands of the clayey kind, where it abounds
in foliage pretty much, aifording feeds very fiinilar to thofe
of the cultivated plants of this nature. It is ftated too in
the Tranfaftious of the Bath Society, tliat it lias been
found to flioot earlier in the fpring than any other plant that
is eaten by cattle, and to vegetate late in the autumn, con-
tihuing green all the winter. In good rich land, when cul-
tivated in the drill manner, it may, in the lecond year, it
is faid, be cut five times, producing at the rate of twenty-
four tons the acre of green food, which would be nearly four
and a half tons when dry and made into hay.

It is noticed, that the principal difficulty in introducing
this plant into field culture, would ai-ifc from the feed being
fo apt to be devoured by the larvse of a fjjecies of attelobas,
as Mr. Svvayne has fully fhewn.

Another fort of t'lis wild plant which might be ufeful
to the farmer in fomewhat the fame way, is that of the
kind ufually called the tufted vetch, which, in confequence
of its rifiiig to a confiderable height in the ftem, and afford-
ing m'lch fohage, is capable of yielding a large propor-
tion of green fodder for cattle-ftock ; and from its being
cafily cultivated, might alfo be made to afford a great deal
of hay. It is therefore equally applicable in paftures and
meadows. Plott, in his Hiftory of Staffordftiire, has in-
deed long fince remarked it to improve the condition of
poor lean cattle, more than any other plant then known.
There are probably foine other forts of thefe wild plants that
might be ufefuUy grown in the field, if properly attended to
by the farmer.

The cultivated plants of this nature are confidered under
their proper heads. See Take.

Vetch, jixe, Securidaca. See Corosilla.

Vetch, Bitter or Pea. See Orobus.

Vetch, Bitter, and Corn Vetch. See Ervum.

Vetch, Bimliveed-kaiied. See Lathyrus.

Vetch, Chickling. See Lathyrus.

Vetch, Grafs. See Grass.

Vetch, Crimfon-grafs See Lathyrus.

Vetch, Hatch.t, Securidaca. See CoRONlLLA.

Vetch, Clujius's Foreign Hatchet. See Biserrula.

Vetch, Hor/e-Shoe. See Hippocrej>is.

Vetch, Kidn y See Anthvi.lls.

This is a plant of the weed kmd, and is common in lands
of the chalky and calcareous forts, of which ftieep are very
fond. It affords a yeUow dye.

Vetch, Liquorice, or IVild Liquorice. See Astra-
galus.

Vetch, Knobbed-roottd Liquorice. See Glycine.

Vetch, Milk. See Astkagai.u.s.

Vetch, Bajlard Milk. See Phaca.

Vetch, Venetian. .See Oitonus.

VETCHLING, in Botany, is the Englifh name of Z,a-
thynis Aphaca, expreffive of its diminutive fize. The fame
appellation is fometimes given, though improperly, to one
or two of the Imalleft fpecies of Vicia.

Vetchling, Meadow, in Agriculture, a wild plant com-
mon in meadow lands, for the cultivation of which a premium
has been offered. It bears a large number ot fucculent
leaves, and feems well fuited as an addition to the meadow
graffes. As it makes good hay, it is probablv the moft
ufeful in mixture with graffes for this purpole ; tor though
cattle and horfes eat it, they do not feed upon it with avi-
dity. It is very prevalent in fome diftridls.

Vetchling, Yellow. See Ai'haca.

The feeds of tliis, and of all the other fpecies of vetch-
ling, are nutritious, either eaten in broth, or made into
bread. Withering.

VETERAN, Veteranus, in the Roman Militia, a
foldier who was grown old in the fervice ; or who had made
a certain number of campaigns ; and, on that account, was
entitled to certain benelits and privilges.

Thefe privileges confifted in being .abfolved from the
tnilitary oath ; ni being exempted from all the funClions
of a foldier ; and in enjoying a certain I'alary or appoint-
ment, &c.

The time of fervice fixed by the Roman laws was from
feveiiteen to forty-fix years ; and among the Athenians
forty years. The ufe of the term veteran was not intro-
duced

VET

VET

duc«d till about the clofe of the republic ; but its origin
may be traced to the firft dillribution which Servius TuUius
made of the Roman people into clafles and centuries ; under
which the centuria fen'wnim, or old foldiers, were appointed
to guard the city. They were afterwards employed to
guard the camp, whilft the centurie juniorum fought in the
field of battle. After they had ferved fome years, they
were called veteres, in contradiftinftion to the novitii or
tiroaes. In procefs of time, thofe who had ferved a certain
number of campaigns were called veterans, and were exempt
from the obligation of military fervice, except on urgent
occafions. See EvocATl.

The rewards conferred on veterans were at firfh very in-
confiderable, e.gr. a few acres of land in a foreign country,
where they eftablifhcd colonies ; but at length they became
immenfe. Tiberius Gracchus diftributcd among them the
treafures of Attains, who had made the Roman people his
heirs. Auguitus alfo bellowed upon them pecuniary recom-
pence, and almoft all his fucceffors augmented their privi-
leges.

In France, the term veteran is ftill retained for fuch officers
as have held their poll twenty years, and who enjoy certain
of the honours and privileges affixed thereto, even after they
have laid them down.

A veteran counfellor has a voice and feat at audiences,
though not at proccfles by writing. A veteran fecretary
of the king acquires the privilege, &c. of nobility, to him-
felf, and his children.

VETERINARIA, Mulo-medicika, or medicine ap-
plied to the difeafes of cattle. Whence,

VETERINARIUS, a farrier, or horfe-leech.

VETERINARY, a term applied to and fignifying
that part or department of cattle-medicine, which relates to
the treatment and cure of morbid animals of the domeftic
kind.

Veterinary College, an inftitulion firil ellablifhed, in
this country, in the year 1792, at St. Pancras, in the vici-
nity of the metropolis. It is ftated in " Boardman's Dic-
tionary of the Veterinary Art," that the public-are indebted
for this truly national foundation to the humanity, difcern-
ment, and patriotic exertions of a country agricultural
fociety, that of Odiham, in Hamplhire ; and that the firft
profeflbr of it was a Frenchman of the name of St. Bel,
who had previoufly diftinguifhed himfelf as a veterinary
anatomift and writer in this country, by diffefting and de-
fcribing different parts of the famous race-horfe Eclipfe, fo
much known and admired for his fwiftnefs.

It is added, that the college is fupported by public fub-
fcription ; that the annual contribution is two guineas, but
the payment of twenty guineas at one time conftitutcs a fub-
fcriber for hfe. In fome recent inftances, too, the inftitu-
tion has fhared, it is faid, the bounty of parhament ; an
important faving having refulted to the nation from the ap-
pointment of veterinary furgeons to the different regiments
of Britifh cavalry, in confequcnce of it.

The different views and objetts of the college or eftablifh-
ment appear in the (latement, printed by the authority of
the governors, and given below.

It is faid, that the grand objeft is the improvement of
veterinary knowledge, in order to remedy and obviate the
ignorance and incompetency of farriers, fo long and fo uni-
verfally complained of. For this end, a range of flables, a
forge, a theatre for diffeclions and leftures, with other ne-
ceftary buildings, have been eredled ; and a gentleman, pro-
perly qualified for the purpofe, has been appointed profefFor,
witli other requifite officers.

The anatomical llrutlure of quadrupeds and other ani-

mals, fuch as horfes, cattle, Iheep, dogs, and others, the
difeates to which they are fubjeft, and the remedies pro-
per to be applied, are inveftigated and regularly taught ;
by which means, enlightened practitioners of liberal educa-
tion, whofe whole fludy has been direfted and devoted
to the veterinary art in all its branches, may be gradually
prepared, provided, and difperfed over the whole kingdom,
on whofe flcill and experience confidence may be fecurely
placed.

That the pupils to the college, in addition to the leftures
and inftruftions of the profefTor, and the praftice of the
flables, at the prefent enjoy, in cor.fequence of the great
liberality of fome of the moft eminent of the faculty of
medicine in London, the advantage of free admilfion to
their medical and anatomical lectures. Thefe pupils, pre-
vious to leaving the college, are ftriftly examined by a
medical committee, from whom they receive a proper certi-
ficate ; and feveral, examined and approved, have, it is faid,
already left the college, and are at this time praclifing in
voi-ious parts of the country with great iuccefs.

That fubfcribers have the privilege of fending their dif-
eafed animals to the college, without further expence than
that of their daily food ; and that thefe, in general, form a
fufficient number of objecls for the praftice of the profefTor
and pupils to be tried and exerc'ifed upon. That on fixed
days, the profefFor prefcribes for animals belonging to fub-
fcribers, who find it inconvenient to fpare them from home,
proi-ided the neceffary medicines be furmfhed and com-
pounded at the college. Subfcribers' horfes are there alfo
fhod at the ordinary price, and new improved modes of
fhoeing praftifed in different cafes.

And that his royal highnefs the commander-in-chief
having been pleafed to appoint a board of general officers to
take into confideration the objefts of this inflitution, they
have reported the continual lofs of cavalry to have been
very heavy, in confequence of the almoft total ignorance of
thofe who have hitherto had the veterinary department in
tlic army. This report his majefty has approved ; and
henceforward, to qualify for the military fervice, a veteri-
nary furgeon muft be provided with a regular diploma from
the college. A number of gentlemen, fubfcribers to the
inflitution, attend once a fortnight, for the purpofe of in-
fpefting the difciphne of the ftables, and feeing that the
regulations are duly complied with.

Thefe form the moft material objecls and regulations of
the eftablithment ; from which it is evident, that it is capable
of being of great ufe and advantage, if properly direfted,
and confined to the points which it has principally in view.

VETERNA, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Bulgaria ; 9 miles S.W. of Driftra.

VETERNITZA, a river of Servia, which rifes in the
Karadagh mountain, and runs into the Morava.

VETERNUS is ufed, by fome phyficians, for a le-
thargy, or other drowfy difeafe.

VETERSEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; ij miles N.W. of Hamburgh.

VETIL, Neper, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Wafa ; 16 miles E. of Jacobftadt.

Vetil, Of-ver, a town of Sweden, in the province of
AVafa ; 32 miles E.S.E. of Jacobftadt.

VETINA, in ^Indent Geography, a town of Italy, in
Magna Grascia, fuppofed to lie between Sybaris and Meta-
ponlum ; but its exact fituation is not known.

VETITUM Namium, in Laiv, imports a forbidden
diftrefs. See Namium.

VETITZA, ill Geograplyy, a river of Walachia, which
runs into the Kotmana, 10 miles N. of Rufci.

VETLI-

I

VET

VETLIANSKOI, a fort of RufTia, on the Volga;
32 miles S.E. of Tclic-rnoiyar.

VETLUGA, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the
Volga, near Kozmodcmiand;, in the government of Kazan.
•^Alfo, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Koftrom,
on a river of the fame name; 140 miles E. of Koftrom.
N. lat. 58"^. E. long. 45° 44'.

VETO, in Roman Antiquity, was the folemn word ufed
by the tribunes of the people, when they inhibited any de-
cree of the fenate, or law propofed to the people, or any
aft of other magiftrates. See Intercessiok.

VETOLA, in Ornithology, a name ufed by the Venetians,
and from them by many others, for a water-bird of the
fcolopax kind, called by Aldrovand the iotano, and by
Gefner the fedoa fecunda. In the Linna:an fyftem it is the
fcolopax I'lmofa.

It ufually weighs about nine ounces ; its beak is (haped
like that of the woodcock, and is red all over, except at the
end, where it is blackilh ; its neck is grey ; its belly and
breaft white ; its head of a brownifh-grey, and its back
brown ; but its rump has a white ring on it ; its tail is com-
pofed of black and white feathers. Ray's Ornithology,
p. 216.

VETRALLA, in Geography, a town of the Popedom,
in the Patrimonio ; 9 miles S. of Viterbo.

VETSCHAU, a town of Lufatia ; 28 miles S.W. of
Guben. N. lat. 51° 47'. E. long. 14°.

VETTICUTTY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 22 miles W.N.W. of Tritchinopoly.

VETTINGEN, a town and abbey of Switzerland, in
the county of Baden ; 2 miles S. of Baden.

VETTONA, in ylncient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Umbria.

VETTONES, a people of Hifpania, in Lufitania, who
extended tliemfelves from the fouth towards the north, in
the eaftern part.

VETTONI AN.-\, a town of Vindelicia. Itin. Anton.

VETTONICA, in Botany, the ancient way of fpelling
the word ietonica, the name of a plant, called in Englifli
ielony.

It is called vetlonica by Pliny, who fays it obtained that
name from a people of Italy fo called, among whole woods
it grew.

If any thing certainly can be judged of the betonica of
the ancients, it is that it was our ftrratula.

VETTORI, PlETRO, (Lat. Vicxoiuus,) m Biography,
a defcendant of a noble family at Florence, was born in
1499. Educated at his native city and at Pifa, he vifited
Spain, and returned to Italy with a colleftion of ancient
infcriptions. At Rome he complimented Clement VII. on
his accclTion to the pontificate ; ard fettling at Florence,
joined the party oppofed to the houfe of Medici, and fup-
ported it with his eloquence and arms. Upon the airafTuia-
tion of AlcfTandro di Medici in 1537, he withdrew to
Rome. In the following year, duke Cofmo appointed him
public profefTor of Greek and Latin eloquence at Florence,
and he fuftained this office with diitinguifhed reputation for
many years. He was much clleemed by feveral popes, and
MarccUus II. drew liim to Rome; but upon the death of
this pontiff, he rcfumed the chair at Florence, and held it
nearly to the clofe of his life. He died in 1585, regretted
and eulogized by the learned, on account of his virtuous
and amiable manners, as well as his cxtenfive erudition.
Vettori took great pains in improving the editions of the
ancient Greek and Latin v.-riters. Of the latter we may
mention Cicero, Terence, Varro, and Salluft ; and of tiie
former, Euripides, Porphyry, Dcm.clrius Phakrcus, JMalo,

VEX

Xenophon, Dion. Halicarn., Ariftotle, iEfchylns, and
Clemens Alcxandrinus. His commentaries upon the rhe-
toric, poetics, ethics, and politics of Ariftotle, and upon
the elocution of Demetrius Phalereus, are much valued.
He was .ilfo the author of many Italian and Latin letters,
and of fome poems, of an elegant Latin traft on the culture
of the olive, and of other pieces in MS. Tirabofchi.
Gen. Biog.

VETULA, in Ancient Mythohgy, a goddefs who pre-
fided over pleafures.

VETULONIA, or Vetulonienses, in yincient Geo*
graphy, a town of Italy, in Etruria, fituated towards the
weft, on the fea-coaft. It was one of the cities of the
Etrufcans, and defcribed by Silius Italicus as one of the
moft pleafant of their cities ; but it was deftroyed at the
commencement of Rome.

VETULONIUM, a town of Italy, in the interior of
Etruria, accordmg to Ptolemy ; called Fetulonia by Silius
Italicus.

VETUSSALINA, or Vetusalin.'e, a town of Va-
leria Ripenfis, fituated, according to Anton. Itin., on the
route from Taurunum in the Gauls, purfuing the fliore of
Pannonia, between Anamafcia and Campona.

VEVAY, in Geography, the ancient Vibifcum, a town
of Switzerland, in the canton of Bern, and the principal
town of the bailliage, fituated near the lake of Geneva.
This town is clean and well-built, Hands on a fmall plain at
the foot of the mountains, on the margin of the water, and
is one of the few places in the canton of Bern which carry
on any trade. The chief manufafture is that of hats, and
the trade in cheefe is confiderable. The borders of this part
of the lake are much more contrafted, wild, and pifturefquc,
than thofe about Geneva ; the mountains of the Vallais
and Savoy projefting boldly into the water, and forming a
femicircular chain inclofing the lake, except where they are
divided by the Rhone, a few leagues from Vevay. This
town was taken from the houfe of Savoy in the year 1474,
but foon after reftorcd. In 1536 it was again taken, and
from that time has been attached to Bern. It has a college
for the inftruftion of youth, and two churches, one for the
French, and the o^her for the German language. Vevay
was diftinguiflied as the refidence of Edmund Ludlow, the
famous parliamentary general ; and here he found an afylum
from the attempts of his enemies, under the protedtion of
Bern. Here he was interred, and his monument is a plain
grave-ftone of black marble, on which is a Latin infcription.
Over the door of the houfe which he inhabited is ttill pre-
fervcd, from refpedt to his memory, the following uncouth
motto :

" Omne folum forti patria eft, quia patris."

Vevay is 10 milei E. of Laufanne. N. lut. 46° 30'. E.
long. 6° 48'.

VEULLES, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Seine ; 9 miles N.E. of Cany.

VEURDRE, La, a town of France, in the department
of the AUier ; 13 miles N.W. of Moulins.

VEUVEY, a town of France, in the department of the
Cote d'Or ; 12 miles N.W. of Beaune.

VEXALA, ill yliicient Geography, nncftuary of Britain,
which is probably the bay at the mouth of the river Breut,
in Somerfetlhire.

VEXES. See Ne injujle vexes.

VEXII,LARII, among the Romans, were veteran fol-
diers, the fame with thofe the oM Romans called triarii.
There were lix hundred of them in every legion.

VEJilLLUM, a pair of colours btlonging to each cen-
tury

U F H

U G G

tury of a Roman legion, for the prefervation of which, ten
of the beft foldiers in the century were allotted ; and all
thofe, in the different centuries of a legion, ( ten centuries
compofing a cohort, and ten cohorts conftituting a legion, )
formed a very choice body of men, which was called the
vexillation of that legion, and was fometimes feparated from
it, and fent upon particular fervices. The vexillation of a
legion was eqvial in number of men to a cohort, and had an
equal proportion allotted to it in the execution of all public
works.

Vexillum, ill Botany. See STANDARD and Papilio-
naceous.

VEXIN, in Geography, before the revolution a country
of France, fituated along the river Epte, which divided it
into two parts, calkd " Vexin Francois," and " Vexin
Normand." Tlie principal towns of the former are Pon-
toife, Chaumont, and Magny, included in the department
of the Oife. The capital of the latter was Gifors, in the
department of the Eure.

VEXOE, a I'mall ifland of Denmark, near the north
coaft of the ifland of Laland. N. lat. 54° 58'. E. long.
11° 41'.

VEYNE, a town of France, in the department of the
Higher Alps ; 12 miles \V. of Gap.

VEZ DE Marban, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; 8 miles N. of Toro.

VEZEDERINA, a town of European Turkey, in
Bulgaria ; 36 miles S.E. of Viddin.

VEZELAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Yonne. Theodore Beza was a native of Vezelay ;
7 miles W. of Avallon.

VEZELIZE, a town of France, and principal place of
a diftrid, in the department of the Meurte ; 12 miles S. of
Nancy. N. lat. 48' 30'. E. long. 6° 11'.

VEZENOBRE, a town of France, in the department
of the Gard ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Alais.

VEZ ERE, Le, a river of France, which runs into the
Dordogne, at Limeuil.

VEZINES, a town of France, in the department of the
Yonne ; 4 miles N. of Tonnerre.

VEZ INS, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire; 7 miles N.E. of Collet. — Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Aveiron ; 6 miles S.W.
of Severac le Chateau.

VEZIRKAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
25 miles S.E. of Ifnik.

VEZOUZE, a river of France, which runs into the
Meurte, about 3 miles below Luneville.

VEZZ ANO PiETRoso, a town of the ifland of Corfica ;
1 3 miles S.E. of Corte.

UFALE, a town of the ftate of Georgia, on the Oak-
fulkee. N. lat. 32° 55'. W. long. 85° 57'.

UFENS, or OuFENS, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, in New Latium, eail of the Pontine marfli, which
difcharged itftlf into the fca ; mentioned by Virgil and
Silius Italicus — Alfo, a river of GaUia Cifpadana, men-
tioned by Livy.

UFFENHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Anfpach ; 1 8 miles S.S.E. of Wurzburg.
N. lat. 49^37'. E. long. 10^ 19'.

UFFINIAC, a town of France, in the department of
the North Coafts ; 3 miles S.E. of S. Brieuc.

UFFUGUM, ill Jlncient Geography, a pretty confiderable
town of Italy, in Biutium. Livy.

UFHOLZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Rhine; 17 miles S.S.W. of
Colmar.

UFNAU, an ifland of Switzerland, in the lake of Zu-
rich ; about a mile in circumfcrcr.ee.

UFTER Geften, a mountain of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern ; 23 miles S. of Thun.

UFVERSO, a fmall ifland in the Bahic, eaft of Aland.
N. lat. 60° 7'. E. long. 20° 20'.

UGAB, a very ancient inftrument of the Hebrews,
mentioned bv Mofes before the deluge. Many wild con-
jeftures have been formed concerning this inftrument. It
has been conftrued into an organ by fome, who did not re-
colletl that organ was the generical name for inftruments of
all kinds ; and it is very improbable that a machine, fo
eomphcated as a modern organ of the moft fimple kind,
fliould have been invented before the deluge. Don Calmet,
whofe ideas concerning Hebrew inltruments are not always
happy, thinks the ugab was only a fyrinx, fimilar to Pan's
pipe ; for all the defcriptions tell us that the ugab was a
wind-inftrument with many pipes. See Syrinx.

UGARA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Sivas ; 7 miles W. of Tocat.

UGENA, in Botany, fo named by Cavanilles, Ic. Plant.
V. 6. 73. /. 594, 595, is the fame genus of Filices, which
Willdenow, in his Sp. PI. -v. 77, has called Hydroglqffum,
from lou!^, <water, and ", Xij-j-a, a tongue, alluding to its damp
place of growth, and the tongue-like fliape of the fruftify-
ing parts of the frond. Cavanilles meant to commemorate
an excellent Spanifh draughtfman, employed to delineate
the new plants of the Madrid garden. Whether Willde-
now's authority may rellore Hydrogkjfum, we cannot here
venture to foretell ; but the genus in queftion is eftablifhed
by Swartz under the name of Lygodium, {fee that article) ;
and Mr. Brown has fanftioned this laft appellation, both in
his Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. I. 162, and in y4it. Hort. Kew.
"D. 5. 497, which we prefume will decide the queftion.

UGENTO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Otranto ; 16 miles S.W. of Otranto. N. lat.
40° 12'. E. long. 77° 8'.

UGERNUM, in Ancient Geography, or, as Strabo has
it, Gernum, a place which lay on the way from Nimes to
Aqua; Sextiae, or Aix.

UGEST, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Warfaw,
in the palatinate of Rawa ; 6 miles S.E. of Rawa.

UGGADE, in Ancient Geography, a place marked in
the Itinerary of Antonine between Rotomagus and Medio-
lanum Aulercorum, which is Evreux.

UGGER-ZEHM, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Courland, in the gulf of Riga; 33 miles E.N.E. of
Goldingen.

UGGIATE, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Lario ; 5 miles W. of Como.

UGGIONE, or Oggione, Marco da, .n Biography,
was a native of Oggione, in the Milanefe, and was born
about the year 1 480. He was one of the moft able fcholars
of Lionardo da Vinci. Avoiding the minute elaborate
finilh of his mufter's fmaller works, which was imitated by
his fellow pupils generally, and attaching himfelf to the
ftudy of the great principles of the art, he became a flcilful
painter in frefco. He muil have been greatly aided in his
progrefs, by having copied the moft renowned and the
greateft of Da Vinci's works, the Laft Supper, painted in
the refeftory of the Dominican convent at Milan. Ug-
gione's copy is of the fame fize as the original, near 30 feet
long, and was painted on canvas for the refeftory of the
Carthufians at Pavia, where it remained till the revolution,
when it was removed and fold to a rich grocer at Milan ;
and is lately brought to this country for pubhc exhibition,
and for fale. Lanzi fays of it, " that in meafure it com-
II penfates

U G I.

penfatcs for the lofs of the original," and is jollified by the
merit of the work. The charafters of tlie heads appear to
have been well rendered, except that ot the Saviour.
Thofe of St. John, St. Simon, and St. James, are excel-
lently wrought, tlie former efpecially : indeed it appears fo
dillinftly more complete tlian any other in colour and cha-
ra£ler, that one might think the great mailer's hand had
, been employed upon it. The hands, however, are ill
drawn, and tamely executed ; and the teet much too large,
and out of keeping. The draperies alfo are laboured, and
a part is cut off the top of the pifture, which injures the
perfpettive of the room in which the figures are feated.

His frefco piftures in the church of La Pace at Milan
ftill preferve their lines and colours unimpaired : fome of
them are in the body of the church itfelf ; but th? Cruci-
fixion, his moll copious compofition, is in the refeClory ;
a work, Mr. Fufeli has obferved, " which lurprifes by its
variety and fpirit : few Lombards have reached that degree
of expreffion which ftrikes here, for the art of its compofi-
tioii, and the fancy of its draperies." Of his oil piftures,
two of the moll elteemed are at Milan, one at St. Paolo in
Compito, the other in St. Eufemia ; but they are interior
to his frefcoes. He died in 1530, aged about 50.

UGGLIBO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Gef-
tiicia, on a lake ; 16 miles N.W. of Geflc.

UGH, a town of Hungary, near the TheifTe ; 32 miles
N. of Zegcdin.

UGHELLl, Fkrdi.mando, in Biography, an ecclefi^f-
tical hiilorian, was born of a good family at Florence in
I J9J ; in his youth entered into the Ciftercian order, and
finilhed his (Indies at Rome. After having paflT-d through
various offices in different monaileries, he was elected abbot
of St. Vincent, &c. at Rome, theologian to cardinal Carlo
de Medici, and confultanl of the congregation of the Index.
He was alfo domcllic prelate to pope Alexander VIL; who
gave him a penfion, augmented by Clement IX. He de-
clined accepting any bifliopric, though leveral were offered
him, becaufe he preferred purfuing his lludies at Rome.
Having undertaken to give a fcries of the bifhops of all
the churches in Italy, with an illuflration of each church,
deduced from documents in their rcfpedlive archives, he em-
ployed feveral perfons to affill him ; and the work was
printed at Rome in 9 vols., from 1642 to 1648, under the
title of " Italia facra, five de Epifcopis Italix et Infularum
adjacentium, rebufque aliis praeclare geftis, dedudla ferie ad
nollram ufque jEtatem, Opus fingularc." A new edition
of this work was begun at Venice in 17 17, and completed
in 1733, '" "^ '^o\s. folio, with confiderable additions.
Ughelli alfo made additions to the lives of the popes by
Ciaconius, and pubhlhed eulogies of the cardinals of the
Cillercian order, and thofe of the Colonna family, and
genealogies of the Marfciano and Capifucchi families. He
died at Rome in 1670, at the age of 75. Moreri. Gen.

UGIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
the interior of Betica, belonging to the Turdetani, accord-
ing to Ptolemy ; marked in the Itin. Anton, between Afta
and Ori])po.

UGIE, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which runs
into the German fca, about a mile N. of Peterhead. N. lat.
57° 27'. W. h>ng. 1° 47'.

UGINE, a town of France, in the department of Mont
Blanc ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Chambery.

UGLI ANI, a town of France, in the department of the
Dora ; 16 miles E.S.E. of Aofta.

UGLIANO, a fmall rocky ifland in the Adriatic, near
I he coall of Dalmatia, about 3 miles VV. from Zara. The

Vol. XXXVII.

V I A

inhabitants fuffcr confiderably from the want of frefh water.
Illyi lan fnails, ctleemed by the Romans as one of the moll
delicate luxuries of their table, abound here. N Int 40°
l8'. E. long. 15= 16'. "

UGLICH, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Jarodavl, on the Volga. The principal trade is in leather
and (oap; 60 miles W. of Jarodavl. N. lat. 57° 30'. E.
long. 38^ 22'.

UGLUM, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 16
miles S. of Uddevalla.

UGOD, a town of Hungary ; 14 miles N.W. of Stuhl
Weiffeiiburg.

UGOGNA, or VoGOGNA, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Gogna, on the river Tofa ; 15 miles N.W.
of Arona.

UGONE, Mattia, in Biography, was a native of
Brefcia at the commencement of the 16th century, a doftor
of laws, and bilhop of Famagolla, in the ifland of Cyprus.
His principal performance is a treatife on councils, entitled
" Synodia Ugonia," approved by a bull of Paul HI. in 1^43,
and printed at Venice in 1565. Dupin pronounces it one
of the bed and fuUeft treatifes written on that fubjeft in the
i6fh century. This writer maintains, that a council is fu-
perior to tlie pope, and may depofe him, not only for herefy
and fchifm, but for any notorious crime, perfifled in after
admonition ; and that, in matters of faith, and fuch as con-
cern the ftate of the church, or its head, the judgment of the
council is to be preferred to that of the pope. He died in
1616 Dupin. Gen. Biog.

UG ROCZ, in Geography, a town and callle of Hungary ;
16 miles N. of Topoltzan.

UGUALE, Ital., in Mujtc, equal : as, a parti uguali,
two vocal or inllrumental parts, of equal confequence.

UHERCE, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Poland,
in Galicia ; 64 miles S.W. of Leniberg.

UHLERSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Neuftadt ; 5 miles S.W. of Weyda.

UHLFELD, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Bayreuth ; 19 miles N.W. of Nuremberg.

UHRTSCHUTA, a town of Moravia, in thft-fcircle of
Olmutz ; to miles S.W. of Olmu •.. N. lat. 49° 23'. E.
long. 17°.

UI, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Irtifch, near
Malanova, in the government of Tobollk.

Vl el Armis, q. d. by force and arms, a law-term ufcd in
an indidlment ; to denote the forcible and violent commiflion
of any crime.

Vl f,aica Remoiienda, in Lanu, a writ lying where debate
being between two parfons, or provifors, for a church, one
of them makes a forcible entry into it, with a number of
laymen, and holds the other out.

VIA, IVay. See Way, and Road.

Via Lailea, in AJlronomy, the milky way, or galaxy;
which fee.

Vi.\ Militaris, in our Law-Bools, is ufed for a high-
way. " Quse publica dici poterit, et ducit ad mare, ct ad
portum, ct quandoque ad mercata." Brafton, lib. iv. c. 16.

Via Militaris, in Roman Hijlory. See MiLlTAnv Ways,
and Way.

Via Regia, the King's Highway, is defined in Leg.
Henry 1. to be " that whicii is always open, and which
nobody may fliut by any means, as leading to a city, port,
or town."

Its breadth the fame laws prefcribe to be fuch, as that
two carts may pals each other, and fixlccn horfemen armed
may go abrcall. Sec Hiohway.

S Via

V I A

V I A

Via. Solh, the Sun's JVay, in AJInnamy, is ufed, among
fome aftronomers, for the ecliptic line ; fo called, becaufe
the fun never goes out of it.

Via, Turreta Chica, in Ancient Geography, a place of
Africa, in the eaftern part of Mauritania Ciefarienlis,
lltuated on the fea-coaft, fome miles W, of Icofium, in
which are the remains of fome Roman walls and ciilerns.

Via, Uila, a river of Hifpania Citerior, which ran from
the N.E. to the S.W., paffedby Iria Flavia, and difchargcd
itfelf into the fea.

Via Appia. See Appian IVay, and ViiE Romanx.

Via Domitiana, took its name from Domitian, by whofe
orders it was executed. It detached itfelf from the Appian
way at a fmall diftance from Sinuefla, on the fpot now
called Mont-Dragone. This way opened under a trium-
phal arch, which was richly ornamented with marbles and
metals, and paffed along the fea by Vulturnum, Liternum,
Cums, and Bayse to Puteoli.

Via Curia, a Roman way marked by Dionyfius of Hali-
carnaflus.in the Sabine territory, on which were the follow-
ing towns, -viz. Curfula, 80 ftadia from Reate, and Ifla
near Curfalin. Some have reprefented this as the fame with
the Latin way.

V'lA Quinlia, which, according to Dion. Hal., belonged
to the Sabines. Holilenius fuggefts that it was the fame
with the Via Salaria. Dion. Halic. places upon this way
Palatium, 25 ttadia from Reate ; Trebula, 60 ftadia from
Palatium ; Vefpola, 60 ftadia from Trebula; Sima, 40 ftadia
from Vefpola ; Mephyle, 30 ftadia from Sana ; and Orvi-
iiium, 40 ftadia from Mephyle.

Vi^ff; Roman/c, or Roman Ways, were pubHc roads on
which the ancient Romans imprefled marks of grandeur and
celebrity, as well as of utility, that have not been altogether
effaced during an interval of more than 2000 years. In
the coullruftion of thefe roads they began with making a
deep excavation, on each fide of which they ere£led walls,
and on thefe walls formed a parapet. The fpace between
the walls was filled with layers of different materials, one of
which was mortar made of the volcanic produce called
puzzolano. Above thefe they placed the hardeft ftones
which they could procure, and which ihey faftened toge-
ther by an intf:rmediate cement ; and the faliar.t angles
were lo conltrutled as to form a large mafs. The elevated
parapet ferved not only to give folidity to the way, but to
afford a convenient feat for thofe who travelled on foot ;
and at certain intervals they placed ftones of a greater
height, which ferved for the convenience of horfemen. On
ihefc ways they had temples and monuments, which con-
tributed to their ornament ; and the diftances were marked
on columns of ftone. Originally they marked the diftance-
of any place from a column in the city of Rome ; but in
procefs of time they noted the diftance from the capital of
the province, or from any other town which they felefted
for this purpofe. The firft of thefe Roman ways was the
Appian way, wMch commenced at the gate of Rome bearing
this denomination, and took a S.S.E. diredlion. To the
right commenced the Via Ardeaiina, which proceeded from
the fouth as far as Ardea, almoft perpendicularly to the
meridian. Within the compafs of Rome, at the foot of
mount Ccelius, and to the left of the Appian way, com-
menced the Via Latina, the direftion of which was to the S.E.
At feren miles and a half commenced, to the left of the Latin
way, the Via Tufculana. To the E. commenced the way,
which, in the city, bore the name of Via Sacra- From this
way, in the interiorof the city, proceeded the Via Campana
towards the S.E. The Via Labicana has an almoft S.E.
Jiretliou, Towards the Z. is the Via PraiielUna. To

the left of this way, about the fifth mile from Rome, is tlie
Via Collatina. Towards the N.E. the firft way is the
Via Tiburtina, pafting, as its name indicates, to the Tiber.
The fecond is the Via Nomentana, proceeding towards the
N.E. to the tenth mile, and then turning direftly north-
wards to Nomentum. The third is the Via Salaria, which
is detached to the Colline gate from the left of the Nomen-
tane way, and proceeding dire£lly towards the N. as far as
the eighth mile, rejoins the fame way at Eretum. It is
called Salaria, from the fait which the Romans ufed to
bring to Rome along this way from the fea. It was
through the gate Salaria that the Gauls entered Rome,
under the command of their leader Brennus, when that city
was firft taken by them. Towards the N.W. the firft way
is the Via Lata, which formerly turning by the Capitohne
mount, paffed by the ancient triumphal gate. This way
afterwards alTumed the name of Flaminia. The fecond is
the Via Claudia, which advanced towards the N.W. ; and at
the fjxth mile proceeded the third way in this direftion, or
the Via Cajfta, which proceeded to Veii. The fourth way
is the Via Triumphalis, which at the ninth mile joined the
Claudian way. The fifth bore the name of Via Cornelia,
which proceeded by the W. \ N. to the tenth mile ; and
the lixth was the Via Aurelia, which left Rome at the gate
ot Janiculum, and proceeded a little towards the S.W.,
but changing its diredlion towards the N.W. it gained the
fea-coaft, along which it purfued its courfe.

Towards the S.W. the lirft way was the Via Portuenfis,
fo called, as well as the gate by which it left the city, from
their leading to the place called Portusnfis, now called by
corruption " Villa Portefe." It paffed by the S.E. and
joined the route which followed the windings of the Tiber
under the name of Via LittoraUs, which laft advanced to the
" Portus Augufti." The fecond was the Via UJlrenJis,
which paffed N.W. of the Circus Maximus, and crofling the
Almo at the gates of Rome, it turned to the S.^V. towards
Oftia. The third way commenced five miles and a half on
this way towards the left, under the name of Via Laurentina,
which proceeded to the S. as far as Laurentum. We have
above enumerated twenty-one ways or roads, which feparat-
ing at the centre of Rome extended more or lefs to different
parts of Italy. Bergier, to whom we are indebted for this
detail on the Roman roads, proceeds, after having furveyed
them at and near Rome, to trace their length and direftion
in various parts of Italy.

The military ways proceeding immediately from the gates
of Rome, according to the table of Peutinger, and recorded
in hiftory, are eleven, agreeably to the following arrange-
ment : •yiz. Via Flaminia, Salaria, Numentana, Tiburtina,
Prtenejlina, Lavicana, Latina, Appia, Hojlienjis, Aurelia, and
Triumphalis.

The conftruftion of the Flaminian road is afcribed by
fome authors to Flaminius, who was killed at the battle of
the lake of Thralymene, under the confulate of Lucius
Veturius and Caius Lutatius, in the year of Rome 533 ;
but Strabo afcribes this work to the fon of this Flaminius,
and he fays exprefsly that he formed two grand roads in
Italy, one from Rome to Ariminium ( Rimini 1 , called Via
Flaminia; and anotner from Ariminium to Bononia (Bo-
logna), and to Aquileia, which was denominated Via
Emilia. The diftance from Rome to Rimini, according to
the Itinerary of Antonine, was 222 Roman miles ; but
according to the table of Peutinger, 194 miles. Hiftory
records nine military ways which parted from the Via
Flaminia; and of all thefe ways, that called Via Emilia
was the moft ancient, the moft known, and the grandeft
of all J its length furpaffed that of the Flaminian way, and

it

V I A

it was equally ancient. As to its antiquity, Strabo fay*
that it was made at tlie fame time witli the Tlaminian way,
and Palladio ranks it among tlie three moil renowned and moll
excellent, viz. Fia Appia, Via Flaniui'ia, and Via JEmilia.
This latter extended from Ariminium to Bononia, and thence
to Aquileia, a diftance, according to Antonine's Itinerary,
of 485 miles, and according to the table of Peutinger of
527 miles. The poet Martial, fpeaking of this famous way,
and of one of the cities which he found upon it, (lib. iii-
ep. 4.) fays,

" Romam vade, liber, fi veneris und^ requiret,
iEmilise dicas de regione vise,
Siquibus in terris, qua fimus in urbe rogabit,
Corneli referas me licet efTe fero."

The fecond branch of the Flaminian way is that called
Cafllan. It commenced at pons Milvius (or Ponte Mole),
built upon the Tiber, two miles from Rome. From thence
it took its direftion by the town of Sutri.

The third branch, which detached itfelf from the Flami-
nian way, was the Claudian way, of which Ovid (1. i. de
Ponto) fays,

" Nee quo3 pomiferis pofitos in collibus hortos
Speftat Flaminise Claudia junfta vise."

According to the Itinerary, the diftance from Lucca to
Rome was 2^9 miles, and according to the chart of Peu-
tingcr 145 miles.

Belldes thcfe, the Annienne, Auguftan, Cimine, Ame-
nienne, Sempronian, and Pofthumian, commencing at dif-
ferent parts of the Flaminian way, extended themfelvcs acrofs
the diflerent regions of Italy, between the city of Rome and
the Po. Of all thefe ways, that called the Annienne is
known by an ancient infcription found in the ruins of the
town of Axuma. The Cimine way was between a mountain
and the lake of its name near Viterbo. Virgil thus fpeaks
of it, [Mn. vii.)

" Cimini cum montc Lucum, Lucofque Capenos."

Tlie Amenienne way took its name from the town of
Amelia, near Spolelo. The Sempronian way had its name
from tlie tov/n of Forum Sempronii, whence it extended as
far as Fulginia or Fulcinium in Umbria. The Pollhumian
palTed into Gaul, called by the Romans Togata ; and
Tacitus thus fpeaks of it : " Sifterc tertiam legionem in
ipfo viae Poilhumix aggere tubet."

The Via Salaria commenced at the Colline gate, and ex-
tended towards the N. acrofs the country of the Sabines, re-
ceiving the Nomentane way at the villagcofHercelum, eigh-
teen miles from Rome, on the bank of the Tiber. Its route,
indicated by the Itinerary from Eretum to Hadria, was
166 miles, and according to Pcutinger's tabic 168 miles.
Near this way were built the temples of Ericina and Venus
Verticordia, and alfo feveral magnificent tombs. From the
Via Salaria branched out two other ways, wz. the Quinftian
and the Junian.

The Nomctilant way took its origin at the Viminal gate,
and extended N.E. as far as Nomentum, a town of the
Sabincs, in ancient Latium. Ovid thus fpeaks of it, (Faft.
I. iv.)

" Hxc mihi Nomento Romam cum luce redircm
Obftitit in media CaudidaTurba via."

Two miles from the city, on the Nomentane wav, was a
temple of Bacchus, which afterwards became the tomb of
the family of the Conftantincs. On this way were alfo
ioveral temples and fepulchrc».

V 1 A

It has been faid by fomc authors, that the Porta Tibur-
tina and the Porta Gabinia or Gabiofa were tiie fame, and
alfo the Via I'lburlina and Via Gabinia or Gabiofa. Others
have maintained that they were different, ilfuing from
the fame gate ; the Gabiana being more to the call than
the Tiburtina ; the former taking its courfe to the right,
towards the Prameftine way, and the latter to the left,
towards the N.E., pafling by delightful places near the
Tiber. From the Efquihne gate proceeded the two
grand roads, called Pryneftina and Lavicana. The Pra;-
neftine, according to Bergier, commenced at Rome, not far
from the Forum ; and at Anagnia, joined the Via Latina.
The Lavicana alfo commenced in Rome ; and having palTcd
between two aquedufts, joined the Latin way at Anagnia.
Strabo does not condutl the Lavicana fo far ; and the
table of Peutinger terminates it at Lanuvivim, twenty-nine
miles from Anagnia. The Via Latina commenced at the
gate of this name, and proceeded between the VV. and the
S. to join the grand Appian way, nineteen miles from Ca-
pua The Appian, Latin, and Valerian ways were the
moft confiderable in Latium : the Valerian way, upon Icav-
iivg Rome, proceeded towards the left, the Appian towards
the right, and tlie Latin way between the two. We may
here obferve, that there were two ways under the name of
Valerian, the ancient and the new. The Itinerary men-
tions one, and Strabo the other. The Latin way was called
by the ancients the Aufonian way ; accordingly Martial
has given it thefe two names. On this way was found the
temple of female Fortune, with her ftatue, which married
women only were allowed to touch without committing
facrilegc. Of the Appian way we have given a brief ac-
count under that article : and for a farther account of other
ways, we refer to the preceding part of this article ; our
linnts allowing of no farther enlargement. The Romans
extended their ways through the whole extent of their
empire, and it would fill a volume to trace them in Europe,
Alia, and Africa. The Itinerary of Antonine, and the
table of Peutinger, will afford the curious in this refcarch
great afTiflance. For an account of the Roman roads in
Britain, fee Way.

In connexion with the Roman roads, it may not be im-
proper to enumerate, as briefly as poffible, the gates of
Rome. When Rome was founded, it comprehended only
mount Palatine and the neighbouring valley, where was the
Forum ; and it had only three gates. When the Sabines
were admitted by Romulus into a participation of the free-
dom of the city, it was enlarged, and the Capitol inclofed ;
and for admilTion on the fide of the Capitol, a fourth gate
was added. The firfl gate had the name of porta Mutionis,
from the bellowings of the horned bealls which were fent
through it to the adjoining paftures ; the next called Romuhi,
from the name of the city ; and the third Janualu, from the
god Janus, who inhabited this quarter. Tlic fourth had
tiie name of porta Carmcntalis, from Carmenta, wife of
Evander, who had his abode in that quarter, at the foot of
the Capitol : which laft gate is mentioned by Solinus, Plu-
tarch (Life of Camillus), and Virgil (iEneid. viii.) In
fiibfequent ages Rome was feveral times enlarged, and it
became necelfary to conftrud new gates ; the four firft fcrv-
ing merely for tiie fortrefs and the inclofurc of the city.
Numa, the i^ucceffor of Romulus, added to the city a part
of the Quirinal mount ; and as the inhabitants multiplied,
TuUus Hoflilius joined to it mount Ccclius ; Ancus Mar-
tius, the Janiculiim ; Servius TuUius, the red of the Qui-
rinal and the Viminalis. A long time afterwards, Sylla,
Julius Cxfar, Auguilus, and Tiberius, enlarged tlic coiii-
paJ's of the city, fo as to include a variety of magnificent
S 2 edifices.

V I A

V 1 A

edifices. Nero having fet fire to it, added to its former
grandeur ; Trajan alfo augmented it, as did alfo Aurelian,
who inclofed the Campus Martius ; and, finally, Conftantine
the Great enlarged it on the fide of the Viminal and Tiburtine
gates. Authors have differed as to the number of gates
which belonged to the city of Rome. Pliny, in his time,
reckoned twenty-four ; but Procopius ftates them at four-
teen, befides thofe lefs confiderable gates, which he calls
portuli. In order to reconcile thefe difcordant ftatemetits,
it has been faid that Rome had fourteen roval and principal
gates, which might be denominated imperial and military,
and to which all the military ways of Italy were direfted ;
and befides thefe it had, in Pliny's time, ten others of in-
ferior importance. The firft fourteen, with their ancient
and modern names, were the following, viz. P. Flamentana,
afterward Flaminia, now the gate of the people, or del
Popolo, from a church built near it by pope Pafcal II.,
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, under the appellation of
Sta. Maria del Popolo : — Collatina, fo called becaufe it led
to a town of that name in the country of the Sabine?, not
far from Rome, fince Pinciana: — Jlgonenfis, bearing that
name from the Agonalia celebrated juft without it ; fince
Quirinalis, from a chapel facred to Romulus (Quirinus),
which flood near it ; alfo Collatina, or CoUina, from its
fituation at the junftion of the hills Quirinalis and Vimi-
nalis ; and laft of all, Salaria: — Viminalis, fo called on ac-
count of the ofiers that grew near it, and becaufe it was
fituated on the declivity of mount Viminalis ; called alfo
Nomentana, or Numentana, becaufe the road through it led
to Niimentum ; and now the gate of St. Agatha, or St.
Agnes : — Gahiofa, fo named from its leading to a road
called Gabina ; called by St. Gregory Metroni : — Efquilinci,
originally fo called from its fituation on mount Efquilme ;
Taurina, from the head of an ox engraved upon it ; Tibiir-
lina, from its leading to Tibur, now Tivoli ; Libilenjis, on
account of the dead bodies that ufed to be carried through
it to be interred in the Campus Efquilinus, the burying
place of the common people ; Labicana and Pmnejlina, be-
caufe tlie roads pafTing through it led to thefe places ; now,
as fome fay, the gate of St. Laurence, to whofe magnificent
church it leads ; but others afcribe the name of St. Laurence
to the Gahiofa, and fay this is the Porta major or greater
gate ; hence it is faid that this name, as well as that of
Sandi Crucis, or of the Holy Crojs, is applied to P. Nevia,
fo called, fays Varro, from the nemoriius or woods that
formerly ftood near it, or from an adjacent wood belonging
to one Nxvius ; and it is obferved that the Claudian aque-
duft runs clofe by it : — Calimontana, fo denominated from
its fituation on mount Cceluis ; fince ylftnaria, fo called
either from a road of that name to which it led, or from
gardens, called the Afinarian, fituated near it, or from
Afinius PoUio or Afinius Gallus, confuls under Auguftus,
who built or repaired it ; its oldefl name was Querquetulana,
under which name it is mentioned by Cicero ; now St. John's
gate, becaufe it leads to St. John Lateran : — Ferentina, a
name derived from Ferentinum, a place on the Latin way ;
fince Latina, from its leading to Latium, now the Cam-
pagna di Roma ; near it is now a chapel dedicated to St.
John the apojlle, from «hom the gate is at prefent called : —
Capena, fo called from Capua, an old city of Italy, the way
to which led through this gate ; fince Appiana, from its
leading to the Appian way ; or Triumphalis, from fome tri-
umphs in which the proceflion paffed through it ; it was
alfo, as fome fay, called Fontinalis, from the aquedufts
which were raifed over it ; now the gate of St. Sebajiian,
from a church dedicated to that faint, which (lands near
it ; — Triganiim, anciently fo named from the three Horatii,

lo

who Went out at this gate to fight the Curialii ; called AU)
Appia, from its being Hear the Appian aqueduft ; Fonlmalii,
from its being near a number of fprings ; and Ojlienfij, on
account of the road to Oftium, which began there ; now
the gate of St. Paul, from a noble church dedicated to that
apoftle, to which it It ads, without the walls : — Navalis, fo
called from its being near the river ; and Purtuenjis, from ilt
leading to the city of this name : — Janicuknf.s, named pro-
bably from a bridge of that name which led to this gate ;
fometimes called Trajana, as having been repaired by the
emperor Trajan ; and Aureliana, from the emperor Aurelian,
who either built or repaired it ; now St. Pancras's gate : —
Fontinalis, called alfo Septimiana, from tlie em.peror Sep-
timius Severus, who built it, and whofe baths are juft with-
out this gate; it was repaired by pope Alexander VI.: —
and Aurelia, near the gate of Adrian. The other ten gates
were of lefs importance ; they were called Portulx by Pro-
copius, but there is a confufion in their names, which are as
follow, compared with thofe of the other clafs : wz. Quer-
quetula, or Querquetulana, on mount Viminal : — Piacularis : —
Catularia : — Minutia : — Mugiona : — Sanqualis ; — Nnvia : —
Raudufcula, or Raiudufculana : — Lavernalis : — and Libitenfis.
Befides thefe twenty-four gates, there is yet one which
ferved for an entrance into the city of Rome, on the fide of
mount Vatican, and on this fide of the Tiber, not compre-
hended under thofe which we have already recounted. It is
the moft celebrated of all, and bore the name of P. trium-
phalis, afcribed by fome to Capena, already mentioned.

Via, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segellan ; 15 miles S.E. of Ferah.

Via Reggia, a fea-port town of the (late of Lucca, and
the only port of the republic ; 20 miles W. of Lucca.

VIACHA, a town of Peru, in the dioccfe of La Paz ;
8 miles S.W. of La Paz.

VI ACIENSES, or ViATlENSES, in Ancient Geography, a
people of Hifpania Citerior, comprehended under the gene-
ral name of Oretani.

VI AD ANA, LoDOViCO, in Biography, the inventor of
the expedient of expreffing chords by figures in accom-
paniment or thorough-bafe, which the Italians call baffo
continuo, was born at Lodi, in the Milanefe, the latter end of
the fixteenth century. His firft preferment was that of
maeftro di cappella of the cathedral of Fano, and the
fecond that of Mantua. He was one of the moft diilin-
guifhed ecclefiaftical compofers of his time. The indication
of chords by figures in accompanying on keyed inftruments,
lutes, harps, and, in recitatives, even violoncellos, has been
doubted, as fevcral inftances of the minute beginnings of
this expedient have been obferved previous to the time of
Viadana ; but he was, doubtlcfs, the firll who drew up
general rules for expreffing harmony by figures over tJ.e
bafe in 1615. Draiidius, in an ample lift of his ecclefiaftical
compofitions, which were very numerous, tells us of one
that authenticates his claim to this invention, which was a
coUedlion of all his choral pieces, of one, two, three, and
four parts ; " with a continued and general bafe, adapted
to the organ according to a new invention, and ufeful for
every finger as well as organift ; to which are added (hort
rules and explanations for accompanying a general bafe,
according to the new method." Viadana was therefore
the firlt who compofed an organ bafe different from the
voice-part, in the execution cf which the new invented
figures enabled the performer to give the fingers the whole
harmony of the feveral parts of a full compofition, without
feeing the fcore.

As the conftruftion of perpetual fugue, or canon, re-
quired more meditation and fcience than any other fpecies

of

V I A.

^ 1 A

cl tompofition, llicre were feveral muliciaiis during tlic
feventeenth century, who, from an ambition to excel in
fuch difficult undertakings, feeni to have devoted as great a
portion of their Hves to thefe labours as holy men ever
did to fevere afts of piety and devotion, in order to be
canonized.

Tliough the learned and elaborate ftyle in which both the
mufic of the church and chamber continued to be cultivated
at this period, till near the middle of the feventeenth
century ; yet a revolution in favour of melody and cxpreflion
was preparing, even in facred mufic, by the fuccefs of
dramatic compofition, confiding of recitation and melodies
for a fiiigle voice, which now began to be preferred to
mufic of many parts, in which canons, fugues, and full
harmony, were the produftions which chiefly employed the
mailer's ftudy and hearer's attention. And this rendered
the art of accompaniment or thorough-bafe more necefTary.
See Chords, Accompaniment, and TuoRovcH-Bafe.

VlADANA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mincio, on the Po ; 23 miles S.S.W. of
Mantua.

VIADUS, or ViADRUS, in /Indent Geography, a river of
Germany, which had its fource in Suevia, and difcharged
itfelf into the Siievian fea, or Codanus Sinus. This river is
called GuUallus by Pliny.

VI.^E Prim.e, the firft paflages ; a technical term for
the ftomach and intedincs.

In this fenfe we fay, an obftruftion in the primx vis.
Purging and emetic medicines operate chiefly on the primi
vix. And fudorifics, alteratives, cardiacs, &c. fufpend their
action till after they have palTed the primae vice.

VIAL, or Phial, a fmall and thin glafs bottle. See

PlIIAL.

VI ALA du Tarn, I,e, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Aveiron, near the Tarn ; 9 miles
S.W. of Milhaud.

VIALES, in Mythology, a name given, among the
Romans, to the gods who had the care and guard of the
roads and highways. Such were Mercury and Hercules.

The Dii Viales, according to Labco, were of the number
of thofe gods called Dii Animales ; who were fuppofed to
be the fouls of men, changed into gods : thefe were of two
kinds ; ii;z. the Viales and Penates.

The Viales were the fame with thofe olhervvife called
I^ares ; at lead, fome of the Lares were denominated
Viales; viz. fuch of them as had the more immediate
fupcrintcndency of the roads.

Hence the two names are fometimes joined, and thofe
liighway-deities are called Lares Viales ; witncfs that in-
fcription in Grutcr :

KORTUNAE

REDUCI LARI

VIAI.I KOMAE

AETEKNAE

Q. AXIUS AELIA

NUS — VE. PBGC.

AUG.

lONI

VIAMON, in Geography, a town of Brafil, in the jurif-
diftion of Rio de Janeiro.

VIANA, in Ancient Geography, the name of a town of
Norica. Pliny.

ViANA, in Geography, a mountain of Portugal, in ihc pro-
vince of Alentejo ; 3 milts S. of Evora — Alfo, a town of
Portugal, in the province of Alcnlcjo ; i 2 miles S. of Evora.
— Alfo, a town of Spain, in Galicia ; 30 miles E.S.E. of

Ofniff — Alio, a town of Spain, in Navarre, on the tbro;
16 miles S.W. of Eflella.

VlANA de Fox de Lima, a fea-port of Portugal, in the
province of Entre Ducro e Minho, fituated on the N. fide
of the IJma, near its mouth, containing two parifhcs, an
hofpital, fcven convents, abd about 7000 inhabitants ; the
harbour ie choaked up, and only capable of receiving fmall
veffels ; 9 miles W.S.W. of Ponte de Lima. N. lat.
41=41'. W. long. 8° 26'.

VIANDEN, or Wyanden, a town of France, in the
department of the Foreds, late the duchy of Luxemburg,
called by the Germans Vyenthal, fituated on the river
Uren, which divides it into New and Old Town, in the
midd of rocks and mountains. In the Old Town is a
caflle, fituated on a rock of prodigious height, where a
garrilon was kept. Vianden is a very ancient and illuftrious
comtc, which comprehends forty villages and hamlets, that
belonged to the houfe of Nafi'au. The inhabitants carry on
a confiderable trade in manufafturing cloth and the tanning
of leather ; i 8 miles N.N.E. of Luxemburg.

UJANDINSKOE Yasaschnoe, a town of Ruflla, in
the government of Irkutfli, on the Indigirda ; 148 miles
N.N.E. of Zaftiverflf. N. lat. 68^ 40'. E. long. 132° 14'.

VIANEN, or Vyanen, a town of Holland, fituated on
the S. fide of the Leek ; 7 miles S. of Utretch.

VIANINA, a town of the duchy of Piacenza ; 20
miles S. of Piacenza.

VIANO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza ; 13 miles
S. of Piacenza.

VIANOS, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 3 miles
S. of Alcaraz.

VIAREDEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark ; i mile N. of Schwedt.

VIAS, a town of France, in the department of the
Herault ; 6 miles N.W. of Agde.

VIASDUM, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Rawa ; 16 miles W. of Rawa.

VIAST. See Viest.

VIATICUM, among the ancient Romans, was the
allowance or appointment which the republic gave to fuch
of its officers as were fent into the provinces to exercife any
office, or to perform any fervice or commiffion ; as alfo to
the officers of the army, and even the foldiers, &c.

Tacitus makes mention of it, Annal. lib. i. c. 37.
Viaticum am'uorum, ipf,tifque C<rfaris ; meaning the appoint-
ments which the repubhc paid to Germanicus and his
officers.

This viaticum, however, did not coi.fid altogether in
money : the ring given to the magidrates and officers fent
into the provinces was part of it ; fo were the clothes,
baggage, tents, and the red of the equipage.

Some have alfo given the name of viaticum to the piece
of gold, filver, or copper, which the ancients ufed to
put into the mouths of the dead, to pay Charon for their
pafTage.

Id the Romiih church, viaticum is dill the allowance
made a religious, to defray the expences of a journey,
miffion, &c.

ViAi ici'M is alfo ufcd for the communion, or eucharift,
which is given to the people in the pangs of death, or who
are about to make the voyage of the other world.

The viaticum is not to be given to pcrfons executed in
courfc of iiifticc.

VIATKA, in Geography, a town of Riiffia, and capital
of, the govcninicnt of Viatlkoe: the environs of this city
abound in cxcfUont paUure tor (luop, of which great
numbers were fent hither fiom Geimany, and a woollen

manu-

V 1 A

manufadure was eftablirtied by the great Peter. Some
tanners likewife were brought by him from England, to
teach the art of tanning leather ; 624 miles E. of Peterfburg.
N. lat. 58° 25'. E. long. 50° 22'.— Alfo, a river of Ruffia,
which pafles by Viatka, Orlov, Kotelnitch, &c. and runs
into the Kama, 40 miles E. of Kazan.

VIATOR, in /liitiquUy, an officer of juftice among the
Romans. The term, originally, had no other fignification
than that of a public meffenger, or fervant, fent to advertife
the fenators and magiftrates when affemblies were to be
held, where their prefence was required.

Hence, becaufe, in the firft ages of that empire, the
Roman magiftrates lived moftly at their country houfes ;
thefe officers being obliged to be frequently upon the road,
were called viatoris, travellers ; from via, highway.

In procefs of time, the name viator became common to
all officers of the magiftrates, liftors, accenC, fcribes,
ftatores, and criers ; either by reafon thefe names and
offices were confounded in one ; or becaufe viator was a
general name, and the reft particular ones, fpecifying the
particular funftions they difcharged, as A. Gellius feems to
inftnuate, when he fays, that the member of the company of
viatores who binds a criminal condemned to be whipped,
was called liBor.

Be this as it will, the names liSor and viator are often
ufed indifcriminately for each other ; and we as often meet
with Send to feet, or advertife him by a lidor, as by a viator.

None but the confuls, praetors, tribunes, and sediles, had
a right to have viatores. They were not to be Roman
citizens, and yet they were required to be free.

VIATORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of the Nayrs; 25 miles N.E. of TeUichery.

VIATSKOE, a government of Ruffia, bounded on the
N. by the government of Vologda, on the E. by Permikoe.
on the S. by Uphinflvoe and Kazandioe, and on the W. by
Koftromfl{oe ; 260 miles long, and from 80 to 180 broad,
N. lat. 55° 40' to 60° 25'. E. long. 46° to 54°.

VIAZMA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Smolenfli. This town is fituated on an eminence, and covers
a great extent of ground ; it is irregularly built, chiefly of
wooden houfes, a few only of the more modern being of
brick. It contains more than twenty churches, a great
number for the town, which is far from being populous ;
76 miles E.N.E. of Smolenflv. N. lat. 55° 20'. E. long.
24^ 26'.

VIAZNIKI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Vladimir, on the Kliazma ; 52 miles E. of Vladimir. N.
lat. 56"" 10'. E. long. 41° 50'.'

VIAZOVSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Upha, on the Ural ; 36 mUes E.S.E. of Orenburg.

VIBANTANARIUM, or ViBAN-TAVARlUM, in An-
cient Geography, a town of European Sarmatia. Strabo and
Ptolemy.

VIBELLI, a people of Italy, in Liguria. Pliny.

VIBEX is fometimes ufed, by Phyfecians, for a black and
blue fpot on the fl<in, occafioned by an afflux or extravafa-
tion of blood.

VIBI FORUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy,
in Gallia Cifalpina.

VIBINUM, a place of Italy, in Apulia, making a part
of Magna Gracia.

VIBISCUS, a town of GaUia Celtica, or the Lyonnefe,
among the Helvetians. Anton. Itin.

VIBO, ViBONA, or Vinoba, a town of Italy, in
Bruliuui, upon the route from Rome to Colonne, by the
Appiaii way, between Ad Turres and Nicotera. Cicero
calls it Vibo.

V I B

VIBORG, or WiBORG, in Geography, a city of Den-
mark, capital of a diocefe, and all North Jutland, fituated
near the centre of the province, on a lake, called Afmild,
which abounds in filh. It is one of the moft ancient towns
of the kingdom, and was formerly large and rich, containing,
prior to the reformation, twelve churches and fix convents.
At prefent it is about two miles in circumference, and con-
tains three parifh churches. It is ftill the refidence of a
governor, and the fee of a biffiop ; and a provincial court is
held here every month for all North Jutland. In 1528, the
reformation firft began in this town ; 1 86 miles N. of Ham-
burgh. N. lat. 36'^ 32'. E. long. 9° 18'.

ViBORG, or IVyborg, a fea-port town of Ruffia, and capital
of a government, to which it gives name, in the gulf of
Finland ; the fee of a bifhop. This town was built in the
year 1293, and was heretofore the capital of Carelia. It
was founded by Birger Jahl as a military hold, that ftiould
enable him to check the increafmg power of the republic of
Novgorod, fo famous in thofe days. Peter the Great having
taken this town by capitulation in the year 17 10, improved
its fortifications, which have ever fince been kept in tolerable
good condition, fo that Viborg was looked on as the
bulwark of Ruffia againft Sweden. They are now, how-
ever, in a fomewhat dilapidated ftate, and not regarded as of
much ufe. The principal exports are planks, tallow, pitch,
and tar, for which the Enghfh are the greateft cuilomers :
their imports are moftly purchafed from France and Hol-
land, and are chiefly wine, fpices, and fait ; 360 miles S.W.
of Archangel. N. lat. 60° 50'. E. long. 28° 50'.

VIBORGIA, in Botany, erroneoufly written Wiborgiu,
received its name in honour of Mr. Eric Viborg, a learned
and acute Danilh botanift, author of feveral botanical and
economical treatifes in his own language, publiflied eighteen

or twenty years ago at Copenhagen Thunb. Prodi'.

n. 45. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 919 — Clafs and order, Z)/<2-
delphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacea, Linn. Legu-
minofit, Juft.

Eft'. Ch. Stamens all connefted. Calyx five-toothed, with
rounded interftices. Legume turgid, furrowed, winged.

1. V. obcordata. Thunb. Prodr. 121. Willd. n. i

Leaflets fmooth, obtufe. Branches elongated, lax A

flirub, found at the Cape of Good Hope.

2. V. fufca. Thunb. ibid. Willd. n. 2. — Leaflets
fmooth, pointed. Branches wand-like, ereft. — A flirub,
from the fame country.

3. V. fericea. Thunb. ibid. Willd. n. 3. — Leaves
downy, as well as the wand-like branches — This is alfo a
Cape flirub. We have feen none of the fpecies. The
genus feems well defined, though we lament the meagrenefs
of its hiftory.

VIBORSKOI,in Geography, a government of Ruffia, of
which Viborg is the capital ; bounded on the N. and W. by
Finland, on the S. by the gulf of Finland and the govern-
ment of Peterfburg, and on the E. by lake Ladoga and
the government of Olonetz ; its form is very irregular. Its
extent from N. to S. about 152 miles, where longeft, in
other places fcarccly 60 ; its breadth from 60 to 100. N.
lat. 60° 15' to 62° 40'. E. long. 26^ to 32°.

VIBRAIS, or ViBRAYE, a town of France, in the
department of the Sarte ; 9 miles N. of St. Calais.

VIBRANT, or ViBRlON, in Natural Hijlory, tlie name
of a clafs of flies, commonly known by the name of the
ichneumons.

The word is derived from the Latin -jibro, to Jliale or
quiver, and is applied to thefe flies, from the 'jonliiiual
vibrating motion obferved in their antennae.

VIBRATION, in Mechanics, a regular, reciprocal mo-
tion

VIBRATION.

tion of a bodyi e. g. a pendulum ; wliich, being fufpended
at freedom, fvving.s, or vibrates, firft this way, then that.
For the bob being raifed, falls again by its gravity ; and
with the velocity thus acquired, rifes to the fame height on
the other lide ; whence its gravity makes it fall again : and
thus its vibrations are co"tinued.

Mechanical authors, i.. lieu of vibration, frequently ufe
the term ofctllalion ; which fee.

The vibrations of the fame pendulum are all ifochronal ;
that is, they are performed in equal time, at lead in the
fame climate : for, towards the equator, they are found
fomewhat flower. See Pen'dulum.

A pendulum 3 feet 3,-5 inches, according to Huygens, or
39.25 inches, according to lir J. Moor and lord Brouncker,
vibrates feconds, or makes 3600 vibrations in an hour.

The vibrations of a longer pendulum take up more time
than thofe of a fhorter one, in a fubduple ratio of the
lengths. Thus, a pendulum three feet long will make ten
vibrations, while another nine inches long makes twenty.
For 10 is the half of 20, and 3 feet, or 36 inches, are the
fquare of 6 inches; which is double of 3, whofe fquare is 9 ;
fo that 10 is to 20 in a fubduple ratio of 36 to 9.

The fame thing is meant when we fay, that the number
of vibrations of pendulums, in a given time, is in a reci-
procal fubduple ratio of their lengths.

The following table (hews the number of vibrations in a
minute, correfponding to pendulums of different lengths,
exprefled in inches.

Length.

Vibrj'ions

L(iigi)i.

Vitraiious.

Leiigih.

Viliraiions.

4

187

10

118

35

63

5

167

12

107

40

59

6

1S3

•5

97

50

53

7

142

20

84

60

47

8

'32

25

75

9

125

30

68

M. Mouton, a pried of Lyons, wrote an exprefs treatife
to fhew, that, by means of the number of vibrations of a
given pendulum, in a certain time, one miglu eftablifli an
univerfal mcafure throughout the whole world ; and fix the
fevcral meafures in ufe among us, in fuch manner, as that
they might be recovered again, if at any time they fhould
chance to be loil, as is the cafe of mod of the ancient mea-
fures ; which we now only know by conjefture. See
Univerfal Measurf and Standard.

The vibrations of wjlnlched chord, or firing, arife from its
elafticity ; which power being of the fame kind with that
of gravity, the vibrations of a chord follow the fame laws
as thofe of pendulums : confequently, the vibrations of the
fame chord equally ftretched, though they be unequal in
length, are equidiurnal, or arc performed in equal times :
and the fquares o£ the times of the vibrations are among
themfelves, inverfely, as the powers by which they are
equally bent and infleftcd. (See Chord and String.)
On this fubjeft, fee Young's Philof. vol.ii. p. 546.

The fouiuliiig body in aftion quits its tranquil date by
flight, but fenfiblc and frequent undulations, each of which
is called a vibration. Thefe vibrations, communicated to
the air, convey to the ear, by that vehicle, the fenfation of
found ; and this found is grave or acute, in proportion as
the vibrations are more or lefs frequent in the fame time.
Sec Sound.

The vibrations of 1. Jlrivg (which fee), too, arc propor-
tionable to the powers by which it is bent : thcfe follow the
fame laws as thofe of the chord, or pendulum ; and, confe-

7

quently, are equidiurnal ; which is the foundation of fpring
watches.

For Pythagoras's account of the doftrine of vibrations,
fee Pythagoras^.

Vibrations are alfo ufed in Phyfcs, &c. for divers
other regular alternate motions.- Senlation is fuppofed to
be performed by means of the vibratory motion of the con-
tents of the nerves, begun by external objcdls, and pro-
pagated to the brain.

This doftrine has been particularly illuftrated by Dr.
Hartley, and extended farther by him than by any other
writer, in edablifliing a new theory of our mental opera-
tions. The dotlrine of vibrations, and its ufe in explaining
our fenfations, are comprifed by this writer in the following
propoCtions : that the whole medullary fubdance ot the
brain, fpinal marrow, and the nerves proceeding from tiiem,
is the immediate inllrument of fenfation and motion : that
this white medullary fubdance of the brain is alfo the imme-
diate indrument by which ideas are prefented to the mind ;
or, in other words, whatever changes are made in this fub-
dance, correfponding changes are made in our ideas, and
•vice verfa : that the ienfations remain in the mind for a Ihort
time aftej- the fenfible objects are removed : that external
objefts impreffed upon the fenfes occaiion, fird in the nerves
on which they are iniprefied, and then in the brain, vibra-
tions of the fmall, and, as one may fav. inlinitefimal, me-
dullary particles : that thefe vibrations are excited, propa-
gated, and kept up, partly by the ether, »'. e. by a very
fubtile and eladic fluid, and partly by ihe uniformity, conti-
nuity, foftnefs, and aclive powers of the medullary fubdance
of the brain, fpinal marrow, and nerves ; which Dr. Hart-
ley fuppofcs are rather folid capillaments, according to fir
liaac Newton, than fmall tubuli, according to Boerhaave :
and that the phenomena of fenfible pleafurc and pain, and alfo
thofe of flecp, appear to be very fuitable to the doftrine of
vibrations. Hence he proceeds to cdabiifli the agreement of
the doftrine of vibrations with the phenomena of ideas. Sen-
fations, he fays, by being often repeated, leave certain vediges,
types, or images of themfelves, which may be called fimple
ideas of fenfation ; becaufe the mod vivid of thefe ideas are
thofe where the correfponding fenfations are mod vigoroufly
imprefled, or mod frequently renewed ; whereaSj it the fen-
iation be faint or uncommon, the generated idea is alio faint
in proportion, and, in extreme cales, evanefccnt and imper-
ceptible. The ex aft obfervance of the order of place in
vifible ideas, and pf the order of time in audible ones, may
likewife fervo to ihew, that thcfe ideas are copies and ofT-
fprings of the imprclfions made on the eye and ear, in which
the fame orders were obferved refpeftively : and though it
happens that trains of vifible and audible ideas are prefented
in fallies of the fancy, and in dreams, in which the order ot
time and place is dilFercnt from that of any former impref-
fions ; yet the fmall component parts of thcfe trams are
copies of former impreflions j and reafons may be given of
the varieties of their compofitions. Seufory vibrations, by
being often repeated, beget, in tlie medullary fubdance of
the brani, a difpofition to diminutive vibrations, which may
be alfo called vibraliundes and miniatures correfponding to
themfelves refpeftively : fo that if it be allowed tiiat ori-
ginal imprefled vibratory motions leave a tendency to minia-
ture ones of the fame kind, pLice, and line of direftion,
this author infers, that fenfations mud beget ideas, not only
in the fenfes of fight and hearing, where the ideas are (uffi-
ciently vivid and didinft, but in the tliree others, fince (heir
fenfations are alfo conveyed to the mind by means of vibra-
tory motions.

Any fenfations, fays Dr. Hartley; by being affociated with

V I B

V I 13

one another a fufficient number of times, get facli a power
over the correfponding ideas, that any one of the fenfations,
when imprefled alone, fliall be able to excite h the mind the
ideas of the reft : and any vibrations, by being affociated to-
gether a fufficient number of times, get fuch a power over the
eorrefponding miniature vibrations, that any of thofe vibra-
tions, when impreffed alone, fhall be able to excite the minia-
ture of the reft. Hence he argues, that fimple ideas will run
into complex ones, by means of alTociation, and that when
this is the cafe, we are to fuppofe, that the miniature vibra-
tions correfponding to thofe fimple ideas run, in like manner,
into a complex miniature vibration, correfponding to the re-
fulting complex idea ; fome of which complex vibrations, at-
tending upon complex ideas, may be as vivid as any of the
fenfory vibrations excited by the direft adlion of objeAs.
See Association and Mental Pnrr.osopHY.

Dr. Hartley alfo applies the do&rine of vibrations to
the explication of mufcular motion, which, he thinks, is per-
formed in the fame general manner as fenfation, and the per-
ception of ideas. For a particular account of his theory,
and the manner in which it is largely illuftrated, and the ar-
guments by which it is fupported, we muft refer to his Ob-
lervations on Man, vol. i. paflim.

The feveral forts and rays of light fir Ifaac Newton con-
ceives to make vibrations in the ether of feveral magnitudes
or velocities ; which, according to thofe magnitudes or ve-
locities, excite fenfations of feveral colours ; much after the
fame manner as vibrations of air, according to their feveral
magnitudes or velocities, excite fenfations of feveral founds.
See Colour and Sound.

Heat, according to the fame author, is only an accident
of light, occafioned by the rays putting a fine, a fubtile,
ethereal medium, which pervades all bodies, into a vibrative
motion, which gives us that fenfation. See jEtiier and
Heat.

From the vibrations or pulfes of the fame medium, he ac-
counts for the alternate fits of eafy refiedtion and eafy tranf-
miffion of th; rays. See Reflection and Undulation.
See alio Light.

In the Philofophical TranfaAious, it is obferved that the
butterfly, into which the filk-worm is transformed, makes
one hundred and thirty vibrations, or motions of its wings, in
one coition.

VIBRATIUNCLES. See Vibrations, /«/>ra.

VIBRATO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which
runs into the Adriatic, 2 nules N.N.E. of Giulia Nova.

VIBRISSjE, a word ufcd by medical writers to exprefs
the hairs in the noftrils.

VIBURNUM, in Botany, reckoned by Linnseus, Phil.
Bot. 174, among the Latin names whofe origin cannot be
afcertained, is traced by Vaillant, Ainfworth, and Martyn
to the verb meo, to bind ; which is perfectly confiftent with
Virgil's expreflion of I'nta viiurna, but does not decide the
old doubt, whether the poet meant our Viburnum, or any
ftirub of the willow or ofier kind. Matthiolus has led mo-
dern botanifts to apply this name to the genus before us, one
of whofe fpecies, V. Lantana, he conceives to be Virgil's
plant, on account of its great pliability and humble flexible
growth, well contrafted with the tall and upright cyprefs.
— Linn. Gen. 147. Schreb. 197. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i.
i486. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 334. Prodr.
Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. i. 206. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 166.
Purfti 201. Juff. 213. Tourn. t. 377. Lamarck lUuftr.
t. 211. Gaertn. t. 27. (Opulus ; Tourn. t. 376. Tinus ;
Tourn. t. 377.) — Clafs and order, Pentandria Trigynia.
Nat. Ord. Dumofa, Linn. CaprifoUa, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth fuperior, very fmall, in five

deep permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, bell-fhaped,
cut half way down into five obtufe, reflexed or fpreading
fegments. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, the length of
the corolla ; anthers roundifti. Plfl. Germen inferior, round-
i(h, crowned with a turbinate gland ; ftyles fcarcely any ;
ftigmas three. Peric. Berry roundifli, of one cell. Seed
folitary, roundifti, bony.

Eft. Ch. Calyx fuperior, deeply five-cleft. Corolla in
five fegments. Berry with a folitary feed.

Viburnum is technically diftinguiftied from Sambucus,
(fee that article,) by having one feed inftead of three. The
Jlem is flirubby, fcarcely arborefcent, witli tough and pliant
branches. Leaves fimple, oppofite, ftalked, moftly ellip-
tical, undivided, except in the Opulus of Tournefort and its
neareft allies. Flowers generally terminal, cymofe, copious,
whitifh. Berry red, blue, or black ; in fome cafes eatable.
The plants are hardy, natives of Europe, America, or
Japan.

1. V. Tinus. Common Laurus-Tinus. Linn. Sp. PI.
383. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Curt. Mag. t. 38. (Tinus,
n, I, 2, and 3 ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. 49. Laurus Tinus ; Ger.
Em. 1409.) — Leaves ovate, entire; their veins furniftied
with axillary tufts of hair underneath. Cymes fmooth. —
Native of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, efpecially about the
coafts of the Mediterranean. In our gardens it is a valuable
evergreen, thriving belt near the fea, feldom injured, except
by very hard and laftir.g frofts, which fometimes deftroy it i
nearly to the root. In a pure air it flowers all winter long,
even when partially covered with fnow ; but in clofe or
fmoky fituations, the plant is eafily killed, and never blof-
foms. The berries are feldom perfefted but in a green-
houle. At Vienna this fhrub, like the Prunus Lauro-cerafus ,

IS always treated as a greenhoufe plant. We have lately feen
what is now become the Englifti name, affeftedly accented
Lauiitflinus. But it is a compound word, meaning Laurus,
which is called Tinus ; and Ovid teaches us that the firft fyl-
lable of Tinus is long ; fee that article. The fpecies be-
fore us is very buftiy, fpreading widely, feldom above five
feet high ; the twigs fmooth, dark red ; angular when
young. Leaves two or three inches long, acute, veiny ;
dark fiiining green above ; paler beneath, with glandular
hairs at the origin of each large vein. Flowers tinged with
red. Berries blue, like burnt fteel, very beautiful. The
leaves are occafionally more or lefs hairy, whence Clufius
and Alton diftinguifh three or four varieties.

2. V. tinoidcs. Mexican Laurus-Tinus. Linn. Suppl.
184. Willd. n. 2. — Leaves elliptical, entire; the origin of
their veins flightly hairy underneath. Cymes and young
branches hairy. — Sent by Mutis from Mexico. Like the
preceding, but the leaves have (horterfoo/Jlalts, and are ellip-
tical rather than ovate ; the young branches, and all the

Jloiver-Jlalks, are clothed with briftly hairs.

3. V. villofum. Downy Jamaica Viburnum. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 564. Wilid. n. 3 — Leaves ovate, acute, entire ;
hoary and downy beneath. — Gathered by Maffon and Swartz
on hills in the fouthern part of Jamaica, flowering in au-
tumn. A Jhrub about fix or eight feet high, with a grey
bark. The young branches, like the fooijlcdh, cymes, and
backs of the leaves, are clothed with foft, ftarry, hoary pu-
befcence, particles of which are alfo fcattered over the green
upper furface of each leaf. Flowers white.

4. V. fcandens. Chmbing Viburnum. Linn. Suppl.
184. Willd. n. 4. (V. virens ; Thunb. Jap. 123.) — Stem
twining. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated. Cymes lax. Styles
twice as long as the calyx. Outer flowers radiant. — Native
of Japan. A flender chmbing^ra3, with ftiort, leafy, op-
pofite brandies. Leaves two inches long, ihin, tapering at

each

VIBURNUM.

each end, brigiit green, fmoodi. Cymes (lender, hairy, of
three unequal brunches. Flowers white ; a few of them
imperfeA, with large, dilated, unequal, radiant ealyx-leaves
iuftead of petals, as in the Gucldcr-rofe, &c. Thunberg
defcribes ten Jlamens, but this is an accident, or error, his
own fpecimcn before us hiving but five. The three elongated
JfyL-s, with club-fhapedy/ifmaj, are remarkable. Nothing is
known refpefting the fruit. The germcn is turbinate, en-
circled with the calyx, as in Hydrangea.

y. V. nudum. Smooth Oval-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp.
PI. 383. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 2. Pur(hn.4. (V. foliis
ovato-lanceolatis integerrimis ; fubtils venofis ; Mill. Ic.
183. t. 274.) — Leaves elliptical, bluntifh, fomewhat revo-
lute, nearly entire, very fmooth, as well as the cymes,
branches, and footftalks. — Native of North America, in
fwamps, particularly on a fandy foil, from Canada to
Georgia, flowering in May and June. Every pait is very
fmooth. Leaves three or four inches long ; evergreen in the
fouthcrn dates of North America, but not in our gardens.
The cymes are large, on long terminal _/?a//fj. Flowers co-
pious, while. Berries black.

6. V. obovatum. Smooth Obovate Viburnum. Walt.
Carol. 116. Poirct in Lam. Did. v. 8. 658. Purlli n. 5.
— Leaves obovate, obtufe, fmooth, entire or fomewhat
notched. Cymes feffde. Berries roundifli-ovate. — In (hady
woods of Carolina and Georgia, flowering in May and
June. Purjh. Flowers white, fmall. Berries blackifh.
This is fuppofed to- be V. cajftnoides ai Michaux, Boreal. -
Jlmer. v. i. 179, though not that of Linnaeus.

7. V. prunifolium. Plum-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp.
PI. 383. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 3. Purflt n. I. (V.
Lentago ; Moench Hort. Wciffcnlt:. 140'. t. 8. Mefpilus
prunifolia virginiana ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 46. f. 2.) — Smooth,
with wide-fpreading branches. Leaves roundifh-obovate,
linely ferratsd. Footftalks even. Cymes felTde. Berries
roundifli. — Common in hedges and fields, from New Eng-
liind to Carolina, flowering in May and June. A hardy
Hirub, cultivated by Miller. The leaves are fcarcely an inch
and a half long, full an inch broad, minutely and (harply
ferrated. Flowers white. Berries dark blue.

8. V. pyrijolium. Sharp-leaved Viburnum. Poiret in
Lam. Did. V. 8. 653. Purfli n. 2.) — Smooth. Leaves
^)vate, pointed, ferrated. Cymes fomewhat ftalked. Berries
elliptic-oblong. — On the banks of rivers, in Pernifylvania,
New Jerfey, &c. flowering in May and June. Refembles
the former, but is not fo llraggling in its growth. Ber-
ries black. PurJ].\ Our wild Pennfylvanian fpecimen has
copioufly ferrated leaves, two inches and a half long, with
taper entire points. The fruit feems rather obovate. This
may perhaps be V. arboreum, Muhlenb. Catil. 32. n. 12,
our fpecimen having been fent by that excellent botanift,
without a name, and formerly referred by us to prunifcltum,
to which it is certainly near akin.

9. V. dauricum. Siberian Viburnum. Pallas Rofl". v. i.
p. 2. 30. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 4. (Loniceramongolica;
Pall. Roir. v. I. p. I. 59. L. dauurica ; ibid. t. 38. L. n. 8 ;
Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 135.1. 25.) — Leaves ovate, ferrated, dotted
and hairy. Cymes of few flowers. — Found in the fidures
of rocks, in various parts of Siberia. The late Mr. Bell,
to whom our Englifli gardens are fo much indebted for
plants from that country, introduced this in 1785. it
flowers in June and July, but is not ornamental. The leaves
arc an inch and a quarter long, about half as broad. Flowers
white, very few in each cyme, compared with moll of th.e

■fpccics. Corolla with an elongated tube. In his full ac-
count of this plant, above cited, Pallas attributes five, fix, or
iTevcn feeds to the fruit ; in the fecond he fays one of his
\i)L. XXXVII.

pupils impofeil upon him with a wrong fpecimen, and that
the real fruil ol this Ihrub is an ov.il berry, red at lirll, then
black, like F. Lantana, but more oblong, with a folitary,
compreffed, ribbed /ef^. He gives figures of thefe parts,
with the leaf of a Imaller variety, in his tab. 58. fig. F, G ;
which he calls tab. 7. Pallas further remarks, that the fcat-
tered pubefcence of this fpecies is ftcllated, and that a por-
tion of fuch is found on the flower flalis ; all which brings
it nearer to the Lantana, a circuraftance hardly to be divined
from his figure.

10. V. Jentalnm. Shining Tooth-leaved Viburnum. Linn.
Sp. PI. 384. Willd. II. 8. Ait. n. 5, K. Purfli n. 9. Jacq.
Hort. Vind. v. i. 13. t. 36. — Leaves roundilh-ovate, acute,
furrowed and fomewhat plaited, Ilrongly toothed, nearly
fmooth on both fides. Cymes ftalked. Berries almoft glo-
bular.— In mountainous woods frequent, from New York
to Carolina, flowering in June and July, and known by the
name of Arrow-wood. Berries dark blue. Pur/h. The
leaves of this fpecies are three inches long, and nearly as
broad, fomewhat heart-lhaped at the bafe ; bcfprinkled on
the upper fide with fine, fimple, diftant hairs ; paler and
fmoolher beneath. They are ftrongiy ribbed. Flowers
rather fmall, hairy in the middle. Calyx white as well as the
petals.

11. V. pukfeens. Downy Tooth-leaved Viburnum.
Purfli n. 10. (V. dentatum IS ; Ait. n. 5. Willd. n. 8.)
— Leaves ovate, pointed, furrovfed and fomewhat plaited,
ftrongiy ferrated ; foft and downy beneath. Cymes ftalked.
Berries oblong. — In the lower parts of Virginia and Caro-
lina, flowering in June. The whole of the flirub fmaller thxn
the preceding. Purjb. We have a fpecimen of this from
the Paris garden, marked V. dentatum longifuUum, Ju/f. The
leaves are downy on both fides, but particularly foft at
the back ; tlieir form oblong-ovate ; length two or two
and a half inches ; margin fliarply ferrated ; traafverfe veins
numerous, divided. Flowers much like the laft.

12. V.plicatum. Plaited Japanefe Guclder-rofe. Thunb.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 332. Willd. n. 9. (V. dentatum ;
Thunb. Jap. 122, excluding the reference to Linnaeus.
Fundhn, vulgo Te Mariqua ; Kaempf. Am. Exot. 854.^ —
" Leaves ovate, obtufe, with tooth-like ferratures, plaited."
— Found by Thunberg near Fammamato, in Fakona, ard
other parts of Japan, flowering in April and May. The

flowers are radiated, hke our Guelder-rofe ; but the leaves,
as Kxmpfer obferves, are rounder than in that fpecies, with
crowded ribs, and a ferrated margin. Thunberg fays the
kaves are plaited, efpecially before they fully expand ; the'r
form rounder, and their teeth finer, than in the true f. den-
tatum, n. 10.

13. V. eroftim- Jagged Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb.
Jap. 124. Vv illJ. n. 10. — Leaves obovate, pointed, fliarply
notched, nearly fmooth. Footftalks downy, as well as the
cymes. — Native of Japan. Branches grey, lomewhat fpread-
ing, fmooth, except when young. Footjlalls fiendcr, near an
inch in length ; Thunberg calls them very ftiort ; we fufpcct
he viTQtc pellolus for pedunculus, (the common flowcr-ftaik,)
which is very fliort, and downy like the cyme, [not panicle nor
umbel,) which it fupports. The flowers are numerous ani
crowded, but not radiated. Leaves pliant, ftrongiy veined,
two or three inches long, dilated upwards.

14. V. Lantana. Mealy Giuh'cr-rofe ; or W.iy-farinjj
Tree. Linn. Sp. PI. 384. Willd. n, 11. Fl. But. n. i.
Engl.Bot. t. 331. Jacq. Aullr.t. 341. (Viburnum ; M.itih.
Vaigr. V. I. "194. Camer. Epit. 122. Lantara, five Vi-
burnum ; Gcr. Em. 1490. )— Leaves heart-lliaped, fl)sr;.!y
ferrated, veiny ; downy beneath, with ftarry hairs. Cyr-s
ftalked, downy.— Native of hcdgot and thickets, in iSe i>«r;r-r

T teirpcrilj

VIBURNUM.

temperate parts of Europe, on a chalky or marly foil, fk)wer-
ing ill May, and not rare in various parts of England, efpe-
cially Oxfordfhire. It hasjuftly been deforibedby Ray, as
of a taller (lature in the northern counties than in the fouth.
In general it is a tufted bu(h, with round, pliant, mealy
twigs. ( See the explanation of the generic name. ) All the
ftalis, the backs of the elliptic-heartftiaped veiny haves, and
in fome meafure their upper furface, are clothed with denfe,
hoary, Harry hairs, often loaded with dull from the road,
which fcarcely adds to the powdery afpeft of tlie plant.
Flo'-jjcrs white, in large, rather convex, ftalked cymrs.
Stigmas feffile, very (hort and thick. Berries roundiih,
abrupt, compreffed ; when young red on the outermoft fide,
yellow on the other ; finally quite black, mealy and aflrin-
gent, with a large, flat, (mrov/ed/eeJ. The foliage turns in
autumn to a dark red.

14. V . grandifolium. Large-leaved, or American, Way-
faring Tree. (V. Lantana 0, grandifolium ; Ait. ed. i.
V. I. 372. ed. 2. n. 6, /?, by millake called grandijlorum.
Willd. n. II, e. V. lantanoides ; Michaux Boreal. -Amer.
V.I. 179. Purlh n. 11.) — Leaves roundifh-heartfhaped,
abruptly pointed, unequally and obtufely ferrated ; their ribs
and ftalks downy, with ftarry hairs. Cymes quite feffile.
Berries ovate. — In (hady woods, on high mountains, from
Canada to Virginia, principally m the forefts called Beech-
woods, flowering in June and July. Known by the name of
Hobble-bufli. Berries red ; but when ripe, black. Purjb.
Of more humble growth than the laft, with more trailmg
branches, and larger greener leaves. Michaux has well
feparated it frtom the European Lantana, but we cannot
adopt his barbaroufly-formed fpccific name, though too many
fuch illiterate deformities are unaccountably introduced
daily by more claffical writers. The error of grandijlorum,
for grandifolium, is one of thofe very few which efcapcd the
late fupremely accurate Dryander. It were an injury to his
memory not thus to correft him.

15. V. tomentofum. Downy Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb.
Jap. 123. Willd. n. 12. ( Sijo, vulgo Adl'ai, &c.; Kaempf.
Am. Exot. 854.) — " Leaves ovate, pointed, ferrated,
veiny ; downy beneath. Cymes lateral." — Obferved by
Thunberg, in various woods between Miaco and Jedo, as
well as cultivated, in Japan, flowering in April and May.
Tiie branches are round, fmooth, reddifli, divaricated, fub-
divided. Leaves ovate, (not hcart-fhaped,) ribbed; the
upper ones moft downy beneath. The youngefl. branches,
and all thcflalis, are downy. Cymes axillary, at the extre-
mities of the fmall branches. i^/oiu«v radiant. Thunberg.
Kxmpfer fays xhefloiuers are blue, compofing a large denfe
ball, the outer ones largeft.

16. V. hirtum. Hairy Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb.
Jap. 124. Willd. n. 13. — " Leaves ovate, ferrated, villous.
Footftalks hairy." — Native of Japan. Stem afcending in a
zigzag manner, round, fmooth ; its branches alternate, round,
fmooth at the bafe, hairy at the extremity. Leaves oppo-
fite, refembling thofe of a nettle, acute, deeply and equally
ferrated, an inch long, veiny ; the veins clothed with white
clofe hairs. Footjlalks and jloiver-jlalh covered with hori-
zontally fpreading hairs. Fh-wers minute, not radiant.
Stigma two-lobed. Thunberg.

17. V. accrifoUum. Maple-leaved Viburnum. Linn.
Sp. PI. 384. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 7. Purfh n. 12.
Venten. Jard. de Cels, t. 72. — Leaves three-lobed, pointed,
fharply ferrated ; downy beneath. Footftalks hairy, with-
out glands In rocky mountainous fituation?, from New

England to Carolina, flowering in May and June. Berries
black. Purfh. The branches are round, finely downy, with
ftarry hairs. Such are found alfo on xht footflalks, but in-

termixed with fimple much coarfer ones. The leaves are
rather acutely lobed, and llrongly ferrated, very much re-
fembling thofe of the Common Vine. Stipulas fetaceous,
in pairs on the bafe of each footftalk. Cyme of many-
downy branches, on a long terminal common flalk. Flowers
not radiant. This appears by the manufcripts of the cele-
brated Peter CoUinfon, to have been imported by him in
1736.

18. V. orientale. Oriental Guelder-rofe. Pallas Rofl'.
V. I. p. 2. 31. t.58. f. H. Willd. n. 15. Opulus orientalis,
folio ampliflimo tridentato ; Tourn. Cor. 42.) — Leaves
three-lobed, pointed, coarfely and rather bluntly toothed.
Footftalks fmooth, without glands. — Native of rather alpine
fituations in Imiretta. Pallas. Differs from the laft, to
which it is very nearly akin, in having leaves ftrongly
toothed, not ferrated, and an ovzXfeed, with three ribs and
two furrows at each fide, as in V. Lantana, inftead ot the
heart-fliaped feed of the acerifolium. IVilldenoiu. Berries
red. Pallas.

19. V. Opulus. Common Guelder-rofe, Water Elder,
or Snow-baU Tree. Linn. Sp. PI. 384. Willd. n. 16.
Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 332. Fl. Dan. t. 661.
(Sambucns aquatilis five paluftris ; Ger. Em. 1424. S.
aquatica ; Camer. Epit. 977.) — Leaves three-lobed, fharply
toothed. Footftalks fmooth, furniflied with glands. Cymes
radiant. — Native of watery thickets and hedges throughout
Europe, flowering in June. A fmall buftiy tree, fmooth in
all its partE, only the backs of the leaves being occafionally
downy. Their three lobes are unequally toothed or ferrated.
The footjlalks bear, towards the top, feveral cup-like glands,
and towards the bafe, a pair or two of linear flipulas.
Cymes large, fmooth, ftalked, of numerous white jlo-wers,
the marguial ones abortive, dilated and radiant. Berries
oval, drooping, fcarlet, very fucculent, not eatable. Seed
heart-fliaped. A variety with globofe cymes, compofed en-
tirely of radiant j?oitcr J, is commonly cultivated in gardens
and ftirubberies, as-a companion to the lilac and laburnum.
The foliage turns in autumn to a beautiful pink or crimfon,
as in many genera of trees and flirubs that are principally
American.

20. V. molle. Soft -leaved American Guelder-rofe. Mi-
chaux Boreal. -Amer. v. i. 180. Purfti n. 13. ("V. alni-
folium ; Marfli. Arb. 162.") — " Leaves roundifli-heart-
fliaped, plaited, furrowed, toothed ; downy beneath. Foot-
ftalks {lightly glandular. Cymes radiant. Berry oblong-
ovate." — In hedges in Kentucky, near Danville, as well as
in Tennaflee and Upper Carolina, flowering in June and
July. Berries red. This fpecies refembles the following.
Purjh. The leaves are undivided, not three-lobed. The

Jloiuers are radiant. The barh falls off' every year in thin
flireds. Michaux.

21. V. Ox^coccus. Cranberry Guelder-rofe. Purfh n. 14.
(V. Opulus (5; Ait. n. 8. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. i.
j8o. " V. trilobum ; Marfh. Arb. 162.") — Leaves three-
lobed, acute at the bafe, three-ribbed ; lobes divaricated,
elongated, pointed, fparingly toothed. Footftalks furnifhed
with glands. Cymes radiant. — In fwampsand fhady woods
of Canada, and on the mountains of New York and New
Jerfey, flowering in July. Berries red, of an agreeable
acid, refembling that of Cranberries, Vaccinium macrocar-
pon, for which they are a very good fubftitute. Ptirjh.
We have never examined this fpecies, though it probably
may be found in the London nurferies. If the fruit an-
fwers to the above character, and is plentiful, it would be
worth cultivating for the table. The tivigs are defcribed of
a fhining red.

22. V. edule. Smaller Eatable Guelder-rofe. Purfh

n. 15.

VIBURNUM.

n. I J. (V. Opulusy; MichauK Boreal.-Amer. v. i. i8o. )
— Leaves threc-lobed, bliintifli at the bafe, three-ribbed ;
lobes very Ihort, ferrated with minute pointed teeth. Foot-
ftalks furnifhed with glands. Cymes radiant. — On the
banks of rivers, from Canada to New York, flowering in
July. A fmaller and more upright fhriib than the preceding
fpecies. Berries of the fame colour and fize, but, when
completely ripe, more agreeable to eat. Pur/Jj.

23. V. dilalatum. Spreading Japanefe Viburnum. Thunb.
Jap. 124. Willd. n. 17 Leaves obovate, pointed, un-
equally toothed, villous. Cymes axillary. — Gathered by
Thuiiberg in Japan. Stem (hrubby, ereft, fomewhat angu-
lar, grey, villous. Leaves two inches long, (talked, ribbed,
jagged at the margin, villous on both fides ; the lower ones
fmaller. Footjlalks round, villous, three-quarters of an inch
long. Cyme axillary, repeatedly compound, four-cleft and
three-forked, very widely fpreading, with downy ftalks.
Flowers not radiant. Thunberg. The learned author ufes
the terms panicle, umbel, and cyme indifferently in his defcrip-
tions of this genus ; but from what we have feen, even of
his own fpecies, we, without fcruple, fubftitute the latter
throughout.

24. V. niacrophyllum. Large-leaved Japanefe Viburnum.
Thunb. Jap. 125. Willd. n. 18. — Leaves obovate, pointed,
toothed, fmooth. Cymes radiant, terminal. — Native of
.Japan. The whole plant is fmooth. Stem and branches
round. Leaves ribbed, paler beneath, four inches in breadth,
and fomewhat more in length. Footjlalks one-third the
length of the leaves. Thunb.

25. V. cufpidatum. Pointed-leaved Japanefe Viburnum.
Thunb. Jap. 125. Willd. n. 19. — Leaves ovate, pointed,
ferrated, villous. Cymes radiant. — From the fame country
as the two laft. Leaves equally and acutely ferrated, of the
fize of the preceding fpecies, clothed with fcattered hairs.
Cymes terminal, repeatedly compound. Thunb.

26. V. Lentago. Pear-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp. PI.
384. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n. 9. Purfh n. 3. — Leaves
fmooth, broad-ovate, pointed, finely and . fharply ferrated.
Footilalks bordered, crifped. Cymes felTile. — Frequent in
hedges, and on the borders of woods, from New England
to Carolina, flowering in July. More inclined to grow to
a tree than any of the reft of the American fpecies. Ber-
ries black. Purjh. Cultivated in England, by Mr. James
Gordon, in 1761. Aiton. The /caTCj are three inches long,
and nearly half as broad, rather coriaceous, very fmooth,
with many tranfverfe ribs. Footjlalhs channelled, with a
curled dilated border at each fide. Buds large, ovate, with
a long point. We never faw the Jlowers.

27. V. fguamatum. Scaly Viburnum. Willd. Enum.
327. (V. nudum; var. fquamatum ; Muhlenb. Catal. 32.)
— " Leaves oblong, bluntly and finely ferrated. Footftalks
and flower-ftalks clothed with fcaly pubcfcencc." — Native of
Pennfylvania. A hardy flirub in the open air at Berlin.
Leaves two inches long, with a very fhort point ; their bafo
fomewhat contraftcd ; their edges unequally, diftantly,
bluntly, and very flightly ferrated ; fmooth, except the
under fide of the younger ones, wliich_is befprinkled with
fmall, brown, very diftant, fcales. Footjlalks, as well as
the long lanceolate buds, thickly covered with minute, brown,
hairy fcales. Cyme terminal, as in V. nudum, n. 5, which
the prcfent fpecies greatly refcmbles ; but it is diftinguifhcd
by the fcales of all the llalks, ;tnd the finely-ferrated, lefs
coriaceous, leaves, which are neither (liining nor revolute.
IVilldenow.

28. V. cnjfinnidcs. Thick-leaved Viburnum. Linn. Sp.
PI. 384. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 10. Purfh n. 6. — Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, acute at each end, fmooth, crenale, (lightly

ite. Foatilalks keeled, without glands In fwamps

New York to Carolina, flowering in June and July.

revolute.

(rom New York to Carolina, flowering in June and July.
Berries blueifli-black. Purjh. The whole plant is fmooth.
Leaves two inches long, more or lefs, and one broad, coria-
ceous ; paler beneath ; the tranfverfe ribs fcarcely vilible.
Footjlalks angular, gibbous at the bafe, but not decurrent.
Cymes terminal, on (hort ftalks.

29. V. lavigatum. Caffioberry Viburmim, or Paraguay
Tea. Ait. n. 12. Willd. n. 23. Purfli n. 7. (Caffine
Peragua; Linn. Mant. 220. C. foliis ovato-lanceolatis
ferratis oppofitis deciduis, floribus corymbofis ; Mill. Ic.
$^. t. 83. f. I. C. verx perquam fimilis arbufcula, philly-
reas foliis antagoniftis ; Pluk. Mant. 40. Hortul. Angl.
16. t. 20.) — Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, unequally ferrated ;
entire at the bafe. Branches two-edged. — Found near the
fea-coaft, in Virginia and Carolina, flowering in June and
July. Berries black. Purjlj. The fmooth wand-like
branches are marked at each fide with a narrow prominent
line, running down from the infertion of ihefootjlalis, which
are rather (hort and thick, carinated, bordered, and fome-
what crifped. Leaves fcarcely two inches long, bluntilh.
Cymes at the ends of (hort lateral branches. Flowers white,
not radiant. Berries globular, red.

30. V. nitidum. Shining Narrow-leaved Viburnum. Ait.
n. II. Willd. n. 22. Purfli n. 8. — " Leaves hnear-lanceo-
late, very fmooth, entire, or flightly ferrated ; (liining above.
Branches quadrangular." — In fandy barren woods of Caro-
lina and Georgia. A low Jhrub, with fmall leaves. Purjh.
Mr. Aiton fpeaks of it as hardy, flowering in May and
June; cultivated in 1758, by Mr. Chriftopher Gray, who
had at that time, and long before, a well-furnifhed nurfery-
ground at Fulham.

Viburnum, in Gardening, contains plants of the deci-
duous and evergreen flowering kind, among which the fpe-
cies cultivated are, the pliant mealy or wayfaring tree ( V.
lantana) ; the water elder or guelder rofe (V. opulus) ; the
pear -leaved viburnum (V. lentago); the thick-leaved vibur-
num (V. catlinoides) ; the (hining-leaved vibunium (V. ni-
tidum); the calTioberry bu(h (V. Ixvigatum) ; the oval-
leaved viburnum (V. nudum) ; the plum-leaved viburnum
( V. pninifolium) ; the tooth-leaved viburnum (V. denta-
tum) ; and the lauruftinus, or lauruftine (V. tinus).

The firft is a thickly -branched (hrub, the flowers of which
are whitilh, in large terminating, folitary, many-flowered
cymes. It is fometimes known by the name of pliant mealy
tree ; and according to Withering, the bark of the root is
ufed to make bird-hme.

There is a variety in North America with larger leaves,
of a bright green ; and with variegated leaves in nurferies.

The fecond fort is a fmall bu(hy tree, with numerous
white flowers, fmooth in all iirs parts, and very much
branched.

There is an American variety, which is a (hrub, that has
the twigs of a (hining-red colour, and which rifes eight or
ten feet high, with many fide-branches, covered with s
fmooth purple bark : the leaves cordate-ovate, ending ia
acute points, deeply ferrate, having many ftrong veins, and
(landing upon very long (lender footftalks.

There is alfo another beautiful variety common in planta-
tions, under the name of guclder-rofe, bearing largo round
bunches of abortive flowers only, which rifes to the height
of eighteen or twenty feet, if permitted to ftaiid : the ftem
becomes large ; the branches grow irregular, and are co-
vered with a grey bark : the leaves are divided into three
or four lobes, fomewhat like thofe of the maple ; they
arc about three inches long, and two and a half broad,
jagged on their edges, and of a light green colour : the
T 2 flowers

V I B

V J C

flowers come out in a large corvmb, are very white, and
being all neuters, are barren : from their extreme white-
r;ef5, and rivelling out into a globular form, iome country
people^ have given this fhrub the name c£ fnoiu-ball tree. It
is alfo fometiraes called elder rofe, and roje elder.

In the feventh fort there are varieties Avith deciduous and
evergreen leaves.

The eighth fort has a woody ftalk ten or twelve feet
liigh, and is commonly called llaei ha'w in North America.

The ninth has the ftalks foft, pithy, and branching, with
white flowers.

There are varieties v^ith the leaves fmooth on both fides,
and with the leaves downy underneath, and drawn out to a
point.

In the tenth fort there are feveral varieties ; as the fmaller
hairy-leaved, in which the umbels (cymes) of flowers are
iraaller, and appear in autumn, continuing all the winter.
The plants are much hardier than in the original fort.

The fhining-leaved, in which the ftalks rife higher, and
the branches are much llronger : the bark is fmoother, and
turns of a purphfh colour : the leaves are larger, of a thicker
confiftence, and of a lucid green colour : the umbels (cymes)
are much larger, and fo are the flowers ; thefe feldom
appear till the fpring, and when the winters are fliarp, the
flowers are killed, and never open unlefs they are iheltered.

There is a fub-variety of this with variegated leaves, with
gold-ftriped and filver-ftriped ; in which the branches are
warted, the younger ones four-cornered ; the leaves oppofite,
ovate, on fhort petioles, rigid, fhining, perennial ; ilie younger
ones hirfute, with fhort ferruginous villofe hairs ; flowers in
crowded cymes, with little brafteas between them : the co-
rolla white ; and the berries, when ripe, blue.

The common, with narrower leaves, hairy only on the
edge and veins underneath : the fruit fmaller.

And the upright lauruftinus.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may fome of them be
increafed by feeds, moft of them by layers, many by cut-
tings, and a few by fuckers.

The feeds in the deciduous kinds (hould be fown in the
autumn or fpring in beds of hght fine mould, being well
covered in. The plants appear in the firft or fecond year ;
aud when they are of a twelvemonth's growth, they fhculd
be planted out in nurfery rows, to be continued till of proper
growth to plant out in the fhrubberies or other parts of plea-
fure grouTids, as from two to five feet.

In the lauruftinus kinds, the feeds, after being mixed with
mould in the autumn, foon after they become ripe, and ex-
pofed to the air and rain in the winter, Ihould in the fprinp-
be foAvn on a gentle hot-bed, or in pots plunged into it ; the
plants being continued in the bed till the autumn, when they
fliouid be removed and managed as in the layer method.
The plants raifed in this way are faid to be hardier than
thofe raifed from layers.

The firft fort is tedious in being raifed from feeds.

In the layer, which is the moft expeditious mode of raifing
moft of thefe plants, the young lower branches ftiould be laid
down in the autumn or fpring, being pegged down in the ufual
manner in the earth, when they moftly become well rooted
in a twelvemonth, and may then be taken off and planted
out where tliey are to remain, or in the nurfery ; and fome-
times, in fome of the kinds, a few are put in pots.

The beft feafon for removing the tenth fort is in the
early autumn, that they may be well rooted before the
winter fets in.

The firft fort fucceeds beft by layers put down in the au-
tumn ; and the ftriped variety may be increafed by budding
>t upon the plain fort.

The cuttings may be made in the autumn from the ftrong
young flioots being planted in a moift border in rows, when
ill the following fummer many of them will be rooted, ano
form httle plants. Moft of the deciduous forts may be
railed in this way.

The fuckers (hould be taken up in the autumn or fpring
with root -fibres, and be planted out in nurfery rows to have
a proper growth. The guelder-rofe may be readily in-
creafed in this way, and fometimes the lauruftinus.

The fourth fort is rather tender in winter while in its
young growth, as well as the Cxth, and (hould have protec-
tion in that feafon. A plant or two (hould be conftantly
laid in pots under (helter. This laft fort is eafily increafed
by layers.

Thefe plants afford much variety and effeft in (hrubbery
and other parts of pleafure-grounds, when planted out in a
mixed order. The evergreen fort are often ufed to cover
difagreeable objefts. The flowering evergreens are likewife
often fet out in pots. They are fometimes trained to a
fingle Hem, to the height of one or two feet, being encou-
raged to branch out into a clofe bufhy round head. They
(hould all moftly be permitted to take on their own natural
growths, except the occafional retrenching of their lower
ftraggling branches, and pruning the long (hoots from their
heads.

ViBURNUM-Ga//j, in Natural Htjlory, the name of a fpe-
cies of galls, or fmall protuberances, frequently found on
the leaves of the viburnum. Thefe are cf a very Angular
nature, and feem to be compofed of a different fubftance
from that of the leaf. They appear in form of brown cir-
cular fpots, of which there are fometimes forty or more en
one leaf: they are about the fifteenth of an inch in diame-
ter, and rife a little above the furface of the leaf, as well on
the under as the upper fide ; each of them has alfo a fmall
prominence in the centre, on each fide of the leaf, looking
like a nipple ftanding on the breaft.

Tiiefe are found in great plenty in the months cf Jane,
July, and Auguft, and, when opened, each contains one
infefi, which is a fmall wo.m of a white colour, with fix
legs, and two hcoks of a brown colour at the head.

M. Reaumur found that thefe worms became, in fine,
a very fmall fpecies of beetle. They were of a cinnamon
colour, and had conic and granulated antenni of a beautiful
figure. Reaumur's Hift. Infeifts, vol. vi. p. 209.

VIC, in Geography, a town of France, and feat of a tri-
bunal, in the department of the Meurte ; 15 miles E. of
Nancy. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Vienne, on the Gartempe ; 18 miles N. of Mont-
morillon.

Vic, or Ficq, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre ; 18 miles N. of Chateauroux.

Vic. See Vique.

Vic Bigorre, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift, in the department of the Upper Pyrenees ; 18 miles
E. of Pau. N. lat. 43° 2j'. E. long. 8'.

Vic en Carladez, or Vic fur la Cere, a town of France,
in the department of the Cantal, fituated at the foot of the
Cantal, with a medicinal fpring; 21 miles W.S.W. of
St. Flour.

Vic le Comie, a town of France, in the department of
the Puy de Dome. Abo'it half a league from the town is
a medicinal fpring ; 6 miles S.W. of Bdlom.

Vic Deffhs, a town of France, in the department of the
Arriege ; 6 miles S.W. of Tarafcon.

Vic Fezen/ac, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers ; 12 miles S. of Condom.

VICAR, ViCARius, a perfon appointed as deputy of

another.

VICAR.

another, to perform his funAions in his abfence, and under
his authority.

The word is formed from v'uarius, qui alterius vices gerit.
The pope pretends to be vicar of Jefus Chrill on earth.
He has under him a grand vicar, who is a cardinal ; and
whofe jurifdiAion extends over all priefts, both fecular and
regular ; and even, in many cafes, over laymen.

Apojlolical \\Q.zTi are thofe who perform the funftions of
the pope in churches or provinces which he has committed
to their diredion.

Among the ancient Romans, vicarius, vicar, was a lega-
tus, or a lieutenant, fent into the provinces where there
was no governor ; fo that the vicarii were properly the
emperor's vicars, not thofe of governors. Cod. de Offic.
Vicar.

Italy, in the time of the eaftern empire, was governed by
two vicarii : the one vicar of Italv, who refidcd at Milan ;
the other -vicar of the cit\; who relided at Rome.

Cujas obfervcd, that the word vicar was fometimes,
though rarely, attributed to the lieutenant-generals of pro-
confuls, or governors of Roman provinces.

Vicar, in the Canon Law, denotes a prieil of a parifli,
the predial tithes of which are impropriated or appropriated ;
that is, belong either to a chapter, religious houfe, &c. or
to a layman, who receives them, and only allows the vicar
the fmaller tithes, or a convenient falary, anciently called
forlio congrua.

He is thus called, quafi vice fungcns reSoris, as fcrving
for, or in lieu of, reftor, wlio would be entitled to the
great tithes.

Hence, the part or portion of the parfojiage allotted to
the vicar, for his maintenance and fupport, or the promo-
tion or living which he has under the parfon, is called a
vicarage. This part or portion is, in fome places, an annual
fum of money certain ; but in moft places, it is a part of the
tithes in kind, which moll commonly is the fmall tithes ;
and in fome places he has a pai-t of tlie great tithes, and alfo
of the glebe.

The ftipend of vicars was formerly at the difcretion of
the appropriators ; but, on account of their iicgletl, it was
tnafted by 15 Rich. II. c. 6. that in all appropriations of
churches, the diocelan bifliop (hould ordain in proportion
to the value of the church) a competent fum to be diftri-
buted among the poor parifliioners annually, and that the
vicarage (hould be fufficiently endowed. However, the vicar
was liable to be removed at the pleafure of the appropria-
tor ; and, therefore, by 4 Hen. IV. c. 12. it is ordained,
that the vicar fliall be a fecular perfon, not a member of
any rehgious houfe ; that he fhall be vicar perpetual, not
removable at the caprice of the monailery ; and that he (hall
be canonically inllituted and indufted, and be fufficiently
endowed, at the difcretion of the ordinary, for thele three
exprefs purpofes, to do divine fervice, to inform the people,
and to keep hofpitality. Inftitution and indudtion feem to
be the fpccilic difference between a vicar and a perpetual
curate ; both can only be in a church that was appro-
priated. Bit this mud be underftood, only where the curacy
is parochial ; for as to curates of chapels, there feems to be
no fimilitude between them and curates of parifhes. In
appropriated churches, where no vicar has been endowed,
the officiating mini Her is appointed by the appropriator or
impropriator, arid is called perpetual curate. The endow-
ments in confequence of thele ftatutes have ufually been by
a portion of the glebe, or land belonging to the |)arfoiiage,
xnd a particular (hare of the tithes, called fmall or vicarial
lilhis ; which fee. Some, however, were more liberally,
•vTid fome more fcanlily endowed ; and hence many things,
I

as wood in particular, is in fome countries a rcftorial, and
in lome a vicarial title. The dilUndion therefore of a par-
fon and vicar is this : that the parfon has generally tlie
whole of all the ecclefiaftical dues in his parifh ; but a
vicar has generally an appropriator over him, entitled to the
beft part of the profits, to whom he is in effeft a perpetual
curate, with a Handing falary. Though in fome places the
vicarage has been coniidcrably augmented by a large ihare
of the great tithes ; which augmentations were greatly
affifted by the ftatute 29 Car. II. c. 8. enafted in favour of
poor vicars and curates, which rendered fuch temporary
augmentations (when made by the appropriators) perpetual.
See Augmentation. Blackll. Comm. book i.

A vicar who has a part of the great tithes, and alfo of
the jilebe, is called a vicar endowed.

Thcfe vicars were anciently called pcrpetui vicarii; be-
caufe not appointed by the impropriator, and licenfed by
the bidiop to read fervice ; but prefented by the patron,
and canonical inftitution given them by the hands of the or-
dinary ; and fo having conftant fucceffion, or corporations,
and never dying.

The aft of endowment by the bilhop might be made
either in the aft of appropriation, or by a fubfequent aft
or fcparate inftrument. Upon the making of an appro-
priation, an annual penfion was referved to the bilhop and
his fucceffors, commonly called an indemnity, and payable
by the body to whom the appropriation was made. See
Appropriation and Impropriation.

A vicarage by endowment becomes a benefice diflinS
from the parfonage. As the vicar is endowed with feparate
revenues, and is now enabled by the law to recover his tem-
poral rights without aid of parfon or patron ; fo hath he
the whole cure of fouls transferred to him, by inftitution
from the bifhop. It is true, in fome places, both the par-
fon and the vicar do receive inftitution from the bifhop to
the fame church as it is in the cafe of finecures ; the origi-
nal of which was thus: The reftor I'with proper confent)
had a power to entitle a vicar in his church to officiate
under him ; and this was often done ; and by this means
two pcrfoiis were inftituted to the fame church, and both to
the cure of fouls, and both did aftually officiate. So that
however the reftors of linecurcs, by having been long ex-
cufed from refidence, are in the common opinion difcharged
from the cure of fouls which is the reaion of the name) ;
and however the cure is faid in the law-books to be in
them habilualiter only ; yet in ftriftnefs of law, and with re-
gard to their original inftitution, the cure is in them aflua-
liter, as much as it is in the vicar, Gibl. 7 19. Cro. Jac.
518. I Sid. 426.

The parfon, by making the endowment, acquires the pa-
tronagt of the vicarage. For in order to the appropriation
of a parfonage, the iniieritance of the advowfon was to be
transferred to the corporation to which the church was to
be appropriated ; and then, the vicarage being derived out
of the parfonage, the parfon of common right mull be pa-
tron thereof. So that if the parfon makes a leafe of the
parfonage (without making a Ipecial refervalion to himfclf
of the right of prefenting to the vicarage), the patronage
of the vicarage paffeth as incident to it. (2 Roll. Abr. 59.)
But it was held in the 21 .lac. that the pariftiioners may pre-
ftribe for the choice of a vicar. And bi'fore that, in the
16 Ja. it was declared by the court, that though the advow-
fon of the Vicarage of co 1 mon right is appendant to the
reftory, yet it may be apjjeiidant to a manor; as having
been referved fpecially upon the appropriation. Gibl. 711^.
Moore, 894. 2 Roll. Rep. 304.

oonietimes, upon appri'pri^ilion, the right of prefenting

the

V I c

VIC

the vicar was given to the biftiop, probably to induce his
confent : as appeareth from divers inftances.

There were no vicarages at common law ; or, in other
words, no tithes or profits of any kind do Jejtire belong to
the vicar, but by endowment or prefcription ; which cannot
be prefumed, but muft be (hewn on the part of the vicar.
For which reafon, the payment of tithes to the parfon is
prima facie a difcharge againft the vicar. Gibf. 719. Palm.
113. Yelv. 86. 4 Mod. 184.

The firft endowment of the vicars cannot be prefcribed
againft by the parfon. Which original endowments there-
fore being of fuch authority as no time can deftroy ; and
fuch caufes between parfon and vicar as relate to them, or
depend on them, being alfo cognizable in the fpiritual
court : it were much to be wiftied, fays Dr. Gibfon, for
the fake of the poor vicars, that diligent fearch were made
after them in the ecclefiaftical offices, and other rcpofitories
of records ; in order to bring to light as many as can pof-
fibly be found. Efpecially, fince it hath been alfo adjudged,
that if a vicar hath ufed time out of mind, or for a long
time, to take particular tithes or profits, he ftiall not lofe
them, becaufe the original endowment is produced and they
are not there : but inafmuch as every bithop had an indif-
putable right to augment vicarages as there was occafion,
and this, whether fuch right was referved in the endowment
or not ; the law will prefume, that this addition was made
by way of augmentation. Gibf. 720.

The lofs of the original endowment is fupplied by pre-
fcription ; that is, if the vicar hath enjoyed this or that par-
ticular tithe by conftant ufage, the law will prefume that he
was legally endowed with it ; by the fame reafon that it
prefumes fome tithes might be added, by way of augment-
ation, which were not in the original endowment. Gibf-
720. 2 Keb. 729. Hardr. 328.

It is faid that all compofitions for the endowments of
vicarages (hall be expounded by the judges of the common
law ; and if the fpiritual court meddle with that matter,
they are to be prohibited. Watf. c. 39. Lit. Rep. 263.

But where the difpute is between reftor and vicar, being
both fpiritual perfons, it feemeth that the proper cognizance
of the caufe belongeth to the ecclefiaftical judge. 2 Brovsml.
36. See, however, Moore, 457.

But the courts of equity frequently determine upon the
interpretation of endowments.

The canonifts mention four fpecies of Wears : fome per-
petual; others, appointed for a certain time, and on fome fpe-
cial occafion, called mercenarii : others, called fpedalcs, ap-
pointed not for the whole cure, but for fome certafn place,
article, or aft : others, generahi, neither perpetual, nor ap-
pointed for any certain aft, but for all things in the general.

V WAR-General was a title given by Henry VIII. to
Thomas Cromwell, earl of Eftex ; with full power to
overfee the clergy, and regulate all matters relating to
church-aff^airs.

ViCAR-General is now the title of an office, which, as
well as that of official principal, are united in the chan-
cellor of the diocefe. The proper work of an official is to
hear caufes between party and party, concerning wills, le-
gacies, marriages, and the like ; which are matters of tem-
poral cognizance, but liave been granted to the ecclefiaftical
courts by the conceffious of princes : whereas that of a vicar-
general is the exercife and adminiftration of jurifdiftion
purely fpiritual, by the authority and under the direftion of
the bilhop, as vifitation, correftion of manners, granting in-
ftitutions, and the like, with a general infpeftion of men and
things, in order to the prefervation of difciphne and good
government in the church. Thefe two offices have been

ordinarily granted together ; but Dr. Gibfon wifhea they
might be ftill kept feparate ; the office of vicar-general to
be veiled in the hands of fome grave and prudent clergy-
man, ufually refident within the diocefe ; and that of offi-
cial (as being converfant about temporal matters) in the
hands of a layman, well iliiiled in the civil law.

VICARDI, the name of an office in the ifiand of Candia.
The word is probably a corruption c ■'' the Latin •utcarii.
The vicardi is the governor of a village, and is fometimes
the parifh prieft ; liis office is to levy the public taxes, and
to fend offenders to the cadic. This office is always ap-
pointed yearly. Pococke's Egypt, vol. ii. part ii. p. 12.

VICARELLO, in Geo^rapliy, a town of the Popedom, in
the Patrimonio, near the lake of Bracciano, celebrated for
its baths ; 3 miles N.W. of Bracciano.

VICARIO deliberando occafione cujiifdam recognttionii, Sec.
in Law, an ancient writ that lies for a fpiritual perfon
imprifoned.

VICARO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capita-
nata ; 9 miles S.E. of Volturara.

V^ICE, ViTiuM, in Ethics, is ordinarily defined an elec-
tive habit, deviating either in excefs, or defeft, from the juft
medium in which virtue is placed.

It is called a habit, to dillinguilh it from Jin, which is
only an aft : hence, ajtn is looked upon as fomething tran-
fient ; and a "vice, as fomething permanent.

In the common ufe of the terms vice and fin, there is no
ground for this fubtle diftinftion. Vice, as oppofed to vir-
tue, IS better defined the difagreem.ent of the aftions of any
intelligent being with the nature, circumftances, and relation
of things ; hence called the moral unfitnefs of fuch aftions.
See Virtue.

Some authors diftinguilh three ftates of vice : the firft in-
continentia, of incontinence, in which a perfon fees and ap-
proves the good, but is hurried to evil by the violence of
his paffions. The fecond intemperantiit, of intemperance ;
in which even the judgment is depraved and perverted ; the
tliird feritatis, of obduracy ; in which the perfon is totally
immerfed in vice, without any fenfe or feeling of it.

The ftate of incontinency is confidered as infirmity, in
which the perfon feels the (harped itings of confcience :
that of intemperance, as malice, in wliich the remorfe is not
fo lively. In that of obduracy there is none.

Vice, in Smithery, and other arts employed in metals,
is a machine, or inftrument, ferving to hold faft any thing
they are at work upon, whether it be to be filed, bent, or
rivetted, &c.

The parts of the vice are, ihtface, or plane, which is its
uppermoft part ; the chaps, which are cut with a baftard-cut,
and well tempered ; the fcrew-pin, cut with a fquare, ftrong
worm ; the nut, or fcreiu-iox, which has a fquare worm, and
is brafed into the round box ; the fpring, which throws the
chaps open ; and the foot, on which the whole is mounted.

Vice, Hand, is a fmaU kind of vice, ferving to hold the
lefs works in, that require often turning about.

Of this there are two kinds, the broad chapt hand-vice,
which is that commonly ufed ; and the fquare-nofed hand-
vice, feldom ufed but for fifing fmall round work.

Vice is alfo a machine ufed by the glaziers, to turn, or
draw lead into flat rods, with grooves on each fide, proper
to receive the edges of the glafs.

This machine confifts of two iron chaps, or cheeks, joined
with two crofs iron pieces. In the fpace between the chaps
are two fteel wheels, and their fpindles, or axes, pafted
through the middle, each of which has its nut or pinion with
teeth, that catch into each other ; and to the lowcft is fitted
a handle, by which the machine is turned.

There

V I c

There are fome of thefe vices double, and that will draw-
two leads at once : tJiefe have three wheels. Some gfeziers
will turn lead of different fizes in the fame vice ; by chang-
ing their cheeks for each fize.

With another pair of fpindles, whofe nuts almoft meet,
they turn lead for t'urs ; which, w hen it comes out of the
rice, is almoft cut afunder, in two thickneffes, cafy to be
parted. Before the invention of this vice, they ufed a
plane : accordingly, in all the ancient windows, we find the
lead planed and grooved that way.

Vice is alfo ufed in the compofition of divers words, to
denote the relation of fomething that comes inftead, or in
the place, of another.

In this fenfe the word is Latin, vice, ttcad, place, turn,
&c.

\icv.-/}dmiral. See Admiral.

V lcv.-Chamberlain, called alfo, in ancient ftatutes, under-
chambcrlatru, is an officer in the court, next under the lord-
chamberlain ; and who, in his abfencc, has command and
controul of all officers belonging to that part of the houfehold
called the chamber above Hairs.

VxcK-Chancellor of an univerfity is an eminent member,
cliofen annually to manage affairs in the abfence of the chan.
tellor.

ViCE-Comes, in Law. See Viscount.

VlCE-Comittm, Accedas ad. See AccEDAS.

ViCE-Comilis, RefpcHu habendo computi. See RespectU.

ViCE-Con/u/, an officer who difcharges the duty of a
conful, under his orders or during his abfence.

\iCE-Doge is a counfellor of Venice, who reprefents the
doge when fick, or ablent ; that the fignory may never be
without a chief.

The vice-doge never takes the ducal chair, nor bears the
horn, nor is addrefled under the title oi ferenijjlmo : yet the
foreign ambaffadors, fpeaking to the college, ufe the com-
mon apoflrophe oi fcrcnijjimo prlncipe ; and he performs all
the offices of doge, and gives anfwers to ambaffadors, with-
out moving his cap.

ViCE-Domitius, a vifcount, fheriff, or vidame.

WlCE-Dominus Abbatit, or Ecclejiie, in the Ci'vU and Canon
La-w, an advocate, or proteftor, of an abbey or church.
See Advocate.

VlCK-Dominus Ep'ifcopi, in the Canon Law, is the com-
miffary or vicar-general of a bifhop.

VlCE-Gerent, Vicegerem, a vicar, deputy, or lieutenant.

V\cz-Legate, an officer whom the pope fends to Avignon,
and fome other cities, to perform the office of a fpiritual
and temporal governor, at a time when there is no legate, or
cardinal, to command there.

All the Gaul Narbonnoife, as Dauphine, Provence, &c.
has recourfe to the vice-legate of Avignon, for all ecclefiaf-
tical difpatches ; in like manner as the other provinces ad-
drcfs themfelves to Rome. See Legate.

VwF.-Roy, a governor of a kingdom, who commands
therein in the name and ftead of a king, with full and fove-
reign authority.

Thus, when Naples and Sicily were fubjeft to Spain,
viceroys were fent thither; and the name is now given to
thofe who govern in Mexico and Peru.

The lord-lieutenant of Ireland is alfo fometimes called the
vice-roy.

VlCE-Verfd, a Latin phrafe, frequently retained in Eng-
lifh writings ; fignifying as much as on the contrary.

Thus, as the fun mounts liigher and higher above the
horizon, infcnfible perfpiration mcreafes ; and, vicr vrrfd,
as he defcendr. lower, it diminilhes.

VICEGRAD, or VissECiRAD, in Geography, a town of

V I c

Hungary, near the Danube, with a caftle, formerly the re-
fidence of the kings of Hungary. It was enlarged, and
magnificently fitted up by Charles I., who, in 1310, ordered
the royal crown to be depofited here. In this caille likewife
he entertained John, king of Bohemia, and his fon Cafimir,
king of Poland, and Nemagna, king of Bofnia and Servia.
After the death of Louis II. it was taken by the Turks,
fince which it has been neglefted ; 9 miles S.S.P2. of
Gran.

VICENNALIS, in /Intiquity, fomething of twenty
years, or that returns after twenty years.

Among the Romans, iticennalia particularly denoted the
funeral fcafts, held on the twentieth day after a perfon's
deceafe.

VicENNALiA, or Vicennales Ludi, were alfo games,
feafts, and rejoicings, held every twentieth year of the reign
of a prince.

On medals we frequently meet with vicennaiia I'ota; the
vows put up on that occafion for the fafety of the emperor
and the enlargement of the empire.

Thefe are expreffed by VOT. x. & XX, in the medals of
Tacitus, Gallienus, and Probus ; voT. x. M. xx, in thofe
of Valerius Maximianus and Galerius Maximianus ; vot.
X. MUL. XX, in thofe of Conftantine, Valentinian, and Va-
lens ; vot. x. mult, xx, in thofe of Dioclefian, Conftan-
tine, Juhan, Valentinian, Theodofius, Arcadius, Honorius ;
votis x. mult, xx, in thofe of Juhan, Valentinian, Gra-
tian ; VOT. X. sic. xx, in tliofe of Valerius Conftantius ;
VOT. XII. PEL. XX, in the younger Licinius ; VOT. xv. fel.
XX, in Conftantine.

VICENTE, or Vincent, St., in Geography, a province
of Brafil, containing the noted republic of St. Paul (which
fee) ; and as this is the flrft province in which the Porfuguefe
eftabllfhed themfelves, fo it was one of the moft fertile, till
the difcovery of the mines diverted the channels of com-
merce. It is now chiefly remarkable for hams, efteemed
equal to any in Europe ; and, if Eftalla may be credited,
for tanned hides of large fwine.

VICENTIA, ViCENZA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Italy, in Venetia, upon the Medoacus Minor (the Bar-
chiglione). Of its foundation nothing is known ; but it
appears to have been a Roman colony, and municipal.
The partifans of Vefpafian took poffeffion of it, A.D. 69.
Tacitus, Hill. 1. iii. c. 8.

VICENTIN, in Geography, a country of Italy, bounded
on the norlli by the Tyrolefe, on the eaft by the Trevifaa
and the Padnan, on the fouth by the Paduan, and on the
weft by the Veronefe and Tyrolefe ; about 45 miles in
length, and from 10 to 24 in breadth. This territory was
formerly a part of Lombardy. It is partly hilly, and
partly flat ; but in general uncommonly pleafant and fertile.
The plains abound in all kinds of corn, fruit, and mulberry-
trees ; and the mountainous parts afford good paftures, and
moft excellent wine, called " vino fanto." The breeding
of cattle is fo very confulerable here, that the country of
Vicenza is proverbially called the fhambles of Venice. The
ffieep are in tolerable plenty, and the wool is excellent.
The culture of filk is fo important, that it produces annually
upwards of 200,000 pounds of that article ; there are alfo
filver and iron mines, medicinal fprings, paper, and faw-
mills, which are abundantly provided with timber (lom the
forcfls. Fifh and vcnifon are in abundance. The hill Su-
mano is celebrated on account of the great variety of falu-
brious herbs which grow there ; and on the other hills
petrified (hells and fifli are found, fome of which difl"er en-
tirely from thofe that live in the Adriatic fea. The larger
rivers and rivulets arc the Aftico, Agno or Qua, the Te-

monchio,

V I c

V 1 c

monchlo, the Cerifon, and Tergola, all which run into thi
river Bacliiglione, and difcharge themfelvea afterwards into
till? Po. The territory of Vicenza belonged formerly to
ancient Venetia, and in the fequel raifed itfelf to the rank of
one of the thirty duchies of Lombardy, and was incorpo-
rated by Charlemagne with the Marca Trevlfana. In the
progrefs of time, the country of Vicenza afTumed again a
republican form; and in the 13th century, fell under the
dominion of the tyrant Ezzelin. After his death, it caine
under the government of Padua, from which it was taken by
the family of Scala, who were again difpoffelTed of it by
John Galeazzo Vilconti, duke of Milan. It did not, how-
ever, remain long in his hands ; for in the year 1404, it
refcued itfelf from the government of Milan, and fubmitted
voluntarily to the republic of Venice. In the year 1796, it
became part of the Auilrian monarchy, in virtue of the
peace of Campo Formio. This province comprehends one
city, 13 fmall towns and boroughs, and upwards of 300 vil-
lages. The whole population amounts, according to the
laft enumeration made by the French, to 286,000 fouls.

VICENTINO, Don Nicolo, in Biography, publiHied
at Rome, 1555, a work in quarto, entitled " L'Antica
Mufica ridotta alia moderna Prattica," or " Ancient Mufic
reduced to modern Praftice," with precepts and examples
for the three genera and their fpecies ; to which is added, an
account of a new inilrument for the moll perfeft perform-
ance of mufic, together with many muCcal fecrets.

During the 1 6th century, and a great part of the next,
many of the moft eminent mulical theorifts of Italy employed
tlieir time in fubtle divifions of the fcale, and vifionary pur-
fuits after the ancient Greek genera ; nor was this rage
wholly confined to theorifts, but extended itfelf to praftical
muficians, ambitious of aftonifhing the world by their deep
fcience and fuperior penetration, though ther might have
employed their time more profitably to themfelves, and the
art they profefled, in exploring the latent refources of har-
monic combinations and eifeCls in compofition, or in refining
the tone, heightening the expreffion, and extending the
powers of execution, upon fome particular inftrument.
Thefe vain inquiries certainly impeded the progrefs of mo-
dern mufic ; for hardly a fingle traCl or treatife was pre-
fented to the public, that was not crowded with circles,
tegments of circles, diagrams, div'fions, fubdivifions, com-
mas, modes, genera, fpecies, and technical terms, drawn
fiom Greek writers, and the now unintelligible and ufek-ls
jargon of Boethius.

Vicentino, by the title of Don prefixed to his name,
feems to have been an ecclefiaftic of the Benediftine order.
He was a praftical mufician, and appears to have known his
bufinefs. In his treatife he has explained the difficulties in
the mufic of his time, with fuch clearnefs, as would have
been ufeful to the Undent, and honourable to himfelf, if he
had not fplit upon enharmonic rocks, and Aromatic quick-
lands. He gives a circumltantial account of a difpute be-
tween him and anoth.^r mufician at Rome, Vincentio Lufita-
nio, who maintained that modern mufic was entirely, diatonic ;
while Vicentino was of opinion, that the prefent mufic was
a mixture of all the three ancient genera, diatonic, chro-
matic, and enharmonic. This difpute having produced a
wager of two gold crowns, the fubjeft was difcuffed in the
pope's chapel, before judges appointed by the difputant;,
and determined againft Vicentino ; whether juftly or unjuftly,
depends upon the precife fenfe afligned to the term chromatic
by tlie fcvcral difputants.

What nfe was made of the enharmonic genus in the mufic
of the i6Lh century, we know not; but whenever oth-jr
fouudb are ultd than t.hofe of the fcale, ftriftly diatonic, by

introducing F, C, or G fharp, or ary flat, except that
of B, which the Greeks themfelves allowed in the lynem-
menon tetrachord, and the moft fcrupulous writers upon
canto-fermo, in the modes of the church, the diatonic is
mixed with the chromatic ; and to tliis licence the firft con-
trapuntifts were reduced, at a cadence in D and A minor,
as well as G major.

Though Vicentino loft his wager by the decifion of the
judges againft him, he recovered his honour fome time after,
by his antagonift, Lufitanio, recanting, and coming over to
his opinion. According to Kircher, Vicentino was the firft
who imagined that the proportions or ratios of the ancient
diatonic genus were inadmiilible in our counterpoint ; and
tried in liis work to eftablifll the tetrachord to confift of a
major, femitone, and two tones, one major and one minor ;
which forms the diatonic fyntonas of Ptolemy, which Zar-
lino has propagated, and which is now in general ufe.

VICENZA, in Geography, a city of Italy, and capital
of the Vicentin, fituated at the union of two fmall rivers, in
a plain, between two hills. The celebrated architect, Andrea
Palladio, was born and lived here. Among the buildings
are feen feveral regular rtately palaces, and other elegant
edifices, particularly the council-houfe, the grandeur of
which is heightened by two very lofty columns, with St.
Mark's winged lion on one of them, and on the other the
image of our Saviour. The Monte della Pieta is a llately
fabric, and has a very fine hbr.ary. Of the churches, which
are 57 in number, 14 are parochial, and 29 conventual,
with feveral good hofpitals. The cathedral ftrikes the eye
with nothing particular. The great altar of the Dominican
church is a moft auguft piece of Palladio's architedure, as
is alfo the beautiful convenient theatre in the building where
the Academia Olympicorum meets. The feats are difpofed
in the manner of the ancient amphitheatre, and the perfpec-
tive is furprifingly beautiful, chiefly by reafon of the many
ftatues of Roman emperors, and fome philofophers. This
academy is a fociety of men of learning, who meet at ftated
times, for the improvement of the Italian language. By
the fame fliilful architefl is hkewife the copy of the tri-
umphal arch of the Campo Martio, without the city, ereAed
for the embelliftiment of the public walk. The church
della Madonna di Monte, on a mountain, without the city,
is much frequented by pilgrims, and poffefles a fine frontif-
piece, with a convent built clofe by. The Scaligeri were
once for a confiderable time lords of this city ; afterwards it
paffed through feveral hands, and, in 1304, fubmitted to
the republic of Venice ; 35 miles W. of Venice. N. lat.
45" 31'. E. long. 11° 22'.

VICES, a term ufed by the dealers in horfes to exprefs
certain faulty habits or cuftoms in that creature, which
render him troublefome to the rider, and are never to be
worn oft", but by attention to the regular methods.

The following are the tricks generally underftood as vices
by dealers, and their methods of preventing, correfting, and
curing them.

1. If a horfe carry his head or neck awry, ftrike him
twice or thrice with the fpur on the contrary fide ; but if he
be very ftiff-neckcd on the right fide, and very plying or
bending on the left, the rider is to hold the right rein (horter
than the other, and give him fudden checks every time he
inclines that way, havir.g a (harp wire faftened in the reins,
that ftriking in his neck, he may be compelled to hold it
ftraight ; but in this, care muft be always taken to check him
upwards, for otherwife he will get a habit of ducking his
head, which will prove very troublefome.

2. If a horfe is apt to fhake his head and cars upon the
leall occafion, or move his cars when he is going to kick or

bite,

V I c

VIC

bite, or caft his rider ; the way of curing this is to ftrike
him on the head with a wand, as foon as he (hews the firll
attempt to it ; and, at the inftant of ftriking him, he is to
be checked with the bridle, and ftruck with the fpur on
the contrary fide : this will put him out of his pace, and he
is then to be flopped, that he may have leifure to underftand
the rider's meaning. Every time that he darts or winces,
which are fignals that he is going to bite, or to (Irike with
his heels, the fame is to be done, and he will, by degrees,
be broke of thefe habits.

3. If a horfe is fubjeft to ducking down his head fre-
quently, the rider mull, every time he is guilty of it, check
him fuddenly with his bridle, and at the fame time ilrike
him with the ipurs, in order to make him fenfible of his
fault. If he be ilanding, he is thus to be made to bring his
head in the right place as he Hands ; and when he does fo,
lie is to be clieriflied, that he may underftand the rider's
meaning, which, in time, he will certainly do.

4. If a horfe be llvittifh, and apt to ftart, fo that the
rider is never free from danger while on his back, the caufe
of the malady is firft to be carefully inquired into : if it be
found to proceed from a weak light, which reprcfcnts ob-
jefts to him other than they really are ; the method of
curing him is, every time he does it, to give him leifure to
view the things, and fee what they really are ; he muft have
time to view them well, and then be rid gently up to them.
If, on the contrary, his flcittilhnefs depends on his being
naturally fearful, and alarmed at every noife, he is to be
cured of it by the inuring of him to loud noifes of many
kinds, as firing of guns, drums, trumpets, and tlie like ;
and he will, in time, come to take delight in that of which
he was before afraid.

5. If a horfe be reftive, and rcfufe to go forward, the
rider is to pull him backwards, and this will often occafion
his going forward : this is ufing his own fault as a means of
reclaiming him. The rider is firfl caulioufly to find whether
this vice proceeds from real fhibborniiefs, or from faintnefs :
if from the latter, there is no remedy but reft ; but if attual
ftubbornnefs be the fault, the whip and fpur, well employed,
and perfifted in, will at length be found a certain cure.

6. If a horfe rear up an end ; that is, if he rifes fo high
before as to endanger his coming over the rider, the horfe-
man muft give him the bridle, and bear forwards with his
whole weight. As he is going down, he (hould have the fpur
given him very rouudly ; but this muft by no means be done
as he is rifing, for then it will make him rife higher, and
probably come over.

7. If a horfe be fubjeft to lie down in the water, or upon
the ground, there is no better remedy than a pair of ftiarp
fpurs refolutcly applied. But there is fome caution to be
ufed in the application of them, for bad horfemcn generally
are the occafion of the faults in horfes, by correcting them
out of due time.

The proper moment of fpurring is juft when he is going
to he down ; but when this has diverted him from the
thought of it, lie is not immediately to be fpurrcd again.
For the doing this frightens the creature, and puts him into
confufion to that degree, that he at length becomes reftive,
and thus one fault is only changed for another, and that per-
haps a worfe.

8. If a horfe be apt to run away, very cautious means
muft be ufed to break him of it. The rider muft be gen-
tle, both with a (lack curb, and keeping an cafy bridle-
hand. He is firft to be \v.ilked without (lopping him ; but
only ftaying him, by degrees, with a Heady, not a violent
hand, and always chcrilliing him when he obeys : when he
is thus made very manageable in his walk, he is to be put to

Vol. XXXVII.

his trot, and finally to his gallop ; and from thefe he is to
be brought into a walk again, always by degrees, and ftay-
ing him with a fteady hand. By ufing this method from
time to time, with judgment and patience, it is probable he
may at length be cured.

9. If a horfe is apt to fly out violently, it is certain, that
the more the bridle-rein is pulled, and the more he is hurt by
tugging the curb, the fafter he will run : the beft method is
therefore, if there be field-room enough, to lot him go, as
foon as he is going, by llackening the bridle, and giving him
the fpur continually and Iharply, till he flacken of his own
accord. Thus, by degrees, he will find that himfelf is the
fulFerer by all his flights, and he will then leave them off,
though he could be never broke of them any way elfe.

10. Some horfes will not endure the fpurs when they are
given them, nor ever go forwards ; but faftening themfelves
to them, they will ftrike out and go back ; and if they are
pre(Ted more hard, they will fall to (laling without ever going
out of the place. If the horfe who has this vice be a geld-
ing, it will prove very difficult to cvire him of it. A ftone-
horfe, or mare, are much eafier cured ; but even thefe wiU
be trying at it again afterwards ; and if they ever get the
better ol" their rider, they will not fail to keep it up in this
particular.

Every horfe, of whatever kind, that has this fault of
cleaving to the fpurs, as the jockeys call it, and not going
forwards with them, is to be rejefted, in the buying for any
gentleman's riding, for it is a fign of a reftive nature, and is
a fault generally accompanied with many others.

VICESIMATIO, in Romtin Antiquity. See Decima-
tion.

VICH, in Geography, a river of RufTia, which runs into
the Oby, N. lat. 61° 20'. E. long. 76° 14'.

VICHEREY, a town of France, in the department of
the Vofges ; 9 miles E. of Neufchatcau.

VICHNOU, or VisNE, in Mythology, a deity in the
Eall Indies, of whom the Brachmans have a tradition, that
he was metamorphofed into a tortoife ; and they explain
this fable by faying, that by the fall of a mountain the world
began to ftaggcr and to fink down gradually towards the
abyfs, where it would have periftied, if their beneficent god
had not transformed himfelf into a tortoife to bear it up.
See Vishnu.

VICHY, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the AUicr, on the AUier ; near it are fome medi-
cinal fprings ; 3 miles S.W. of Cudet.

VICIA, in Botany, the Vetch, an old Latin name, is by
fome etymologifts derived from vincio, to bind together, as
the various fpecies of this genus twine, with their tendrils,
round other plants. De Thcis traces this word to its Celtic
fynonym, Gwig, whence alfo, according to him, comes the
modern Greek name of the vetch, /Jixio* or /3v!xa — Linn.
Gen. 376. Schreb. 497. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1093. Mart.
Mill. bid. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 768. Prodr. Fl. Gtxc.
Sibth. v. 2. 69. Ait. Hon. Kew. v. 4. 310. Pur(h 471.
.lufl". 360. Tourn. t.22l. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 634. Ccrtn.
t. 151. (Faba; Tourn. t.212.) — Clafs and order, Dia-
clelphia Deca:idria. Nat. Ord. Papilionacet, Linn. Lrgu-
mlnofx, .Iu(r.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
crcA, cloven half way down into five acute fcgments ; the
upper ones ftiorteft, converging ; all of equal breadth. Cor.
papilionaceous. Staiidard oval, with n bror.d oblong claw ;
its fummitemarginate withafmall point ; the fides reflexed;
the back marked with a longitudinal, comprcflfcd, elevated
line. Wings two, oblong, erett, half-hcirlfhaped, fliortcr
than the ftand.ird, with oblong claws. Keel lliortcr than

U the

VICIA.

the wings, lialf-orbicular, compreiTed, with a divided oblong
claw. SUim. Filaments in two fets, one ample, the other
in nine divifions ; anthers ered, roundifh, with four fur-
rows, A neftariferous gland, fhort and pointed, arifes from
the receptacle, between the compound filament and the ger-
men. PiJ. Germen hnear, compreffed, long ; flylefhorter,
thread-fhaped, bent upwards at a right angle ; ftigma obtufe,
tranfverfely bearded underneath. Perk. Legume long,
coriaceous, of one cell and two valves, terminating in a
point. Seeds feveral, roundifh.

Obf. Faia of Tournefort has oval comprefTed feeds.
Ficia of that author and Rivinus has roundifh feeds.

Eff. Ch. Stigma tranfverfely bearded on the under fide.

An extenfive genus of herbaceous, perennial or annual
plants, climbing by means of tendrils, which terminate the
common footftalk of their abruptly pinnated leaves. It is
nearly akin to Lathvrus, (fee that article,) differing elFcn-
tially in the Jligma, and in a generally more flender habit,
with fmaller, more oblong, ^owerj. The fpecies are moftly
natives of Europe, a few of Barbary, and North America,
fcarcely any occurring in tropical climates. The Jioiuers
are a.xillary : either racemofe on a longifh common ftalk ;
or nearly feflile, folitary or two or three together ; their
colour crimfoQ, purplifh, or pale yellowilh, rarely white
or blue.

Seft. I. Floiver-flalis elongated.

1. V. pififormis. Pea Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI. IO34.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Jacq. Auftr. t. 364. (Pifum fyl-
veflre ; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 229. P. perenne fylveftre ; Ger.
Era. 1220. Cracca flore ochroleuco ; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr.
t. 52.) — Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets ovate ; the lower
pair clofe to the ftem. — Native of woods in Hungary-, Au-
ftria, Germany, Switzerland, and near Conftantinople ; a
hardy perennial, flowering in July and Augull in our bo-
tanic gardL'ns. The Jhm is angular and ftriated, branched,
climbing to tlie height of feveral feet. Leaves of three or
four pair of not quite oppofite, broad, blunt, fmooth leaf-
lets, about an inch long, all on very fliort partial llalks, at-
tached to a ftraight footjlalk from three to five inches in
length, which ends in a branched tendril ; the loweft pair
largeft, and clofe to the Jlipiilas, which are ovate, acute, with
an awl-fhaped dcfceiiding lobe. Floiver-Jlalks half as long
38 the leaves, each bearing a denfe clufter of numerous, ob-
long, pale-yellowifh_/7o'zyfrj, all drooping one way. Legume
an incli and half long, near half an inch broad,, fmooth,
veiny, of a rufty brown.

2. V. caraiiniana. Carohna Vetch. Walt. Carol. 182.
Willd. n. 2. Purfli n. J. ( V. pai-vifiora ; Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. v. 2. 69. ) — Stalks with many diftant flowers. Leaf-
lets numerous, elliptic-lanceolate, nearly fmooth. Stipulas
ovato-lanceolate, entire. Stem fmooth. — Native of moun-
tians in North America, from Pennfvlvania to Carolina,
flowering in July and Auguft. Refembles V. Cracca, but
the jioiuers are white, with a black-tipped Jlandard, and a
great deal fmaller. Purjh. The _^cm is angular, furrowed.
Leaflets eight or ten, not quite oppofite. Stipulas fmall.
Clufters three inclies or more in length, of above twenty
flowers, hanging all one way. Walter, Wilhlenoiu.

3. v. pontica. Euxine Vetch. Willd. n. 3. (V. mul-
tiflora fpicata, floribus albidis, calyce purpureo ; Tourn . Cor.
27.) — Stalks with many crowded flowers. Leaflets nume-
rous, lanceolate. Stipulas lanceolate-fwordfhaped, entire.
Stem downy. — Native of the country near the Euxine fea.
Stem angular and furrowed. Tendrils of the leaves three-
cleft. Leaflets from twenty to twenty-feven, elliptic-lanceo-
late, >an inch or m.ore in length, bearing, on the under fide
efpecially, many fc altered clofe-prefled hairs. Stipulas almoil

9

half an inch long, hairy, ribbed. Cluftets fix inches, the
lower ones a foot, in lengtli. Floiucrs drooping, crowded,
the fize of f^. Cracca. Willdenow.

4. V. dumetorum. Great Wood Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI.
1035. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. (V. n. 427 ; Hall. Hift.
V. I. 185. Cracca fylvatica ; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 5 1 . ) —
Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets reflexed, ovate, pointed.
Stipulas fomewhat toothed. — Native of France, Switzer-
land, Germany, and the neighbourhood of Conftantinople ;
a hardy perennial, flowering in May or June, but feldom
cultivated here, except for curiotity. The lea/lets are
fmaller, more numerous, and more alternate than in the
firft fpecies, the lower one only fituated near the bafe of
their common footjlalk. Floivers fewer, and much larger,
purple, not yellow. Legumes lanceolate, tapering at each
end.

5. V . fyhatica. Common Wood Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI.
1035. Willd. n. 5. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 79. Fl.
Dan. t. 277. (V. n.426; Hall. Hift. V. I. 185. t. 12. f. 2.
V. multifora maxima perennis, tetro odore, floribus alben-
tibus, lineis cseruleis ftriatis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 71. f. i.) —
Stalks many-flowered, longer than the leaves. Leaflets nu-
merous, elliptical. Stipulas lunate, with capillary teeth. —
Native of rather mountainous woods and thickets, in Swe-
den, Germany, France, and England, flowering in July and
Auguft. An elegant plant, with a brandling perennial root.
Thejlems are much branched, climbing over bufhes, which
they decorate with long-ftalked clujlers of \s\i\X.t Jioiuers, de-
licately ftriated with purplifh-blue. The leaflets are fcat-
tored, fmooth, blunt, or emarguiate, with a fmall point ;
their length from a quarter to half an inch. Legume lanceo-
late, pointed, fmooth, with about four feeds. This fpecies
is well worthy of a place in gardens and fhrubberies. In
the north of England it often makes a beautiful appearance
in hedges and mountain thickets, flowering copioufly for
feveral weeks. _

6. V. americana. American Wood Vetch. Muhlenb.
Cat. 65. Willd. n. 6. Purfli n. 3. — Stalks with feveral
flowers, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets elliptic -lanceo-
late, obtufe, fmooth. Stjpulas halfarrowfhaped, deeply
toothed. — Difcovered in Pennfylvania, by the late Rev. Dr.
Muhlenberg, from whom we have a fpecimen. It flowers
in May, and is perennial. Purfh compares tliis fpecies with
V. fyl-oatica, as to the fize of its fioiuers and general re-
femblance. But the leaflets are rather larger, fomewhat
toothed. Stipulas with deep, but not capillary fegments.
Flowers much fewer, their common ftalks never longer than
the leaves.

7. V. grand'flora. Large-flowered Vetch. — Stalks with
feveral flowers, fhorter than tlie leaves. Leaflets ovate,
fmooth. Stipulas lunate, with (harp teeth. Calyx-teeth
taper-pointed. — Gathered by Mr. Menzics, at the upper
edge of the foreft, on the mountain called Motvna-rooa, in
O wliyhee, which is 6000 feet high. This magnificent fpecies
:s much larger than any of tlie preceding. Its leaflets, near
an inch and half long, are the fhape of V. dumetorum, but
twice as large. Fioiuers pale purple, full thrice the fize of
dumetorum ; their Jlandard and other petals all ftrongly re-
curved. Calyx half as long as the corolla, with long, very
finely pointed, teeth. The clujlers are lax, with flender,
fomewhat downy, partial _/?a/;fj', three-quarters of an inch in
length. We have not feen the legume.

8. V. variegata. Parti-coloured Oriental Vetch. Willd.
n. 7. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. n. 1700. ( V. orientahs multiflora
argentea, flore variegato ; Tourn. Cor. 27.) — Stalks with
many imbricated flowers. Leaflets elliptical, villous. Sti-
pulas deeply divided at the bafe, ovato -lanceolate Native

of

VICIA.

of the Lerant. Toumefort. Found by Dr. Sibthorp in the
Pcloponnefus. His fpecimens anfwer well to WiUdenow's
defcription, except that the haves, tliougli clothed with
fliining hairs, are fcarcely " whitifh, or filvery." Thejlemi
are about a foot high, fqiiare, ftriated, villous. Leaflets from
fourteen to twenty, obtufe ; thofe of the lower leaves ob-
ovate, emarginate, pointed, crowded. Tendrils (hort, cloven.
Common Jlalk dilated, femi-cylindrical. Stipulas pointed.
Clujlers rather longer than the leaves. Floiucrs the Cze of
V.faiiva, turned all one way.

9. V. cajfub'tca. Caffubian Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI. 1035.
Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 4. (V. Gerardi ; Jacq. Auftr. t. 229.
V. peduncuhs multifloris, petiolis polyphyllis, foliolis villo-
lis, ftipulis acutis iutegris appcndiculatis t Gerard Gal-
lopr. 497. t. 19, excellent. V. multiflora calTubica fru-
teicens, lentis filiqua ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 72. f. 2.) — Stalks
many-flowered, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets elliptic-
oblong, (lightly downy. Stipulas lanceolate, entire, with a
divaricated awl-fhaped fpur at the bafe. — Native of moun-
tainous woods and meadows, in Provence, Pomerania, and
Auftria. Perennial, flowering in June, and ripening feed in
Auguft. This, it feems, has been formerly confounded with
V. fylvatica, but the Jlems are only about eighteen inches
high, ereft, not climbing. The whole of the herbage is
iomewhat downy. Leaflets very numerous, oppofite or al-
ternate, obtufe or emarginate. Stipulas narrow, with a ca-
pillary point. Flowers light purple, from fix to twenty,
drooping, the fize and fliapc of F. Jylvatica. Legumes ovate,
hardly an inch long, likewife refembling thofe of the fylva-
tica. The name cajfubica, taken from a province of Pome-
rsmia, is extremely exceptionable, for a plant found in fo
many different countries.

10. V. atrgpurpurea. Dark-purple Vetch. Desfont. At-
lant. V. 2. 164. Willd. n. 9. — Stalks many-flowered, (horter
than the leaves. Calyx-teeth briftle-fhaped, very villous.
Leaflets lanceolate, villous. Stipulas half-arrow(haped,
deeply toothed. Legume hairy. — Native of the ifles of
Hyeres, and of Algiers. Annual. The whole plant is vil-
lous. Stem fquare, ftriated. Leaflets from eight to twelve,
bluntifh, pointed. Stipulas ovate, with deep, hnear-lanceo-
late, pointed teeth. Calyx clothed with long fpreading hairs.
Corolla of a deep blood-red. Legume covered with fhort
reddifh hairs. Very different from the following fpecies.
Willdenov/.

11. V. villofa. Villous Vetch. Roth Germ. v. 2.
part 2. 182. Hod. Syn. 399. Willd. n. 10. — " Stalks
longer than the leaves, with many imbricated flowers. Leaf-
lets oblong-ovate, villous. Stipulas half-arrowfliaped,
ovate ; bluntly toothed at the bale." — Native of Germany,
Auftria, and Hungary. Refembles y. Cracca, but the root
IS annual ; Jloivers larger ; Jlem weaker ; herbage more vil-
lous ; legumes twice as broad, and half as long again, as in
that Ipecies, with feeds twice as large, grey covered witli
footy powder, not black and fmooth. Roth.

12. V . polypbylla. Many-leaved Vetch. Desfont. At-
lant. v. 2. 162. Willd. n. 11. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 699,
unpublilhed. (V. orientalis multiflora incana, angulliiTinM)
folio ; Tourn. Cor. 27. Buxb. Cent. 5. 46. f. 3;.) — Stalks
longer than the leaves, many-flowered. Leaflets linear-
lanceolate, acute, downy. Stipulas half-haftate, lanceolate,
entire. — Native of Hungary, Greece, mount Hymeltus, and
Barbary. Perennial. Stems branched, angular, climbing,
clothed, like the rcll of the herbage, with foft filky hairs.
Leaflets very numerous, near an inch long. Stalks rather
longer than the leaves, each bearing a duller of larger, lefs
nnmerous and crowded fiowers, than in the following.
Calyx-teeth very unequal. Standard Ikyblue, with purple

veins. Wings and keel white ; the latter tipped witlx violet.
Legume oblong, fmooth.

13. V. Cracca. Tufted Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI. 1035.
Willd. n. 12. Fl. Br. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1168. PuWh
n. 4. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 54. Mart. Ruft. t. 1 17. Fl.
Dan. t. 804. (Cracca ; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 50.) — Stalks
the length of the leaves, with many imbricated flowers.
Leaflets lanceolate, bluntifh, downy. Stipulas half-arrow-
fliaped, mollly entire. Found in thickets, h'.dj;es, and
fields throughout Europe, as well as in North America,
flowering in July and Augull, when the denfe clujlers of
numerous blue Jlo-wers make a handfome appearance. The
petals are all blue ; Jloivers more crowded ; leaflets ftiorter and
rather blunter than in the laff. In the Jlipulcu we find no
permanent difference, the lower lobe being more or lefs di-
varicated or d>:flexed. Curtis juftly remarked that thejlignui
is hairy all round.

14. V. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Vetch. Roth Germ,
v. 2. pt. 2. 183. Willi, n. 13. Ait. n. 6. ■ Donn Cant,
cd. 5. 176. — " Stalks longer than the leaves, with many im-
bricated flowers. Leaflets linear, three- ribbed, fmoothilh.
Stipulas Imear, entire." — Native of fandy hillocks in Ger-
many, as well as in Tauris. Said to be very like the pre-
ceding ; but of a more humble and upright growth. The
lower Jlipulas only are half-haftate ; the upper ones fimple
and linear. Flowers fewer in each clufter, always violet-
coloured. Legumes about half as large. Roth.

15. W . onobrychioides. Saint-foin Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI.
1036. WiUd. n. 14. Ait. n. 7. AUion. Pcdem. v. i. 325.
t. 42. f. I. (V. onobrychidis flore ; Bauh. Prodr. 149.) —
Stalks longer than the leaves, with many diftant flowers.
Leaflets linear, rather abrupt, fmooth. Stipulas lanceo-
late, deeply toothed at the bafe. — Native of Switzerland,
Italy, the fouth of France, Greece, Cyprus, and the Archi-
pelago, flowering in fummer. The root is annual. Herb
branched, climbing, with the habit of V. Cr/uca, but fmooth,
and much more variable in fize, as well as in the breadth of
the leajlets, which are moreover fometimes acute, fometrmet
obtufe or abrupt, always tipped with a brilUy point.
Flowers thrice as large as in Cracca, fewer and more re-
mote, parti-coloured with crimfon and white. Legume an
inch and half long, lanceolate, pointed, with many fmall
feeds.

if). V. biennis. Biennial Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI. 1036.
Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 8. (V. n. 9; Gmel. Sib. v. 4, 10.
t. 2. ) — Stalks much longer than the leaves, with many fcat-
tered flowers. Leaflets eUiptic-lanceolate, fmooth. Com-
mon footftalks angular, furrowed. Stipulas lialf-arrow-

fliaped, ftalked Native of Siberia. A tall, fmooth, bienni.-d

plant. Leaflets ribbed, an inch and quarter or inch and
half long. Flowers half the fize of the laft, whitifh, with a
hh:e Jlandard.

1 7. V. allij/lma. Tall Vetch. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 163.
Willd. n. lO. — " Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets .ibout
twelve, elliptical, abrupt, fmooth. Stipulas tootlied."
— Native of Barbary, in hedges near Arzeau. Akin to
the foregoing, but the abrupt leajlets, and toothed flipulas,
diftinguifh it. Desfontaines. We would obferve that no-
thing is more variable than the termination of tlie leaflets in
this tribe ; yet we do not difpute the diftinftncfs of llie pre-
feiit fpecies. Tlie herb is perennial, perfedly fmooth
throughout, fix feet high. Flower-flalis longer than the
leaves, angular. Flowers numerous, pale blue, fcarcely
larger than m V.fpium; fee the fccond fedion.

18. \.Bivone. Blue Sicihan Vetch — Stalks as long a«

the leaves, about thrcc-flowercd. Leaflets elliptical, oluufe,

hairy. StipiJas lunate, deeply toothed. Legume obloun,

U 2 reticulated,

VlCiA.

reticulated, fmooth Native of Sicily, from whence it was

feiit us by the baron Bivoiia Beniardi. Akin to feveral of
the foregoing, but decidedly dillindl. Root perennial. Stems
feveral, climbing, eighteen inches or more in height, fharply
angular, hairy like the reft of the herbage. Leaflets half or
three quarters of an inch long, pale green, rather hiky.
Flowers two, three, or four on each ftalk, light purplilh-
blue, much fhorter than thofe of V. Cracca. Cahx-teelh all
remarkably long, tapering, finely fringed. Legume an inch
and quarter long, half an inch broad, fiat, with four or five
feeds.

ig.V .nijfoliana. Red Oriental Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI. 1036.
Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 9. — Stalks ftiorter than the leaves,
with few flowers. Lciflels elliptic-oblong, obtufe, downy.
Stipulas lanceolate, entire. Legumes comprefTed, ovate-
oblong, filky — Native of the Levant. A hardy annual, faid
to have been firft introduced at Kew, in 1773, by the cele-
brated earl of Bute. The whole plant is downy, or fome-
what filky. ■ Leaflets an inch long, tapering at the bafe into
little partial ilalits. Stipulas narrow, undivided. Floivers
five or fix, dark purple, the fizeof the laft. Calyx-teeth long
and flender, but not quite fo long in proportion to the tube
as in that fpecies. Legume above an inch long, flat, very
filky, with four or five large prominent feeds. Linnasus
cultivated this fpecies at Upfal. We have never obferved
it ill any collection here.

20. V. benghalenjis. Bengal Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI. 1036.
Willd. n. 18. Alt. n. 10. (V. benghalenfis, hirfuta et
iiicaua, filiquispifi ; Herni. Lugd.-Bat. 623. t. 625. Cracca
benghalenfis ; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 50. )— Stalks fliorter
than the leaves, about three-flowered. Leaflets cUiptic-
oblong, obtufe, downy. Stipulas lanceolate, entire. Le-
gume turgid, oblong, filky Native of Bengal, from whence

lir Jofepli Banks procured feeds for the Kew garden, in
1792. An annual ftovc -plant, flowering in June and July.
Tins is nearly related to the laft, in general habit, pubefcence,

Jlipulas, and ealyx ; but the Jlowers are fcarcely more than
three ; their petals longer, faid to be of a very deep fcarlet,
at leaft their upper ludf, the Lei tipped with black. We
have not feen tiiem, except dried. The legume differs eflen-
tially from the foregoing, having concave valves, like a
Pifum, with five large ToaaA feeds.

21. V. canefcens. Hoary Syrian Vetch. Billard. Syr.
fafc. I. 17. t. 7. Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 11.— Stalks
many-flowered, about the length of the leaves, which
fcarcely bear tendrils. Leaflets elliptic -lanceolate, downy.
Stipulas halfarrowfliaped. Legume turgid, oblong, filky.
— Gathered by La Billardiere, towards the fummit of mount
Lebanon, and by Sibthorp in Greece. Sir Jofeph Banks
fent feeds to Kew in 1800. If this and the two preceding
exift. at prefent, in any garden, they ought to be figured in
one, not both, of our periodical works. The prefent is
marked as a hardy annual, flowering in July and Auguft.
The whole herb is hoary with foft down. Stem ereft, a foot
or more in height, fquare, ftriated. Lower leaves numeroufly
pinnate, with an odd leaflet, in whofe place the upper ones
have only a ftiort ftraight point, or abortive tcndnl. Floivers
blue, full as large as the laft, and more numerous. Legume

welling as in that, downy, but with fewer feeds.

~J. V.capenjir. Cape Vetch. Berg. Cap. 2 15. Willd.
11. iO. Thunb. Prodr. 125. — Stalks elongated, many-
flowered. Leaves pinnate with an odd leaflet, without ten-
drils ; filky beneath. Stipulas lanceolate, undivided Native

of the Cape of Good Hope. Perennial, j'/fm a fpan high,
ereft, angular, fmooth ; branched at the bafe ; the branches
(hort, procumbent. Leaflets about twenty-one, linear,
abrupt with a point, or flightly emarginate ; fmooth above ;

fcarcely half fo long as the finger-nail. Stipulas membra-
nous, ovate or lanceolate, fimple and entire. Cluflers round
ifli, hairy, rather denfe, on long ftalks. Calyx-teeth lanceo"
late, acute, nearly equal. Bergius. Linnaus has made a
manufcript note in this author's book, faying " this plant
refembles Hippocrepis comofa, but it has a racemus, not an um-
bella. It cannot be a Vicia, becaufe of the odd leaflet." —
The laft remark is invalidated bv V. canefcens, n. 21. We
have feen no fpecimen, on which to found any opinion.

23. V. pellucida. Tranfparent Vetch. Jacq. Hort.

Schoenbr. v. 2. 50. t. 222. Willd. n. 21 Stalks fliorter

than the leaves, with feveral flowers. Leaves pinnate with
an odd leaflet, without tendrils, downy. Stipulas lanceo-
late, undivided. Legume falcate, many-leeded — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. Jacquin's figure anfwers fo well
to the remark of Linr.xus under the laft fpecies, that we
are much inchned to think the prelent is the very fame
plant. Willdenow indeed, who had feen a dried ipecimen
of the former, thought them diftinft ; but he indicates no
material difference. They/oa'^rj of Jacquin's plant have a
roundifti, elegantly ftriated, Jlandard, with purple luings and
ieel. The legume is comprefl^ed, curved, near two inches
long, with ten or more feeds, feparated by tranfverfe ftric-
tures. Bergius has not defcribed the fruit of his plant.

24. V.fruticofa. Willd. n. 22. (Lathyrus tomentofus ;
Cavan. Ic. v. i. 58. t. 84. Orobus tomentofus; Desfont.
Tabl. 224.) — Stalks fhorter than the leaves, two-flowered.
Leaves abruptly pinnate, without tendrils, downy. Stipulas
awl-lhaped, undivided. Legume ftraight, downy, many-
feeded. — Found on hills near Huanuco, in Peru. A flirub,
flowering in the Madrid garden from July to November.
The Jlem is two feet high, with numerous, drooping, downy,
round branches. Leaflets about twenty pair, elliptical, uni-
form, entire, a quarter of an inch long, without an odd one,
or any terminal point. Floivers yellow, in fhape and fize
not unlike the laft, nor is the legume very diflimilar, except
being ilraight, and gradually dilated upwards. — We feci
little confidence as to the genus of this plant, but a certain
refemblance to the two laft, notvvithftanding the want of an
odd leaflet, induces us to retain it here. Perhaps they might
all three, if all diltinft, be removed from Ficia, and on
more complete examination and comparifon, might form a
genus.

25. V. biflora. Two-flowered Sharp-leaved Vetch. Des-
font. Atlant. v. 2. 166. t. 197. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 13.
— Stalks two-flowered, fliorter than the leaves. Leaflets
linear, tapering at each end. Tendrils divided. Stipulas
half-arrowfliaped. — Native of Algiers. A hardy annual,
fent to Kew, by M. Thouin, in 1801, flowering from June
to Auguft. The Jlem is flender, angular, procumbent.
Leaflets eight or ten, alternate, very narrow. Stipulas mi-
nute, occafionally toothed. Stalks flender, bearing one or
two rather large, oblong, hhxe Jlotvers, and tipped with a
fmall point. Calyx-teeth rather fhort. Corolla moft hke
V. benghalenjis, or biennis, in fliape and dimenfions.

26. V. ciliaris. Fringed Vetch. Sm. Prodf. Fl. Grxc.
Sibth. n. 1706. Fl. Grasc. t. 700, unpubhflied. — Stalks
fingle-flowered, pointed, as long as the leaves. Leaflets
emarginate. Stipulas ki man)' fetaceous fegments. — Ga-
thered by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor, probably near
Smyrna. We know not whether the root be annual or
perennial. Thejlems are weak, chmbing, two or three feet
long, branched, angular. Leaflets about feven pair, half an
inch long, fmooth. Tendrils many. cleft. Stipulas lunate,
very remarkable for their numerous, fpreading, almoft ca-
pillary, fegments. Point of the flower -ftalk elongated three-
quarters of an inch beyond the flower, which is therefore

lateral,

VICIA.

lateral, about the li/,e of the la(l, pale blue ilreakeil with
purple. Legume an incli long, elliptical, acute, comprefl'ed,
with two feeds.

27. V. graminea. , GrafTy -leaved Vetch. — Stalks about
four-rtowered, fhorter than the leaves. Leaflets linear,
pointed, fnnooth. Stip\ilas ovate, entire, (lightly half-arrow-
ihaped. — Gathered by Commerfon, at Buenos Ayres. We
do not lind any account of this fpecies, a fpcciinen of which
was given by Thouin to the younger Linnxus. The whole
herb is nearly or quite fmooth. Stem two feet or more
in height, flender, angular, furrov/ed, fcarcely branched.
Leaves remote, each of three pair of very narrow leaflets,
above an inch long, with a fimple or divided tendril at the
end of their common (talk. Flotvers very fmall, pale, ap-
parently tinged with purple. Calyx a little downy, the
teeth fhorter than the tube. Legume fmooth, comprefled,
not an inch in length, elliptic-oblong, with an oblique in-
curved poi"t, and fix or feven fmall round_/tm/j.

28. V. longifolia. Long-leaved Vetch. Poiret in Lam.
Dicl. n. 15. — Stalks much longer than the leaves, with
many diilant flowers. Leaflets numerous, linear, elongated,
fmooth. Stipulas lanceolate, half-arrowfliapcd, entire. —
Gathered in Syria, by La Billardiere. Stems llraight, an-
gular, ftriated, ftiff", fmooth, branched. Leaflets from fix-
teen to twenty, alternate, diilant, very narrow, an inch and
a half long, ribbed, entire. Stipulas narrow and acute.
Tenilrils in two or three divifions. Floiuers yellowidi-white,
drooping, in very loofe clujlers. Legume not obferved-
Po'iret.

29. V. orohoides. Four-leaved Vetch. Wulf. in Jacq.
Coll. V. 4. 323. Willd. n. 2y. Hoft. Syn. 399. (Orobus
pannonicus quartus ; Cluf. Hift. v. 2.231.) — Stalks about
four-flowered, fliorter than the leaves. Leaflets two pair,
ovate, pointed, without a tendril. Stipulas half-arrow-
fhapcd, toothed at the fide — Found by Wulfen, in the
mountainous woods of Carinthia and Carniola, flowering in
May and June. We have fpecimens from Jacquin. The
root is perennial, tuberous. Stems ereft, a foot and half
high, fimple, leafy, angular, ftrongly furrowed, fmooth.
Leaves of two j)air of large, fmooth, reticulated leaflets, an
inch, or inch and half, long, with a fmall awl-fhaped ftipu-
laceous point in tlie place of a tendril. Clufius's figure erro-
neoufly reprefeiits an odd leaflet here and there. Flowers
an inch long, yellow, with a piirplifli calyx, about four to-
gether, in fliort, lax, axillary rluflers.

For v. Ervilia, Willd. n. 23. fe EnviM.v and EuvUM.
We are now convinced that this plant is an Ervum.
Sedt. 2. Flowers axillary, nearly fejfile.

30. V.faliva. Common Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI. 1037.
Willd. n. 26. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 334. Purfli
n. 2 ? Mart. Rull. t. 116. Fl. l)an. t. 522. (Vicia ;
Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 54. Ger. Em. 1227. Lob. Ic.
V. 2. 75. Camer. Epit. 320.)

e. Fl. Brit. V. anguRifolia; Willd. n. 28. Rivin.
Tetrap. Irr. t. 55. (V. lathyroidcs ; Hudf. 318, a.
Dickf. H. Sice. fafc. 4. 12. V. fylveftris, five Cracca
major; Ger. Em. 1227. V. globofa ; Retz. Obf. fafc. 3.

39 ? Willd. n. 27 ?)

y. Fl. Brit. (V. fylveftris, flore ruberrimo, filiqua longa
nigra; RaiiSyn. 321. V. anguftifolia; Sibth. Oxon. 2,24.
V. folio angulliore, flore rubro ; Dill. Gifl". append. 47.)

Legumes feffile, folitary or in pairs, nearly ereft.
Lower leaves with abrupt leaflets. Stipulas toothed,

marked witii a dark deprcfllon Native of cultivated

ground, and grafly pafturis, throughout Europe, flowering
in May and .Tunc. A very variable annual plant, more or
lefs hairy, diftinguilhed by a brown or blackifh depreifed

mark on each flipula, which is vifibk in all the fuppofed
varieties ; but we are not fure that thofe varieties may not
be fpecifically diftinft ; at lealt our 7, which is charafterized
by its long, cylindrical, black legumes, and very elegant
crimfon (o\\tnry flo'ivers. The leaflets of F.flitiva, ufuaJly
from four to fix pair, vary much in breadth ; thofe of the
lower leaves are fliorter, abrupt, or even inverfcly heart-
(haped ; the rcfl; lanceolate or linear ; all tipped with a
bridle. Tendril at the common ttalk lung and branched.
Flowers varioufly fltadcd with red and blue. Legume com-
preifed, rough, or a little downy, with many globofe, or
flightly lenticular, very fmooth yt«/!f. The ufeof this plant
for fodder is well known. The feeds are the favourite food
of pigeons.

31. W . amphicarpa. Subterraneous Vetch. Dorthes in
Journ. de Phyf. v. 35. 131. Willd. n. 29. (Aracus
ojjlo.hm; Cluf. Exot. 87. t. 88.) — Legumes folitary, fefiile ;
the lower ones fubterraneous, ovate. Leaflets linear, abrupt,

three pair. Stipulas lialf-arrowfliapcd, toothed Native of

Provence. Root annual. Stems a fpan long, diffufe, angu-
lar. Leaves flightly hairy, with more or lefs of a tendril.
Flowers crimfon, moll like V.fativa y. ic^um^ lanceolate,
acute, above an inch long, with many feeds. Such is the
ordinary fruftification ; but feveral flotvers are produced
from fubterraneous leaflefs ilalks. Thefe are very fmall,
coiiliiling of a clofed colourh-fs calyx, in which, when ex-
amined againft the light with a magnifying glais, flatnens
may diflinftly be feen. Each of Xhnie flowers produces an
oval-pointed legume, with one very perfeft fed. Orolus

faxatilis, Venten. Jard. de Cels, t. 94, may poffibly be this
plant, though the author did not oblerve its two-fold fructi-
fication. Many perfons have taken the prefcnt Vicia for
Lalhyrus amphicarpos, which exhibits a fimilar phenomenon,
but is widely dillinft in other refpecls.

32. V. pufiila. Small American Vetch. Mulilei.b.

Cat. 65. Willd. II. 30. Purlh n. 1 Stalks folitary,

capillary, fingle-flowcred. Legumes oblong, fmooth.
Leaflets about fix, linear -lanceolate, bluntifli. Stipulas
half-arrowfliaped, entire. — Found by the Rev. Mr. Muh-
lenberg, in Pennfylvariia, and New Jerfey. Mr. Purlh fays,
it grows in low graffy grounds, from Pennfylvania to Vir-
ginia, flowering in .Inly and Auguft. 'Y\\i; flowers are ex-
ceedingly fmall, white, with a tinge of red. Purfl}. Root
annual. Stem four or five inches liigii, afccnding. Tendril
of the lower leaves fimple, of the upper divided, and very
long. Legume fmall. IVithlenow.

33. V. lathyroides. Spring Vetch. Linn. Sp PI. 1 037.
Willd. n. 31. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 30. .lacq.

folo-

Mi'fc. Aullr. V. 2. 299. t. 18. Fl. Dan. t. 58. Hudf.
y. (V. minima; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 55. Ervum
nienfe ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1040.) — Legumes felTile, folitary,
fmooth. Leaflets about fix ; the lower ones abrupt. Sti-
pulas half-arrowfhaped, nearly entire. Seeds cubital, tu-
bcrculated. Native of France, Britain, Norway, and the
Levant. With us it grows in fallow fields, or graffy paftnre.<,
on a gravelly or chalky foil, flowering in April and May ;
at which time of the year it may always be found in Hyde-
park, near Kenfinglon gardens. The root is annual, tiiough
befet with red flefhy tulxrcles. Herb downy, or rather filky.
Stems procumbent, fpreading, from tnri-O to fix inches
long. Tendrils fimple, generally very fliort, or wanting.
Leaflets molHy inverfcly heart-fliaped ; thofe about the top
of the ilem more oblong and narrower. Stipulas not m.irkcd,
and feldum toothed, /'/otwt/ fnuill, blneilh. Legume CTcA,
very fnvJolh, by which, and efpecially the cubical rough
feeds, this long-obfcure fpecies is at any time to be known
from all the varieties of y.faliva. Sometimes the flowers

arc

VICIA.

ar? white, or ftriated. The tendrils are never divided, nor
the leaflets more than fix.

34. V. /a/fa. Rough-podded Yellow Vetch. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1037. Willd. n. 32. Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot.
t. 481. (V. fl^re ochroleuco, filiquis hirfutis propendenti-
bus ; Morif. ffft. 2. t. 21.) — Legumes folitary, nearly fef-
file, reflexed, hairy. Stems diffufe. Stipulas coloured.

Standard fmooth Native of the pebbly fea-fhores of the

fouth and eaft of England, as well as of France, Spain,
Italy, Barbary, Greece, and the Levant, flowering in July
and Augufl.. The root is perennial and creeping, much di-
vided. Stems diffufe, not much branched, fmooth, angular,
ftriated, from one to two feet long. Leaflets numerous,
elliptic-oblong, hairy beneath ; fometimes abrupt. Tendrils
much branched. Stipulas triangular, brown or reddifli.
Flowers long, pale yellow, ftreaked or Ilained with grey or
purple. Legumes ovate, pointed, an inch and half long,
rough with hairs fpringing from fmall tubercles. Seeds
from five to eight. Some of the Jlowers and legumes are often
fubterraneous, as in j^. amphicarpa, n. 3 1.

35. V. hybrlda. Hairy-flowered Yellow Vetch. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1037. Willd. n. 33. Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot.
t. 482. Jacq. Auftr. t. 146 — Legumes fohtary, nearly
feflile, reflexed, hairy. Standard villous. Leaflets emargi-

nate Native of bulhy places in Auftria, the fouth of

France, and of England. Found chiefly in Somerfetfliire,
about Glaftenbury, flowering in June. This is nearly re-
lated to the lafl:, but th^Jlems are taller and more upright.
L,eajlets generally more obtufe than in lutea, though variable,
as in that and other Vicle. Stipulas always entirely green.
Back of Xhsjlandard clothed with yellow filky hairs. We
prefume not to fay how far this is really a diftinA fpecies,
though we have little faith in its being, as the name indicates,
a mule produftion.

36. V. melanops. Black-eyed Yellow Vetch. Sm. Prodr.

Fl. Grxe. Sibth. n. 1711. Fl. Graec. t. 70I, unpubl

Legumes fohtary, reflexed, linear, fmooth. Stems diffufe.
Stipulas marked. Wings of the corolla depreffed, incum-
bent.— Found by Dr. Sibthorp in Laconia. The root
feems perennial. Herb very like the lall, but rather fmoother,
and the legumes differ effentially in their long narrow figure,
and fmooth furface. Floiuers of a dull greenifh-yellow ;
their ivings, which converge horizontally, tipped with a
very dark brown, ahnoft black.

37. V. pannonka. Hungarian Yellowilh Vetch. Jacq.
Auftr. t. 34. Willd. n. 34. Ait. n. 19. (V. fylveftris
albo flore ; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 235.) — Legumes ftalked, about
three together, hairy as well as the ftandard. Stipulas
marked. Native of meadows in Auftria and Hungary.
Annual. Said to have been cultivated in the Oxford gar-
den, in 1658. We have a fpecimen from Jacquin's own her-
barium, by which this fpecies appears to be very like V. hy-
brlda, efpt'cially in its hairy Jlandard; but the Jloivers are
paler, and grow two or three together. The calyx is
reddifh. Legumes dark brown when ripe, hairy, and (haped
like F". lutea and hybrida. Willdenow fpeaks of 3 variety
with \\o\et-co\o\xreAJlo'wers, the Vtcloldes unclnata, Moench.
Method. 136, which may be a diftindl fpecies, as the colour
is not altered by culture. We have no knowledge of any
fuch plant.

38. V. laevigata. Smooth-podded Sea Vetch. Fl. Brit,
n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 483. Willd. n. 35. Ait. n. 18.
(V. hybrida; Hudf. 319.) — Legumes feffile, folitary, re-
flexed, ovate, fmooth. Stems nearly upright. Leaflets
elliptical, very fmooth. — Found on the ftony fea-beach at
Weymouth, Dorfetfhire, flowering in July and Auguft.
We hare never met with a fpecimen from any other country,

yet there is no doubt of the fpecies being perfeftly diftinft.
The root is perennial, with many flefliy knobs. Whole
plant entirely fmooth, efpecially the legume, which differs in
that refpeft from V. lutea, hybrida, and pannonlca, with all
which it agrees in fhape. The feeds are rarely more than
five. The Jlems are from fix to twelve inches long, much
lefs fpreading than thofe of lutea. Leaflets elliptic-lanceo-
late, hardly ever abrupt or emarginate. Tendrils branched.
Stipulas green, or pale brown. Calyx-teeth nearly equal.
Floruiers the llze of p''. lutea, varying between pale purplifti-
blue and yellow. Both Hudfon and Lightfoot knew this
fpecies well, but could not agree about its fynonyms.

39. V.fordida. Dingy Vetch. " Waldft. ct Kitaib.
Hung." Willd. n. 36. — Legumes nearly feffile, in pairs,
reflexed, linear -oblong, reflexed at the point, fmoothifti.
Leaflets obovate-oblong, emarginate. Stipulas marked. —
Native of meadows in Hungary. Communicated by M.
Thouin to the writer of this. It flowered in Mr. Mackie's
garden, near Norwich, in 181 3. The roo/ is annual. Plant
totally diftinft from the laft, notwithftanding Willdenow's
doubts, being larger, with emarginate leaflets, feldom quite
fmooth : twin jloiuers of a dull or dirty yellow ; but par-
ticularly a much longer, linear, not ovate, legume, which,
though not hairy, is fomewhat roughifli to the touch, and
curved upwards, not downwards, at the point.

40. V.peregrlna. Broad-podded Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI.
1038. Willd. n. 37. Ait. n. 20. (V. peregrina, anguf-
tiffimis fohis, filiqua lata glabra ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 6.)
— Legumes folitary, on fliort ftalks, reflexed, ovate, fmooth.
Leaflets linear, very narrow, fmooth, abrupt, emarginate. —
Native of the fouth of France, from whence Linna:us re-
ceived fpecimens in the herbarium of Sauvages. Dr. Sib-
thorp found It in Caria. M. Thouin fent feeds to Kew
garden, in 1779. The plant is annual, flowering in July,
of a flcnder Imooth habit. Leaflets extremely narrow in a
wild ftate, with two divaricated terminal points ; in a luxu-
riant cultivated fpecimen they are rather wider, and more
obtufe, but fcarcely exceeding an inch in length ; they are
from feven to ten, feattered, on a ftalk ending in a divided
tendril. Flowers ftalked, pendulous, of a reddifli-purple,
fliorter and thicker than feveral of the preceding, and more
like thofe of Orobus tuberofus. Legume fliaped like V. lutea,
hybrida, &c. with a deflexed point, but longer, flatter, and
quite fmooth. Seeds fix in our fpecimens. A very dillinft
fpecies, little kuown to modern botanifts, of which a good
figure is wanted.

41. V. vtonantha. Single-flowered Spur-ftalked Vetch.
Retz. Obf. fafc. 3. 39. WiUd. n. 38. Ait. n. 21. (V.
calcarata ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 166 ; Willd now.) — Stalks
much fliorter than the leaves, fpurred under the folitary
flower. Leaflets lanceolate, obtufe. Stipulas divided.
Legumes fmooth, drooping. — Native of Barbary. A hardy
annual, flowering in July and Auguft. Herb fmooth. Stem
angular, decumbent, two feet long. Leaflets twelve or thir-
teen, gradually decreafing, obtufe with a point. Flower the
fize of V.fatl'va, red with blueilh veins. Seeds fix or feven.
Retzlus. The defcription of Desfontaines anfwers very
well to this, except that he fpeaks of the leaves as flightly
vill us, and of the flowers as pale blue, half the fize of
fatlva, to which fpecies neverthelefs he thinks his plant re-
lated ; but the fllpulas are not marked.

42. V. feplum. Common Bufli Vetch. Linn. Sp. PI.
1038. Willd. n. 39. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 1515.
Fl." Dan. t. 699. Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 56. (V. maxima
dumetorum ; Ger. Em. 1227. Aphace ; Fuchf. Hift.
110.) — Stalks about four-flowered, much fliorter than the
upright fmooth legumes. Leaflets numerous, ovate, ob-
tufe.

VICIA.

tufe, gradually fmaller upv.aids.-^Comriion in hedges and
buthjr places throughout Europe, flowering wath us in May
and June. The root is perennial, fomewhat creeping. Stems
about two feet high, weak, but little branched, furrowed,
clinging to other plants by the tendrils of their leaves. The
whole herb is clothed with fcattered Ihort hairs. Leaflets
twelve to fifteen, of a dull greyifh-green ; the loweft an inch
in length, the uppermoll half as much. Stipulas ovate,
acute, marked with a brown depreflion ; the lower ones ge-
nerally half-arrow (hapcd. Flowers crowded, dull purplifh-
blue, rather (hort and thick. Legumes nearly ereft when
ripe, linear-lanceolate, an inch and a half long, blackiih,
minutely dotted, not hairy. Seeds about fix or eight glo-
bular, fmooth.

43. V. bithymca. Rough-podJcd Purple Vetch. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1038. Willd. n.40. Fl. Brit. n. 9. Engl. Bot.
t. 1842. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. t. 147. AUion. Pedem.
V. I. 325. t. 26. f. 2. fCracca floribus albis, foliis circa
caulem denticulatis ; Buxb. Cent. 3. 25. t. 45. f. 2.) — Le-
gumes ftalked, folitary, ereft, rough. Leaflets two pair,
elliptic-lanceolate, or nearly linear. Stipulas toothed. —
Native of Greece, Italy and Bavaria, in cultivated fields ;
as well as of bufhy places in Yorklhire and Worcefterfliire,
and of fields, or rocky fituation?, near the coaft of Hanip-
(hire, Dorfetfliire, and Devonlhire, flowering from May to
July. The root is perennial, branching, w-ith many fmall
fle{hy knobs. Stems angular, trailing or climbing, two feet
long, fmooth. Leajlets from one to two inches long, vary-
ing from a line to one-third of an inch in breadth, acute ;
rather hairy underneath. StipuLis large, half-an-owfliaped,
vcrv deeply, but varioudy, toothed. Floiucr-Jlalls various in
length, from half an inch to an inch and a half, hairy as
well as the long-toothed calyx. Flo-ivers nearly as large as
V, lutea, purple, occafionally white. Legume oblong-lan-
ceolate, an inch and half long, half an inch broad, reticu-
lated, rough with tawny hairs. Seeds five or fix, fpeckled.
The keel and •wings of the Jlower, pure white, tipped or
tinged with blue or violet, when frefli, turn greenifli or
brownifh twelve hours after gathering.

^.V.platycarpos. Flat-podded Vetch. " Roth. Ab-
liandl. 10. t. 1." Willd. n. 41. Ait. n. 24. ( Aracus faba-
ccus, et Faba Kayrina, cui fcmina minora; Bauh. Hift. v. 2.
286. ) — " Legumes folitary, nearly feifile, compreflfed, fome-
what inflated. Leaflets ovate, toothed at the end. Stipu-
las with fringe-like teeth." — Native of Germany. Annual.
Cultivated in Chclfea garden in 1723, flowering in July
and Auguft. Alton. Stem a foot and half high, thick, an-
gular, hollow, a little hairy. Leaflets four, like thofe of
V. Faba, hairy, dark green, with a long branching tendril.
Stipulas broad. Flowers purple'. Legumes large, longifli,
hairy. Seeds the fize of peas, of a ftrong difagrceable talle
and fmell ; black when ripe. Bauhin.

45. V. narbonenfis. Broad-leaved Narbonne Vetch. Liim.
Sp. PI. cd. I. 737. Willd. n. 42. Ait. n. 2j. "Roth.
Abhandl. 10. t. 2." Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 57. (Faba fyl-
vcllris ; Matth. Valgr. v. I. 381. Ger. Em. 1209.) — Le-
gumes about three together, nearly foflile, comprefted.
Leaflets ovate, obtufe, entire. Stipulas fringed ; toothed
?.t the bafe. — Native of the ftouth of Europe. Annual.
The fi/.e of the lad. Leaflets one or two pair, with a
divided tendril, obtufe, quite entire, an inch and a half long,
one broad, hairy at the rib and margin. Flowers folitary;
iji a cultivated Hate two or three, dark purple. Germen
fringed. Legume oblong, rather hairy. Seeds globofe.

46. V. Fala. Common Garden Bean. Lmn. Sp. P).
1039. Willd. n. 43. Ait. n. 26. ( Faba ; Matth. Valgr.
v. 1, 380. Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 23. F. major, horttnfis ;

Ger. Em. 1209.) — Stalks with feveral flowers, very Ihort.
Legumes afcending, tumid, coriaceous. Leaflets elliptical,
acute, entire. Tendril abortive. Stipulas half-arrowfhaped,
toothed at the bafe. — Native of the borders of Perfia, near
the Cafpian fea, according to Lerche. Commonly culti-
vated throughout Europe, for the fo»d of men and horfes •
there being many varieties, differing in the fize, roundnefs
or flatnefo, as well as quality, of the feeds. Annual, flower-
ing in June and July. The Jlem is from three to five feet
high. Leaflets fmooth, larger, more acul;e at each end, and
more alternate than in the two laft. Flowers from fix to
ten or more, on a fhort racemofe rtalk, dehcioufly flagrant,
white, with a broad black vclvet-hke fpot on each wing.
Calyx whitifli, with ovate taper teeth. Legume large, thick,
oblong, pulpy within while unripe, containing four or five
Jteds.

The Faba minor five equina ; Bauh. Pin. 338. F. mi-
nor ; Rivin. Tetrap. Irr. t. 24 ; is the variety called the
Horfe Bean, known by its fmall pod and roundifli feeds.
Of this alfo cultivators obfervc many fubordinate varieties,
and perhaps /'. narbonenfls is often confounded among
them.

47. V . ferratifoUa. Saw-leaved Vetch. Murr. in Linn.
Syfl. Veg. ed. 14. 665. .Tacq. Auftr. append, t. 8. Willd.
n. 44. Ait. n. 27. (V. narbonenfis ; Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Gric. Sibth. n. 1715. V. fupina, latilfimo folio ferrato ;
Tourn. Lift. 397. Aracus fabaceus ferratus ; Bauh. Hift.
v. 2. 287.) — Legumes about three together, nearly feffile,
fringed. Leaflets eUiptical, obtufe, fcrrated throughout,
as well as the ftipulas. — Native of Hungary, Greece, and
the ifland of Cyprus, in moift cultivated ground. A hardy
annual with us, flowering in June and July. This is nearly
related to the two laft, and ftill more perhaps to V. platy-
carpns ; but differs from all in the copious fharp ferratures
of the leaflets, which are ufually four pair, with a brancl\ed
tendril. Stipulas broad, fharply and copioufly toothed.
Flowers three or four, on a very fliort ftalk, dark purple.
Legume compreffed, with feven or eight ^oh\\\?.v feeds.

We believe the Linnaean fynonyms, as here arranged, are
correft ; and yet Linnaeus, like other botanifts from time to
time, certainly confounded tliefe four laft fpecies more or
lefs together. His fpecimen marked narbonenfis, from the
Upfal garden, anfwers to the charatler of plalycarpos, the
leaflets l)eing toothed towards the extremity. Hence, in the
fecond edition of Sp. PI. he altered the fpecific charaftcr,
to ftipulifyut' denticulatis. _ But this is not an original fpeci-
men, anfwering to the firft edition of Sp. PI. which latter
\vc take as the moft certain authority ; and it is in this cafe
confi)nant with the fentiments of all authors, as above quoted.
The plant of the I'rodr. Fl. Gncc. therefore, by miftake
ciUed there narbonenfls, is really ferratifoUa, witli which ifs
fynonyms agree. Poflibly plalycarpos may be a variety of
ferratifoUa ; but for want of an authentic fpecimen, from
fonie author wiio has written upon it, we decline any de-
cifion upon that point. Thefe two, and the real narbonenfls,
agree in hairinefs ; the blunt rounded fhapc of their leaflets ;
the preftnce of tendrils ; the dark purple of their /?owfr/ ;
and the ftrong briilly fringe of their germens and ligumis ;
in all which points they difler from l^. Faba.

ViciA, in Gardening, furniflics plants of the biennial, per-
ennial, and annual hardy kinds, among which the fpecies
cultivated are, the common vetch or tare (V. fativa) ; the
Narbonne vetch or tare (V. narbonenfis) ; the many-flowered
Siberian vetch {V. biennis) ; the wood many-flowered vetch
(V. fylvatica) ; the tufted vetch (V.iraeca) ; thcCafl"ubian
ligneous vetch (V. eaflubica) ; ami t lie common bean (V.
fuba. j

The

VICIA.

The firft fort does not rife to any great height, but is a
plant that varies with common purple flowers ; with white
flowers. And there is the early fummer vetch ; the black-
feeded vetch ; and the white-feedcd vetch.

It IS the fort which is commonly cultivated in the field for
the purpofe of green fodder, Sec. as well as the produflion
of feed. Sometimes alfo in pleafure-grounds, &c. as a low
climbing plant. See Tare.

The fecond has long climbing ftalks, with dark purple
flowers.

The third fort alfo rifes to fome height, with numerous
light blue flowers coming from the fides of the branches.

The fourth rifes with climbing ftalks to the height of five
or fix feet, having many pale blue flowers. It is a twining
plant among trees or bufhes.

The fifth has the fame fort of ftalks and flowers.

The fixth fort has lower trailing woody ftalks, and pale
blue flowers.

The laft fort has an annual root, with an upright ftalk
from two to three or four feet in height in the larger garden
varieties.

There are feveral varieties of garden beans ; as the Ma-
zagan bean, which is the firft and beft fort of early beans
at prefent known. It is brought from a fettlement of the
Portuguefe on the coaft of Africa, jnft without the
ftraits of Gibraltar, and is fmaller than thofe of the horfe-
bean kind.

The early Portugal or Lifbon bean, which iiS the next, and
appears to be the Mazagan fort faved in Portugal, as it is
very like thofe which are the firft year faved in this country.
It is the moft common fort ufed by the gardeners for their
firft crop, but they are not near fo well tafted as the real
Mazagan.

1 he fmall Spanifti bean, which comes in foon after the
Portugal fort, and is rather a fweeter bean.

And of the fmall early varieties, there is one which is
chiefly planted for curiofity. It is a dwarf, fix or ten inches
m height, with branches fpreading like a fan, and flowers
fucceeded by fmall pods, both in clufters ; whence it is called
the dwarf fan or clufter bean.

Further alfo of the middle-fized later beans, a fort now
very commonly cultivated is the long-podded bean, a yard or
more in height, a great bearer, the pods long and narrow,
clofely filled with oblong middle-fized feeds. Of this there
are faveral fub-varieties, as the early, the tall, the Turkey,
&c.

The broad Spanifh, which is a little later than the other,
but comes in before the common forts, and is a good bearer.

The white-bloflbmed bean, which has none of the black
mark on the wings. The feed is femi-tranfparent, and having
lefs of the peculiar bean flavour, when young, than any of the
others, is by many in much efteem. It bears abundance of
fmallifti, long, narrow pods, and the feeds are almoft black
when ripe.

And there is a red-bloffomed bean, with fmallifti pods and
feeds, but which is not near fo palatable as that with white
blofibms.

There are alfo fome other varieties, as the Mumford, the
green Venetian, &c.

In the large late kinds, the Sandwich bean, which comes
foon after the Spanifti, and is almoft as large as the Windfor
bean, but, being hardier, is commonly fown a month fooner.
It is a plentiful bearer, but not very delicate for the table.

The Toker bean, which comes about the fame time with
the Sandwich, and is a great bearer.

The white and black bloflbm beans, which are alfo by
fome rnuch efteemed ; the beans of the former, when boiled,

are almoft as green as peas ; and being a tolerable fweet
bean renders it more valuable. Thefe forts are very apt to
degenerate, if their feeds are not faved with great care.

The Windfor bean is allowed to be the beft of all the
forts for the table : when thefe are planted on a good foil,
and are allowed fufhcient room, their feeds will be very
large, and in great plenty ; and, when they are gathered
young, are the fweeteft and beft tafted of all the forts ; but
thefe ftiould be carefully faved, by pulling out fuch of the
plants as are not perfeftly right, and afterward by forting
out all the good from the bad beans.

This fort of bean is feldom planted before Chriftmas, be-
caufe it will not bear the froft fo well as many of the other
forts ; fo it is generally planted for the main crop, to come
in in June and July.

Method of Culture in the Vetch Kind. — All the forts of
vetches may be propagated by fowing the feeds in the au-
tumnal or fpring feafons, but chiefly in the latter, and moftly
where the plants are to remain and grow, as in the large
open flower borders, in thofe of the ftirubberies and pleafure-
grounds, as well as in the woody walks, wildernefs parts,
and in the thickets ; or in any other place where they
are to run and climb up any fort of wood. They ftiould be
fown in patches near to flirubs or buflies on which they may
climb, and fometimes in the open fpaces, to climb upon fticks
fet for the purpofe.

Method of Culture in the Bean Kind. — Thefe crops are
raifed with much facility by fowing them at different times
from October to March, or later. The fmall forts are moftly
ufed for the earheft crops, and the firft two or three of the
above forts are the moft proper for the purpofe; but the
Mazagan kind is the earlieft of all, and moft proper to plant
for the firft crop, and the Portugal and fmall Spanifti bean
next, all of which ftiould be planted early on warm fouth
borders, or other flieltered funny expofures, under or near
walls, pales, or hedges, or other warm defended quarters,
every month from Oftobcr till the beginning of February ;
in order that if the firft planting ftiould fail by inclement
weather in winter, the others may fucceed ; and if all the
crops ftiould furvive the froft, they will fucceed one another
regularly in bearing. The planting ftiould be performed in
rows, ranging fouth and north, two feet and half afunder,
an inch and half deep, and two or three inches apart in each
row. They may alfo be planted in one row lengthways clofe
along under a fouth wall, &c.

The dwarf bean is not proper to be planted for any
general crop, only a few for variety ; for which purpofe
it may be put in in autumn or winter ; or in any of the
fpring or fummer months tilljune or July, in rows two feet
afunder, or in patches about the borders.

Of the middle-fized forts, the long-pods, broad Spanifti,
and white-bloflomed bean are the beft for general culture ;
though fome of all the others may be planted occafionally ;
and the feafon for thefe forts being put in, is for the firft
crop in November or December, on a broad warm border,
or in any of the moft ftieltered kitchen-garden quarters, in
rows two feet and a half or a yard afunder, three inches
diftance in the row, and two or three inches deep ; repeating
the planting every month till March, in the open quarters.

Of the large kind, the Sandwich and Toker bean, being
generally more plentiful bearers, and of fomewhat lefs fuc-
culent growth than the Windfor, are rather hardier to refift
the froft, and may be planted earlier, as before Chriftmas
for the firft crop ; and any time after till May, if required ;
and of the Windfor, a fmall or moderate crop may be planted
in December, in open mild weather, and a dry foil ; in a
larger fupply in January ; and a firft full crop in February ;

and

VIC

V I c

and thence in full fiipplies, of thefe or any of the otlicr
larger fort, every three or four weeks, till the end of April,
for the main crops ; continuing planting them till the end of
May, to have fuccefllons as long in the feafon as pofliblc.
Thefe fliould conftantly be planted in open expofures, in
rows a yard afunder, or three feet and a half for the large
Windfor fort ; four or five inches afunder in each row, and
three deep.

They fucceed in any common foil, but where the land is
manured for them it is the bell.

The general method of planting them is by the dibble, or
in drills ; for early planting in dry ground, a (hallow drill
may be firtl made, then planting the beans in a row along
the bottom, allowing from two to four or five inches dif-
tance in the row, according to the fize or growth of
the different varieties, and from one and a half to three
inches deep in the fmall and large beans ; and when the
plants are come up about three inches high, they fhould
be earthed up on each fide of the row with a drawing hoe,
keeping them clear from weeds by occafional hoeing in dry
weather ; and after having advanced nearly to full growth,
and in bloom, it is proper to top the plants in general,
which throws all the nourifhment to the embryo pods, and
greatly promotes their fetting, and forwards their growth ;
and in the latter crops prevents their being fo much an-
noyed with the fmall black fly.

As the ufe of garden beans is very confiderable for fome
length of time, a pretty large portion of kitchen-garden
ground (hould be allowed for the different crops each year,
in order to have a proper fuccefiion. They fucceed well, as
has been feen, in any common foil, but the beil where manure
is employed, and in free open fituations, where they are not
injured by the (hade or droppings of trees, felcdting the
dried and warmefl places for the early crops, and the ftrong-
eil moill ground for the late ones.

In gathering the crops, avoid pulling up the items, efpe-
cially when the land is moift.

The plants of the vetch kind are, for the raoft part, intro-
duced for the purpofe of variety and ornament in their
climbing growth and the curious appearance of the flowers.

VICINAGE, and Vicinitum, a neighbourhood. See
Venuk.

Vicinage, Covimon per Caufc de. See Common'.

VICIOLA, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs
into the Trontino, at Teramo.

VrCIOSAS, a duller of fmall iflands, near the coaft of
Honduras. N. lat. 15^ 12'. VV. long. 83° 4'.

VICIS et Fcnellir Mundandis, in Law, a writ lying
againd a mayor, bailiff, &c. for not taking care that the
llreets be well cleanfed.

VICISSITUDE, VicissiTUDO, the fucceeding of one
ihing after another. As, the viciffitude of feafons, for-
tune, &c.

VICK, in Genvraphy, a town of Sweden, in Well Goth-
land ; 37 miles N. of llddcvalla.

VICKERYVANDY, a town of Hindooflan, in the
Carnatic ; 18 miles W.N.W. of Pondichtrry.

VICO, Enea, in Biography, a native of Parma in the
r6th century, was one of the firll perfons who illuilrated
the medallic fcience. By profeffion he was an engraver of
copper ; and at his death in Ferrara, among other remains,
he left copper-plates of all the coins in Europe, with their
weight, (landard, and value. See Italian School of En-
graving.

Vico, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato
Citra, the fee of a billujp, fuffragan of Sorento ; near the
fca. Its fituation is delightful, on the brow of a hill.

Vol. XX XV 11.

backed by an ampliithcatre of mountains. The llrata of
thefe eminences i[itlinc contraryways to one centrical point,
as if there had originally exilled a iimilar mafs in tlie centre,
torn afunder and fwallov/ed up by one of ihofe Ihocks
which mull have often overturned this unliable country.
Charles II. and Joan I. railed Vico out of obfcutity, on
account of the charms of its fituation. In 1694, it was al-
moil deflroyed by an earthquake ; 3 miles E.N.E. of So-
rento— Alfo, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ; 10 miles
W. of Viede. — Alfo, a town of Corfica, in which is the
cathedral of the bilhop of Sagona ; 30 miles S. of Calvi.
N. lat. 43° 3'. E. long. 8^ 56' — Alfo, a village of Dalma-
tia, near the river Norln, in a marfhy fpot, where the an-
cient Narona once dood. The inhabitants, who go often
to cut reeds in the marfh, fay that the vediges of that large
city may dill be feen under water. It mud have been ex-
tended over the plain a great way, and undoubtedly above
three miles in length, at the foot of the hills. The ancient
roads are now under water, and the prefent paffage over a
very deep and craggy hill, on which, probably before the
Roman times, the fortifications were erefted. Along the
path are to be feen traces of ancient infcriptions on the rock.
A poor hamlet now occupies the fpot where temples and
palaces of the conquering Romans once dood ; and grand
vediges dill remain of baths, aquedudls, walls, and nob'-'
edifices ; even the wretciied cottages of the Morlack inha-
bitants are all built cf fine ancient hewn flone ; j miles
N.W. of Citluc.

Vico di Pantano, a town of Naples, in Lavora ; 12 miles
S.W. of Capua.

VICOMAGISTER, among the Romans, an officer
whole bulinefs it was to take care of the llreets, that no-
thing might obdrudt, or render them any wife incommo-
dious.

VICONTIEL. See VtcouNi-iEL.

VICOVARO, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in
the Sabina, on the Teveroni ; zo miles E.N.E. of Rome.

VICOUNT, ViCE-coMES, in our Law-Books, fignifies
the fame with fheriif; between which two words there fecms
to be no other difference, but that the one came from our
conquerors, the Normans ; and the other from our anceftors,
the Saxons.

VicouNT, or Vifcount, is alfo ufed for a degree of no-
bility, next below a count or earl, and above a baron.

Camden obferves, that this is an ancient name or office,
but a new one of dignity never heard of among us till
Henrv Vlth's days, who, in his eighteenth year, created,
in parliament, John lord Beaumont, lucouut Beaumont: but
it is much more ancient in other countries.

Du-Cange, indeed, will have the dignity to have had its
fird rife in England ; but it is much more probable it was
fird brought over hither by the Normans.

Tiie privileges of a vifcount arc, that he may have a coter
of affny held under his cup when he drinks, and may have a
travers in his own houfe. And a vifcountefs may have her
gown borne up by a man, out of the j^refence of her fu-
pcriors ; and, in their prefence, by a woman.

VICOUNTIELS, VicoNTiELs, riwomitalia, m our
Law-BooLs, denote things belonging to tlie fherift ; parti-
cularly certain farms, for which the (heriff pays a rent to
the king, and makes wh.it profits he cin of lliem.

Vicoi'NTiEL, ll^rils, are fuch as are triable in the county
or (lieriff's court, and which arc not returned to any fupe-
rior court, till finally executed by him. Of which kind are
divers Writs of nuifance, the writ of ADMEASUREMENT of
Paflurr, &c. which f<"e.

VirouNTiEL or yiconliel Jurifdiaion, is that jiirifdiflion
X belonging

V I c

V 1 c

belonging to the officers of a county ; as flicriffi, coroners,
efcJieators, Sec.

VICQ, in Geography. See Vic and ViQ.

VICQ-D'AZYR, Felix, in Biography, was born at
ValogneS, in Normandy, in 1748, and diltinguifhed himfelf
both as. a phyfician and a man of letters. Settling at Paris
in 176^, he purfued with dihgence every branch of ftudy
connefted with medicine, and paid particular attention to
the phyfiological part of anatomy. In 1773 he commenced
a courfe of leftures on human and comparative anatomy, in
which purfuit he was very popular ; but he was interrupted
by a fpitting of blood, which made it necelTary for him to
return to his native place. Here he applied to the anato-
mical examination of filhes, the refult of which he commu-
nicated to the Academy of Sciences, which aiTociated him
as a member. When a murrain appeared among the cattle
in Languedoc in 1775, Vicq-d'Azyr was commiffioned by
the minifter Turgot to difcover means for reftraining it,
which charge he executed with fuccefs. A medical fociety
was formed at Paris about this time, which he zealoufly
promoted, and of which he was fecretary. He alfo, in con-
neftion with this fociety, performed the oince of eulogift,
▼ery much to his own reputation, and to the honour of
many confiderable perfons, whofe talents and fervices he
commemorated. In his private charafter he exhibited, with
gentle manners, a very coniiderable degree of ardour and
ienfibility ; fo that he is reprefented as a warm friend and
philanthropical citizen. He obtained both fame and for-
tune, employing the latter liberally in coUeding a coftly
apparatus and a well-chofen library. Agitated and ex-
haufted by the difaftrous effefts of the revolution, he died
in June 1794, at the age of forty-fix. His " Eloges Hif-
toriques" were collefted and publifhed, with notes, and a
memoir on the author, by J. L. Moreau, three vols. 8vo.
1805. His other writings were communicated to the Me-
moirs of the Academy of Sciences and of the Medical
Society. Nouv. DiA. Hift.

VICTIM, ViCTiMA, fo called, either bccaufe vint^a/^r-
cii^a cadehat, or becaufe vinBa ad aras ducebatur, a bloody
facrifice, offered to fome deity, of a living thing ; either a
human perfon, or a beafl, which is flain to appeafe his
wrath, or to obtain fome favour. See Sacrifice.

It is not certain who was the firll perfon that introduced
bloody facrifices among the Pagans. If the authority of
Ovid be at all regarded, he alleges that the fow was the
firft animated viftim which was oifered to Ceres, on account
of the ravages which that animal makes in the i'leld. (Faft.
1. i.) From Homer we learn, that the ufe of fuch facrifices
was common in the time of the Trojan war. Whenever they
were introduced, it is certain that they were very ancient in
the Pagan world. It may be obferved, however, that when
■viftims of this kind were offered, they blended with them
herbs, fait and meal. Phny informs us, that Numa pro-
hibited the Romans from ufing bloody viftims, or any
other facrifice, befides thofe in which they employed fruits,
fait, and corn. Dion. Halic. afcribes this prohibition
to Romulus ; and he adds, that this ufage fubfifted in his
time, although they had fuperadded to it that of bloody
facrifices. At length, however, fuperftition prevailed to fuch
a degree, that they offered to their deities human viftims ;
and this barbarous cuftom, the origin of which is not fatif-
faftorily afcertained, was propagated to almoft every known
nation. Thefe horrid facrifices, prefcribed even by the
oracles of the gods, were known in the days of Mofes, and
conftituted a part of thofe abominations with which this le-
giflator reproached the Amorites. The Moabites facrificed
their children to Moloch, and burned them in the cavity of

the ftatufr of that god. According to Dionyfius of Hali-
carnaffus, they offered men in facrifice to Saturn, not only
at Tyre and Carthage, but even in Greece and Italy. The
Gauls, if we may believe Diodorus Siculus, facrificed to
their gods their prifoners of war ; thofe of Tauris, all the
ftrangers who landed upon their coaffs : the inhabitants of
Pella facrificed a man to Peleus. Thofe of Temeffa, as
Paufanias has it, offered every year a young virgin to the
Genius of one of Ulyffes' affociates, whom they had floned ;
and Ariftomenes, the Meflenian, facrificed three hundred men
at one time. Strabo mentions thofe abominable facrifices
offered by the ancient Germans. Athanafius gives the fame
account of the Phoenicians and Cretans ; and TcrtuUian of
the Scythians and Africans. In the Ibad of Homer we fee
twelve Trojans facrificed by Achilles to the manes of Patro-
clus. In fine, Porphyry gives a long detail of all the places
where, in old times, they offered up human facrifices ;
among which he enumerates Rhodes, the ifland of Cyprus,
Arabia, Athens, &c.

From all thefe teflimonies put together, and from feveral
others, which it is needlefs to quote, it follows, that the
Phoenicians, the Egyptians, Arabians, Canaanites, the in-
habitants of Tyre and Carthage, thofe of Athens .ind La-
cedamon, the lonians, all Greece, the Romans and Scy-
thians, the Albanians, the AUemans, the Angles, the
Spaniards, and the Gauls, were equally guilty of this horrid
fuperftition.

For the public facrifices there were authorized miniflers
or priefls who made a choice of viftims ; and feveral names
were given to thefe viftims from fome circumflances that
attended the oblations. Such as were offered up the day
before the folemnity, were called " prscidanese hoftis ;" as
the fow, facrificed to Ceres before harveft, was called " prx-
cidanea porca." Again, they gave the name of " fucce-
danex hoftise" to fuch facrifices as they offered up, when
the former ones had been neglefted ; and thus it was they
atoned for the omifTion. There were others named " eximiz
hoftiae ;" meaning not that thefe viftims had any peculiar
excellence, as the word properly fignifies, but that they
were feparated from the flock in order to be facrificed,
" eximebantur grege." The ewes that had two lambs,
w-hich they facrificed with the mother, were termed " ambi-
guae oves," and the viftims whofe entrails were adherent,
" harungx" or " harugas ;" fuch as were confumed, " pro-
digix ;" and fuch as had two teeth higher than the reft,
" bidentes."

Of whatever nature the viftims were, great care was to
be taken in the choice of them ; and the fame blemifhes,
that excluded them from facrifices among the Jews, rendered
them alfo imperfeft among the Pagans ; whence it would
feem that they borrowed feveral rites from the Hebrews.

All forts of viftims were not offered indifcriminately to
every divinity, or for every purpofe. It was commonly a
fow, big with young, that they offered to Cybele and to
the goddefs Tellus ; tfie bull to Jupiter ; to Juno, heifers,
ewe-lambs, fheep ; and at Corinth they facrificed to her a
fhe-goat. To Neptune, a bull and lambs, as appears from
Homer ; to Pluto, likewife, a buU ; and to Proferpine a
cow, both of them black : and when that goddefs was taken
for Hecate, they facrificed to her a dog, an animal whofe
barking they thought drove away the apparitions fent by
that goddefs. The moft acceptable viftims to Ceres, were
the boar and the fow : they made her hkewife an offering of
honey and of milk. To Venus the dove, tlie he-goat, the
heifer, a white fhe-goat, &c. : to Bacchus, a he-goat. They
facrificed the cov\' and the bull to Hermione, as we learn
from iEIian, who adds, that in thefe facrifices, a bull, which
U ten

V I c

VIC

ten men had much ado to mafter, of hi« own accord followed
an old prieftefs to the altar. To the Sun fometimes honey ;
but the Armenians and Maflagetes facrificed to him horfes.
To Apollo (for frequently he was diftinguifhed from the
Sun ) they offered the ram, the rtie-goat, the ewe, and the
he -goat ; and when they confounded him with the Sun, a
young bullock, with gilded horns, as an emblem of his
beams : they offered to lum likewife a raven. To Mars,
the horfe, the bull, the boar, and the ram. The Lufita-
nians facrificed to him he-goats, (he-goats, and fometimes
their enemies ; the Scythians offered to him affes ; and the
Carians, dogs. We learn from Homer, that the viftims moft
grateful to Minerva were the bull and the lamb ; or, ac-
cording to Fulgentius Planciades, oxen which had never
known the yoke. To Diana, flags, fbe-goats, more efpe-
cially among the Athenians ; and, in fome places, cows.
To the Dii Lares, a bullock, or an ewe-lamb, according
to the ability of thofe who offered. To them they alfo fa-
crificed cocks and fwallows, and the hog, whence they got
the name of Grundiles.

In fine, every god had his favourite animal, tree, or plant.
Among the animal kind, the lion was confecrated to Vul-
can ; the wolf to Apollo and Mars ; the dog to the Lares and
to Mars ; the dragon to Bacchus and Minerva ; the griffins
to Apollo ; the ferpents to Efculapius ; the ftag to Her-
cules ; the lamb to Juno ; the horfe to Mars ; the heifer to
Ids. Among the birds, the eagle was facred to Jupiter :
the peacock to Juno ; the owl to Minerva ; the vulture and
the wood-pecker to Mars ; the cock likewife to Mars, to
Efculapius, Apollo, and Minerva ; the dove and fparrow
to Venus ; the king's-fifher to Tethys ; the phoenix to the
Sun ; and the cicada, a fort of flying infeft, to Apollo.
Among the fi(hes, which belonged all to Neptune, the con-
cha marina, and the fmall fi(h named apua, which Feffus fays
is produced by the rain, were acceptable to Venus, and the
barbel to Diana. Among the trees and plants, the pine
was confecrated to Cybele, for the fake of Atys ; the beech
to Jupiter ; the oak, and its different fpecies, to Rhea ; the
olive to Minerva ; the laurel to Apollo, from his amour
with Daphne ; and the reed to Pan, from the (lory of Sy-
rinx : the lotos and the myrtle were hkewife confecrated
to Apollo and Venus ; the cyprefs to Pluto ; the narciffus
and the maiden-hair, termed likewife capilli veneris, to Pro-
ferpinc ; the a(h-trce and dog's-grafs to Mars ; purdanc to
Mercury ; the myrtle and the poppy to Ceres ; the vine,
and its leaves, to Bacchus ; the poplar to Hercules ; dittany
and the poppy to L\icina ; garlick to the Dii Penates ; the
alder-tree, the cedar, the narciffus, and the juniper-tree, to
the Furies ; the palm to the Mufes ; the plane-tree to the
Genii ; the alder to the god Sylvanus ; the pine to Pan,
kc. The Greeks offered Iphigcnia, at Aulis, for a viftim
to obtain a favourable wind.

As there were different forts of viAiras, the mode of
offering them was alfo different. Some were wholly burnt,
and others confumcd only in part : and it belonged to the
diviners among the Greeks, and to the arufpices among the
Romans, to order the time, form, and manner of the facri-
fices. We may further remark with Lucian, that the fa-
crifices differed according to the quality of the perfons.
" The hufbandman," fays he, " offers up an ox ; the (hep.
herd, a lamb ; the goat-herd, a goat : there are fome who
make only a fimplc- offering of cakes or incenfe ; and he
that has nothing, makes his facrifice by killing his right
hand."

Artificial or faSilious viftim, denotes a viftim made of
baked paftcs in the form of an animal, which was offered to

the gods, when they had no natural viftims or no oppor-
tunity of offering them. Thus, according to Porphyry,
Pythagoras offered a facrifice of an ox in palle ; Empe-
docles is alfo faid by Athenxus to have done the fame.
Pythagoras derived the praftice from Egypt, where it was
very ancient, and where it was ufed \n the time of Hero-
dotus.

VICTIMARIUS, a minifter, or fervant of the prieft,
whofe office was to bind the viftims, and prepare the water,
knife, cake, and other things, neceffary for the facrifice.
See Sacrifice.

To the viftimarii it alfo belonged to knock down, and
kill, the viftims : iu order to which, they flood clofe by
the altar, naked to the wailt, but crowned with laurel ; and
holding a hatchet or a knife up, aflved the pried leave to
ftrike ; faying, Agone'f Shall IJlrih'^ Whence they were
called agones, and cuUelliirn, or cultrarU.

When the viftim was killed, they opened it ; and, after
viewing the entrails, took them away, walhed the carcafe,
and fprinkled the flour on it, &c.

The fame viftimarii alfo lighted the fire in which books
were condemned to be burnt. See Liv. Ub. xl. cap. 29.
and A. GelHus, Ub. J. cap. i. extr. 12.

VICTOIRE, or Woody JJlanJ, in Geography, a fmall
ifland in the Chinefe fea. N. lat. l°33'. E. long. 106° 18'.

VICTOPHALL or ViCTOBALl, in Ancient Geography,
a people of Dacia, according to Eutropius and Ammianus
Marcellinus. This country was fubjugated by Trajan.

VICTOR L, pope, in Biography, fucceeded Eleuthe-
rius in 192. During his pontificate feveral circumftances
occurred which render it difficult to maintain his infallibility.
He firft appeafed and afterwards anathematized the heretical
doftrine taught at Rome by Theodotus of Byzantium con-
cerning the perfon of Chrift. Fie alfo recognized a pro-
phetic fpirit in Montanus ; and gave to two of his female fol-
lowers, Prifca and Maximilla, letters of peace to the
churches of Afia and Phrygia, which he afterwards re-
voked. As his infalUbihty was impeached, his pontifical
authority was alfo vigoroufly oppofedin the controverfy be-
tween the Eaftern and Weflern churches concerning the cele-
bration of Eaftcr. The former had been accuftomed to ob-
fcrve the rule ellaljliflied for the Jcwifh pafchal, whereas the
latter difapproved the obfervance of Eafter on any day ex-
cept Sunday, and they had, accordingly, adopted a different
method of computation. The difpute was of no great im-
portance, and had occafioned no difcord and feparation be-
tween thefe churches. But Viftor arrogantly interpofed,
and enjoined the Afiatic prelates to obferve the cuflom that
prevailed among the Weltern Chriflians. Thefe prelates re-
fifted his mandate, and Viftor menaced Polycrates, bifliop
of Ephefus, who took the lead on this occafion, with exclu-
fion from liis communion. The prelate convened 3 council
of all the bilhops of Afia Minor, and they were unaniinous
in their refolution not to abandon the ancient praftice. The
pope was cxafperated, and declared the Afiatic prelates un-
worthy of the title of brethren, and excluded them from all
fellowfliip with the church of Rome. But his violence was
difapproved, and he was regarded as a difturber of the peace
and union that lubfifted among Chriflians. Irenxus, bifhop
of Lyons, remonftratcd againft hiscondudt in a letter written
to him with a fpirit of wifdoni and moderation : and the
Afiatics retained their cuflom till the Weflern praftice was
autiioritatively eftablidied by the council of Nice. Thefe
proceedings lufficicntly fliew that tlie fupremacy of the fee
of Rome was not acknowledged at this period. Viftor,
after a pontificate of ten years, clofcd his life towards the
X a en(Ji

V I c

V I c

end of the year 201, or the beginning of 202. None of his
writings are extant, though, according to St. Jerom, he
was the firft ecclefiallical author who ufed the Latin lan-
guage. His zeal for the church has caufed him to be en-
rolled among the faints of the Roman calendar. Dupin.
Bower.

Victor II., pope, was the fucceflbr of pope Leo IX.,
and elevated to the papal chair by the influence of Hilde-
brand, afterwards pope Gregory VII., and by the fpecial
appointment of Henry III., emperor of Germany. The
perfon chofen was Gebehard, bilhop of Eichftat, a rela-
tion of the emperor, who againft his own inclination was
confecrated in April 1055, and aflumed the name of Vi^or.
Soon after his promotion he held a general council at Flo-
rence, for the correftion of various abufes, and the con-
demnation of Berengarius's doflrine concerning the Eucha-
ritt. Hildebrand maintained his influence during this pon-
tificate, and availed himfelf of an opportunity that offered
for extending the civil authority of the papal fee. This
was the recognition of Henry III. as the only true emperor,
againft the claims of Ferdinand, king of Caitile and Leon.
The pope's requifition, though at firft vigoroufly op-
pofed in Spain, ultimately prevailed. la 1056 a council
was held at Touloufe, which pafled feveral canons againft
limony, and the incontinence of the clergy. Whilft this
council was fitting, Viftor was fummoned by a fpecial
meflage from the emperor Henry to attend him in his laft
moments. The pope, in compliance with his dying intreaty,
recognized his fon, Henry IV., for his fucceflbr in the em-
pire. After his return to Italy he held a council at Rome,
and then retired to Tufcany, where he died in July 1057.
A fingle letter of this pope remains : and fuperftition has
recorded fome miracles that were wrought during his pon-
tificate. Dupin. Bower.

Victor III., pope, one of three perfons named by
Gregory VII. in 1085, when he was dying, and recom-
mended to the caidinals as his fucceffor. The perfon chofen
wai Defiderius, abbot of Monte Cafiino, defcended from
the family of the dukes of Benevento, and born about
1027. He had embraced a monaftic life in 1050, and was
chofen abbot of Monte CafGno in 1058, and in the follow-
ing year created cardinal. It was v/ith great reluctance that
ho confented, in 108 5, to accept the pontiiicate, and as
foor. as the attendant ceremonies were completed, he with-
drew to his monaftery. In the following year a council was
held at Capua, which conttraiiied him to accept the pope-
dom in March 1087, and he was folemnly confecrated in
the church of St. Peter by the name of Viftor III. His
eleftion was contefted by the antipope Guibert and his ad-
herents ; but he was zealoufly fupported by the countefs
Matilda, who by force of arms eftabliftied him at Rome,
though he was not long after obliged to withdraw to Monte
Caffino. Here he engaged the Italian princes to form a
league againft the African Saracens. Soon afterwards he
fummoned a council at Benevento, at which Guibert was
anathematized, and the decrees of Gregory againft lay in-
veftitures and fimony were renewed. During the feflion of
this council he was taken ill, and after recomifiendiag Otho,
bifhop of Oftia, for his fucceflbr, he retired to Monte Caflino,
and died in September 1087. Whilft he was abbot he wrote
four books of dialogues on tlie miracles of St. Benedift,
and the other monks of Monte Caflino, three of which are
pubhflied in Mabillon's " Ada Sanftorum." Dupin.
Bower.

Victor-Amadeus II., duke of Savoy, and firft king
cf Sardinia, was born in 1666, and fucceeded his father,

Charles-Emanuel II., in 1675. ^" 1684 he married Annz-
Maria of Orleans, daughter to the duke of Orleans, bro-
ther of Lewis XIV., by Henrietta-Anne of England, which
marriage would have conveyed to the houfe of Savoy the
next hereditary right to the Britifh throne, after the houfe
of Stuart, if it had not been fet afide by its profeflion of
the Roman Catholic religion. The firft military tranfaftion
of this prince, which is not very honourable to his memory,
was the expulfion, by much flaughter, of his Proteftant fub-
jefts of the Vaudois. In 1687, however, he joined the
grand alliance againft France, in which treaty the reftoration
of the Vaudois was a fecret article. Voltaire charafterizes
him as a wife, politic, courageous prince, ur.derftanding the
art of war, and praftifing mihtary difcipline ; but charge-
able with faults, both as a fovereign and a? a general. In
the firft war againft France he was a fevere fufferer ; but in
1696 a treaty was concluded, by which all the places he
had loft were reftored, and a fum of money was granted to
him by way of indemnification ; and a contract of marriage
was fettled between his eldeft daughter and the duke of
_Burgundy, heir apparent to the crown of France. The
duke of Savoy then joined his troops to ihofe of his new
ally, and he foon after became generahfiirao of Lewis XIV.
Soon after thefe events, another conneftion was formed be-
tween the houfe of Bourbon and the duke of Savoy, by the
marriage of Phihp, duke of Anjou, grandfon of Lewis XIV.
called to the throne of Spain, to the duke's fecond daugh-
ter : and thus he had the rare fortune of feeing the two
principal kingdoms of Europe occupied by his immediate
defcendants. Neverthelefs, at the commencement of the
fucceflion-war, in 1702, the duke abandoned the intereft of
thefe courts, and entered into fecret negociations with the
allied powers. The French court, having found that he
had figned a treaty with the emperor, adopted lioftile mea-
fures, and took from him a number of towns, and in 1706
laid fiege to his capital, Turin, which he bravely refitted,
until he was eflfeftually fuccoured by prince Eugene, who
attacked the French in their trenches, and raifed the fiege.
The duke, having recovered the towns which he had loft,
aflifted the Imperialifts in driving the French from Lom-
bardy. The duke afterwards had fome dlfagreement with
the emperor, and remained inatlive till the treaty of
Utrecht, in 1713. In this general pacification, fuch was
the high eftimation in which he was held by all parties,
that he was reftored to the poiTeflion of the duchy of
Savoy, the county of Nice, and all their dependencies.
The king of France yielded to liim two ftrong fortrefles,
and feveral valleys among the mountains ; and the ridge
of the Alps was made the boundary between France on
one fide, and Piedmont and Nice on the other. The
emperor confirmed to him that part of Montierrat which
had belonged to Mantua, with feveral provinces and terri-
tories in Italy ; and his Catholic majefty refigned to him the
kingdom of Sicily, which gave his houfe the royal title ;
and it was moreover agreed, that in default of hf irs to the
king of Spain, that crown fliould pafs to the houfe of Savoy,
in preference to that of Bourbon. Viftor-Amadeus and
his fpoufe were crowned at Palermo, in the clofe of that
year, and the Spaniards evacuated Sicily : but fome dif-
ferences occurring between him and the court of Spain, it was
required that he fliould fend his eldeft fon to Spain, as a kind
of hoftage. Upon his non-compliance with this requiution,
Alberoni, the prime minifter of Spain, made preparations
for conquering Sicily from Viftor, and Sardinia from the
emperor. France and England interpofed in the difpute ;
and it was finally determined, that Viftor fttould refign

Sicily,

VIC

V 1 c

Sicily, and as an indemnity receive Sardinia, with the royal
title annexed to it, whicii meafure was accompliflied in 1718,
and the duke<; of Savoy have thenceforth rank-'d among the
monarchs of Europ as kings, of Saiilinia.

Vift.^r-Amad-Ms from this time devot d himfelf to the
arts of peace ; and after a reign of fifti-e-i yi-ars, as duke
and as king, ab 'icated his titles and government, in 1730,
in favour of his fon, Charles-Emaiiuel, contenting liimfelf
with an annual penfion. But afterwards repenting of his
condiift, .md inftigated by an ambitious miftrefs, to whom
he was privately married, he attemptel to refume his royalty.
The new king refill'd his inclinations, and placed him under
a degr-e of reftraint, in which ftate he died, at the cattle of
Rivoli, n-ar Turin, in 1732, in his 67th year. Mod. Un.
Hift. Gen. Biog.

VicTOK, AuRELius. See Aurelius.

Victor, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the jurifdiclion
of Areqni a ; I J miles S. of Arcquipa.

VICTORIA, Vicente, in Biography, was a Spanifli
artilt, a native of Valencia, and born in 1658. He went to
Rome wh-n young, and there became a fcholar of Carlo
Maratti, and diftiugnifhed himfelf fufficiently in hiftorical
painting to be tak-ninto employment by tlie grand duke of
Tufcany. His portrait is in the Florentine gallery. He
painted feveral pidlures for churches in his native country,
and died at Rome in 1712.

VlcTOlUA, Ma/car, in yincient Geography, a town of
Africa, in the interior of Mauritania Cacfarienfis, S.E. of
Arfinaria : mentioned by Ptolemy

Victoria, a town of ancient Britain, belonging to the
Damnii, which Camden fuppofes may be the ancient Britifh
town mentioned by Bede, called Caer-Guidi, and fituated
in Inch-Kfith, a fmall ifland in the Firth of Forth. Bax-
ter earnettly contends for Ardoah, in Strathearn, while
Horfley prefers Abernethy. Its fituation cannot be afcer-
tained.

Victoria, in Geography, a town on the fouth-weft coaft
of the idand of Amboyna, fituated in a large bay. N. lat.
3° 42'. E. long. 128- 23' — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the At-
lantic, near the coaft of Brafil. S. lat. 23° 40'. — Alfo, a
town of Sonth America, in the province of Caraccas ; fix
leagues E. from Tulmero, and on the road that leads to the
city of Caraccas. It was founded by the miflionaries, and
compof-d folely of Indians, untd indu'.lry fixed her feat in
the valleys of Aragoa, and drew thither a number of whites,
of whom part fettled at Viftoria. The lands in its vici-
nity were cultivated, and their produce placed decent
houfes in the room of Indian huts. A very handfome
church, vying in beauty and fizc with the principal cathe-
drals in America, has lately been erefted in this place, and
the number of inhabitants of all colours is reckoned to
amount to 7800.

VICTORIiE MoNs, in indent Geography, a mountain
of Hiipania Citerior, near the river Hebrus.

Vic roRi.K Julio Brigenfmm Partus, a port and town of
Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the Varduh.

VICTORIAN Period, in Chronology. See Period.

VICTORIATUS, among the Romans, a coin with
Viftory reprefentcd on one fide, equal in value to half the
denarius.

VICTORINUS, Caius, or Fabius Marius, in Bio-
graphy, an African philofopher, was a convert to Chrilli-
anity, and floiiriflied in the fourth century. He gamed fnch
a degree of reputation by teaching rhetoric at Rome, that
a ilatiie was crcfted in honour of him in one of the pub-
lic places. He was led to the perufal of the Scriptures
by the ftudy of Plato'j works, and thus convinced of their

truth, after fome hefitation, he publicly declared himfelf a
Chriftian, and was baptized in the prcfence of all the people.
He was the author of feveral works, fome of which are
publiflied in the Bibliotheca Patrum ; but as they are of no
great value, it is needlefs to enumerate them. The timeof
his death, thongh not precifely afcertained, is fuppofed to
have been previous to the year 386. Dupin.

VICTORIOLA, in Botany, a iianje ufed by fome au-
thors for the hippoglufTum, called in Englifh the Akxandria-
laurel, horf -tongue, or double-tongue.

VTCTORIUS, m Biography. See Vettori.
VICTORY, Victoria, the overthrow, or defeat, of an
enemy, in war, combat, duel, or the like. See War,
Combat, Duel, Champion, &c.

Among the Romans, crowns, triumphs, &c. were decreed
to their generals, for the victories they gained.

Victory, ylaian, denotes the viftory which Auguftus,
or rather his general, gained over Mark Antony after the
capture of Aftium ; in commemoration of which he built
the city of Nicopolis, and re-ellablifhed with peculiar mag-
nificence the Aftian games.

Victory, Games of, were public games celebrated on
account of a viftory ; they were called by the Greeks
ETivixaioi afuv!;, and in Latin infcriptions they are denomi-
nated ludi villorits. Of thefe, the Roman hiflory recites
thofe in honour of Auguftus, after the battle of Aftium ;
thofe of Septimius Severus, after the defeat of Pefcennius
Niger ; thofe in honour of Lucius Verus and Marcus Au-
rchus, on their return from the expedition againft the Par-
thians, recorded on the marble of Cyzicus, &c.

Victory, in Mythology, called N^jcti by the Greeks, was
perfonified and made a deity both by the Greeks and Romans.
According to Varro, (he was the daughter of Caelum and
Terra ; but Hefiod makes her the daughter of Styx and
Pallas. Temples, ftatues, and altars were confecrated to
this deity. Sylla, according to Cicero, inftituted games in
honour of this goddefs. At Athens there was a temple
dedicated to Viftory, in which was placed her ftatue without
wings. The firft temple built in honour of her by the
Romans was during the Samnite war, under the confulate of
L. Pofthumius and M. Attilius Rcgulus. With them (he
was reprefented as a winged deity, fbmetimcs almoft in the
attitude of flying, and with her robe carried back with the
wind ; holding a laurel crown in her hand, which was an-
ciently the peculiar reward of fnccefsful generals and great
conquerors. The Egyptians reprefented her under the
figure of an eagle, a bird always victorious in its combats
with other birds. The poets inform us that her wings were
white, and her robe of the fame colour. Tliey fometimea
defcribe her hovering between two armies engaged in battle,
as doubtful which fide fhe fliall choofe, and fometimeg itand-
ing fixed by one (he is refolved to favour, as fhe is often
feen on the medals of the Roman emperors. This goddefs
is often reprefented in a chariot, drawn rapidly along by two
horfes. Pliny fpeaks of a pifture of Vidtory in Rome, in
which fhe was afcending to heaven, in a chariot with Tour
horfes, as flic appears on the Antonine pillar, carrying
thither fome hero, and with a palm-branch in her hand.
This, and the crown of laurel, were her general attributes ;
and a third was a trophy, and fometimes two, one on each
fide of her. Sometimes (lie is feen mounted on a globe, as
(he appears upon the medals of the emperors, becaufe they
reckoned tliemfelves matters of the world. When a naval
battle was defigned, (he was drawn mounted on the prow of
a (hip ; and when (he holds a bull by the muzzle, it points
out the facrificc! that were offered after any advantages that
were gained. It appears from the ancients that no bloody

vidini

V I c.

V I D

riftim was offered to her, but that her facrificea were the
fruits of the earth. She was called by various names ; by
the Egyptians, Nepthe ; by the Sabines, Vacuna ; by the
Greeks, Apteros, without wings ; by others, Vitula.
Among her epithets were Eteralcea, which Homer ufes to
denote that (he inclined to both fides ; that of Praepes and
Volacris, to denote lier fwiftnefs ; and that of Cceligena by
Varro, becaufe Viftory comes from heaven. A Viftory at
Rome, whofe wings were burnt by lightning, gave rife to
the following epigram : " Rome, great queen of the world,
thy glory (hall never fade, fince Viftory, now ftripped of
her wings, can never fly away."

Victory, in Geography, a town of America, in the
diftrift of Vermont, and county of ElTex, containing fix
inhabitants ; 75 miles N. of Norwich.

Victory, Cape, the extreme N.W. point of the Straits
of Magellan, at the opening to the South Pacific ocean.
S. lat. 52° 15'. W. long. 76° 40'.

VICTUALLER, one that fells Tiftuals ; and we now
call all common alehoufe-keepers viftuallers. See Ale-
house.

Viftuallers (hall fell their viftuals at reafonable prices, or
forfeit double value ; and viftuallers, fi(hmongers, poul-
terers, &c. coming with their viftuals to London, (hall be
under the regulation of the lord-mayor and aldermen ;
and fell their viftuals at prices appointed by juftices, &c.
(23 & 31 Edw. in. c. 6. 7Rich.IL 13 Rich. IL) If
any viftuallers, butchers, brewers, poulterers, cooks, &c.
confpire and agree together not to fell their viftuals, but
at certain prices, they (hall forfeit for the (irft offence
10/., for the fecond 20/., and for the third offence 40/.
(2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15.) See Forestalling.

Victualler, Agenl. See Agent.

VICTUALLING-Office, an office formerly kept on
Tower-Hill, now in Somerfet-Houfe and Deptford, for fur-
ni(hing his majefty's navy with viftuals.

It is managed by feven commiffioners, who have their in-
ferior officers, as fecretaries, clerk, &c.; befides agents in
divers parts of Great Britain, Ireland, &c.

VICTUS Ratio, among Phyftcians, a particular man-
ner of living, for the prefervation of health, and prevention
of difeafes.

VICUNNA, in Zoology, a name given to iht pacos.

VICUS Aquarius, in ylnclent Geography, a very conC-
derable town of Hifpania, in Lufitania, towards the north,
in the country of the Vettones.

Vicus Augujl'i, Kair-Wan, a town of Africa, on a large
plain, 8. of Adrumetum, marked in the Itin. of Antonine
between Aquiliante and Cloacaria — Alfo, a town of Africa
Propria, upon the route from Carthage to Sufetula, be-
tween Adrumetum and Aquie Regise. Anton. Itin.

Vicus Badius, a place of Italy, on the route from Rome
to Adria, between Palacrinum and Centefimum. Anton.
Itin.

Vicus Cuminarius, a place of Hifpania Citerior, belong-
ing to the Carpentaiii, at a fmall diilance upon the left of
the Tagus. It is marked in the Itin. Anton, on the route
from Emerita to Csfar-Augufta, between Alces and Ti-
tulciae.

Vicus Judtorum, a place of Egypt, on the other fide of
the Nile, between Thou and Scenae Veteranorum, accord-
ing to the Itin. of Antonine.

Vicus Novtu, VUo, a fmall place of Italy, in Campania,
at fome diftance to the S.E. from Calatia and Capua. — Alfo,
a place of Italy, in Umbria, on the route from Rome
to Adria, between Eretura and Reate. Anton. Itin,

VID, in Geography, a river of Bulgaria, which rutiB into
the Danube, 10 miles W. of Nicopoli.

VIDA, Marco-Girolamo, in Biography, a modem
Latin poet of reputation, was born at Cremona of parents
nobly defcended, but in humble condition. The date of
his nativity is differently affigned ; fome fixing it in the year
1470, and others in 1490. His education v/as liberal at
Padua and Bologna, in the latter of which cities two of his
poems were publi(hed in 1 504, under the name of Marc-
Antonio, which he changed for Marco-Girolamo, when he
took orders as a canon regular of Lateran. For affifl-
ance in the ftudy of theology and philofophy, to which in
early life he was devoted, he went to Rome in the latter years
of Julius II. His poems were much applauded, and gave
him rank among the principal geniufes of the age. He was
indebted to the early patronage of Ghiberti, bifhop of
Verona, for an introduftion to Leo X., who bellowed upon
him both wealth and honours. Befides other benefices, he
prefented him to the priory of St. Silveftro, in Frafcati,
where he enjoyed a favourable opportunity for purfuing his
(Indies, and efpeciallv the completion of his " Chriftiad,"
in wliich Leo had engaged him. Of his more confiderable
poems, his work entitled " De Arte Poetica" is fuppofed
to have been firft written ; and the firft known edition of it
is dated in 1527. This was foon followed by his " Bombyx,"
or art of rearing filk-worms, and his " Scacchix Ludus,"
or poem on the game of chefs. Clement VII. became his
fecond patron, and promoted him firft to the office of
apoftohcal prothonotary, and in 1532 to the bi(hopric of
Alba. After the death of this pope, he retired to his dio-
cefe, and eftabh(hed the charafter of a zealous and affec-
tionate paftor; and when, in 1542, Alba was invefted by the
French, he contributed by his exhortations and example fo
to animate the citizens, as to preferve it from the enemy.
His two books " De Republica" contain dialogues, which
are the fubftance of a converfation that paffed between him,
and fome cardinals and learned men, at the council of Trent.
Thefe dialogues are excellent, with refpeft to the correftnefs
and elegance of their ftyle, and evince that the author was
no lefs extenfively converfant with politics and philofophy
than with polite literature. In 1 55 1 Vida retired to Cre-
mona, on account of the wars which defolated his diocefe :
however, he was not unmindful of his paftoral charge, but
effeftually interceded with Don Ferdinand Gonzaga, go-
vernor of Milan, and thus prevented his marching, as he
threatened to do, to Alba, and putting all the inhabitants
to the fword. In 1563 he was Hill at Cremona, but foon
after removed to Alba, and died there in 1566. As a Latin
poet, Vida acquired a very high reputation ; to which he
wasjuftly entitled, partly on account of the fubjefts which
he felefted, and partly for the fingular claffic purity and dig-
nity of his llyle, formed on the model of the moft admired
produftions of antiquity. Virgil was the objeft of his ad-
miration and imitation, whom he refpefted, and after whom
he copied, as Cicero was the model of the profe Latin writers
of that age. " Vida's works," fays a judicious biographer,
" do not fo much give the imprelFiou of a writer of original
and fervid genius, as of one poffeffing tafte, elegance, and
ingenuity." Befides 'the poems already mentioned, Vida was
the author of Eclogues, of Sacred Hymns, and of other
fmall pieces, which are marked with his purity of diftion and
claffical refinement. The fame of this poet in England has
been greatly promoted by the well-known lines in Pope's
Effay on Criticifm, which place him on a parallel with Ra-
phael, and entitle Cremona to boaft of him, as much as
Mantua of Virgil ; but this was the hyperbolical eulogy of
a juvenile writer, which his ma.turer judgment WQuld fcarcely

have

V 1 D

V I D

have confirmed. The candid Tirabofchi is contented with
faying of him, that his quahtics, if not fufficient to rank
him in the number of firlt-rate poets, at leait give him a
title to be placed much above the vulgar tribe of old verfi-
fiers. Rofcoe's Life of Leo X. Gen. Biog.

VIDAME, VicE-noMiNus, was anciently ufed for the
bilhop's deputy in temporals ; as comes, or vice-comes, was
the king's.

The word, according to Nicod, comes from vlcar'ius ; or
according to Pafquier, from vke-dominus ; Jom fignifying
dominus, or lord. See DoM.

The original inftitution of vidames was for the defence of
the temporalities of bidioprics, while the bifliops them-
felves were taken up in prayer and other fpiritual funAions.
They alfo led the bilhop's forces when they were obliged
to go to war, either to defend their temporalities, or for the
arrier-ban.

They alfo managed, and pleaded, their caufe in courts of
juftice ; diftributed jullice among their tenants ; and pre-
vented any body's pillaging, or damaging, the houfcs of
deceafed bifhops, &c. In efFeft, they reprefented the
bifliop, confidered as a temporal lord.

In fome ancient charters, the vidames are called advocates,
or advowees.

ViDAME continued to be a title of fignory, or lordfhip ;
attributed to feveral gentlemen in France : as the vidame of
Chartres, of Amiens, &c.

The ancient vidames, Pafquier fays, were the biihops'
temporal judges ; and they had the fame privileges as the
vifcounts.

By degrees, the vidames converted their office into a fee ;
and the bifhops their vidames, or judges, into vaffals ; as
kings did their counts, dukes, &c. Accordingly, the vi-
dame of Chartres, &c. held lands of the bifhops of tliofe
places. See Vai.vasor.

VIDDIN, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Bulgaria, on the Danube, the fee of a Greek archbifhop ;
356 miles N.W. of Conllantinople. N. lat. 44"^ 25'. E.
long. 22^ 26'.

VIDE, in Fr. Mufic, is equivalent to open, in Englifh :
as corde a vide, an open firing, on inflruments with a neck,
fuch as a violin or violoncello ; or the found produced by the
whole length of a firing from the nut to the bridge, with-
out the prefTure of a linger.

The found of open firings is not only more grave or
lower in tone than when preffed by the finger, but more
fonorous and full ; which arifes from the foftnefs of the
finger which impedes its vibrations : on which account good
players on the violin avoid ufing open firings as much as pof-
fible, in order to prefervc an equality of tone. But to
do this, the performer mud know all thcjhifis, and be well
acquainted with the finger-board. See Suit r and Fingeu-

BOAtlD.

VIDEO, Monte, in Geography. (See Montevii)j;o. )
This, fays Mr. Mawe, is a tolerably well-built town, fituated
on a gentle elevation, at the extremity of a fmall peiiiniula,
and is walled entirely round. Its population amounts to be-
tween 15,000 and 20,000 fouls. The harbour is the bed in
the Rio de la Plata, and has a very foft bottom of deep
mud, but cannot be called a good one for veflels above
300 or 400 tons. Tin- houfes are generally of one flory,
paved with brick, and furniflied witli few convenieiicics. In
the fquare is a cathedral, and oppofite to it an edifice,
divided into a town-houfe, or cabildo, and a prilon. The
llrccts are unpavfil, and the well that fupplics the town with
water is at the diftance of two miles. Provifions arc abundant
and cheap, particularly beef. The inhabitants, cfpegially

the Creolians, are humane and well-difpofed, when not ac-
tuated by political or religious prejudices. Their habits,
like thofe of their brethren in Old Spain, proceed from the
oppofite extremes of indolence and temperance. The ladies
are generally affable and polite, and in their perfons neat and
clean. Abroad they ufually appear in black, rnd always
covered with a large veil, or mantle ; and at 'nafs they
always appear in black filk, bordered with deep fringes.
The chief trade of Monte-Video confifls in hides, tallovr,
and dried beef; the two former being exported to Europe,
and the latter to the Weft Indies, efpecially to the Havannah.
Coarfe copper from Chili, in fquare cakes, is fomctimes
fliipped here, and an herb called " metta," from Paraguay,
the infufion of which is ufed as tea in England. The cli-
mate is humid; in the winter months (June, July, and Au-
gufl) the weather is occafionally boiflerous, and the air
piercing. In fummer, the feivnity of the atmofphcre is often
interrupted by tremendous thunder-florms and lightning, and
alfo deluges of rain, which fomctimes dellroy the harveft.
The heat is troublefome, and the mofquitocs are pecu-
harly injurious. The town ftands on a bafis of granite : and
the high mount on the oppofite fide of the bay, on which is
a light-houfe, and which gives name to the town, is princi-
pally compofed of clay-flatc in laminae, perpendicular to the
horizon. The vicinity of Monte-Video is agreeably diverfi-
fied with low gently fioping hills, and long valleys watered
by beautiful rivulets, but traces of cultivation are rarely
obfrrvcd.

VIDEROE, oneof the Faroer iflands. N. lat. 61° 59'.

VIDICINORUM Oppidum, in Jncient Geography, a
town of Italy, in Picenum, deftroyed by the Romans.

VIDIGAL, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Algarve ; i 8 miles N. of Sagres.

VIDIGUEIRA, a fmall market-town of Portugal, in
Alentejo ; 1 2 miles N.E. of Beja, and 5 leagues from Serpa,
in a very charming country. On one fide is a fertile plain, on
the other, clofe to the town, rife mountains, interfefted with
valleys, that are adorned with quintas and orange-gardens,
with a large Gotliic church on the fore -ground. The place
is fmall, having little more than 2000 inhabitants. Its
oranges are fmall, but well-flnvoured, and the bed in the
country, as is alfo the wine, from the neighbouring Villa de
Trades, much celebrated at Lifboii.

VIDIMARUM, in Botany, the name of the tree which
bears the febeflens, a medicinal plum, of Afia and ^gypt.

VIDIMUS, in Laiu, the fame with innole/cimus ; being
letters patent of a charter of feoffment, or fome other in-
ftrument, not of record.

VIDINI, in Ancient Geography, a people of European
Sarmalia. Ammian. MarccU.

VIDOTARA, a bay on the northern fide of Great
Britain, near the mouth of the river which runs by Aire.

VIDOURLE,in Geography, VLt'wctoi France, which runs
into the lake of Than, near Aignes Mortcs.

VIDRA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; 12 miles N.
of Viquf.

VIDROPUSK, a town of Ruflia, in the governmcut
of Tver ; I 2 miles N. of Torxok.

VIDRUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Germany;
its mouth, according to Ptolemy, being between Marmanis
Port us :ind the mouth of the river Amafius.

VIDUA, a river on the northern coad of Hibernia.
Ptol.

VIDUCASSES, the name of a people who occupied a
part of that country which is now the dioccfe of Bayeux.
The capital of liicfe people was near the river Orne, a little
above Caen, probably Vic ux.

vipu-

VIE

VIDUCHOVA, in Geography. See Fiddichow.

\'IDUITATIS Professio, the making a folemn prof,;f-
fian of living a chafte widow ; a cuilom heretofore obferved
in England, and attended with divers ceremonies.

VIE. See Cestue qui Fie.

Vie, in Geography, a river of France, in the department
of the Vendee, which runs into the fea near St. Gilles. —
Alfo, a river of France, in the department of the Calvados,
which runs into the Dive, 3 miles N.W. of Crevecoeur.

VIECHTACH, a tov/n of Bavaria; 13 miles S.E.
of Cham.

VIEDAM, or Vedam, the name of a facred book
of law and religion, written, according to M. de Sainte-
Croix, by the Samaneans, in the Samfcretan, or Shanfcrit
■laaguage, and held in great veneration by the Brahmins of
Hindooftar., from a notion that Brahma, their legiflator, re-
ceived it from the Deity liimfelf. See Veda.

VIEDENBRUCK, or Videnbrugge, in Geography.

See WiEDENBRUCK.

VIEJO, one of the fmall Bahama iflands.
VIELBRUN, or Felbron, a town of Germany, in
the county of Wertheim ; 17 miles W. of Wertheim.

VIELLA, a town of France, in the department of the
Gers ; 10 miles S.W. of Nogaro. — Alfo, a town of Spain,
in the province of Catalonia ; 38 miles W.N.W. of Urgel.

VIELLE, a mufical inftrument, often confounded with
the viole, or viol. It is not, indeed, a bozved inftrument,
like the viol, but its tone is produced by the friction of a
wheel, which performs the part of a bow. The Itrings are
prcfTed on the wheel by the fingers, and fometimes by
keys. It is at prefent a mere ftreet inftrument every where
but at Paris, vt'here it is much in ufe with other mftruments
at the Boulevards and Guinguettes ; and even ladies fome-
times condefcend to learn to play upon it. Kircher gives it
no better title than that of lyra mendicorum, the beggar's
lyre. It is fo loud in the open air, that it feems impoffible
to bear it in a room. The itinerant performers on this in-
ftrument are generally Savoyards.

The name of the inftrument feems a corruption of viole,
if it is not the eldeft of the two. The Dift. Etymol. fays ;
Viole, Violon, from the Spanifti biola and biolone. The
Spaniards alfo fay biucla, whence we ( the French ) have Vielle.
It has a neck or finger-board fretted, and two ftrings, always
founding as drones, tuned fifths or eighths.

ViELLE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Pyrenees ; 21 miles N. of Pan.

VlELLE Ridee, the JVrtniled old IVomati's Shell, in Con-
chology, a name given by the French authors to a fpecies of
charaa of the mutilated kind, very much relenibling the fa-
mous concha Veneris, but longer, and without that pecu-
liarly-ftiaped oval aperture to which that ftiell owes its
name.

It has feveral fpines about the lips, as the concha Veneris
has, but they are ftiorter, and more obtufe, than in that
IhcU. The whole furface of this fpecies is deeply and irre-
gularly wrinkled. It is of a whitifti colour, vaiiegated with
brown.

VIELLEUR, \n Natural Hijlory, the name of a fpecies
of fly common in Surinam, and fome other places. It is
moderately large, though lefs fo than the lantern-fly, fo
common in that place, and has a long head, and fome other
particulars, in which it refemblcs that creature. Mrs.
Mcrian has given a figure of it, and reports it as the opinion
of the natives, that it changes at length into a lantern-fly.

VIELMUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of tlie Tarn, on the Agout ; 9 miles W. of
Caftres.

V I E

VIELSK, a town of Ruftia, in the government of Vo-
logda, on the Vaga ; 156 milea N.N. E. of Vologda. N.
lat. 6i°4o'. E. long. 41° 44'.

VIENENBURG, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifliopric
of Hildeftieim ; 7 miles S. of Schladen.

VIENNA, or ViENNENSiuM ClviTAS, in yfncient Geo-
graphy, one of the moft opulent towns of Gaul, and the ca-
pital of the Allobroges. This town enjoyed the rights of
a Roman city, and the prerogative of furniftiing fubjefts
for the fenate of Rome, granted to it, according to Tacitus,
under the confulate of Rutilius, in the year of Rome 664.
This place is mentioned by Strabo as the moft confider-
able among the Allobroges. Mela ranks it among the moft
opulent in the Narbonnenfis, and it is cited by Pliny under
the denomination of a colony. By the firft dvifion of ancier;
Narbonnenfis, Vieiine became the metropolis of that diftrift,
which was diftinguifhed by the name of the Viennois, and
this province was formed at the beginning of the fourt!
century, fince it is mentioned in the afts of the council o'
Aries, held A.D. 314. See Vienne.

Vienna, in Geography, a city and capital of Auftria, the f(^
of an archbifliop, on the W. fide of the Danube, on a fertile
plain, where it receives a fmall river, called Fien, which pafles
tlirough the city and fuburbs ; near the place where ftood
the ancient Vindobona. The fituation is pleafant, for to
the eaft and north the country around is entirely level, but
to the weft and fouth is feen a range of mountains, which,
are thickly planted with trees and vines ; and the Danube,
which is here very wide, divides itfelf in that part of the
town into feveral arms, forming many iflands, which are
ftocked with wood. The circumference of that which is
properly the fortified city of Vienna is not large, and only
contains about 6o,coo fouls ; but the fuburbs are therefore
the more ample ; and, according to the eftimate of a late
traveller, the city and the fuburbs together contain 230,000
(others fay 254,000) inhabitants, without including the gar-
rifon. In 1795, the whole population of Vienna was com-
puted at 231,105 inhabitants ; of whom 1231 were ecclefi.-
aftics, 3253 nobility, 4256 public funftionaries, and perfons
living upon their private fortune, and 7333 citizens be-
longing to the corporation. In the city itielf there are nu-
merous and beautiful palaces: but the ftreets are not fpa-
cious, and are, in part, crooked. The houfes are generally
of brick, covered with ftucco. There is but one ftreet in
Vienna that can be called magnificent, and this is a con-
tinued line of fplendid houfes and palaces. It is called the
" Nobles'-ftreet." The fuburbs are conftrufted on a better
plan, and would be very elegant, if the houfes were larger
and richer in architedlural ornaments. Moft of the ftreets
are regular, level and wide, but they are chiefly inhabited by
manufafturers and workmen of various trades. Near the
centre of the town is a bridge thrown acrofs a deep low
ftreet, wliich admits of the pafiage of carriages, whilft the
ufual thoroughfare is below, refembling our canals over
navigable rivers. Thofe people of fafhion who have no
country-feats, or who are prevented by their pubhc employ-
ments from leaving Vienna, generally refide in the fuburbs
during fummer. The fecond floor of all burghers' houfes
is allotted for the refidence of the officers of the imperial
court ; and the owners can only purchafe an exemption by
paying a fum of money for the erection of barracks. It is
divided into four quarters, which contain fifteen fquares or
public places ; that of the court is large and beautiful ; in
it, between two fountains, is a luperb monument, built by
the emperor Leopold ; in the high market-place is a marble
monument, reprefenting the marriage of Jofeph and the
Vii-gin, eredlcd in the year 1732. Vienna contains fifty

churches

VIENNA.

churches or chapels, and twenty-one convents. The chief
edifices are the mctropohtan church of St. Stephen, the im-
perial palace, hbraryand arfenal, tlie houfe of aflembly for the
States of Lower Auftria, the council-houfe, the univerfity,
and feme monafteries. The metropolitan church is a dark
Gothic building, richly adorned on the outfide with fculp-
ture, and within with thirty-eight altars, moftly of beautiful
marble ; a great number of relics, jewels, &c. and an ancient
vault, in which the archdukes are interred. Here is a mau-
foleum of Frederic III. which coll 40,000 ducats, and a
monument in honour of prince Eugene of Savoy. Near it
is a palace of the archbiftiop. In a chapel belonging to
the Capuchins, the princes of the royal family are buried,
without pomp, with hardly their names over their tombs.
The univerfity of Vienna was inftituted in the year 1365,
fiom a college founded about a century before, and is divided
into four faculties and four nations, Auftrian, Saxon, Hun-
garian, and Rhenirti. It has been much improved fince the
year 1752. The books in the library are not very numerous ;
it is open two or three hours morning and afternoon. Tlie
imperial library contains about 5000 or 6000 volumes, printed
in the 15th century, rare manufcripts, and a very extenfivc
and valuable collection of prints, and is well furnilhed with
ufeful modern books. It is open three or four hours every
morning to the public. The imperial cabinet is very
rich in medals, and ftill more fo in natural hillory. The
Academy of Arts is divided into feven clalfes, each of
which has its own profefTor. A tafte for mufic is like-
wife very general : and the theatre at Vienna has been
liberally encouraged. It mull be acknowledged, however,
tliat liberty does not flourilh liere. It ie faid that the hft
of prohibited books is fcarcely exceeded by that of the Index
Expurgatorius at Rome. Neverthelefs it has an univerfity,
as we have already mentioned, and fome confiderable fchools,
principally with a view to commerce. Education needs or
demands greater encouragement. The people are in gene-
ral honed, and fimple in their manners. Their ruling pro-
penfity is that for luxurious living, both as to food and drink.
The women are handfome, and mild in their manners. They
love drels, and are addifted to luxury. Mufic is the principal
objeft of their attention. The Augarten and the Prater are
the principal promenades. The police of Vienna is fo well
condudted, that the llreets are remarkably quiet and orderly,
fo that as early as ten o'clock at night filence prevails.
The fuburbs are far larger than the city itfelf. They are
adorned with a great number of fpacious gardens, and many
of the buildings occupy a large fpace of ground. They lie
round it, but are removed to the dillance of 500 or 600 com-
mon paces from the works of tlie fort. The line which in-
clofes them and extends on both fides to Leopoldlladt, was,
in the year 1794, thrown up againft the Hungarian rebels,
and afterwards lined with bricks, the gates and entries to it
being always kept by regular guards. Thcfe fuburbs lland
for the moll part under the jurifdi£lion of the town-council,
to whom an appeal lies from the fcntence of the judge and
his alTelTors, with which each fuburb is provided. Of them,
Leopoldlladt is the largell and chiefell. It lies next the
town, on an ifland in the Danube, being formerly called the
Jews' town; but the emperor Leopold, in 1670, having
driven that people from thence, it took its name from him.
It contains one parilh church, two cloifters, the old imperial
favorita, a citadel, which, in 1683, was mifcrably laid walle
by the Turks, and but a fmall part of it repaired ; together
with the adjoining extenfive au-garden, and many confider-
able fine houfes and gardens. On an idand in the Danube,
well planted with wood, is the Prater, or imperi.il park, and
to the S. is the chapel of Herenhartz, much frequented in
Vol. XXXVII.

Lent for the fake of ainufement as well as of devotion. In
one of the fuburbs is the palace of Belvidere, which for-
merly belonged to prince Eugene ; and at the dillance of a
few miles Hands Schombrun, another imperial palace. The
garrifon of Vienna confifts of one regiment of foot. Pro-
vifions are brought to Vienna from the different parts of
Auftria, and otlier countries belonging to the emperor, in
the greatell plenty and variety. The police pays parti-
cular attention to the fupply of provifions, and often infpetts
the markets, and the weights and meafures of the dealers.
A modern traveller fays, he has fcen a fcore of wild hogs
and a dozen ilags in the game-market at the fame time, and
hares, literally, by cart-loads, with abundance of phcafants
and partridges. Every kind of bird feems to be an article
of food, and none rejefted ; hawks, jays, magpies, are
brought to market, and even the bulfinch and robin are not
fpared. The livers of geefe are efteemed a great delicacy ;
and in the fi(h-niarkct are found, with llurgi-oH, carp, pike,
tench, and trout, tortoifes, frogs, and fnails. The manu-
faftures of Vienna are numerous ; that of cotton on the
increafe, that of filk much regarded, and embroidery en-
couraged. The people of Vienna, upon the whole induf-
trious, excel in manufaftures of fteel, carriages of all forts,
filk, ribbands, harnefs, faddles, &c. The inland commerce,
carried on by the Danube, is not inconfiderable. The people
delight in the combats of wild beafts and of bulls. Vienna
owes its firfl. aggrandizement to Henry I. duke of Auftria,
who, about 1 142, made it the place of his refidence ; it was
then a town, and in 1158 was furrounded with walls. In
1 198 it obtained its municipal privileges, and was better
fortified. The mortality of this city is thought to be greater
than that of any other place in Europe ; and it is commonly
faid that one in twenty dies annually : a late traveller, Kutt-
ner, fuppofes the mortality much greater. Although
Vienna be much expofed to the N. and E. winds, yet tne
fouthern hills ferve as a fence againft the rain, fo that the
traveller rather complains of dull than of moifture. The
fummer heats, on account of its fituation in the midft of hills
and mountains, which coUeft much fnow and ice in winter,
laft only about two months, and in winter the cold is often
very fevere. The pleafantnefs of the environs is laid to be
much enhanced by the happy afpeCl of the Auftrian pea-
fantry of this city. The number of thofe who fall viiflims
to pulmonic difeafes is very large, and many have been
carried away by the fmall-pox, the ravages of which, it
is hoped, will be reftrained by the introdiiAion of the
praftice of inoculation for the cow-pox. The eftablilh-
ments for the relief of the fick are very numerous ; fuch
are the Great Hofpital, which in 1796 received i i,86o
patients ; and within its walls is contained a pathological
mufeum ; the hofpital for lying-in-women, which in the
above-mentioned year received 1904 women; the lunatic
hofpital, which in the fame year accommodated 261 infane
perfons ; a military hofpital ; and an hofpital for Jews, excel-
lently managed. The fuburbs of the town, according to a
fingular and ufeful iiiftitution founded by Leopold, arc
divided into eight diftrifts, each of which has its phyfician,
furgeon, and midwife, all paid by government, whofe oflicc
it is to vifit the poor at their own houfes. In the year alter
its eftablifhment this inftitution was extended to the whole
city. Another inftitution has the charge of difeaftd chihlren
under ten years of age. In 179611 w.is ordained, with a
view to the public health, that no new-built houfe (hould
be inhabited before the phyfician of the diilrift had ex-
amined whether the walls were fufficiently dry; 175 miles
S. of Prague. N. lat. 48'^ i.:?'. E. long. 16' 23'.

Vienna, a port of entry and pod-town of the eafterii
Y fliorc

V I E

V I E

fliore of Maryland, in Dorchefter county, ou the W. Tide
of Nanticoke nver, about fifteen miles from its mouth. It
contaios about thirty houfee, and carries on a brilk trade
with the neighbouring fea-ports, in lumber, corn, wheat,
&c. ; I J miles N.W. of Sahfbury, and 120 from Wafhing-
ton. — Alfo, the capital of Greene county, Kentucky, on the
N. fide of Green river ; about 15S miles W.S.W. of Lex-
ington.— Alfo, a town of Kennebeck county, in the dif-
trift of Maine, incorporated in 1802, including the late
plantations of Goflien and Wyman : the number of inha-
bitants is 417 Alfo, a poll-town in Abbeville county,

South Carolina; 65 1 miles from Walhington — Alfo, a
town in Ohio ccfunty, Kentucky, containing 26 inhabitants.
VIENNE, a town of France, and principal place of
a diitricl, in the department of the Here, fituated on the
left fide of the Rhone, over which was formerly a ftone-
bridge, built in the year 1265, now deftroyed. A Ro-
man colony was eftabliihed here, and called Vienna Al-
lobrogum. In the fifth century it was taken by the Bur-
gundians, and the kings made it their place of refidence.
In the ninth century it was the capital of the kingdom of
Provence. It was afterwards erected into an archbifliopric,
and became the capital of a province called Viennois, in
which ftate it remained till the revolution, when the arch-
bilhopric was fupprelTed. In 131 1, a council was held here
by order of pope Clement V. in which, among other matters,
the fuppreihon of the knights Templars was determined ;
10 polls N. of V^alence. N. lat. 45° 32'. E. long. 4'= 58'.
ViENNE, a town of France, in the department of the
Loir and Cher, on the fouth fide of the Loire, oppofite
Blois.

ViENNE, a river of France, which rifcs about three miles
E. of Tarnac, on the borders of the departments of the Cor-
reze and the Creufe, pafles by or near to Tarnac, Aimoutier,
St. Leonard, Limoges, Aix, St. Junien, Chabanois, Con-
folent, St. Germain fur Vienne, Availle, Ifle Jourdain, Luf-
fac, Chavigny, Chatellerault, Ifle Bouchard, Chinon, &c.
and joins the Loire, in the department of the Indre and
Loire, about five miles above Saumur.

Vienne, one of the nine departments of the weftern
region of France, formerly a part of Poitou, in 46' 30'
N. lat., bounded on tlie N. and N.E. by the department
of the Indre and Loire, on the E. by the department of
the Indre, on the S. by the departments of the Charente
and Upper Vienne, and on the W. by the department of
the Two Sevres. The department of the Maine and
Loire joins it a little to the N.W. The territorial extent of
this department is 7340 kiliometres, or 364 fquare leagues,
and it contains 250,807 inhabitants. It is divided into
5 circles or diftrifts, 31 cantons, and 344 communes.
The circles are Loudun, comprehending 32,256 inha-
bitants ; Chatellerault, 46,518; Montmorillon, 48,570;
Civray, 38,971 ; and Poitiers, 84,492. Its capital is
Poitiers. According to Haflenfratz, its extent in French
leagues is 2 1 in length, and 1 3 in breadth ; its circles are
6, its cantons 49, and its population 257,953. Its con-
tributions in the i ith year of the French era amounted
to 1,979,952 fr. ; and its expences, adminiftrative, judi-
ciary, and for public inilruftion, to 280,570 fr. 35 cents.
This department is diverfified with hiUs, plains, heaths,
and cultivated lands, yielding grain, wine, fruits, flax, and
good paflures. It has conCderable forefts.

Vienne, Upper, one of the nine departments of the
upper legion of France, formerly Limofin, in 46^ N. lat.,
bounded on the N. by the departments of the Vienne
and Indre, on the E. by the department of the Creufe,
on the S.E. by the fame department, on the S.W. by the

department of the Dordogne, and on the W. by the de-
partment of the Charente. The territorial extent of this
department is 60025 kiliometres, or 288 fquare leagues,
and its population confifts of 259,795 inhabitants. It is
divided into 4 circles, 26 cantons, and 224 communes.
Its circles are Bellac, including 85,388 inhabitants ; Li-
moges, 92,637; St.Yriuix, 38,251 ; and Rochechouart,
43,519. Its capital is Limoges. According to Haflen-
fratz, it is in length i6 French leagues, and in breadth 12 ;
its circles are 5, and cantons 40, and the number of its
inhabitants 266,910. The contributions of this depart-
ment, in the nth year of the French era, amounted to
1,641,147 fr. ; and its expences, adminiftrative, judiciary,
and for pubUc inftruftion, were 241,803 fr. 33 cents. The
foil of this department is, in general, of an indifferent
quality ; yielding rye, little wheat, and tolerable pallures.
The hills are covered with chefnut-trees and woods. Here
are mines of iron, lead, copper, coal, and quarries of
marble.

Vienne k Chateau, a town of France, in the department
of the Marne ; 6 miles N. of St. Menehould.

VI ENS, a town of France, in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Apt.

VIEPREZ, a river of Poland, which rifes 16 miles W.
of Lubhn, and runs into the Viftula near Stezicza, in the
palatinate of Sandomirz.

VIEPRIE, a town of the Popedom, in the duchy of
Spoleto ; 5 miles N.E. of Todi.

VIERINGEN, or Wieringen, an ifland in the Zuyder
See, of an oval form ; about fix miles in length, and, where
wideft, rather more than two in breadth ; 6 miles S.E. from
the Texel.

VIERRADEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark, on the Welfe, near its union with the Oder ; 24 miles
S.E. of Prenzlow.

VIERUEDRUM, or Vervedrum, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a promontory of the ille of Albion, according to
Ptolemy.

VIERZON, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diilrift, in the department of the Cher, near
the conflux of the Eure and Cher ; 1 1 pofts S. of Orleans.
N lat. 47° 13'. E. long. 2*^9'.

VIESCAS, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ara-
gon ; I o miles from Jaca.

VIESCHORN, a mountain of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Bern, and bailiwick of Grindelwald.

VI EST, or Ujest, or Oyeji, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Oppeln ; 14 miles W.N.W. of Gleiwitz.

VIESTI, a town of Naples, in Capitanata, on the coaft
of the Adriatic, the fee of a bifliop, fuffragan of Manfre-
donia ; 29 miles N.N.E. of Manfredonia. N. lat. 41° 56'.
E. long. 33° 52'.

VIETA, Fr.'VNCIs, in Biography, a very eminent mathe-
matician of the l6th century, was born at Fontenai, in
Poitou, in the year 1540. Although he occupied the poft
of mafter of requefts at Paris, and his time and attention
were much engaged by the duties of his office, he was inde-
fatigable in his apphcation to mathematical ftudies ; fo that
he is faid to have remained in his apartment for three days,
without either eating or fleeping. In his writings he mani-
fefts great originahty of genius, as well as invention. For
a brief account of his improvements in algebra, we refer to
that article. On other branches of the mathematics, befides
thofe that may be denominated analytical, he beftowed
much attention and labour ; and whilfl he collefted and de-
tailed what others had done before him, he enlarged the
boundaries of fcience, and made fome important and ufeful

additions

VIE

V I E

additions to the flock of knowledge which Iiad been amafTed
by his predeccfTors. In this refpetl he was not a mere la-
bourer, but original and ingenious in his communications.
His treatife on " Angular Seftions" is a performance which
enabled him to refolve a curious problem, propofed by
Adrian Romanus to mathematicians, and which amounted
to an equation of the 45th degree. Romanus waa fo im-
prcff.'d by his fagacity, that he travelled from Wirtomberg
in Franconia, where he reiided, as far as France, in order
to vifit Vieta, and cultivate friendfhip with him. His
" Apollonius Gallus," or relloration of Apollonius's traft
on Tangencies, not to mention other pieces tliat may be
found in his works, difplays powers of invention, eminently
adapted to the more fublime geometrical fpeculations. His
tracts on trigonometry, plane and fpherical, with the tables
annexed to them, were important and valuable at the time
when they were publillv.'d, and without doubt led the way
to farther modern improvements. We have no reafon for
believing that Vieta was irritable and querulous ; but his
difputes with Scaliger and Clavius, more efpecially with the
latter, did him no honour. Scahget pretended to quadrate
the circle, an operation for which he was altogether incom-
petent, and Vieta evinced his incapacity. With Clavius he
had a conteft about the emendation of the Gregorian ca-
lendar, charging him with ignorance and error ; whilfl; he
himfelf committed millakes, which Clavius detefted. The
lofs of Vieta's " Harmor.icon Celefte," cntrufted with
father Merfenne, and furreptitioufly taken from him, has
been much deplored. Others of his works have alfo been
loft, which has been probably owing to his caufing few to
be printed, and retaining them in his own cuftody, thofe
excepted which he diflributed among his friends and perfons
of fcience. Vieta was profoundly Ikilled in the art of de-
cyphering, which he employed with advantage to his
country. Vieta, notwithftanding the intenfenefs and affi-
duity of his application, paffed his grand climafteric, and
died at Paris in December, 1603. After his death, fome
of his MtSS. were publiflicd by Alexander Anderfon, an in-
genious Scots mathematician, a native of Aberdeen ; and
in 1646, Schooten gave an edition of all his works which
he was able to coUeft. Montucla. Hutton.

VIETRI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Principato
Citra ; 2 miles N.N.E. of Cangiano. — Alfo, a town of
Naples, in Principato Citra. In 1694 it was deltroyed by
an earthquake ; 2 miles W. of Salerno.

VIEUSSENS, Raymond, F.R.S., in Biography, was
born at a village in Rovergue, and liaving commenced his
education at Rhodez, he purfued the lludy of phyfic at
Montpellier, where he graduated. In 1671 he was chofcn
phyfician to the hofpital of St. Eloy. The refult of his
anatomical refearches in this fituation was publilhed under
the title of " Neurology," and gained him great reputation.
His name became known at court, and Mad. de Mont-
penficr, in 1690, chofe him as her phyfician. After her
death he returned to Montpellier, and direfting his attention
to chemillry, he found an acid in the caput mortuum of
human blood ; and on this imagined difcovery founded a
theory, which he communicated to the different fc'iools of
medicine. In advanced life his writings were multiplied,
without augmenting his reputation. He died in 1726.
His moft valuabl* work is his " Neurologia Univerfalis,"
Lyons, 1685, folio, which is commended by Hallcr, and
which exhibits a more accurate diffeftion of the brain than
that of any preceding writers. After his death appeared
" Hiiloire des Maladies internes," 4to., containing many
praftical obfervations. Haller. Elov.

VIEUSSEUXIA, in Botany, was fo called by Dr.

Daniel de la Roche, in his inaugural dilTertation, publi(hcd
at Leyden in 1766, in honour of his countryman and friend
M. Vieudeux, an excellent botanift ; of whom, however,
we know not that the world has heard any thing further, or
that he has written any thing relative to this fcience. The
genus in queftion was thought, by its truly intelligent and
ingenious author, to be intermediate between Iris and
Ferraria. It has not been adopted by Thunberg, Ker, or
any of our popular botanifts, who have declined feparating
it from Iris, there appearing no diftintlive charafter, except
the flamens being united into a tube. The learned Decan-
dolle, on the contrary, has adopted Vicujpuxia, in Ann. du
Muf. V. 2. 141. t. 42. He is followed by Redoutl, who
figures the fame fpecies, F. glaucopis, in his Liliacees, v. i .
t. 42, and mentions feven fpecies in all ; as well as by Def-
fontaines, in his recently-publifhed Tableau de I'Ecole de
Botanique du Jardin du Roi, ed. 2. 37. Moft, if not all,
of the plants fuppofed to conftitute the above genus, are,
we believe, comprehended as varieties by Thunberg under
his Iris tricufpis. See his differtation on Iris, p. IC; alfo
Willd. Sp. PI. v.i. 431.

VIEUX Maisons, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Aifne ; 6 miles W. of Montmirail.

ViEUX Marche, a town of France, in the department of
the North Coaft ; 8 miles S. of Lannion.

VIEVY, a town of France, in the department of the
Cote d'Or ; 6 miles S. of Arjiay le Due.

VIEW, Visus, in Law, the aft of ■umrj, or •viewers.

This is called by Braclon, " Res quafi facra, quia folam
perfonam regis refpicit, et introdufta pro pace, et communi
utilitate."

When a real aftion is brought, and the tenant knows not
well what the land is, that the demandant aflcs ; he may pray
the view : which is, that the jury may fee the land which is
claimed.

This courfe of proceeding we received from the Normans,
as appears by the Grand Cuftomary. It is ufcd in various
cafes ; as in afPize of rent-fervices, rent-cliarge, rent-fee ; in
a writ of nuifance; in a writ quo jure; in the writ de ra-
tionabilibus divifis, &c. See Jury.

View of Frank Pledge, Vifiis Franci Plegii, is the office
which the flicriff in his county-court, or the bailifl in his
hundred, performs ; in looking to the king's peace, and
feeing that every man be in fome pledge. See Covwi-Leet,
and YRAKK-PleJge.

View, in matters of O/to, Perfpedive, &e. See Vision.

View, Point of. See Point.

View, among Hunters, tiie track, or print of the feet,
of a fallow deer on the ground.

View a Place, To, in the Military Art, is to ride about
it, before the laying of a fiege, in order to obftrve the
ftrcngth or weaknefs of its fituation and fortification.

VIEWERS, or Veiors, in Law. See VeioUKS.

VIEYRA, Antony, in Biography, a Portugiiefe writer,
was born at Lilbon in 160S, ami in early life accompanied
his father to the Bralils. His genius at the age of fourteen
began to difplay itfelf to a degree that excited the aftonifti-
ment of liis tutors. In 1623 lie entered into the fociety of
Jefus, and having carcfullv read the fcriptures, the works
of tlie fathers, and the Suninia Aquinatis, he compofcd
fome trafts, and gave IcAures in the college of I3ahia. At
this time he was tutor to the fon of the viceroy of Brafil,
the marquis of Montalvan ; and in 1641 accompanied him
to Europe. At Lilbon he diftinguilhcd himfelf in the
pulpit, and was appointed by John IV. preacher to the
court. The king, difcovcring alfo his talents for public
allairs, deputed him, in 164^), ou important bufincfs to
Y 2 England,

V I F

V I G

England, Holland, and France, and alfo to the couvt of
Rome. For the fervices rendered in thefe mifiions he was
offered a bifhopric, which he dechned accepting, and re-
quefted only to be employed as a miflionary among the
favages in the forefts of Maragnan. The king demurred
againft acceding to this propofal, but urged him to accept a
biihopric, which he ftill refufed ; but with fome other
Jefuits he embarked in a (hip, in order to proceed to Ma-
ragnan. Soon after his arrival there in 1653, he was fent
to Portugal, in order to obtain an order from the king, that
the Portuguefe fettled in the Brafils (liould treat the Indians
with lefs cruelty. He fucceeded in the objeft of his miffion,
but he was not allowed to return to America, though he
went thither fome time after ; and in lefs than fix years, in
a diftridl more than 600 miles in extent, he formed an efta-
bUfhment fimilar to that in Paraguay. There the Indians
were indrufted, and availing themfelves of their knowledge,
began to live like men, and to praftlfe the virtues which
Chriftianity taught them. The Portuguefe refiding in
Brafil were alarmed, and could not bear that the Indians,
whom they treated as flaves, (hould enjoy the bleffings of
hberty : they, therefore, feized Vieyra and his attendants,
and tranfported them to Portugal, under a charge of their
joining the Dutch in forming a plan for expelling all the
Portuguefe from Brafil. Vieyra and his affociates were able
to prove their innocence, and fucceeded in obtaining the re-
inftatement of all their bretlireii in the colleges and other
ellablilhments of Maragnan. Vieyra remained in Portugal,
aud, at the defire of the queen and minifters of ilate, drew
up a remonftrance, which was prefented to king Alphonfo,
refpeCting the irregularities and abufes that prevailed in the
kingdom. The king's favourites were incenfed, and, in
1663, thofe who were attached to the queen, and who
wiflied to promote the welfare of the nation, were fent into
bani{hment. Vieyra was firil conveyed to Oporto, and foon
after to Coimbra ; and for the more certain and fpecdy de-
cifion of his fate, he was committed into the hands of the
inquifition. Many charges were alleged againft him ; how-
ever, in 1667, when the influence of the favourites termi-
nated, he was freed from the inquifition, and fent to Lifbon.
He was merely forbidden to preach ; but this prohibition
was revoked, when the queen, Maria Ifabella of Savoy,
and the infant Don Pedro, then regent of the kingdom,
exprefled a wifh to hear liim. In 1669 he was called to
Rome, and preached before queen Chriftina of Sweden,
who was fo much pleafed that fhe invited him to the con-
verfaziones held in her palace, and requefted him to become
her confefTor. But finding the air prejudicial to his health,
he returned to Lifbon, after having obtained from pope
Clement X. a letter of exculpation, freeing him from the
jurifdiftion of the inquifition, and rendering him immediately
amenable to the college of cardinals. Vieyra, upon the re-
covery of his health, fet fail for Brafil ; and being incapable,
on account of his advanced age, of fuperintending the mif-
fion of Maragnan, of which he had been long fuperior
general, he fpent his time in revifing his writings, and pre-
paring for the termination of his hfe, which happened at
Bahia in 1697, when he had attained nearly the 90th year
of his age. His interment was conduced with great pomp,
his coffin being borne to the grave by the viceroy and his
fon, and other perfons of diftinftion. The Portuguefe con-
fider Vieyra as the heft writer their country ever produced.
His works were publithed at Lifbon between 1679 ^""^
1718, in 14 quarto volumes. Gen. Biog.

VIF, Fr., in Mujc, lively. See ViVACE. This word,
fays RoufTeau, impUes a movement, gay, cheerful, and ani-
mated ; and requires a bold execution, full of fire.

10

ViF, in Geography, a town of France, m the department
of the Ifere ; 9 miles S. of Grenoble.

VIFALU, a town of Hungary; 16 miles S.S.E. of
Ketflvemet.

VI G, a lake of Ruflia, in the government of Olonetz.

N. lat. 63° 30'. E. long. 34° 14' Alfo, a river of Ruffia,

which pafles through lake Vig, and runs into the White fea,
20 miles S. of Kemi.

VIGAN, Le, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot ; 17 miles N. of Cahors. — Alfo, a town of France,
and principal place of a diftrift, in the department of the
Gard ; 36 miles W.N.W. of Nifmes. N. lat. 43° 59'. E.
Jong- 3" 40'-

VIGANONI, Giuseppe, in Biography, a tenor finger
in the Italian opera, firft arrived in England in 1782, as firft
man in tlie comic opera, in which part Lovatini had rendered
us very difficult to be pleafed. Trebbi, his immediate fuccef-
for, was a very ufeful performer, as he occafionally had a part
alTigned him in the ferious opera ; but he excited no raptures
in either ferious or comic parts. And Jermoh and Tafca,
his fucceffors, were ftill lefs interefting. The fame might
perhaps be faid of Viganoni, with a fmall diminution of
praife. His finging did not appear to us in a ftyle of ex-
preffion tliat was genuine Italian ; it feemed to favour of
German or French expreffion, or of both.

On his fecond arrival in London, he had lefs voice than
when he came here firft ; but more knowledge of mufic, a
greater variety of embelhfhments, and more ufe of the ftage.
His voice was never powerful, and now he had more falfet
than real notes in his fcale ; and fuch a rage for gracing and
changing paffages, that he fcarcely ever let the audience
hear a fingle paffage as it was written by the compofer. He
certainly knew his bufinefs, and was a good mufician ; but
his ftyle of finging was what painters would call maniere :
for with all his riffioramenti, or embelliihments, of which he
was fo lavifh, his performance feemed monotonous.

VIGASIO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Ve-
ronefe ; 10 miles S. of Verona.

VIGENNE, a river of France, which runs into the
Saone, at Talmey.

VIGEOIS, a town of France, in the department of the
Correze, on the Vezere ; 4 miles S. of Uzerches.

VIGER, an ifland in the North fea, on the coaft of
Norway ; 10 miles round. N. lat. 62° 35'. E. iQng.
(P 30'.

VIGESIMA, among the Romans, a tax of the twentieth
part of the yearly incomes of all inheritances. It was firft
eftabhfhed by Auguftus.

ViGESiMA was likewife a cuftom paid for flaves fold, as
alfo for one made free.

VIGESIMARIUS, among the Romans, an officer who
had the management of collefting the vigefima.

VIGEVANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
department of the Gogna, capital of a fmall diftrift, in the
principality of Piedmont, lying between the Novarefe and
the Lumelline, on the Tefin, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan
of Milan ; 13 miles S.E. of Novara. N. lat. 45° 19'. E.
long. 8° 53'.

VIGGIANO, a town of the ifland of Corfica, in the
diftrid of Tallano.

VIGHIZZOLA, a town of Italy, in the Paduan, near
a lake which abounds in fifti, efpecially eels; 16 miles S.
of Padua.

VIGIA, a town of Brafil, in the government of Para ;
50 miles N.N.E. of Para. — Alfo, a rock near the fouth
coaft of Cuba, N. lat. 21° 32'. W. long. 84'" 32' — Alfo,

a rock

V I G

V I G

a rock near the fouth coait of Cuba. N. lat. 20" 53'. W.
long. 80° 55'.

VIGIL, or Eve, in Church Chronology, the day before
any feaft, (3cc.

Though the civil day begins at midnight, yet the eccle-
ilailical or fcriptural day begins at fix o'clock in the evening,
and holds till fix in the evening the enfuing day.

Hence, the collect for every Sunday and holiday, by
order of the church, is to be read, at the preceding evenin^r
fervice, that is, at fix o'clock the day before ; from which
time the riJhgious day was flippofed to begin.

And this firil part of the holiday, from fix o'clock the
day before, was, by the primitive Chriflians, fpent in hymns,
and other devotions ; and, being often continued till late in
the night, was called tugil.

Thefe vigils came by degrees to be fo enlarged, that, at
laft, all the day preceding the hohday was called by the
name.

The origin of vigils is deduced by Forbes from a cuftom
in the ancient church, for the people, both men and vi'omen,
to meet together in the evening before Eafter-day, and
watch and pray, as expefting the coming of our Lord, who
was to rife early in the morning. This praftice, TertuUian
obftrves, ad uxorem, afterwards got to other feafls, and
faints' days. But abufes creeping in, they were forbidden by
a council, in 1322, and, in lieu of them, fadings were infti-
tuted on the day before, though Hill called by the ancient
name of vigils. See Wakes.

V1GIJ-, Coma. See Co.MA.

VIGILANTIUS, in Biography, an ecclefiaftic of the
fifth century, was born in Gaul, and removing to Spain,
became a parifli prieft in the diocefe of Barcelona. He is
faid to have written treatifes on religious fubjefts in a po-
lifhcd (lyle ; but he incurred the cenfure of Dupin, becaufe
he expo'led levoral fuperltitions of the time in which he lived.
After his return from a voyage to Palelline and Egypt, he
propagated'opiiiions that were hoftile to the corrupt Hate of
Cliriltianity at that period. He denied that the tombs and
remains of tlie martyrs are entitled to any kind of adoration,
and cenfured pilgrimages to holy places. He derided the
miracles pretended to be wrought at the fhrincs of martyrs,
and condemned the nofturnal alTemblies held at fuch places.
rie affirmed that the praftice of burning tapers by day-light
at the tombs of lioly perfons was a fuperilition, borrowed
from the P.igans ; that prayers addrefied to departed faints
were of no avail ; and he I'poke with contempt of fallings
and mortilicatjons, the celibacy of tlie clergy, and the
aufterities of monallic life. He alfo afierted, that the vo-
luntary poverty of thofe who dillribule all their fubllance to
the poor, and the praftice of fending donations to Jerufalem
for pious purpofes, are in no reipeft acceptable to the
Deity. Thefe opinions were favourably received by fevcral
of the bifhops in Gaul and Spain ; but Jerom, the great ad-
vocate for monkifli difciplinc, cenfured them with feverity,
and rancoroufly .ibufed Vigilantins for adopting and propa-
gating them. His oppofition, and that of perfons of fimilar
lentiinents prevailed, and prevented every kind of reform.
The refentment and hoftility of Jerom, to whom Vigilantins
had been reconnnended by Paulinus, feem to have commenced
with his declaring hinifelf an enemy to fupcrftition. Bayle.
Dupin. Mofhoim.

VIGILIA, in yliic'urit Chronology. See Watch.

ViGii.iA, that Hate of an animal which is oppofitc to
fleep, and is popularly called •waking or watching. See
Sj.eei" and Watc iiisd.

VIGILTiE, in yliittquity, denote the watches and guards
among the Roman foldiers, who performed duly by night,

in contradiftinAion to the excubit, who kept guard by day,
cither in the camp, or at the gates and intrenchments : of
thefe laft there feem to have been affigned one company of
foot and one troop of horfe to each of the four gates every
day ; and it was a moft unpardonable crime to defert their
poll, and to abandon their corps of guards. In the camp,
there was allowed a whole manipulus to attend before the
prxtorium, and four foldiers to the tent of every tribune.
The night-guards alTigned to the general and tribunes were
of the fame nature as thofe in the day. But the proper
vigils were four in every manipulus, keeping guard three
hours, and then relieved by four others ; fo that there were
four fets in the night, according to the four watches, which
took their name from this cuftom. The night-guard was
fet by a tally or teffera, with a particular inicription given
from one centurion to another through the army, till it came
again to the tribune who firft delivered it. Upon the re-
ceipt of this, the guard was immediately fet. But becaufe
this regulation was not fufficieiit, they had the circuitio vi-
giliiim, or a rifiting of the watch, commonly performed
about four times in the night by fome of the horfe. Upon
extraordinary occafions, the tribunes and lieutenant-generals,
and fometimes the general himfelf, made thefe circuits in
perfon, and took a flrift view of the watch in every part of
the camp. Rennet's Ant. Rom. p. 206.

VlGH.i.'E Florum, in Botany, a term ufed by Linnaeus to
cxprefs a peculiar faculty, belonging to the flowers of fe-
veral plants, of opening and clofing their petals at certain
hours of the day. Previous to the explanation of this phe-
nomenon, it is necefiary to obferve, that the flowers of moft
plants, after they are once opened, continue fo night and
day, until they drop off, or die away. Several others,
which fliut in the night-time, open in the morning fooner or
later, according to their refpedlive fituation in the fun or
ftiade, or as they are influenced by the manifeft changes of
the atmofphere. But the clafs of flowers, to which this
article refers, open and fluit regularly at certain hours, ex-
clufive of any manifeft changes in the atmofphere. This
property is fo evident in one of our common Englifli plants,
the tragupogon luleum, that our country people have called it
J uhn-go-to-hcd-at-noon. Linnxus's obfervations in the Phi-
lofophia Botania, p. 273, extend to near fifty fpecies, which
are fubjcft to this law : fucli arc the male pimpernel, the
blue-flowered pimpernel witli narrow leaves, the little blue
convolvulus or bindweed, the day-lily, the proliferous pink,
the common purdain, the wliite-wator-lily, the garden let-
tuce, the dandelion, t'lC rough dandelion, feveral fpecies of
hawkweeds, wild fuccory, wild marygold, &c. See an
account of this phenomenon by Dr. Pulteney, in Phil.
Tranf. vol. 1. p. 506, &c. See alfo Si.eef nf Plants.
VIGILIUM PurFECTUs. See Pueeect.
VIGII^IUS, in Biography, a pope, was raifed to the
pontificate by the emprefs Tiieodora, when his predeceffor
Silvcrius did not anfwer her purpofe, on certain ftipulatej
conditions, to which a perfon like him, deftitute of prin-
ciple, could have no obje<ftion. He was, therefore, fent
from Conllantinople to Italy with a fum of gold, and an
order to Belifarius, then mafter of Rome, to depofe Sil-
vcrius, and to eleft Vigibus. Accordingly the meafure was
accomplifhed in November 537 : Silverius was baniflicd,
and Vigilius, a Roman by birth of a noble family, was or-
dained to the fee of Rome. Silverius appealed to the em-
peror Juftinian, and obtained an order for a rehearing ; but
upon his return to Rome, he was baniflud to a dillant iflajid,
in confequence of the intrigues of Vigilius, and there died
in 538. After the dcith of Silverius, the church of Rome
acknowledged Vigibus as lawful pope. Although lie

pundtuolly

V I G

V I G

punftually fulfilled his engagements to the emprefs, he
wrote a letter to the emperor, in which he folemnly pro-
fefTed the orthodox faith ; and in another letter to the pa-
triarch of Conftantinople, he commended him for his zeal in
favour of the council of Chalcedon, which by his engage-
ment to Theodora he condemned, and anathematized as
heretics thofe perfons whom he had lately admitted to his
communion. The emperor Juftinian, fond of exercifing
authority in matters of faith, was induced, in 542, to ilTue
an edift, condemning the writings of certain prelates who
were inchned to the Neftorian tenets, famous under the ap-
pellation of " The Three Chapters ;" and his edict was
received by almoft all the Eaftern bifhops. Vigihus, at the
head of thofe of the Weftern churches, refufed to concur in
what they conceived to be an alFumption of authority in
matters of faith, which belonged only to a general council.
Upon this refinance, Vigilius was fummoned by the em-
peror to repair to Conftantinople. He left Rome amidft
the curfes of the people, who charged him with enormous
crimes, and arrived at Conftantinople in the beginning of
the year 547. At firft he declared againft the imperial
ediEl, and excluded from his communion the patriarch and
all the bifhops who had fubfcribed it. The emperor's mea-
fures, however, caufed him to waver ; and at a council
held at Conftantinople, he iffued a decree, entitled " Judi-
catum," in which the " Three Chapters" were formally
condemned. But when he found that this decree excited a
great oppofition on the part of the Weftern bifhops, he got
it revoked, under a pretence of referring the matter to a
general council. Without ftating the violence and coercion
of the emperor on the one hand, or the refiftance and tergi-
verfation of the pope on the other, it will be fufficient to
obferve, that after Vigilius had a fourth time changed his
declaration relating to the " Three Chapters," which he
finally condemned by a folemn conftitution, he was per-
mitted to return to Rome, which had been in"_^the mean time
facked by Totila, and recovered by Narfes. But during
his voyage he was feized with a tit of the ftone, and obliged
to land in Sicily, where he died in 555. A fummary of
the letters of this pope, ftill extant, is given by Dupin.
Bower. Dupin. Mofheim.

VIGINTIVIRATE, a dignity among the ancient Ro-
mans, eftablifhed by Csefar.

This dignity comprehended four others ; for of the vi-
gintiviri, or twenty men which compofed the company,
there were three who fat and judged all criminal affairs ;
three others had the infpeftion of the coins and coinage ;
four took care of the ftreets of Rome ; and the reft were
judges of civil affairs.

VIGLES, in Geography, a town and caltle of Hun-
gary; 5 miles S.S.E. of Akfol.

VIGNACOURT, a town of France, in the department
of the Somme ; 9 miles N.W. of Amiens.

VIGNAIS, or ViKHAES, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Tra los Montes ; 15 miles W. of Bragan^a.

VIGNE, Andrew de la, in B'wgrjphy, a French
writer of the 15th century, bore arms under Charles VHI.,
and was fecretary to his queen, Anne of Britanny. In
conjunftion with Jaligui, he compofed a " Hiftory of
Charles VIII.," folio, printed at the Louvre, under the
care and with the notes of Denis Godefroy. He alfo wrote
" Vergier d'Honneur," Paris, 1495, containing an exacl
account of the expedition of Charles VIII. againft Naples,
at which he was prefent. Nouv. Dift. Hift.

ViGXE, Anke de la, a French poetefs, was born in
1634 at Vernon -fur-Seine. Her talent for poetry appeared

4

fo foon, that PelifTon faid of her, fhe feemed to have been
fuckled by the Mufes. Menage compliments her with hav-
ing furpafTed the ancients, and excited the jealoufy of the
moderns, by the beauty and fonoroufnefs of her verfe. She
is faid to have united the ftudy of philofophy with that of
polite literature, and her charafter is reprefented as no lefs
cftimable than her talents. Huet fpeaks highly of her
cheerfulnefs and amenity, notwithftanding the feeblenefs of
her conftitution, and the pains (he fuffered. She clofed life
under the anguifh of a calculous complaint in 1684, at the
age of 50. Her principal pieces are an ode, entitled
" Monfeigneur le Dauphin au Roi," for which fhe received
from a perfon unknown a lyre in gold enamelled, with a
copy of verfes in her praife ; " Ode a Mademoifelle de Scu-
dery ;" " Reponle k Mademoifelle Defcartes ;" and feveral
other " Pieces de Vers," collefted in a fmall oftavo. Mo-
reri. Huet. Gen. Biog.

ViGNE, Pierre delle, a celebrated miniiler of the em-
peror Frederic II., was born of mean parentage in Capua,
at the end of the twelfth century ; and ha\-ing purfued his
ftudiesto good effetl as a mendicant fcholar at Bologna, he
was introduced to Frederic II., and ingratiated himfelf with
this prince to fuch a degree, that he gave him a lodging in
his court, and the opportunity of further improvement. He
became a proficient in civil and canon law, and acquired an
elegant ftyle of writing, fo that he was advanced by the em-
peror to the pofts of prothonotary of his court, judge, and
chancellor ; and he became the confident of all his defigns.
His ability and learning raifed him to the higheft reputation,
and his influence in the court of Frederic was boundlefs.
The emperor afforded him opportunity of amaffing immenfe
treafures, and employed him in a variety of the moft im-
portant embaffies, which our limits will not allow us to re-
count. But before the clofe of his life, he loft the emperor's
attachment and confidence, for which various reafons, none
of which are fatisfaftory, have been alfigned. To the
jealoufy and envy of court attendants, the fall of favourites
may often be juftly afcribed. Whatever was the caufe in
this inftance, Vigne fuffered feverely under his matter's dif-
pleafure : he was deprived of fight, and fhut up in prifon ;
and finking into defpair, he put an end to his fife. The
time of his death is not known. The chronicle of Placentia
dates his being blinded in 124S. Six books of letters re-
main, which Tirabofchi regards as one of the moft valuable
monuments of the 13th century. The laft edition of them
is that of Bafil, in 1 740. He alfo collefted and arranged
the laws of the kingdom of Sicily ; and to him are attributed
a work " Concerning the Imperial Authority," and a book
" On Confolation," in imitation of that of Boethius. He
alfo compofed fome Italian poems. Gen. Biog.

VIGNETTE, in the art of Printhtg, is a French word,
now often ufed among Englifh artiftsand writers, to denote
the flourifh or ornament placed at the beginning of a book,
preface, or dedication. Thefe vignettes or head-pieces are
very various in their form and flze. See the defcription of
PRIXTING-Pr^y}.

VIGNIER, NiCHOL.^s, in Biography, an hiftorian and
chronologift, was born at Bar-fur-Seine in 1530, and
brought up a Proteftant. Having loft his property in the
civil wars, he withdrew to Germany, and praftifed phyfic
with reputation and advantage. Upon his return to France,
he conformed to the eftablifhed religion, and was appointed
phyfician to the king, as well as hiftoriographer-royal.
One of the moft curious of his works is his " Traite de
I'Origine et Demeure des anciens Fran(;ois," 1582, 410.,
which was tranflated into Latin by Andrew du Chefne.
His other works may be confulted with advantage by thofe

who

V I G

V 1 G

who wifh to acquaint themfelves with French hiftory. This
writer died in 1595. Moreri.

Vjcjnier, Jerom, grandlon of the preceding, was born
at Blois in 1606. He was the fon of a Protellant miniller,
educated in that profeffion, and defigned tor the law ; but
in 1628 he abjured Calvinifm, and entered into the congre-
gation'of the Oratory. He became fuperior of feveral
houfes in his fociety, and acquired high reputation for piety
as well as for extenllve erudition. He was more particularly
converfant with the oriental and other languages, with me-
dals and antiquities, and with the genealogy of the fovereign
houfes of Europe^ He died at St. Magliore, in Paris, in
1 66 1. His writings of various kinds were numerous.
Moreri.

VIGNOLA, a name commonly given to James Ba-
Kozzi, from the place of his birth, a fmall town in the
duchy of Modena, an eminent arohiteft, was born in 1507 ;
and as he difcovered an early inclination for the arts, he
was fent for education to Bologna. From painting, to
which he was firll attached, he direfted his attention to
architcfture. By various defigns, upon the principles of
Vitruvius, fome of which he communicated to the hif-
toriaii Guicciardini, he acquired early reputation. With a
view to further improvement he went to Rome, and was
there admitted into the academy of defign, newly founded,
and employed by it in meafuring the moil celebrated remains
of antiquity. The abbate Primaticcio, who was fent to
Rome in 1537, by Francis I. of France, to procure defigns
of the ancient buildings and calls of flatues, availed liimfelf
of the affiftance of Vignola ; and on his return, took him to
France. After two years' refidence in France, he returned
to Bologna, and was employed in forming a plan for the
facade of the church of St. Petronius, which, through the
envy of his competitors, was not executed till fome years
afterwards. In and near this city he built fome palaces,
and conftrufted the canal of Naviglio, running thence to
Ferrara. Unduly recompenfed for this work, he went to
Placentia, and planned a palace for the duke of Parma.
After his return to Rome in 1550, he built feveral churches
there ; and by the intereft of Vafari, pope Julius HI. ap-
pointed him his architeft. For him he built a villa, and
near it the fmall church of St. Andrew, in form of an an-
cient temple ; and by his command he brought the Acqua
Vergine to Rome. After the death of Julius, he was em-
ployed by cardinal Alexander Farncfe in the conilruftion of
his magnificent palace or caftle of Caprarola ; and he had
alfo the charge of building the church belonging to the
profelTed houfc of Jofuits at Rome, which is an edifice of
extraordinary beauty and grandeur. I,t was raifed only to
the cornice before the death of Vignola, and finiflied by his
difciple James della Porta. After the deceafc of Michael
Angelo, Vignola was appointed to fucceed him as architetl
of St. Peter's, in conjunclion with Pirro Ligorio, a Nea-
politan. This engagement and his advanced age obliged
him to decline accepting an invitation from Philip II. to the
court of Spain. He was confulted, however, with regard
to the different plans given for the Efcurial ; and one which
he furnifhed was highly approved, though not adopted.
His other profofTional hibours were interrupted by a com-
miifion from Gregory XIII. to fettle the limits between
the territories of the ciiurch and thofe of the duke of Tuf-
cany ; which commiflion he executed to the pope's fatis-
faftion. Upon his return from this fervice, he was leized
with a fever, of which lie died in 1573, aged 66. His re-
mains were folemnly interred in the church of Sta Maria
della Rotunda, the ancient Pantheon. Vignola acquired
reputation as an author no Icfs than as a praftical artift.

His " Rules for tlie five Orders of Architefturi" were
formed on the purell tafte of antiquity, and have been al-
ways reckoned clallical and original. This work has been
often reprinted, and tranflated into almoil all the European
languages. The French trandation, with the commentaries
of Daviler, is moll elleemed. Vignola alfo wrote a treatife
on " Praftical Perfpedlive," which has pafTcd through many
editions. Tirabofchi. D'Argenville. Gen. Biog.

VIGNOLES, Alphonso de, a learned Protellant
miniller, was born in 1649 at Aubais, in Languedoc, and
received his education chiefly under domellic tutors; and
for the fludy of theology he went to Saumur. He offi-
ciated as miniller, firll at Aubais, and then at Cailar. On
the revocation of the edi6t of Nantes, in 1685, he removed
to Brandenburg, and ferved feveral churches for 14 years.
In 1 701 he was eledled a member of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Berlin ; and in 1703, by the recommendation
of Leibnitz, the king ordered him to quit his church, and
reiide at Berlin, that he might be thus more ufeful to the
Academy. He preached, however, for fome years at a
church in the vicinity of Berlin. Upon the diftribution of
the members of the Academy into claffes, Vignoles was
placed firit in that of hiilorians, and afterwards in that of
mathematicians. In 1727 he was chofen direftor of the Royal
Academy, which poll he occupied with diftinguifhed re-
putation. He died in 1744, at the advanced age of 95.
He contributed a variety of effays and differtations on hif-
tory, chronology, and antiquities, to the " Bibliotheque
Germanique," the " Memoirs of the Berlin Academy,"
and the " Hiiloire Critique de la Republique des Lettres."
His principal feparate work, the refult of labour and much
erudition, was " Chronologie de I'Hiftoire fainte, et des
Hifloires etrangeres qui la conccrnant, depuis la Sortie
d'Egyple jufqu'a la Captivitc de Babylon," Berhn, 1738,
2 vols. 4I0. Moreri.

VIGNOLY, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Bafili.
cata ; 5 mils S.S.E. of Potenza.

VIGNORY, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Marne ; 10 miles S. of .Toinville.

VIGNOT, a town of France, in the department of the
Meufe, on the Meufe ; 17 miles E. of Bar le Due. N. lat.
48° 46'. E. long. 5^41'.

VIGNUOLA, or ViGNOi.A, a town of Italy, in the
department rjf the Panaro ; 15 miles S.E. of Modena.

VIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Oife ; 8 miles W. of Pontoife.

VIGO, Giovanni da, in Biography, an eminent fur-
geon, born in Genoa, and in 1503 invited to Rome by
pope Julius II. to be his firll furgeon. He alfo received a
conliderable penfion from the pope's nephew, cardinal della
Rovere. His work, entitled " Praftica in Arte Chirur-
gica copiofa," firll pubhllied at Rome in 15 14, folio, be-
came very popular, and was often reprinted. It is a very
full compendium of the art of furgery, (as then known and
praftifed,) and contains alfo a fyllem of an.itomy and of
materia medica, and was long regarded as a ftandard work.
Another of his works, entitled " Chirurgia Compendiofa,"
15 17, is a kind of fummary of the former, and fome new
oblervations. Haller. Eloy.

Vigo, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in the
province of Galicia, liluated on a bay of the Atlantic, de-
fended by a fort on an eminence, but not capable of great
refiilance. It has alfo an old calUc, and ftaiida in a very
fruitful country. In 1589, Vigo was plundered by fir
Francis Drake. In 1702, the Englifli and Dutch fleets
forced their pafTage in, and made themfelves mailers of the
Spanifh plate-fleet, when jull returned from America. In

J7'9.

V I L

V I L

1 7 19, the Englifh again took pofTeffion of the place, but re-
linquifhed it after raifing contributions; 12 miles N.N.W.
of Tuy. N. lat. 42° 14'. W. long. 8° 43'.

VIGOER, a town of Norway, in the province of Ber-
gen ; 25 miles E. of Bergen.

VIGOLO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza ; 15 miles
S. of Piacenza.

VIGOLZANO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza ;
8 miles S. of Piacenza.

VIGONE, a town of France, in the department of the
Po ; 14 miles S.S.W. of Turin.

VIGORETZKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Olonetz ; 20 miles E. of Povenetz.

VIGOROSO, or VlGOROSAMENTE, in the Italian Muftc,
is ufed to direft a performer to fing or play with vigour,
ftrength, and firmnefs.

VIGTEN, m Geography, an ifland in the North fea,
near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 64° 55'. E. long.
11° 10'.

VIGULONE, a town of the duchy of Parma ; 15 miles
S.S.W. of Parma.

VIHELY, a town of Hungary ; 10 miles N.E. of
Patak.

VIHIERS, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift, in the department of the Mayne and Loire ; 20
miles S. of Angers. N. lat. 4.7° 9'. W. long. 27'.

VIJ.\R, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada ;
13 miles N.E. of Almeria.

VIJAYA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a grand-
daughter of Brahma, her father being Dakfha. The name
Vijaya, like Sarvajaya, means •viSorious or all-conquering,
and is given to Parvati in fome of her martial charaaers.
In fome books it is related, that in the procefs of churning
the ocean, as defcribed in our article Kurmavatara, a
flower or plant was produced, called Vijaya, or ever vic-
torious, which Siva kept for his own ufe.

UJIBO, in Geography, a town of South America, in the
jurifdiftion of Guayaquil.

VIKA, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia ; 6 miles S.E.
of Fahlun.

VIKRAMA, or ViKRAMADlTYA, in Biography, a cele-
brated aftronomer and legiflator of the Hindoos. The era
named after him, corrupted into Bickermajit or Beeker-
majeet, is in very extenfive ufe in the Eaft, both among
Hindoos and Mahometans ; thougli the latter, of courfe,
generally among themfelves adopt that of the Hegira. In
the ninth volume of the Afiatic Refearches is a learned
elfay by Mr. Wilford on the era named after this celebrated
aftronomer, who was a monarch alfo. His capital was
Ougein, under which article we have given fome account of
that very interefting city, and fome notice of its royal
patron, and his era.

VILAINE, in Geography, a river of France, which
rifcs near Ernee, in the department of the Mayenne, paffes
by Vitre, Chateaubourg, Renncs, Redon, Rieux, la Roche
Bernard, &c. and runs into the Atlantis, 9 miles below the
laft town.

VILAINES, a town of France, in the department of
the Cote d'Or ; 8 miles S. of ChatiUon fur Seine.

VILAR de Belle, a town of France, in the department
of the Aude ; 12 miles S. of Carcatfonne.

VILASAR, a town of Spain, on the fouth coaft of
Catalonia ; 2 miles W. of Matara.

VILASK, a town of Hungary ; 8 miles N. of Libeten.

VILBEL, a town of Germany, in the county of Hanau-
Munzenourg, on the Nidda ; 4 miles N. of Franckfort on
the Maine.

VILBESTRE, a town of Spain, in the prorince of
Leon ; 43 miles S. of Salamanca.

VILCABAMBA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of

Cufco ; 60 miles N.N.W. of Cufco Alfo, a town of

Peru ; 70 miles S.S.E. of Cufco Alfo, a town of South

America, in the province of Quito ; 15 miles S. of Loxa.

VILCAS CUAMAN, or Bilcas, a town of Peru,
and principal place of a jurifdiftion of the fame name, in the
biftiopric of Guamanga. The air is temperate, and the foil
produces corn and fruit, and feeds abundance of cattle.
The Indians are induftiious, and employed in manufaflures
of different kinds of ftuff.

VILEMERITZ, a town of Croatia; 6 miles S. of
Sluin.

VILEPATTY, a town of the ifland of Ceylon; 12
miles W.N.W. of Trinkamaly.

VILEVO, a town of Sclavonia ; 34 miles N.W. of
Efzek.

VILFA, in Botany, an arbitrary name of Adanfon's, in
his Fam. des Plantes, v. 2. 495, adopted by Mr. Kunth,
in Humboldt's Nov. Gen. et Sp. PI. v. i. 137. We can-
not account for this adoption, there being nothing to recom-
mend the name. Happily the genus which it defignates is
Mr. Brown's Sporobolus. See that article.

VILILLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Aragon, on the left fide of the Ebro ; 27 miles
S.E. of Saragofla.

VILKIOT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 23 miles N.W. of Calmar.

VILL, Villa. See Village.

VILLA, a town of Etruria ; 13 miles S.S.E. of Pon-

tremoli Alfo, a town of South America, in the province

of Paraguay ; 90 miles E. of Affumption. — Alfo, a fmall
ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of Brafil. S. lat.
20° 9'.

Villa, La, a town of New Grenada, on the Madalcna ;
16 miles N. of Neyba — Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Veragua, fituated on the river Veragua, with a
harbour fit to receive veffels of forty tons.

Villa Bella, a town of Brafil, in the government of
Matto Gron"o.

Villa Boa, a town of Brafil, and capital of the govern-
ment of Goyas ; 450 miles N.W. of Rio Janeiro. S. lat.
17°. W. long. 51° 24'.

Villa Boim, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 4 miles
S.W. of Elvas.

Villa Bona, a town of Spain, in Guipufcoa, on the
Orio ; 6 miles from Tolofa.

Villa do Carmo, a town of Brafil, in the government of
Minas Geraes ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Villa Rica. S. iat.
20° 20'. W. long. 44° 30'.

Villa Cham, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 1 1 miles E. of Coimbra.

Villa Chan, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Entre Duero e Minho ; 5 miles N.W. of Barcelos.

Villa Clara, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; 20 miles
N.W. of Spiritu Santo.

Villa de Conde, a fea-port town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Entre Duero e Minho, fituated on the N. fide of
the river Aue ; 9 miles E.S.E. of Barcelos. N. lat.
41=23'. E. long. 8° 21'.

Villa Diego, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, on the
Pifuerga ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Burgos.

Villa Pallet, a town of France, in the department of the
Stura ; 5 miles N.N.W. of Coni.

Villa Fauftini, in jincient Geography, a town of Great
Britain, in the fifth Iter of the route of Antonine, between

Colosia

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Colonia or Colchefter, and Icianos or Cliefterford. This
ftation is placed by Camden, Gale, and Baxter, at St. Ed-
mund's Bury, in Suffolk; but Mr. Horfley prefers thofe
copies of the Itinerary which have xxv for the numerals,
and fixes it at Dunmow. Wherever it was fituated, it pro-
bably derived its name from fome great Roman called
FaujUnus having a country feat there.

Villa Fernanda, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
Alentcjo ; 14 miles E. of Eftremoz.

Villa Flor, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra
los Monies ; 12 miles S.E. of Mirandela. — Alfo, a town of
Portugal, in the province of Alentejo ; 7 miles N.N.W. of
O Crato.

Villa de Fradet, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Alentejo ; 4 miles N. of Beja.

Villa Franca, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Benaco ; 13 miles N. of Mantua. — Alfo, a town of Spain,
in the province of Cordova ; 13 miles N.E. of Cordova. —
Alfo, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, on the Tormes ; 25
miles S. of Avila. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ;

9 miles S. of Frias. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ;

10 miles E. of Burgos. — Alfo, a fea-port, and capital of
St. Michael, one of the Azores iflands. It is the moft
ancient tovv'n in the whole iOand ; and fo called from its
being at firft a free port. Before its harbour lies an ifland,
about a mile in circumference, and towards the fea the town
is defended by a fort and fome other works. It confifts of
18 13 hearths, lias two parifh churches and two convents. —
Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 1 2 miles
N.W. of Ponftrrada. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Leon ; 35 miles W. of Aftorga Alfo, a town of

Italy, in the Trevifan ; 14 miles W. of Trevigio. — Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Dora ; 3 miles
S.E. of Aofta. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department
of the Po; 16 miles S.S.W. of Turin.— Alfo, a fea-port
town of France, in the department of the Maritime Alps,
late the county of Nice, with two calUes. The harbour is
fhcltered by fome lofty hills, founded in 1 295 by Charles 1 1,
king of Naples, who was earl of Provence : the citadel was
built by duke Emanuel Philibert ; 3 miles E. of Nice.

Villa Franca de Panadts, a town of Spain, in Cata-
lonia,-and principal place of a viguery ; 20 miles S.W. of
Barcelona.

Villa Franca de Xira, a town of Portugal, in Eftrema-
dura, on the N. fide of the Tagus ; 15 miles N.E. of
Lifijon.

Villa Frechos, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; 7 miles W.N.W. of Riofeco.

Villa Gala, a town of Brafil, in the government of
St. Paul ; 95 miles N.N.E. of St. Paul. S. lat. 22° 15'.
W. long. 46° 6'.

Villa Garcia, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura ; 4 miles
N. of Llcrena.

Villa Harta, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, on the
>ft fide of the Guadiana ; 36 miles W. of Civdad Real.

Villa Hermofa, or Dilla de Mo/a, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Tabafco, on a river navigable by boats to
Tabafco ; chiefly inhabited by Indians ; 56 miles S.W. of
Tabafco. N. bt. 17° 40'. W. long. 94° 16'.

Villa Hermofa, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 15
miles AV.S.W. of Alcaraz — Alfo, a town of Spain, in the
province of Valencia ; 24 miles N. of Segorbe.

Villa de Horta, the chief town of Fayal, one of the
Azores iflands. It is fituated in the bottom of the bay of
Fayal, or De Horta, clofe to the edge of the fea, aiul is
defended by two caftles, one at each end of the town, and
a wall of ftone-work, extending along the fea-fhore, from

Vol. XXXVII.

V I L

the one to the other. But thefe works are in a ftate of
decay, and feem more for fliow than ftrength. They
brighten the profped of the city, which makes a fine
appearance from the road ; and if we except the Jefuits'
college, the monafteries, and churches, there is not another
building that has any thing to recommend it, within or with-
out. There is not a glafs window in the place, except
tliofe of the churches, and in a country-houfe which lately
belonged to the Englifli conful ; all tlie others being
latticed, which to an Englifliman has the afi-ea of prifons.
This little city is crowded with religious buildings ; it has
three convents of men, and two of women, and eight
churches. The Jefuits' college is a fine ftrudure, and is
feated on an eminence in the pleafanteft part of the city.
Since the expulfion of that order it is finking into decay,
and will probably foon be completely ruined. The Fayal
wine, as it is called, is i;aifed on the ifland Pico, andfliipped
abroad from De Horta, chiefly to America ; from which
circumftance it derives its name. Its bay or road of Fayal
is fituated at the E. end of the ifle before the Villa de
Horta, and facing the W. end of Pico. It is two miles
broad, three-quarters of a mile deep, and has a femicircular
form. N. lat. 38° 31' 55". W. long. 28° 38' 56".

YlhlLA. d'Igleftas, or Villa di Glefa, a town of the ifland
of Sardinia, and fee of a bifliop, in 15 13 united to Cagliari;
36 miles S.W. of Cagliari. N. lat. xcf 28'. E. lenir.
8»42'. 6 j;/ b

Villa Imprenta, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Mincio, on the Tione ; 9 miles E. of Mantua.

Villa Joiofa, or Joy/a, a town of Spain, in Valencia,
on the coaft of the Mediterranean; 18 miles N.N.E. of
Alicant.

Villa de Laguna, or Lagoa, a town of Brafil, in t!;e
jurifdiAion of Rio de Janeiro.

Villa Magna, or Villa Privata, in Ancient Geography, a
place of Africa Propria, upon the route from Carthage to
Alexandria, between Ponteaita and Fifida Vitus. Anton.
Itin.

Villa Magna, in Geography, a town of Naplei, in
Abruzzo Citra ; 51 miles S.E. of Civita di Chieti.

Vllla Major, a town of Spain, in Galicia, on the coall

of the Atlantic ; 27 miles S.W. of St. Jago Alfo, a town

of Spain, in Aragon ; 12 miles S. of Saragofla.

Villa Martin, a town of Spain, in Seville; 12 miles
N.E. of Arcos. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in Leon ; 22
miles E. of Leon.

Villa Mayor, a town of Spain, in Leon ; 30 miles S.
of Leon.

Villa de la Monclova, or Le Coagula, a town of New
Mexico, in the province of New Leon.

Villa Mnfa. See Villa Hermofa.

Villa de Motta, a town of Iftria ; 3 miles S. of Capo
d'lftria.

Villa Nova, a town of France, in the department of the
Sefia ; 3 miles S. of Vercelli. — Alfo, a town of France, in
the department of the Dora ; 4 miles W. of Aofta.

Viu,A Nova iPyilvio, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ;
18 miles N. of Beja.

Villa Nova d'Ancos, a town of Portugal, in Eftre-
madura ; 5 miles S. of Montcmor o Vclho.

Villa Nova d'AJii, a town of France, in the department
of the Tanaro, fo called becaufe it was built by the in-
habitants of Afti, from the ruins of fome neighbouring
villages; and when they undcrflood the advantages of its
fituation, they furrounded it with w.ill5, baftions, ramparts,
deep fofles filled with water, half-moons, and other works.
Z It

V I L

V I L

It lias befiJfS two ancient towers, and two churches ; 1 1
miles E. of Turin.

Villa Nova de Barcarota, a town of Spain, in Eftre-
madura ; 27 miles S. of Badajos.

Villa hlova da Cervera, a town of Portugal, on the S.
fide of the Minho, near its mouth, in the province of Er.tre
Duero e Minho; 27 miles N.N.W. of Braga. N. ht.
41° 55'. W. long. 8° 27'.

Villa No-ua de Flcalbo, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo,
on the confines of Spain; 24 miles S.E. of Bcja.

Villa Nova de Friffoa, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Beira ; 12 miles S.E. of St. Joao da Pefqucira.

Villa Nova de Me^a, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 13
miles N.N.E. of Balaguer.

Villa Nova de Milfonles, a town of Portugal, in
Alentejo ; 1 1 miles S. of Sines.

Villa Nova de Moncarros, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira; 16 miles W. of Montemor o Velho.

Villa Nova de Portlmao, a fea-port town on the S. coaft
of Portugal, and province of Algarve. It is a fortified
town, bi.ilt in the year 1463, and contains about 500 moftly
fmall and poor houfes, furroundcd by a'high wall, beyond
which is a fmall luburb, and is garrifoned by two com-
panies. The river of Villanova flows clofc to the walls, is
here confiderably broad (next to the Guadiana, which is the
largeftin Algarvia), and difcharges itfelf half a league from
thence between high downs into the fea. The bar is dan-
gerous, and the fand-banks (hifting, fo that the harbour
cannot be very important ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Lagos. N.
lat. 37° 5'. W. long. 8° 28'.

Villa Nova de Porta, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
▼ince of Entre Duero e Minho, on the left fide of the
Duero, oppofite Oporto, built in the year 1255, and con-
taining about 3000 inhabitants.

VtLLA A^ova del Principe, a town of Brafil, in the jurif-
diftion of Bahia. N. lat. 17° 10'. W. long. 42° 34'.

Villa Nova del Rio, a town of Spain, in the province of
Seville, near the Guadalquivir ; 1 8 miles N.N.E. of Seville.

Villa Nueva, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the coafl
of the Mediterranean. It has no harbour, but a good road ;
24 miles W. of Barcelona. — Alio, a town of Spain, in
Ailiu-ia ; 43 miles W. of Oviedo.

Villa Nueva de Gallego, a town of Spain, in Aragon,
on the Gallego ; 6 miles from Saragoffa.

Villa Nueva de Jaro, a town of Spain, in the province
of Cordova; 27 miles N.N.E. of Cordova.

Villa Nueva dehs Infantes, a town of Spain, in Galicia;
12 miles S. of Orenfe.

Villa Nueva de la Serena, a town of Spain, in Eftre-
madura ; 63 miles N. of Seville.

Villa Nuova, a town of Iflria ; 9 miles E.S.E. of
Umago. — Alfo, a town of the ifland of Sardinia ; 10 miles

S. of Algeri Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of

the Upper Po; 18 miles E. of Cremona. — Alfo, a town of
the Popedom, in the marquifate of Ancona, on the coaft of
the Adriatic ; 10 miles E. of Macerata.

Villa Obleda, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 28
miles N. of Alcaraz.

Villa Ombrofa, a town of Etruria ; 14 miles E. of
Florence.

Villa d^l Ovo, a town of Brafil, in the jurifdiflion of
Matto Groflb.

Villa do Ponte Trabpa, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Beira ; 18 miles N.E. of Vifeu.

Villa del Principe, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; 145
miles N.W. of St. Jago. N. lat. 21° 17'. W. long.
77^^ 45'-

9

Villa do Principe, a town of Brafil, in the government
of Minas Geraes ; 360 miles N. of Rio Janeiro, This
town is fituated on the declivity of a lofty hill, the bafe of
which is walhed by a rivulet called Corvinha de quatro
Vergtems. It was eftabliflied as a comarco, or diftrift, in the
year 1730, when the gold-wafhings were moil produftive ;
though it dates its origin about fif\;een years earlier, when the
place was dilcovercd by the Panhfts, at the commencement
of their migr.:tion from Villa Rica and the adjacent fettle-
ments. At prefent the town contains about 5000 in-
habitants, moft of whom are (hop-keepers, and the reft
artifans, farmers, miners, and laborers. As this town is
fituated very near the confines of the Diamond diftrift, and
on the high road leading to it, the pafTage of all perfons
thither is uibjeft to the ftrifteft regulations. The country
round is veiy fine and open, being free from thofe impene-
trable woods, which occur fo frequently in other parts of
the province. Its foil is in general very produftive, and
the climate mild and falubrious. N. lat. 1 7° 6'. W. long.
42°44'.

Villa Real, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Algarve, built by Pombal, four leagues from Tavira. It
is fituated at the mouth of the Guadiana, which is here a
broad and fine ftream. It is built with perfedl regularity,
the llreets in which are the handfomeft houfes being fituated
on the bank of the river, and the fmaller houfes at a greater
diftancc. The pavement is good, and in the middle of the
town is a handfome Tquare, in which the town-houfe ftands.
But it is in a lamentable degree deftitute of inhabitants, and
without a company of foldiers, the place would be quite
empty. Poverty every where appears, the adjacent country
being very fandy, and the foil in many places confifting
entirely of quickfand : the downs are planted with fig-trees.
The entrance of the harbour is broad but not very deep.
The town derives all its fupplics, even of bread, from
Ayamonte, the deftruftion of which was aimed at by the
founder of this town. — Alfo, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Tra los Montes, containing two churches, two
hofpitals, three convents, and about 2400 inhabitants ; 9
miles N. of Lamego. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of V^alencia ; 20 miles E. of Segorbe. — Alfo, a town
of Spain, in Guipufcoa ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Placentia.

Villa Real de Conceigao, a town of Brafil, in the govern-
ment of Minaes Geraes ; 40 miles N.W. of Villa Rica.

Villa del Rey, a town of Spain, in Eftrcmadura, on the
borders of Portugal, taken by the allies in the year 1706 ;
1 2 miles N. of Badajoz. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in Galicia ;
22 miles S.E. of Orenfe.

Villa dela Reyna, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura; 12
miles E. of Llerena.

Villa Rica, a town of Brafil, and capital of the
jurifdiftion of Minaes Geraes; 150 miles N. of Rio
Janeiro. S. lat. 20° 25'. W. long, 44° 36'. The town
ftands on a fteep and lofty eminence, connefted with
others forming an immenfe chain, of which it is one of the
higheft. Moft of the ftreets, irregular and badly paved,
range in fteeps from the bafe to the fummit, and are crofted
by others which lead up the acclivity ; but its environs
exhibit few traces of cultivation. This town has been
denominated the rich village ; it is the capital of the pro-
vince and the feat of its government, and has for many
years been reputed the richeft in Brafil, as it was the
depofitory of all the gold found in the extenfive furround-
ing diftrift. This town is admirably fupphed with water,
which is condufted in a very convenient manner into almoft
every houfe ; and in the ftreets are many fountains tliat are
well conftruAed. One ciftern contains water having a

ftrong

V I L

V I L

ftrong tafte of fulphate of iron, which the natives confider
as ferviceable in the cure of cutaneous difeafes, and in which
they often bathe.

The town is divided into two parifhes, and contains a
population of about 20,000 inhabitants, of whom there are
more whites than blacks. The climate is delightful, and fup-
pofed to be equal to that of Naples ; and though the latitude
i» only 20* 3', yet on account of its elevated fituation, the
temperature of the air is generally moderate. The ther-
mometer never exceeds 82° in the fhade, and is rarely below
48° ; but its ufual range is from 64° to 80° in fummer, and
from 48° to 70^ in winter. The greateft heats prevail in
January. Here are frequent fhowers of rain, and thunder-
ftorms are common, but not violent. The fun is fometimes
clouded by dews and mill fo denfe, as not to fubiide until
the forenoon is far advanced. The gardens in the vicinity
of the town are laid out with great tafte, and prefent a
curious fpeftacle, by their arrangement on the declivity of
the mountain. They furnifli an ample fupply of vegetables
of every kind, as artichokes, afparagus, ipinach, cabbage,
kidney-beans, and potatoes. The peach, which is the only
exotic fruit hitherto introduced, flourifhes in an aftoniftiing
degree.

The town is of confiderable extent, but not fo well
peopled as when the mines were rich. The (hop-keepers
are a numerous clafs, and they are plentifully fupplied with
all forts of Englidi merchandize, except earthenwaie, hams,
porter, and butter, which arcicles are dear. The market is
ill fupplied, notwithftanding the fertility of the furrounding
diftrift. Poultry might be had at a moderate price, from
3^. 6d. to 4r. 6a. per couple ; beef was tolerable ; pork
»ery fine ; but mutton utterly unknown. When Mr.
Mawe vifited this town in the year 1809, fome of the
inhabitants told him that it ought now to be termed " Villa
Pobra," inllead of " Villa Rica." Of above 2000 habita-
tions which the town contained, a confiderable proportion
were untenanted, and the rents of the reft, were continually
lowering.

The mountain on which the town ftands appeared to be
eight or nine miles in length, narrow and almoft infulated,
being furrounded by deep ravines. It is compofed of argil-
laceous fchiitus in almofl every gradation, migrating from
the compaft blue date into micaceous fchiftus. The firft
difcovery of this once rich mountain was owing to the entcr-
prifing ipirit of the Paulids, who, of all the colonies in
Brafil, retained the largell portion of that ardent and inde-
fatigable zeal for difcovery which charafterized the Lufi-
tanians of former days. They penetrated from their capital,
St. Paul's, through impervious woods, and difputed every
inch of their progrefs with the barbaroua Indians. Follow-
ing the courfe of rivers, they occafionally found gold ; till
arriving at this mountain, its riches arreitcd their progrefs,
and cretling temporary houfes, they began their operations.
They were foou joined by other adventurers from St. Paul's
and other places. Their wealth proved the occafionof con-
tefts between the firll fettlers and new adventurers. When
tranquillity was re-e(lablifhed, a regular town began to be
formed in 1 7 1 1 , and a code of laws enafted for the regulation
of the mines. A fifth in weight of the gold-dud that was
found was taken for the king, and the remainder purified,
Imeltcd into ingots at the expence of government, then
allayed, marked according to their value, and delivered to
the owners, witlr a certificate to render them earnell : and
for the convenience of trade, gold-duft was allowed to cir-
culate for fmall payments. Smuggling, however, gained
ground, and new regulations and provifions were adopted
for rcftraining it. ViUa Rica foou enjoyed a confiderable

trade with Rio de Janeiro : the returns were negroei, iron,
woollens, fait, provifions of various kinds, and wine, wliich
then bore very high profits. About the year 1713, the royal
fifth amounted to half a million fterling annually. Antonio
Dias, the leader of the Paulifts, who difcovered this fource
of wealth, and became very rich, built a fine church, and at
his death endowed it with confiderable funds : it ilill bears
his name : five or fix others were begun and foon finiflied.
The town alfo underwent many improvements ; its ilreets
were more regularly built, and the fide of the mountain le-
velled for the fcite of new houfes and gardens ; refervoirs
and fountains of water were conftrufted in different parts ;
and the mint and fmelting-houfes were enlarged. Tht num-
ber of inhabitants at this time amounted to 12,000, or up-
wards. Between the year 1730 and 175c, the mines wejc
in the height of their profperity ; the king's fifth, as it is
faid, amounting to at lead a million fterling.

At the prefent day. Villa Rica fcarcely retains a ftiadow
of its former fplendour. Its inhabitants are unemployed,
and the culture of the adjacent country neglected. Almoft
every trade is now occupied either by mulattoes or negroes,
both of which claffes feem fuperior in intcUeft to their maf-
ters, becaufe they make a better ufe of it. However, the
vicinity furniflies the means of acquiring wealth by its mines
of gold, iron, and porcelain clay, Sec. if the inhabitant*
had underftanding or application to convert them into real
value.

At the diftance of eight miles from Villa Rica is Mari-
ana, feparated from it by a tremendous and almoft impaflable
road, along a ridge of mountains. The Rio del Carmen
runs through this town. This was made a bilhop's fee about
the year 17 15, and called Cidade de Mariana, in honour of
the then reigning queen of Portugal. This is a fmall, neat,
well-built town, containing from 6000 to 7000 inhabitants.
It has a college for the education of young men defigned for
the church. This place has little trade, and depends cliiefly
on the mines and feams in its vicinity. Mawe's Travels.

Villa Rica, a town of South America, in the pro\ince
of Paraguay ; 100 miles N.E. of Affumption. — Alfo, a
town of Chih ; 60 miles N.E. of Valdivia. S. lat. 38° 50'.
W. long. 73° 10'.

Villa Rodrigo, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; 40 miles E. of Leon.

Villa Rub'ia, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 6 miles
E. of Ocana.

Villa Rubia dc las Ojos, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ;
12 miles N. of Calatrava.
Villa de Ins Santos. See Santos.

Vh,la de Sapra, a town of Italy, in Friuli ; 15 miles W.
of Gemona.

Villa Savary, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Aude ; 14 miles W. of Carcaffonne.

Villa di: Sul, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Bcira ; 5 miles W. of Vifeu.

Villa del FaUt, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Chiquitos.

\%LLA de Folk Fertile, a town of South America, in the
province of Cuyo ; 80 miles S.E. of Juan de la Frontera.

Villa yicchia, a town of the Ligurian Republic; 12
miles N. of Genoa.

Villa Feja, a town of Soutli America, in the govern-
ment of Baiiia, at firft called St. Salvador.

ViLfcA Fella dc Rodao, a town of Portugal, in Eftrcma-
dura ; 17 miles S.S.W. of Caftel Branco.

Villa Ficento, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ;
30 miles S. of Leon.
Villa Ftjofa, or Fitla Fizofa, or Filla Vide/a, a town
Z 2 of

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V I L

of Portugal, in Alcntejo, containing two pafifli churches,
eight convents, and about 3700 inhabitants. In the neighbour-
hood is dug feme beautiful green marble. Near it is a royal
palace, with a park ; 97 miles N.E. of Evora. N. lat.
38° 39'. W. long. 7= 12'.

Villa Ficiofa, a town of Spain, in the province of Cor-
dova ; 25 miles N.N.W. of Cordova. — Alfo, a town of
South America, in the province of Quito ; lo miles S.E. of

Quito Alfo, a fea-port town of Spain, in the province of

Afturias, fituated at the bottom of a bay of the Atlantic ;
30 miles N.E. of Oviedo.

Villa Vieja, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ; 34 miles
E. of Burgos.

Villa Regis, or Rtgla, a title anciently given to thofe
villages where the kings of England had a royai feat, and
held the manor in their own demefne ; having there com-
monly a free chapel exempt from the bifhop's jurifdiftion.

VILLABAR, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Tras 03 Montes ; 15 miles S.E. of Miran-
dela.

VILLACANAS, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ;
32 miles E.S.E. of Toledo.

VILLACASTIN, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ;
J 8 miles W.S.W. of Segovia.

VILLACERF, a town of France, in the department of
the Aude ; 8 miles N.W. of Troyes.

VILLACH, a town of the duchy of Carinthia, on the
right fide of the Drave. Near the town are fome medicinal
baths; 18 miles W. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46^ 43'. E.
long. 13° 39'.

VILLACO, a town of the ifland of Corfica, in the
diffrift of Corte.

VILLACURI, a town of Peru, in the audience of
Lima ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Pifco.

VILLADA, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ;
27 miles N.W. of Palencia.

VILLUS Prepositus. See Prepositus.
VILLAFAFILA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the province of Leon ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Zamora.

VILLAFELICHE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Aragon ; 3 miles N. of Daroca.

VILLAFREDDA, a town of Naples, in Lavora ; 9
miles N.N.W. of Sezza.

VILLAFRIA, a town of Spain, in Guipufcoa ; i2miles
E.S.E. of Trevigno.

VILLAGE, Villa, or Fill, an aflemblage of houfes,
inhabited chiefly by peafants and farmers, having ufually a
church, but no market.

The word is French, formed of -vil, or vilis, low, mean,
contemptible : or rather, from the Latin mlla, a country -houfe,
or farm.

The want of a market diftingui/hes a •village from a to-wn,
as the church does from a green, Jlreet, &c. Among our
Saxon anceftors, •uill, or village, was ufed in the fenfe of the
Roman villa; -uiz. for a country farm, or feat, furnifhed
with convenient outhoufes, &c. for repofiting the fruits
thereof. Afterwards it came to be taken for a manor ; and
then for part of a parifh, or the parifh itfelf.

Hence, in feveral ancient law-books, •uill and parijh are
the fame thing : accordingly, Fortefcue de Laudibus Leg.
Ang. writes, " That the boundaries of villages are not by
houfes, ftreets, or walls ; but by a large cucuit of ground,
within which may be divers hamlets, waters, woods, &c."

Fleta makes this difference between a manjion, a •village
and a manor ; that a manfion may confift cf one, or more
houfes ; tliough there is only to be one dwelling-place, with-
out any other very near it : for if other houfes be conti-

guous, it is then a village. A manor may confift of one or
more villages.

For the better government of villages, the lord of the
foil has ufually a power to hold a couit-baron every three
weeks.

The ftatute of Exeter, 14 Edw. I., makes frequent men-
tion of entire-vills, demi-vills, and hamlets.

Entire-vills, fir H. Spelman conjeftures to have confifted
of ten freemen, or frank-pledges, demi-vills of five, and ham-
lets of lefs than five. See Town.

Village Bay, in Geography, a bay on the weft coaft of
Africa. S. lat. 14° 25'.

VILLAGRA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon; 17 miles N. of Rio Seco.

VILLAIN, or Villein, Villanus, in our Ancient Cuf-
toms, the fame with landman : c?lled alfo, in Domefday-
book, fervus, Jlave.

A villain was one who held lands in •villenage, or on con-
dition of rendering bafe fervices to his lord.

Under the Saxon government, there was, as fir William
Temple fpeaks, a fort of people in condition of downright
fervitude, employed in the moft fervile works, and belong-
ing, they, their children and effefts, to the lord of the foil,
like the reft of the cattle or ftock upon it. Thefe leem to
have been thofe who held what was called x\x folk-land, from
which they were removeable at the lord's pleafure. On the
arrival of the Normans here, it feems not improbable, that
they, who were ftrangers to any other than the feodal ftate,
might give fome fparks of enfranchifement to fuch wTetched
perfons as fell to their fhare, by admitting them, as well as
others, to the oath of fealty, which conferred a right of
proteftion, and raifed the tenant to a kind of ftate fuperior
to downright flavery, but inferior to every other condition.
This they called ■villenage, and the tenants •villains, either
from the word Ww, or elfe, as fir Edward Coke tells us, a
villa, becaufe they Uved chiefly in villages, and were em-
ployed in ruftic works of the moft fordid kind : hence they
were alfo denominated pagenfes and rujlici. Thefe villains,
belonging principally to lords of manors, were either villains
regardant, by the civilians called gleba addiBi or afcriptitii,
that is, annexed to the manor or land ; or elfe they were in
grofs, or at large, that is, annexed to the perfon of the lord,
and transferrable from one owner to another. They could
not leave then- lord without his permifGon ; but if they ran
away, or were purloined from him, might be claimed and
recovered by aftion, hke beafts or other chattels. They
held indeed fmall portions of land by way of fuftaining'
themfelves and families ; but it was at the mere wiU of the
lord, who might difpoflefs them whenever he pleafed ; and
it was upon villain fervices, that is, to carry out dung, to
hedge and ditch the lord's demefnes, and any other the
meaneft offices ; and their fervices were not only bafe, but
uncertain both as to time and quantity. A villain could
acquire no property either in lands or goods ; but if he
purchafed either, the lord might enter upon them, ouft the
villain, and feize them to his own ufe, unlefs he contrived
to difpofe of them again before the lord had feiied them ;
for the lord had then loft his opportunity. In many places
alfo, a fine was payable to the lord, if the villahi prcfumed
to marry his daughter to any one without leave from the
lord ; and by the common law, the lord alfo niiglit bring
an aftion againft the hufband for damages in thus purloining
his property. For the -children of villains were alfo in the
fame ftate of bondage with their parents ; whence they are
called in Latin nativi, whence the female appeDation of a
villain, who was called a neife. In cafe of a marriage be-
tween a freeman and a neife, or a villain and a free-woman,

the

V I L

V I L

'uti ifTue followed the condition of tlic father, being free if
le was free, and villain if he was villain; but no ballard
could be born a villain. The law, however, protefted the
perfons of villains, as the kind's iubjefts, againil atrocious
injuries of the lord ; for he might not kiU, or maim his vil-
lain ; though he might beat him with impunity, fince the
\'il'ain had no aftion or remedy at law againil his lord, but
in cafe of the murder of his anceftor, or the maiming of
his own perfon. Neifes indeed had alfo an appeal of rape,
it; cafe the lord violated them by force.

Villains might be enfranchifed by manumiflion. Hence,
.; .d by other means, they gained in procefs of time confi-
derable ground on their lords ; and in particular ftrengthened
the tenure of their eftates to that degree, that they came to
have in them an intereft in many places full as good, in
others better than their lords. For the good-nature and
benevolence of many lords of manors having, time out of
mind, permitted their villains, and their children, to enjoy
iheir poifeflions without interruption, iu a regular courfe of
defcent, the common law gave them title to prefcribe againft
iheir lords ; and, on performance of the fame fervices, to
hold their lands, in fpite of any determination of the lord's
will. For though, in general, they are faid to hold their
eftates at the will of the lord ; yet it is fuch a will as is
agreeable to the cudoms of the manor ; which cufloms are
preferved and evidenced by the rolls of the feveral courts-
baron in which they are entered, or kept on foot by the
conftant immemorial ufage of the feveral manors in which
the lands lie. And, as fuch tenants had nothing to fhew
for their eftates but thcfe cuftoms, and admiffions in pur-
fuance of them, entered on thofe rolls, or the copies of fuch
entries witncfTed by the fteward, they now began to be called
tenants by copy of a court-roll, and their tenure itfelf a copy-
hold. Copy-holders arc, therefore, in truth no other but
villains, who, by a long feries of immemorial encroachments
on the lord, have at laft eftablifhed a cuftomary right to
thofe eftates, which were before held abfolutely at the lord's
will. ■ Thefe encroachments at length became fo univerfal,
that when tenure in villenage was virtually aboliflied (though
copy-holds were referved) by the ftatute of Charles II.
there was hardly a pure villain left in the nation. To this
purpofc fir Thomas Smith teftifies, that in all his time (and
he was fecretary to Edward VI.) he never knew any villain
in grofs throughout the realm ; and the few villains re-
gardant that were then remaining, were fuch only as had be-
longed to bifhops, monafterics, and other ecclefiaftical cor-
porations, in the preceding times of popery. By feveral
means, the generality of villains in the kingdom have long
ago fprouted up into copy-holders ; their perfons being en-
franchifed by manumiflion, or long acquiefcence ; but their
cilates, in ftriftnefs, remaining fubjeA to the fame fervile
conditions and forfeitures as before ; though, in general,
the villain fervices are ufually commuted for a fmall pecu-
niary quit-rent. Blackft. Com. book ii. See ViLLEXAcr.

Villain EJlale, or Condition, is contradiftinguifhed to
free ejlate. Sc • Basf. 7<nur^, and Villenage.

VILLAINAGE. See Villenage.

VILLA I NE, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diftrift, in the department of the Mayenne ;
12 miles E.N.E. of Maycnne. N. lat. 48* 21'. W. long.
o^ii'.

VILLAINOUS JcoGMENT, is that which cads tlic re-
proach and ftaiu of villainy and flianie on him againlt wliom
it is given. As that againll a confpirator, &c. See Con-
spiracy.

Lamb.ird calls it villainous punijbment ; and fays, it may
well be called villainous, in regard the judgment, in fuch

caff, ffiail be like the ancient judgment in attaint, viz.. that
the criminals fhall not be of any credit afterwards : nor (hall
it be lawful for them, in perfon, to approach the king's
court : that their lands and goods (hall be feized into the
king's hands, their trees rooted up, their bodies impri-
foned, &c.

This villainous judgment is now become obfolete ; it not
having been pronounced for fome ages : but inftead of it, the
delinquents are ufually fentenced to imprifonment, fine, and
pillory.

VILLALAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Leon ; i2-milcs N.N.W. of Rio Seco.

VILLALBA, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura ; 32
miles S.E. of Badajoz. — Alfo, a town of Spain, in Galicia;
1 8 miles S.W. of Mondonedo.

VILLALON, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; 25 miles W.N.W. of Palencia.

yiLLALPANDA, John-Baptist, in Biography, a
native of Cordova, entered the fociety of Jefus in 157 1, and
diftinguifhed himfelf by a learned and diffufe commentary
on the book of Ezckiel, in three vols. fol. Rome, 1596. It
contains an elaborate defcription of the city and temple of
Jerufalem. He alfo pubhlhed, in 1598, " Explanatio Epif-
tolarum Sanfti Pauli," under the name of Remi of Rheims,
to whom he found it afcribed in a manufcript dated in 1067.
This Jefuit died in 1608. Dupin.

VILLALPANDO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the- province of Leon ; 33 miles S. of Leon.

VILLALTA, a town of Italy, in the country of Friuli ;
5 miles W. of Udina.

VILLALVA, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 15 milet
S. of Mondonedo.

VILLAMBEA, a town of Spain, inNewCaftile; 25
miles S.S.E. of IMadrid.

VILLAMEA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Bcira ; 4. miles S. of Lamego.

VILLAMEDO, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura ; 12
miles W.S.W. of Talavera la Vieja.

VILLAMENA de la Jarra, a town of Spain, in the
province of Cordova ; 27 miles N.N.E. of Cordova.

VILLAMIEL, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; 43 miles S. of Ciudad Rodrigo.

VILLANDRAUT, or Villandrade, a town of
France, in the department of tlic Gironde ; 8 miles W.N.W.
of Bazas.

VILLANDRY, a town of France, in the department
ot the Indre and Loire ; 9 miles W.S.W. of Tours.

VILLANELLA, in Italian Mufic, rullic airs that wwe
fung about the ftreets of Naples in the i6th century, in
three and four parts, as ferenades. They are fometimes
called vilktte and villanefchc alia Napolitana.

VILLANI, GioVAiNNi, m Biography, a native of Flo-
rence, was old enough in 1300 to vifit Rome at the jubilee,
and is fuppofed to have afterwards travelled into France and
Flanders. In 1316 and 1317 he was one of the magiftratcs
called priors at Florence, and alfo in the latter year official
of the mint, to whom was due an exaft regifter, ftill extant,
of all the money coined at Florence iu and before his time.
He fervcd in the Florentine army in 1323, and in 1328 con-
trived nieana for relieving his poor countrymen at a period
of dillrefling fcarcity. On occafion of the f.iilurc of the
company of Bonaccorfi, in which he had a fli.iro, in 1345,
and to which he was not accelTory, he was committed to the
public prifon, and his hfe was terminated by the plague,
which feverely vifitcd Florence in 1348. Villain bears the
charafter of one of the moll polidicd writers of his .ige, and
the moft converfant in the hiftory of his country. His

Hillory

V I L

V I L

Hiftory records, in twelve books, the events occurring in
Florence from its foundation till the year of his death, and
comprehends alfo the principal changes that happened in the
other Itahan provinces. The early part of this Hiftory
abounds with errors and fables ; but in defcribing the oc-
currences of Tufcany in his own time, he is deemed a fafe
guide, allovring for his partiality to the Guelph intereft, and
for his unacknowledged extrafts from the Hiftory of Ricor-
dano Malafpini. This Hiftory, which has been always much
efteeraed, both for its matter and the elegance of its ftyle,
was firft-printed by the Giunti of Florence in 1537, and the
lateft of feveral editions of it was that of Milan, in the col-
leftion of Italian hiflorians. It waS continued after his
death by his brother, Matteo Villani, who brought it
down to 1363, in which year, whilil he was writing the
nth book, he was carried off by the plague. His Hiftory
is not held in equal eftimation with that of his brother, its
ftyle being too diffufe ; but he was contemporary with the
events which he relates. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog.

ViLLANi, FiLippo, fon of Matteo, was educated for the
law, and was for many years chancellor to the municipality
of Perugia. But he chiefly devoted himfelf to literary pur-
l^uits, and in 1 404 delivered leftures on the Commedia of
Dante. He added forty -two chapters to his father's Hiftorj'
of Florence, thus completing the i ith book. He alfo com-
pofed the " Lives of illuftrious Florentines," originally
written in Latin, but tranflated into Italian, and publifhed
in 1747 by Mazzuchelli, with copious annotations. The
firft book of this work treated of the origin and antiquities
of Florence. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog.

VILLANTERIA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the department of the Upper Po ; 9 miles S.W. of Lodi.

VILLA R, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc ; 9 miles W. of Conflans.

ViLLAR Mayor, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Beira ; 5 miles N. of Alfayates.

VlLLAR lie Cartas, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 25
miles S. of Huete.

Villa R Je Toro, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 10 miles N. of Alfayates.

VILLAR A, a town of Spain, in the province of Bif-
cay ; 13 miles S. of Bilbao.

VILLARCAYO, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ; 12
miles N. of Frias.

VILLA RD de Lans, Le, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Grenoble.

ViLLARD St. Pancrace, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Higher Alps ; 3 miles S. of Briangon.

VILLAREJORUBIA, a town of Spain, in New
Caftile ; 35 miles S.E. of Cuen^a.

VILLARESIA, in Botany, a genus named after Mat-
thew ViUares, a Spanifh botanift, in the Flora Peruviana,
p. 28, according to De Theis. We have no account of its
charafters.

VILLA RET, Claude de, in Biography, was born at
Paris in 1715, and liberally educated, but prevented, by the
pernicious influence of youthful paffions, from duly availing
himfelf of his acquifitions. After writing a novel and a
piece for the theatre, he quitted Paris in 1 748, and went
upon the flage at Rouen, and other places. But renounc-
ing this mode of life at Liege in 1756, he returned to Paris,
and becoming firft clerk in the chamber of accounts, he was
reclaimed from his diffipated courfc, and made hin:ifelf ac-
quainted with thofe fources of French hiftory to which his
office gave liim accefs. On the death of the abbe Velly in
1 759, he was felefted for continuing his Hiftory ; and at the
fame time waa made fecretary to the peerage. His early

imprudence and his fubfequent application to bufinefs ter-
minated his life in 1766. His continuation of the " Hif-
toire de France" commences in the 8th volume,, with the
reign of Phihp VI. and concludes in the 17th volume: it
abounds with interefting remarks and curious anecdotes, but
the reader is diverted from the main objeft by prolixity of
detail in prefaces and digreffions. The ftyle however is
elegant and animated, but too rhetorical for the fimplicity of
hiftory. Villaret was alfo the author of " Confiderations
fur I'Art du Theatre," 1758 ; and " L'Efprit de Voltaire,"
1759. Nouv. Dia. Hift.

VILLARIA, in Botany, was intended by Schreber to
com.memorate the excellent author of the " Hiftoire des
Plantes de Dauphine," M. Villars, formerly phyfician to
the military hofpital at Grenoble, who died profeffor of
botany at Stralburgh, two or three years ago, where his
bier was elegantly decorated with wreaths of his own Rofa
rubrifolla ; fee RosA, n. 44. He pubhfhed there, in 1807,
a " Catalogue Methodique du Jardin de I'Ecole de Medc-
cine de Strafbourg," in French, according to Juffieu's fyf-
tem, with a hiftorical, critical and praftical preface. Villars
was an excellent and indefatigable obferver of nature, well
worthy of commemoration, which makes us regret our total
want of information refpefting his genus, except the generic
characters given by Schreber. As this author did not live
to write a work on the fpecies of plants, and has left no
account of the native country, number of fpecies, nor any
other circumftance in the hiftory of his Villar'ia, the genus
can never be properly adopted. We Ihall only here remark,
that the name ought certainly to be Villarsia ; fee that
article. — Clafs and order, Dioecia Pentandria. Nat. Ord.
perhaps Rhamni or Sapindi of Juflieu.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, in five deep,
fpreading, roundifli, obtufe, concave, coriaceous, nearly
equal, fegments, thinner at the margin, permanent ; two of
them interior. Cor. Petals five, oblong, obtufe, flat,
fpreading, coriaceous, thinner at the margin, twice the
length of the calyx, permanent. Stam. Filaments five, awl-
fhaped, ereft, half as long as the calyx ; anthers roundifh,
two-lobed. Pyi. Germen orbicular, deprefTed (we prefume
imperfeft ) ; ftyle very fhort ; fligma capitate.

Female, Cal. and Cor. as m the male. Nectary of fire
ovate, obtufe, ereft, permanent leaves, alternate with the
petals, and not fo long. Pift. Germen turbinate, fomewhat
ovate ; ftyle very fhort, fcarcely any ; ftigma capitate,
flightly three-cleft. Per'ic. Berry nearly globular, pointed
with the permanent ftyle, three-celled. Seeds folitary.

Obf. This defcription is materially defeftive, inafmuch
as there is no mention of the germen being inferior or fu-
perior, nor indeed any ufeful information with regard to the
refpeftive infertion of the parts ; except the leaves of the
neftary being alternate with the petals, which, if true, mi-
litates againft our conjefturf s as to the natural order of this
genus. Neverthelefs, we fhall attempt an effential charac-
ter, in hopes that thofe who have accefs to the learned
Schreber's herbarium, may difcover, and commiunicate to
the world, a complete hiftory of the plant in queftion.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla
of five petals. NeCtary none. Germen orbicular, imperfeft.

Female, Cal. and Pet. like the male. Neftary of five
leaves, alternate with the petals. Style one. Berry of
three cells. Seeds folitary.

VILLARINO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Leon, on the E. fide of the Duero, and con-
fines of Portugal ; 38 miles W. of Salamanca.

VILLARLUENGO, a town of Spain, in Aragon ;
2 1 miles S.W. of Alcaniz.

VILLA-

V I L

V 1 L

VILLAROYA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Aragon ; 15 miles N.W. of Calataiud.

VILLARRAMIEL, a town of Spain, in the province
of Leon ; 1 6 miles W. of Palencia.

VILLARS, Louis-Hector, duke of, and marflial of
France, in Biography, was born at Moulins, in Bourbon-
nois, in 1653, and commenced a military life in his youth.
He ferved in Holland in 1672, fignalized his courage at the
liege of Maeftricht in 1673, and was wounded at the battle
of Senef in 1674. We cannot follow him through all his
gradations of advancement and difplays of military talents ;
but we find, at the famous battle of Blenheim, that he was
deftined by Lewis XIV. to check the progrcfs of Marl-
borough. With an inferior army he kept the vittors at bay,
fo that the campaign of 1 705 palTed off without any further
lofs to France. After various other fervices, in which he
diftinguifhed himfelf, he was appointed to command in
Flanders againft the allies in 17091 and marching to the re-
lief of Mons, he was attacked by Marlborough and Eugene
at Malplaquet. The engagement was long and bloody, and
though the French were driven from the field, the greateft
lofs of men was fuftained by the viftors. To a wound
which compelled Villars to withdraw from the field, he at-
tributed the lofs of the battle. In reference to this gaf-
conade (as fome would be difpofed to call it), Voltaire ob-
ferves, " I know that the marflial himfelf was perfnaded of
it, but I alfo know, that few others were fo." As a fur-
ther reward for his fervices, he was made a peer of France,
and lieutenant-general of the biflioprics of Metz and Ver-
dun. Although France was relieved by the feparatiou of
England from the alhance in 17 1 2, Eugene produced con-
fternation at Paris by befieging Landrecy with a fuperior
force. On this occafion, Villars attacked a part of the allied
army at Denain, which he entirely broke up, and this fuccefs
led to the recovery of all the places loft by the French in
that quarter, at the reftoration of their fuperiority. The
peace of Utrecht followed ; and the emperor having refufcd
to be comprehended in it, marflial Villars and Eugene held
conferences at Radlladt in 17 14, for a treaty between
their refpeftive Sovereigns, which they condufted with the
franknefs of military men, and foon brought to a conclufion.
Villars, who had experienced the attacks of envy and jea-
loufy at his own court, faid to Eugene on this occafion :
" Sir, we are not enemies ; your enemies are at Vienna, and
mine at Verfailles."

After the death of Lewis XIV., Villars for fome time
maintained his credit at court ; being made prefident of the
council of war in 1715, and one of the council of regency
in 17 1 S. But v/hcn Lewis's fyllem was in agitation, he
thought it his duty to ilate to the regent the evils which, in
his apprehenfion, would refult from it ; and he thus contri-
buted to the difcharge of that financier, and to the appoint-
ment of his fncceffor. When the regency devolved upon
the duke of Bourbon, Villars was always confulted, who
was then at the height of his fortune : — 'a marflial of France,
a duke and peer, governor of Provence, a grandee of
Spain, a knight of the golden fleece, and a member of the
council. What more was wanting to gratify ambition ?
When France was excluded from the treaty that was
brought about by the intrigues of the principal courts of
Europe between the emperor, Spain and England, a war
broke out in 1733, and Villars, with the title of general of
the camps and armies (dormant fincc Turenne), wias font, at
the age of eighty, to command in the Milancfe. But
though he met with fome fuccefs, age and infirmities would
not allow him to make more than one campaign. On his
return to France, he was fcizcd with a difordcr Uiat termi-

nated his life at Turin. When his confefTor obferved to
him, that God had favoured him with more time to prepare
for death than marfhal Berwick, who had juft been killed
by a cannon-ball at the fiege of Phihpfburg, " What! (faid
he) has he ended his life in that manner ? I always faid that
he was more fortunate than I." • He foon after expired in
June 1734, in the eighty-firft year of his age.

The charafter of Villars is thus delineated by one of his
biographers. " Marflial Villars was a true military genius,
full of courage and confidence, who raifed himfelf by pcr-
fifling in always doing more than his duty. He was re-
proached with having lefs modefty than valour, and with
fpeaking of himfelf as he had deferved that others fhould
fpeak of him. Nor was he fparing of cenfurcs on others,
and he employed rather defiance than conciliation towards
his enemies. Though pofTefTing integrity and lively parts,
he was therefore never able to render himfelf popular, or to
acquire friends. In aftion he was always prefent where the
danger was greateft ; and he held it as a maxim, ' that a
general ought to expofe himfelf as much as he expofes
others.' " Villars was admitted into the French Academy in
1714. " Memoirs of the Marfhal de Villars" were printed
in Holland, in three vols. 1734-36, the firft of which alone
was written by himfelf. A more interefting publication
appeared in 1784, entitled " La Vie du Marechal dc Villars,
ecrite par lui-meme, et donnee an Public par M. Anque-
til," four vols. i2mo. This work contains the letters, re-
colleftions, and journal of the] marflial, properly arranged
by the editor. Moreri, Gen. Biog.

Villars de Montfaucon de, a relation of the cele-
brated father Montfaucon, was educated for the church,
and came from Touloufe to Paris in order to obtain diftinc-
tion as a preacher. He was received into the beft company,
and made himfelf known by feveral works, efpecially by his
" Comte de Gabahs, ou Entretiens fur les Sciences fecretes,"
firll printed at Paris in 1670. This work is a kind of
joco-ferious view of the Rofycrucian philofophy, rendered
amufing as a romance. From this fource Pope derived his
machinery of the " Rape of the Lock." Villars, in con-
fequence of this work, which was thought to contain here-
tical notions, was forbidden the pulpit. He added to it a
fccond part, and it has been feveral times reprinted ; the
laft time in 1742, two vols. i2mo. He was alfo the author
of feveral other works. He was killed by a piflol-fhot, by
one of his relations, on the road from Paris to Lyons, in
1675, when he was about thirty-five years of age. Bayle.
Moreri.

ment

Villars, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
Mit of the Ain ; 8 miles S.E. of St. Trivier.

VILLA RSIA, in Botany, a genus more correflly
named, as to its orthography, than Villaria, (fee that
article,) but with refpeft to its diftinftive character, we
fear, lefs certain. It confiils of fuch fpecies of the Lin-
nian Menyanthes, as have the corolla only partially covered
with hairs, and the margin of whofe fegments is thin, in-
flexed in the bud. The leaves moreover are fimple, not
tcrnate. Gmclin had long ago cftabliflicd this fSine genus,
in the Peterfburgh Tranfaitions for 1769, by the name of
Limnaothimum ; and Wiggers in his Primitia: Flcrx Hol-
fatix, p. 20, jpubliflied in 1780, by that of Wallfchmid'ta.
Yet in fpite of thefe prior claims, Venteiiat, in his Choix
dc Plantes, t. 9, has followed a more recent authority, if it
may fo be called, in naming thefe plants Villiffin, and he is
followed by Mr. Brown, in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 456.
The authority to which wc allude is tli.it of another Gmelin,
late profcfTor at Gottingcn, w^ho in his compiled edition of
Linnxus's Syllcnia, took upon him to bellow gratuitous

appellations

V I L

V I L

appell»tion» on numerous genera, which the modeft unpre-
tending Walter, in his Flora Caroliniana, had left for the
future examination and decifion of more experienced bo-
tanifts. His Anonymos, n. 109, is the Villarfia of this pro-
feflbr Gmelin, in Linn. Syft. Nat. v. 2. 447 ; neither of
thcfe authors feeming to have the lead idea of the plant
being already defcribed or named. — Notwithftanding what
thefe writers have done, Mr. Dryander, in Ait. Hort, Kew.
V. I, 312, has followed the example of Linnaeus, Juffieu,
Schreber, Willdenow, and the writer of this in his Fl. Brit,
and Englifh Botany, in keeping all the fpecies,' which con-
ftitute Villarfia, in the genus Menyanthes; fee that article.
There we truft they may fafely remain, and perhaps the
above authorities may at leaft: neutralize each other, with
refpeft to botanical difcrimination, as well as nomenclature.
We muft not omit that Mr. Purfh, in his Flora Amer.
Sept. 139, has adopted the prefent Villarfia, but without
throwing any new light upon its charafters.

VILLA RUM Nomina. See Nomina.

VILLASANDINO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
Old Caftile ; 20 miles N.W. of Burgos.

VILLASECA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the
coaft of the Mediterranean ; 6 miles W. of Tarragona.

VILLASIDRA, a town of the ifland of Sardinia ; 10
miles N.E. of Villa d'Iglefias.

VILLATTE, a town of France, in the department of
the Crcufe ; 10 miles N.W. of Gueret.

VILLAVANEZ, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; ■ 1 2 miles S. of Palencia.

VILLA YE R Fertans, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Doubs ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Ornans.

VILLAZIM, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 23 miles S.S.E. of Vifeu.

VILLE, a to^vn of France, in the department of the
Lower Rhine ; 8 miles N.W. of Schletftatt. — Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Marne ; 9 miles
S.W. of Rheims. — Alfo, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Marne ; 9 miles N.N. W. of St. Menehould.

ViLLE aux Cleres, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Loire and Cher; 24 miles N.W. of Blois.

ViLLE Comtal, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers ; 1 1 miles S.W. of Mirande. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Aveiron ; 18 miles W. of
St. Genies de Rivedolt.

ViLLE Franche, a town of France, and principal place of
a Jiftridl, in the department of the Aveiron ; 24 miles W.

of Rhodez. N. lat. 44° 21'. E. long. 2" 7' Alfo, a

town of France, in the department of the Lot and Garonne ;
6 miles E. of Caftel Jaloux. — Alfo, a town of France, and
principal place of a diilrift, in the department of the Upper
Garonne, on the Garonne ; 18 miles S.E. of Touloufe.
N. lat. 43° 24'. E. long. 1° 49' — Alfo, a town of France,
and feat of a tribunal, in the department of the Rhone and
. Loire, on the right bank of the Rhone. It is furrounded
with walls and ditches ; 3^ pods N. of Lyons. N. lat.
46° 7'. E. long. 4° 48'.— Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of tlie AUier ; 15 miles S.W. of Moulins. —
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Dor-
dogne ; 15 miles S.W. of Mucidan.

ViLLE Franche d' Albigeois, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Tarn ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Alby.

ViLLE Franche iPAJIarac, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gers ; 14 miles S. of Auch.

ViLLE Franche de Conflans, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Eaftern Pyrenees ; defended by a fort,
ereded in the reign of Louis XIV. ; 27 miles W.S.W=
of Perpignan. 7

ViLLE Franche de Panai, a town of France, in the de«
partment of the Aveiron ; 6 miles W. of Milhau.

ViLLE Franche de Perigord, a town of France, in the
department of the Dordogne ; 36 miles S.S.E. of Peri-
gueux.

ViLLE/ur Illon, a town of France, in the department of
the Vofges ; 9 miles W. of Epinal.

VxLLE en Tardenois, a town of France, in the department
of the Marne ; 10 miles S.W. of Rheims.

ViLLEyi/r Tourbe, a town of France, in the department (
the Marne ; 8 miles N.N.W. of St. Menehould.

ViLLE Vaucance, a town of France, in the department c
the Ardeche ; 14 miles N.N.W. of Toumon.

Vii.LE Vieu, La, a town of France, in the department of
the Vienna ; 8 miles S. of Poitiers.

VILLEBERNIER, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mayne and Loire ; 3 miles E. of Saumur.

VILLEBOIS, a town of France, in the department of
the Ain ; 6 miles S. of St. Rambert.

VILLEBOURG, or Ville Boureau, a town of
France, in the department of the Indre and Loire ; 1 8
miles N.N.W. of Tours.

VILLEBRUMIER, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Garonne; 15 miles S.E. of Caftel
Sarafin.

VILLECROSE, a town of France, in the department
of the Var ; 9 miles N.N.W. of Draguignan.

VILLEDIEU, a town of France, in the department of

the Mayne and Loire; 9 miles N.W. of ChoUet Alfo,

a town of France, in the department of the Vienne; 12
miles S.S.E. of Poitiers. — Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Loire and Cher; 18 miles W. of
Venddme. — Alfo, a town of Frar.cc, in the department of
the Channel ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Avranches.

VILLEFAGNAN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Charente ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Ruffec.

VILLEFLEUR, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Seine ; 2 miles N. of Cany.

VILLEFORE, Joseph-Fran5ois-Bourgoin de, in
Biography, was bom of a noble family at Paris in 1652,
and liberally educated. In 1706 he was admitted a member
of the Academy of Infcriptions ; but withdrew from it in
1708, becaufe he did not choofe to perform its burdenfome
exercifes. He paffed the remainder of his hfe in the cloiilcr
of the metropolitan church, and died in 1737, at the age
of 85. His hiflorical and biographical works, the latter
being chiefly -religious, were numerous. He alfo niadc
feveral tranflations from St. Auguftine, St. Bernard, and
Cicero, which are faithful, and occafionally elegant. He
was likewife the author of fome fmaller pieces in claHical
literature. Moreri.

VILLEFORT, in Geography, a town of France, and
pnr.clpal place of a diftrift, in the department of the Lozere;
20 miles E. of Mende. N. lat. 44° 27'. E. long. 3° 59'.

VILLEHARDOUIN, Geoffroi de, in Biography,
was marfhal of Champagne, an office held by his father and
his defcendants. He took a principal part in the fourth
crufade of 1198, which produced the capture of Conftan-
tinople by the French and Venetians in 1204 ; and of this
expedition he wrote or diAated a narrative, which is curious
and interefting. The bed edition is that of Du-Cang«,
fol. 1657, with many notes. Moreri.

VILLEIN Fleeces, in our Statutes, are bad fleeces of
wool, {horn from fcabby (beep. 31 Edw. III. cap. 8.

VILLEJUIF, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Paris ; 3 miles S. of Paris.

VILLEL, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 17 miles

N.N.V.'.

V I L

N.N.W. of Molina. — Airo, a town of Spain, in New
Caflile ; 15 miles S. of Molina.

VILLELOIN, or ViLLELOUP, a town of France, in
the department of the Indre and Loire ; 9 miles E.N.E.
of Loches.

VILLEMAUR, a town of France, in the department
of the Aube ; 14 miles W.S.W. of Troyes.

VILLEMONTOIS, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhone and Loire ; 8 miles S.W. of Roanne.

VILLEMUR, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Garonne ; 17 miles N. of Touloufc.

VILLENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia.
In the neighbourhood is a morafs, from which they manu-
fafture fait ; 41 miles N.N.E. of Murcia. N. lat. 38° 35'.
W. long. 1° 2'.

VILLENAGE, or Villainage, V'tUama, the quality
or condition of a villain ; which fee.

Villenage is more particularly ufedfora fervile kind of te-
nure of lands or tenements ; by which the tenant was bound
to do all fuch fervices as the lord commanded, or were fit for
a villain to perform : which Brafton exprefles by " fciri
non poterit vefpere, quale fervitium fieri debet mane."

V illenage is divided into that by blood, and that by tenure.
Tenure, in villenage, could make no freeman a villain, unlefe
it were continued time out of mind ; nor could free land
make a villain free.

Villenage is alfo divided, by Brafton, into pure villenage,
where the fervices to be performed were bafe in their nature,
and indeterminate and arbitrary as to the time and quantity,
as above cxpreffed ; from which ancient tenures have fprang
our prefent copyhold tenures : and focage or privileged vil-
lenage, where the fervice was bafe in its nature, but reduced
to a certainty : which was to carry the lord's dung into his
fields, to plow liis ground on certain days, to fow and
reap his corn, &c. and even to empty his Jakes : as the
inhabitants of Bifton were bound to do to the lord of
Cluncaftle, in Shropfhire ; which was afterwards turned
into a rent, now called BiHonJilver ; and the villainous fer-
vice exc\ifed.

This laft fpecies of villenage, fays Brafton, is fuch as has
been held of the kings of Enj;land from the Conqueft
downwards ; that the tenants herein villana faciunt fervitia,
fed certa l^ determinata ; that they cannot alien or transfer
their tenements by grant or feoffment, any more than pure
villains can ; but mult furrender them to the lord or his
fteward, to be again granted out and held in villenage. From
tUgfe circumftances, fays judge Blackdone, we may coUedt,
that what he thus defcribes is no other than an exalted fpecies
of copyhold fubfilling at this day, -viz,, the tenure in ancient
demejne : to which, as partaking of the bafenefs of villenage
in the nature of its fervices, and the freedom of focage in
their certainty, he has given the compound name of ■villanum
focagium. This ancient demefne, or'demain, confills of lands
or manors, which, though now perhaps granted out to
private fubjefts, were aftually in the hands of the crown in
the time of Edward the Confeifor, or William the Con-
queror ; and fo appear to have been by the great furvey
called Domefday-book. Some of the tenants of thefe
lands continued for a long time ^)ure and abfolute villains,
dependent on the will of the lord ; and tliofe who fucceeded
them in their tenures now differ from common copyholders
in a few pwuts. Others were in a great meafure enfran-
chifed by royal favour ; being only bound in rcfpeft of
their lands to perform fome of the better fort of villain fer-
vices, and thofe determinate and certain ; as, to plough the
king's land, to fupply his court with provifions, and the
like ; all of which are now changed into pecuniary rents ;

Vol. XXXVIL

V I L

and in confideration of thefe they had many privileges and
immunities grl?ited to them ; as to try the right of their
property in a pecuhar court of their own, called a court of
ancient demefne, by a peculiar procefs, denominated a writ
of r{ght clofe ; not to pay toll or taxes ; not to contribute
to the expences of knights of the (hire ; not to be pnt on
juries, and the like. Thefe tenants, though their tenure be
abfolutely copyhold, have an interell equivalent to a freehold ;
for their fervices were fixed, and they could not be com-
pelled [ like pure villains ) to relinquifh thefe tenements at
the lord's will, or to hold them againft their own ; and
idea, fays Brafton, dicuntur liberi. Britton alfo, from this
their freedom, calls them abfolutely foiemans, and their
tenure, fokemanries. The fame name is alfo given them in
Fleta. Lands holden by this tenure are a fpecies of copy-
hold, and as fuch, preferved and exempted from the opera-
tion of the ftatute of Charles IL ; yet they differ from
common copyholds, principally in the privileges before-
mentioned : as alfo they differ from freeholds by one
fpecial mark and tindlure of villenage, noted by Brafton,
and remaining to this day, ixz. that they cannot be con-
veyed from man to man by the general common law con-
veyances of feoffment, and the refl ; but mufl pafs by fur-
render to the lord or his fteward, in the manner of common
copyholds : yet with this difference, that, in the furren<lers
of thefe lands in ancient demr ne, it is not ufcd to fay " to
hold at the will of the lord" in their copies ; but only " to
hold according to the cuftom of the manor." Blackftone's
Com. book ii. &«.

VILLENEUVE, in Geography, a town of Switzerland,
in the canton of Berne, fituated at the eaftern extremity of
the lake of Geneva, about three miles from the mouth of
the Rhone ; celebrated for its trout filhery ; 15 miles

E.S.E. of Laufanne. N. lat. 46° 25'. E. long. 6° 46'

Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Allicr ;

8 miles N.W. of Moulins Alfo, a town of France, in the

department of the Tarn ; 8 miles N.W. of Alby Alfo,

a town of France, ^'n the department of the Herault, on the

Grand Canal ; 3 miles S.E. of Beziers Alfo, a tovfn of

France, in the department of the Aveiron ; 6 miles N. of
Villcfranche. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department
of the Seine and Oife ; 9 miles S.E. of Paris.

ViLLENEUVE iPyigen, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrid, in the department of the Lot and
Garonne; 12 miles N. of Agen. N. lat. 44" 24'. E.
long. 48'.

ViLLENEUVE I' Archeveque, a town of France, in tb* de-
partment of the Yonne ; 21 miles W.S.Wj, of Troyes.

ViLLENEUVE lez, Avignon, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gard, on the weft fide of the RhG'ne, op-
pofite Avignon ; 21 miles N.E. of Nifmes.

ViLLENEUVE de Berg, a town of France, and feat of a
tribunal, in the department of the Ardeche ; I 2 miles S. of
Privas. N. lat. 44° 3-I'. E. long. 4° 35'.

ViLLENEUVE la Garcnnc, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Paris ; 3 miles N. of Paris.

ViLLENEUVE la GuyarJ, a town of France, in the dciiart-
ment of the Yonne ; I - miles N.N.W. of Sens.

ViLLENEUVE de Marfan, a town of Fr.ince, in the
department of the I.andes ; 9 milci E. of Mont-de-
MarfjTi.

ViLLENEUVE /<• Roy, or Villfneuvc-fnr-Tonn/; a town of
France, in the department of the Yonne, on the Yonne ;
2 polU N.W. of .loigiiy.

Vjlleneuve St. George, a town of France, it^thc dep.irt-
mcnt of the Yonne, on the Yonne, uppofitu Villencure-le-
Roy.

A a VILLE-

V 1 L

VILLENOCE, a town of France, in the department of
the Aube ; lo miles N.E. of Provins.

VILLENORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
10 miles W. of Pondicherry.

VILLENOUVETTE, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Herault, on the Orb, anciently confiderable,
and furrounded with walls. It at one time contained three
parifties, now only one ; 3 miles N.W. of Beziers.

VILLENTROIS, a town of France, in the department
of the Indre ; 18 miles N.E- of Chatillon-fur-Indre.

VILLEPEYS, or VlLLEPAIS, a town of France, in the
department of the Var, on the coaft of the bay of Frejus ;
3 miles S.S.W. of Frejus.

VILLEPINTE, a town of France, in the department
of the Aude ; 6 miles S-E. of Caftelnaudary.

VILLEPREUX, a town of France, in the department
of the Seine and Oife ; 5 miles W. of Verfailles.

VILLEQUIER, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Seine, on the right bank of the Seine ; 3
miles S.W. of Caudebec.

VILLEQUIERS, a town of France, in the department
of the Cher ; 1 8 miles E. of Bourges.

VILLEREAL, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot and Garonne ; 7 miles N. of Monflanquin.

VILLEREST, a town of France, in the departn-.ent of
the Rh6ne and Loire, on the Loire ; 5 miles S. of Roanne.

VILLERS, a town of Brabant ; 9 miles E. of Nivelle.

ViLLERS Socage, a town of France, in the department
of the Somme ; 7 miles N. of Amiens.

ViLLERS h Boccage, a town of France, in the department
of the Calvados ; 1 2 miles S.W. of Caen.

ViLLERS fous Chalamont, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Doubs ; 1 2 miles W. of Pontarlier.

ViLLERS Cotterets, a town of France, in the department
of the Aifne ; 12 miles S.W. of SoilTons.

ViLLERS Farlay, a town of France, in the department of
the Jura ; 6 miles N. of Arbois.

ViLLERS la Montagne, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mofelle ; 3 miles S.E. of Longwy.

ViLLERS _/oaj Perny, a town of France, in the department
of the Meurte ; 3 miles N.W. of Pont-a-Mouflbn.

VILLE RSE YSE L, or Villersacey, a town of France,
in the department of the Upper Saone ; 9 miles S. of
Lure.

VILLESHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
5 miles S.E. of Kitzingen.

VILLETERTRE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Oife ; 6 miles S.E. of Chaumont.

VILLETTE d' Anton, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere, on the Rhone j 12 niiies E. of
Lyons.

Villette d' IJl'ms, a town of France, in the department
of the Ifere ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Vien'ne.

VILLEVIEILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Higher Alps ; 12 miles S.E. of Brian^on.

VILLI, Coarfe Hair, in Anatomy, is fometimes ufed in the
fame fenfe as fibres, or fibrillje. See Fibre.

Villi, in Botany. See Villosus.

VILLIE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Rhone and Loire ; 1 2 miles N. of Ville-
franche.

VILLIERS, George, in Blograt)by, the firft duke of
Buckingham, was defcended from an ancient family in Lei-
celterfhire, and born at Brookby m that county, A.D. 1592.
His attention was direfted by his mother, who undertook
the charge of his education, to ornamental rather than folid
accompluhitients, which were further improved by a refi-

V I L

dence of three years in France, whither he was fent at tte
age of eighteen. His graceful perfon and gay difpofitioa
recommended him at court, to which he was introduced by
fir John Graham, a gentleman of the king's privy-chamber.
In 1 61 3, James I. conferred upon him the office of his cup-
bearer. Upon the fall of the earl of Somerfet, Villiers took
his place in the affeftion and confidence of the king, who
knighted him in 1615, and made him gentleman of the bed-
chamber, with a penfion of looo/. a-year. He foon after
became matter of the horfe, and in 1616 was honoured with
the garter, created a baron and vifcount, and in the following
year advanced to the earldom of Buckingham, and admitted
into the privy-council. After his return from Scotland, whi-
ther he accompanied the king in 161 7, he was created a mar-
quis, and promoted to the dignities of lord high-admiral of
England, chief juftice in eyre fouth of the Trent, mafter of the
king's-bench office, fteward of Weltminfter, andconftableof
Windfor Caflle. He alfo employed his powerful interefl with
the king for the advancement of his family and connexions.
His charafter was that of an ardent friend and implacable
enemy, infolent and arrogant to thofe who oppofed him,
and regardlefs of real merit in thofe whom he patronifed. To
his pufillanimous fovereign and to prince Charles he mani-
fefted his arrogant difpofition ; but in order to engage the
prince's attachment, he propofed a vifit of refpeft to his in-
tended bride, the infanta of Spain. The king, at firft averfe
from this journey, at length granted to his importunity a re-
luftant confent. His manners, however, difgufted the Spanifh
court, and he returned avowing his enmity to the prime mi-
nifler Ohvarez. Such was his powerful influence at home,
that he was appointed lord warden of the Cinque Ports. By
mifreprefenting the negociations with Spain relating to the
propofed marriage, he inflamed the nation againft the Spa-
niards, and became popular ; and dreading the return of lord
Briftol from his embaffy, and a true ftatement of this bufmefs,
he joined the oppofers of the court and promoted popular
meafures. Upon the acceflion of Charles his influence was
augmented, and he was fent to France, in order to conduct
into England the royal bride, Henrietta-Maria. During his
vifit to France, he had the affurance to declare his affeftion
for Anne of Auftria, queen of Lewis XIII., and to profe-
cute his addreffes ; and with this view, he determined to
pay her a private vifit. The confequence would probably
have been his affaffination ; but forewarned of his danger, he
declined the execution of his purpofe ; fwearing, at the fame
time, that he would fee and fpeak with that lady in fpite
of the ftrength and power of France. To this circumflance
lord Clarendon imputes his enmity againfl the French court,
and his attempt to alienate the affeftion of Charles from his
queen. At length, his inordinate ufe of the power with
which he had been entrufted rendered him an objeft of na-
tional jealoufy and abhorrence ; and in May 1626, the earl
of Briftol, who at his inftigation had been committed to the
Tower, and afterwards baniftied from the court, exhibited
againft him a charge of high-treafon. He was alfo accufed
by the commons of high crimes and mifdemeanours ; but his
mafter averted the ftroke that was aimed againft him by the
diffolution of parliament. In the war now fubfifting with
Spain, he went to the Hague to concert a treaty with the
States-general for the recovery of the Palatinate : but his
conduft towards France foon produced a war with that
country. At his folicitation, France was invaded in 1627 by
an expedition under his command ; and he landed on the ifle
of Rhe, whence he was obliged to withdraw with great lofs.
In order to recover his reputation after this difgrace, he
advifed the calling of a new parliament ; which, fo far from
anfwering his purpofe, charged him with being the author of

all

VILLIERS.

all the evils and dangers brought upon the king and king-
dom, and drew up a remonllrance, containing a llatement of
the grievances of which he had been the caufe. Thefe pro-
ceedings were (laid by a prorogation, and in the mean while
he made an effort for recovering the good-will of the country,
by fitting out an expedition for the relief of the Rochellers,
then under clofe fiege, in whofe fate the zealous Proteftants
felt great intereft. Whilil: he was at Portfmouth, preparing
for this expedition, Felton, who had ferved under him as a
lieutenant in the army, moved by difcontent and a fanatical
fpirit, gave him a ilab, which proved almoft inilantly mor-
tal, and of which he expired Auguft 23, 1628, having juil
completed his 36th year. His tragical death, unpopular as
he was, occalioned general commiferation. His public cha-
rafter has been fufficiently delineated in the preceding iketch
of his conduft. Poffefling fome qualities that excite vulgar
applaufc-, a high fpirit, perfonal courage, ready elocution
and generofity, he had no other title to the appellation of a
great man, which fome have bellowed upon him, befides
his advancement, by the erroneous judgment and partial
favour of his fovereign, to place and power. He married
lady Catliarine Manners, daughter and fole heirefs of Francis,
earl of Rutland, by whom he left two fons and a daughter.
In domeflic life, he was an affeflionate, though not a faithful
hufband, and kind to his family. With him, it is faid, all-
powerful favouritilm at the Englifh court terminated, Biog.
Brit. Clarendon. Hume, Sec. Sec.

ViLLiERS, George, fecond duke of Buckingham, was the
fon of the preceding, and born A.D. 1627, at Wallingford-
Houfe, Weilminfler. He and his brother Francis received
the rudiments of education under the fame tutors with the
king's own children,- and were both entered at Trinity col-
lege, Cambridge, and afterwards fent upon their foreign
travels. Upim their return the civil war had commenced ;
and after having been prcfentcd to the king at Oxford, they
engaged in mihtary fervice under prince Rupert and lord
Gerard. Upon this their efi.ates were feized, but reftored
on account of their nonage. They afterwards renewed their
travels in France and Italy. In 1648, when the king was
prifoner in the Ifle of Wight, they returned to England, and
joined the carl of Holland, who was in arms in Surrey ; but
in an engagement with the parliamentary troops at Nonfuch,
lord Francis, who fought vaUantly, was flain. The duke
efcaped to St. Neot's, and furrounded by the enemy, made
way with fword in hand through the guard, and joined
prince Charles in the Downs. By adhering to the royal
caufe he forfeited liis ellates, which were then amongft the
mod confiderable belonging to any Englifli fubjedt. Whilft
he was abroad, his chief fupport was derived from a fale at
Antwerp of liis father's noble colleftion of piftures, which
a faithful fervant had fecurcd. He attended the exiled
Charles in Scotland, and accompanied him at the fatal battle
of Worccfter, when his efcape was no lefs extraordinary than
that of his mailer. He afterwards ferved as a volunteer in the
French army, and occafionally vilited the king's little court
in Flanders. When the duke was informed that lord Fairfax
had retired from the army and relided on part of iiis eilatc,
which parliament had allotted to him, that he had afted ge-
neroufly with regard to other forfeitures, and that he had an
only daughter, he determined to venture into England and
try his fortune. He foon gained the affcftion of the daugh-
ter, and they were married in 1657, at his lordlhip's feat of
Nun-Appleton, near York ; and Cowley is faid to have
written an epithalamium on the ocoafion. He was feiz.ed,
however, in 1658, and committed to the Tower, very much
to the difpleafure of his father-in-law. After the death of
Cromwell, he wa» allowed to confine himfelf at Windfor

Caftlc, and upon tlie abdication of Richard h« obtained his
liberty. The Reftoration put him in pofleflion of all hi>
eftates, and he hved in fplendour and magnificence, indulging
in a profufion of expence, which was very injurious to his
fortune, and which was not counterbalanced by the polls of
a lord of the bed-chamber, lord-lieutenant of Yorklhire, and
mailer of the horfe, which the king affigned him. Reduced
to defperate circumftances, or inclined to faftion and intrigue,
he was charged, as early as the year 1662, witii treafonabfe
defigns ; fo that in 1666 it became neceiTary for him to ab-
fcond ; and a proclamation was iffued for apprehending him.
However, he voluntarily furrendercd himfelf, and contrived
fo to ingratiate himfelf with Charles, as to be reftored to his
place in tlic bed-chamber and in the council. Always an
advcrfary to lord chancellor Clarendon, he ufed his influence
to accelerate his fall. In 1668 ho joined fir Orlando Bridge-
man and fir Matthew Hale in the laudable fcheme of relaxing
the feverities againft the Non-conformifts ; but their plan for
this purpofe was defeated by the houfe of commons. Defti-
tute of fleady principle, the duke was felefted, in 1670, to
form one of the infamous party denominated the Cabal,
( which fee, ) and he was deputed as ambaffador to the court
of France, in order to diffolve the triple alliance, concerted
by Temple and De Witt ; and being a favourite with the
French king, he concurred in all the meafures of that court.
He was fufpefted, on account of his profligate charafter,
with being acceffory to the attempt made upon the life of
the duke of Ormond, by Blood ; and his cowardice was fo
contemptible, that he tamely bore from the duke's fpirited
fon, lord Offory, the imputation of this villainy, accompa-
nied with a menace, in the royal prefence. He was ele£led,
however, in 167 1, by court-intereft, to the chancellorlhip of
Cambridge ; and in the fame year was exhibited his comedy,
called the " Rehearfal," which is faid to have been a joint
produdlion. The fatire levelled againft Dryden, then made
poet-laureat, was thought to be juft, but illiberal ; and it
was retorted by the poet in the charafter of the duke, under
the name of Zimri, in " Abfalom and Achitophel."

In 1672, the duke was fent to France to concert meafures
for the war which was intended to ruin the Dutch common-
wealth. In 1674, the conduft of the Cabal being attacked
in the houfe of commons, a motion was made for his im-
peachment, and he was queftioned at the bar of the houfe.
The refult of this bufinefs was, that the commons voted an
addrefs for his removal. But as lie was direfted and reftraincd
in his conduft by no kind of principle, he joined the oppo-
fition to the court with the earl of Shaftefbury. In 1680,
having fold Wallingford-Houfe, he removed to the city, .ind
there concurred in the politics of the oppofition. Hume
has delineated his charafter very juftly, when he fays of him,
" the leaft intereft could make him abandon his honour ; the
fmalleft pleafure could feduce him from his intereft ; the
moll frivolous caprice was fufficient to counterbalance his
pleafure. By his want of fccrecy and conftancy, he deftroycd
his ch.vafter in pubhc life ; by his contempt of order and
economy, he diflipated his private fortune ; by riot and de-
bauchery he ruined his health ; and he remained at laft as
incapable of doing hurt, as he had ever been little dcfirous of
doing good to mankind." Such, notwithftanding this ap-
propriate charafter, was his inconfiftency, that in 1685 he
publilhed a popular work, containing fome juft and liberal
fentiments, and entitled " A ftiort Difcourfe ujion the Rea-
fonablenefs of Men's having a Religion, or Worfhip of God."
Upon his retirement, in declining health, to his manor of
Hclmfley, in Yorklhire, and whilft he was amufin^himfelf
with rural fports and company, he wrote a (hort elTay, en-
titled " A Demonftration of the Deity." At length, in a
A a 2 fox-

V 1 L

V 1 L

fox-chace, he caught cold, which brought on a fever, that
confined him jr. a tenant's houfe at Kirkby-moor-fide,
wliere he was viAted by fome friends, and at their fuggeftion
he received the facrament according to the rite of the church
of England. On the third day of his illnefs he died, in
April°i688, in the-6ift year of his age, and was interred in
the family-vault at Weftminfter Abbey. He was an unfaith-
ful hufband, and had no iflue by his wife Hts amours were
numerous ; and of thefe, the principal was that with the
comitefs of Shrewfbury, who held lus horfe while he killed
her hufband in a duel. His writings, confifting of eflays,
poems, &G. have been collefted in 2 vols. 8vo. and have
pafTed through four editions. He is faid to have devoted
himfelf to chemical, or rather alchemical purfuits, in which
he was the dupe of interefted and defigning perfons ; and it
is added, that he introduced the art of making cryftal-glafs
from Venice. Biog. Brit. Hume.

ViLLiERS DE l'Isle Adam, Philip de, was a defcendant
of an ancient French family, born in 1464, and elefted grand-
matter of the order of St. John of Jerufalem in 152 1. In
the year after his eleftion, the ifland of Rhodes, where he
refided, was invaded by 200,000 Turks, againft whom he
defended it with fuch vigour, that fultan Solyman came in
perfon to fuperintend the attack ; and after a fiege of fix
months, in which the Turks are faid to have loft j 00,000
mcH, he found it neceffary to furrender it. Solyman treated
him with great refpeA, declaring to one of his officers, that
it was not without regret he obliged this Chriftian to leave
his houfe at his age. Abandoning Rhodes in 1523 vpith
fifty veffels, his remaining knights, and about 4000 of the
inhabitants, he airived at Rome during the papacy of Cle-
ment Vn. ; who afligned to him for a prefent rcfidence the
town of Viterbo. In 1527 the emperor Charles V. offered
the illand of Malta, which in a general chapter it was de-
termined to accept. He then went to Syracufe, and in 1 530
received the donation by letters-patent of Malta, Gozo,
and Tripoli in Barbary. In this year he fortified Malta ;
and from that pei-iod, the knights of St. John affumed
the title of knights of Malta. After a life diftinguifhed
by piety, courage, and prudence, he died in 1534, at
the age of 70. Upon his tomb was infcribed this appro-
priate eulogy, " Here repofes Virtue vidlorious over For-
tune." Moreri.

ViLLlERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Cote d'Or ; 6 miles N.N.W. of Chatillon-
fur-Seine. — Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Loire and Cher ; 4 miles W. of Vendome. — Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Mayne ; 6 miles N. of
Chateau Gontier.

ViLLiERs en Vecevre, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure ; 15 miles E.S.E. of Evreux.

ViLLiERS St. Benoit, a town of France, in the department
of the Yonne ; 15 miles W. of Auxerre.

VILLIMPENTA, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Mincio ; 10 miles E. of Mantua.

VILLINGEN, a town of the duchy of Baden, in the
Brifgau. This place, by means of the mountains and narrow
accefles leading to it, is extremely well fecured, and alfo
fomewhat fortified by art. It has always ferved the Auf-
trians as a magazine for thefe parts, as well for provifions as
military ftores. In it is an abbey of Benediftines ; and its
neighbourhood contains a good bath ; 52 miles S.S.W. of
Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 4'. E. long. 8"^ 26'.

VILLOA, a town of the duchy of Piacenza ; 10 miles
S. of Piacenza.

VILLOISON, John-Baptist Gaspardd'Anse de, in
Biography, was the defcendant of a family originally Spanifli,

4

and born in 1750 at Corbdlle-fur-Seine, and after receiving
the rudiments of literature at feveral colleges, attended the
Greek lectures of M. le Beau at Paris, and enjoyed the
higher inftruftion in this department of MCapperonier,
Greek profeflbr in the royal college of France. Such were
his talents and appHcation, that with thefe advantages he
became acquainted, at the age of fifteen, with almoft all
the writers of antiquity in every clafs. In his refearches
among MSS. in the library of St. Germain -des-Pres, he
found a Greek lexicon of Homer by ApoUonius, which he
pubhfhcd in 1773, with prolegomena and notes, that dif-
played a very furprifing extent of erudition, confideriag his
early age, and that introduced him, out of the ufual form,
into the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres. His
next confiderable undertaking was an edition of the Paftoral
of Longus, which was publifhed in 1778. In 1781 he ob-
tained a miffion, at the king's expence, to examine the library
of St. Mark in Venice, where he found feveral inedited
works of rhetoricians, philofophers, and grammarians, a col-
leftion of which he publifhed in 2 vols. 4to. under the title
of " Anecdota Grsca." He alfo found a very valuable MS.
of Homer's Iliad, with fchoha by ancient grammarians,
which he committed to the prefsin 1788, accompanied with
learned prolegomena. About this time he received an
invitation from the duke and duchefs of Saxe-Weimar, to
vifit their court, the moft hterary in Germany ; and here
he collefted various readings and emendations of the text of
feveral Greek authors, which he printed at Zurich, under
the title of " Epiftolse Vimarienfes." Another of his publi-
cations is that of a trandation of part of the Old Teftament,
by a Jew of the ninth century, which he had found in the
Ubrary of St. Mark ; and of this he gave an edition, with
notes, at Strafturghin 1781. Soon after his return to Paris,
and his marriage of an interefting young woman, he formed
the pnrpofe of fearching for MSS. in the Eaft, and in 1785
he vifited Conltantinople, and afterwards Smyrna, and feveral
iflands in the Archipelago, and Greece ; and the refult of
his refearches and obfervations was read before the Academy
of Belles Lettres, on his return to Paris in 1787. At the
commencement of the Revolution he retired to Orleans, for
the purfuance of his literary plans ; and the fruits of his
confultations of ancient and modern authors were 15 large
volumes in 410. He alfo contemplated a larger work,
which was a new edition of father Montfaucon's " Palaeo-
graphia Grasca." When the revolutionary tempeft fubfided,
he returned to Paris, with literary treafure, in amafling which
he had expended three-fourths of his moderate fortune ; and
he was therefore under a neceffity of commencing a courfe
of leftures in the Greek language, which proved unfucceff-
ful. He therefore gladly accepted the profefTorlhip of mo-
dern Greek, which the government eftabhfhed, and dif-
charged its duties till it was fupprefTed by Napoleon.
From refpecl to his merit, a profeflbrfhip of ancient and mo-
dern Greek was created for him alone in the college of
France ; but he was carried off by a hngering malady in
April 1805, at the age of 55 years. In verbal knowledge
Villoifon was deemed a profound fcholar ; but to the higher
qualities of intelleft he is faid to have had no juft pretenfions.
Gen. Biog.

VILLONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Leon ; 1 3 miles E. of Salamanca.

VILLOSLADA, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile ;
20 miles S.E. of Najera.

VILLOSUS, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, ex-
preffes that kind of hairinefs which is longifh, foft, and
fnaggy, hke wool, yet does not amount to the thick en-
tangled coat of many plants, which is properly termed

woolly,

V I M

VIM

woolly, as in Vebbascum ; fee that article : fee alfo Pu-
bescence anJ Leaf.

VILLOUS, ViLLOSA, is particularly applied to one
of the coats or membranes of the llomach, called crujla
villofa,

It takes its name from innumerable villi, or fine fibrilla?,
with which its inner furface is covered.

VILLURBANNE, in Geography, a town of France,
ia the department of the Ifere ; 4 miles E. of Lyons.

VILMANSTRAND, or Wilmanstrand, a town of
Ruflla, in the government of Vibor^, on the fouth coaft of
tlie lake Saima ; 40 miles N.N.W. of Viborg. N. lat.
61° 20'. E. long. 27° 26'.

VILMAR, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine ; 24 miles N. of Mentz.

VILMINOREU, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Adda and Oglio ; 28 miles N.E. of Bergamo.

VILMNITZ, a town of the ifland of Rugen ; 7 miles
S.E. of Bergen.

VILOVATOSTANOVITSCHE.afortrefsofRuffia,
in the government of Archangel, near the Frozen ocean ;
180 miles E.S.E. of Kola. N. lat. 68° 50'. E. long.

VILS, a river of Bavaria, which pafles by Amberg, &c.
and runs into the Nab, at Kalmunz. — Alfo, a river of Wur-
temberg, which rifes near Wiefenftug, pafles by Geiftingen,
Coppingen, S:c. and runs into the Neckar, 2 miles N. of
Wendlingen.

ViLS, or Gros, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Danube at Vilfliofen.

ViLS Biburg, a town of Bavaria ; 8 miles S.E. of Land-
fhut.

VILSECK, a town of Bavaria, on the Vils ; 20 miles
S.S.E. of Bayreuth. N. lat. 49° 36'. E. long. 1 1° 48'.

VILSEN, a town of Germany, in the county of Hoya ;

5 miles W. of Hoya.

VILSHOFEN, a town of Bavaria, at the conflux of
the Vils with the Danube ; 1 1 miles W. of Pafl'au. N.
lat. 48'' 29'. E. long. 13° II'.

VILTRUM, a word ufed fometimes alone to exprefs a
filtrc, inftead of the word fltrum. But -viltnim is more
commonly joined with the word philofophorum, and then cx-
prefles the common alembic for diftillation.

VILUI, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs
into the Lena, at Ull Viluiflioi. N. lat. 64°. E. long.
126' 14'.

VILUISKOI, NiZNEi, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutflc, on the Vilui. N. lat. 63° 45'. E. long.

122*44'.

Vii.uisKOi, UJl, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkutfli, at the conflux of the Vilui and Lena; 128 miles
N.W. of Yakutik. N. lat. 63° 50'. E. long. 126° 1J4'.

ViLUiSKOi, Verchnei, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutflt ; 200 miles N. of Olcmin/k. N. lat.
63'' 44'. E. long. 120° 24'.

VILVORDE, or ViLLEFORTE, a town of France, in
the department of the Dyle, fituated on tlie river Senne ;

6 miles S. of Maliiics.

VIM, a river of Ruflia, which rifes in the government
of Archangel, and runs into the Vitchegda, near Lialfkoi,
in the province of Ufl:iug.

VIMERCATO, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Olona; 13 miles N.N.E. of Milan.

VIMIEIRO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Alontejo; 10 miles W. of Eilremoz.

VIMINACIUM, or ViMiNATiUM, in Ancitnt Geogra-

phy, a town otHifpania Citerior, belonging to the Vaccsci ;
marked in the Itin. Anton, between Palentiaand Lacobrigai
VIMINALIS, in Mythology, an epithet of Jupiter.
VIMINARIA, In Botany, was fo named by the writer
of this article, from vimen, a flender rod, or twig, in alluflon
to the habit of the plant. — Sm. in Sims and Kon. Annals
of Botany, v. i. 507. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 13.
— Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Pa-
pilionacet, Linn. Leguminofit, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, Ample, of one leaf,
bell-fliaped, angular, with five fliort equal teeth, permanent.
Cor. papilionaceous. Standard inverfely heart -fliaped, af-
cending, with a Ihort claw. Wings oblong, obtufe, con-
verging, fliorter than the ilandard, each with a tooth at the
bafe, on the lower fide, and a fliort flender claw. Keel
nearly equal to the wings, of two combined petals, with
diftinCi; claws, concave, with a blunt tooth at each fide of
the upper edge, at the bafe. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-
fliapcd, difl;inft, rather afcending, the lower ones gradually
longetl, the upper one fliorteft ; anthers roundifti, two-
lobed. Pyi. Germen fuperior, oval, fmooth ; llyle capil-
lary, afcending, as long as the ftaraens ; lligma fimple.
Perk. Legume oval, half invefted by the calyx, acute,
flightly comprefled, fmooth, coriaceous, of one cell, not
burfling. Seed folitary, oval-kidneyftiaped, Without any
appendage.

Elf. Ch. Calyx angular, fimple, five-toothed. Corolla
papilionaceous. Style capillary. Stigma fimple, acute.
Legume leathery, of one valve, not burfting, entirely filled
with a fingle feed.

I. V.denudata. Leaflefs Rufli-Broom. Sm. in Ann. of
Bot. as above. Exot. Bot. v. i. 51. t. 27. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 9. 261. Ait. n. I. (Daviefia denudata ; Venten.
Choix de Plantes, t. 6. Sophora juncea ; Schrad. Sert.
Hannov. 9. t. 3. Pultenaea juncea ; Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.
506. Donn Cant. ed. 5. loi.) — The only known fpecies,
a native of New Holland and Van Diemen's ifland, faid to
have been introduced at Kew by fir Jofepli Banks, in
1789. It is a rather hardy greenhoufe (hrub, flowenng in
July. The JUm is branched, round and fmooth. Leaves
only to be feen on the lower part of feedlings, or young
plants, alternate, on long fmooth ftalks, ovate, entire, three-
ribbed, fmooth, either acute or emarginate ; at firll fome-
times ternate. The footftalks on the greater part of the
plant are leaflefs, cylindrical, fmooth, with two or three
minute fcaks at the point ; the lower ones fix inches, or
more, in length ; t!ie upper gradually fliorter. Cluflcrs
terminal, folitary, fimple, of many pretty yellow fioiuers,
the diflc of \Nhaie Jlandards is red. Each partial _/?d//{ has a
fmall hrafiea at the bafe.

VIMINATIUM Legio, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Higher Mocfia, on the banks of the Danube, marked
in the Itin. Anton, on the route from Mount d'Or to Con-
ftantinople, between Municipium and Ideuminacum.

VIMIOSO, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Tra los Monies ; 15 miles W.N.W. of Mi-
randa dc Duero. N. lat. 41° 29'. E. long. 6" 14'.

VIMMALA, ill Natural Hijlory, a name given by the
people of tlie Eaft Indies to a kind of pyrites, of a brafl^y
appearance, and of a cubic figure.

They alfo give it in the fame place to the pyritsc in ge-
neral, when fmall, and of a fimple internal Ih\ii5\urc.

VIMOUTIER, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Orne, on the Vic ; 15 miles N.E. of
Argentan.

VIMY, a town of France, in the department of the
Straits of Calais : s miles N. of Arras.

VINA,

V I N

V I N

VINA, or Vena, in Hindoo Mythology, is the father of
Prithu, who is fabled to have been an incarnation of the god
Vifhnu. Vina is the correft mode of writing the name of
a mufical inftrument of the Eaft, commonly called Been ;
under which word we have given a defcriplion, and referred
to one of our plates for a reprefentation of it.

VINAGO, in Ornithology, a name given by fome au-
thors to the wood-pigeon, from the colour of its bread,
flioulders, and wings, refembling that of red wine. Its
more ufual name among authors is oenos.

VINALHAVEN, in Geography, a town of America,
in the diftrift of Maine and county of Hancock, contain-
ing 1052 inhabitants; 60 miles E.N.E. of Brunfwick.

VINALIA, in Antiquity, a name common to two feafts
■ among the ancient Romans ; the one in honour of Jupiter,
and the other of Venus.

The firft was held on the 19th of Auguft ; and the
fecond on the ift of May. The VinaUa of the 19th of
Auguft were called Finalia rujiica ; and were inftituted on
occafion of the war of the Latins againft Mezentius ; in
the courfe of which war, that people vowed a libation to
Jupiter of all the wine in the fuccecding vintage.

On the fame day hkewife fell the dedication of a temple
of Venus ; whence fome authors have fallen into a miftake,
that thefe Vinalia were facred to Venus. But Varro LLL.V.
and Feilus, in verba RuJlica, diftinguifli between the two
ceremonies ; and exprefsly affert the Vinalia to be a feaft of
Jupiter.

VINARA, in Geography, a town of South, America, in
the province of Tucuman ; 56 miles N.N.W. of St. Yago
del Eftero.

VINAROZ, a town of Spain, in the province of Va-
lencia, on the coaft of the Mediterranean ; 5 miles N. of
Penifcola.

VINATA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the parent of the
eagle of the Indian Jove, called Garuda, or Superna. He
is alfo parent of the Aurora of Eaftern fable, who is called
Aruna, the driver of the car of Phoebus, or Surya. Under
SuRYA we have fpoken of Vinata as the ^a/frno/ anceftor of
Superna and Aruna, but it is rather an equivocal parentage,
as Kafyapa is fometimes faid to be their father, and Diti
their mother. (See Kasyapa.) The name of Vinata, or
Vinava, feldom occurs in Hindoo books ; though that of
Vinateya, as a name of Superna, marking his parentage, is
not very uncommon.

VINATEYA, a name of the Hindoo mythological
eagle, more commonly called Superna ; which fee, and
Vinata.

VINAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere ; 4 miles S. of St. Marcelin.

VINAZA, in Jlncient Geography, a town of Africa Pro-
pria, upon the route from Tacapi to Grand Leptis, between
Aurus and Thalatum. Anton. Itin.

VINCA, in Botany, originally Pervinca, whence its Eng-
lifh and French names. Periwinkle and Pervenche, is not fa-
tisfaftorily explained by any etymologift. The beft deriva-
tion of the word may perhaps be from vincio, to bind or
wrap up, becaufe its long trailing or twining branches wind
themfelves round, and entangle, every other plant in their

way Linn. Gen. 115. Schreb. 163. Willd. Sp. PI.

V.I. 1232. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 269.
Prodr. Fl. Gric. Sibth. v. i. 164. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 2. 66. Juff. 144. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 172. Gartn.
t. 117. (Pervinca; Tourn. t. 45.) — Clafs and order,
Peniandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contorts, Linn. /Ipo-
cinea, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Col. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five

deep, ereft, acute fegments, permanent. Cor. of oi;f
petal, falver-lhaped. Tube longer than the calyx ; cylin-
drical in the lower part ; dilated and grooved with five lines
in the upper ; five-angled at the mouth. Limb horizontal,
in five deep equal fegments, attached to the top of the tube,
dilated outwards, obliquely lopped at the extremity, and
(lightly twifted. Stiim. Filaments five, inferted into the
tube, very (hort, inflexed and then bent backward ; an-
thers membranous, obtufe, ereft, incurved, bearing pollen
at each margin. Pi/}. Germens two, roundifti, at whofe
fides are two roundilh bodies ; ftyle common to both ger-
mens, finiple, cyUndrical, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma
of two parts, the lower orbicular, flat, the upper capitate,
concave. Peric. Follicles two, long, cylindrical, pointed,
ereft, each of one valve burfting lengthwife. Seeds nume-
rous, oblong, cylindrical, furrowed, without down or
wing.

EfT. Ch. Corolla of one petal, contorted, falver-ftiaped,
inferior. FoUicles two, ereft. Seeds naked.

1. V. minor. LefTer Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. PI. 304.
Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 917. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 3. t. 16. (V. pervinca minor ; Ger. Era. 894.
Clematis ; Camer. Epit. 694, 695. Matth. Valgr. v. 2.
305.) — Stems procumbent. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
fmooth at the edges. Flowers ftalked. Calyx-teeth laH-
ceolate. — Found in bufhy places, groves, and about hedges,
in Germany, Eiigland, France, Switzerland, and various
parts of Greece. There can be little doubt of this being
the xAn/.ia1i.; of Diofcorides, as all authors have thought.
He fpeaks of it as a native of Egypt. Dr. Sibthorp met
with it in Arcadia, as well as in the countries of Elis and
Argohs. In England this pretty plant is feldom found
wild, thoU£;h in gardens and fhrubberics nothing is more
commonly planted, particularly the double-flowered purple,
and the white-flowered variegated kinds. They are all
perennial, flowering in May. The roo' creeps extenfively.
The Jlems, erc6l while in flower, become traihng, creeping
very far, and are round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves evergreen,
oppofite, ftalked, entire, fmooth, (hining, about an inch
long. Floivers axillary, foUtary, alternate, ftalked, ereft,
fcentlefs, deep blue, white in the centre. We have never
feen the/r«/V of this fpecies.

2. V. major. Greater Pcriv\'inkle. Linn. Sp. PI. 304.
Willd. n. 2. Fl. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t. 514. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 4. t. 19. (Pervinca vulgaris; Garidel Aix ;
t. 81. Clematis daphnoides major; Ger. Em. 894.) —
Stems nearly ereft. Leaves ovate, fringed. Flowers

ftalked. Calyx-teeth briftle-fliaped, elongated Native

of thickets and groves, in rather moift fituations, in Eng-
land, France, Spain, Switzerland, and Carniola, flowering
in May, being lefs rare with us than the former, and no
lefs commonly cultivated for ornament in extenfive (hrub-
beries, that will admit of its rambling mode of growth.
There this fpecies compofes light, convex, evergreen tufts
under trees and hedges. The leai-es are thrice the fize of
V. minor, of a lighter green, and more ovate, or fomewhat
heart-fliaped. Flowers larger, and rather more blue, with
lefs of a violet tint. Seed-veffels an inch and a half long,
recurved, pointed, with feldom more than two roughi(h
Jieds, one above the other.

3. V. lutea. Yellow Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. PI. 304.
Am. Acad. v. 4. 309, not 307. Willd. n. 3. (" Apocy-
num fcandens, falicis folio, flore amplo piano ; Catefb.
Carol. V. 2. 53. t. 53.") — " Stem twining. Leaves ob-
long."— Native of Carolina. This has the habit of an
Echites. We are quite unacquainted with the plant, oor
did Linnaeus ever fee a fpeciraen.

4-V.

V 1 N

V I N

4. V. rofea. Madagafcar Periwinkle. Linn. Sp. PI.
305. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Curt. Mag. t. 248.
(Vinca; Mill. Ic. 124. t. 186. ) — Stem flirubby, ereift.

Flowers felTile, in pairs. Leaves cUiptic-obloiig Native of

the Eaft Indies. Cultivated here by Mr. Thomas Knowlton,
before the year 1756. It is now become a very popular
ftove-plant, flowering moft part of the year, and recom-
mending itfelf to general admiration, by the beautiful colour
of its ample bloffoms, whofe corolla is either of a bright rofe-
colour, or pure white, the centre always of a peculiarly
rich crimfon, with a yellow eye. The Jiem is bufhy, quite
ereft, about a yard high. Leaves entire, rather downy,
two inches long, bluntilh. This fpecies is propagated
eafily, either by feed or by cuttings, but will not endure
much cold or wet, though it requires a free air in fummer.

5. V. parviflora. Small-flowered Periwinkle. Retz.
Obf. fafc. 2. 14. Ait. n.4. Willd. n. 5. (V. pufilla;
Murray in Comm. Goett. for 1772. 66. t. 2. f. I. Linn.
Suppl. 166.1 — Stem ereft, herbaceous. Leaves lanceolate,
acute. — Native of the Ead Indies. An Annual ftove-
plant, flowering in Auguft, whofe feeds were imported by
fir Jofeph Banks in 1778. The Jtem is about a (pan high,
flightly branched. Leaves as long as the lall:, being about
two inches, but much narrower, and acute. Flowers fo-
litary or in pairs, fmall, with not much pretention to beauty ;
their corolla white, with a yellow eye, not ill compared by
Willdenow to Lithofpermum officinale.

ViN'CA, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the (lirubby,
evergreen, upright and trailing kinds, among which the
fpecies cultivated are, the fmall periwinkle (V. minor) ;
the great periwinkle (V. major) ; and the Madagafcar
periwinkle (V. rofea).

The firft has a perennial creeping root, and it varies in
the colour of the flowers ; witli pale blue, with purple,
and white, and with double flowers of thefe different co-
lours ; and the foliage is fometimes variegated either with
white or yellow ilripes.

The fecond fort is larger in all its parts than the preced-
ing, having flowers of a purple-blueifli colour. It varies
with white flowers.

The third has an upright branching ftem, tliree or four
feet high, having a long fucceffion of pale flefli-coloured
flowers.

It varies with flowers with purple eyes.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are all capable of being
increafed by layers, cuttings, and fuckers.

In the flrft method, when the layers of the trailing
branches are put down into the ground, they readily take
root at almoft any feafon. This is very much tlie cafe with
the firft fort, as almoft every joint furniflies plants in the
courfe of the fummer ready to be put out in the autumn.

The cuttings may be made from the ftalks and branches,
and be planted in fliady borders in the autumn or early
fpring, when tliey will become well rooted by tlie following
autumn.

All the forts fuccced in this way.

In the third fort, the cuttings fhould be made from the
young flioots and be planted in pots, plunging them in a
hot-bed, or the bark-bed, where they will become perfeftly
well rooted in the fame year, and may be potted oflf fepa-
rately, being placed in the ftove, and (hifted as may be
ncceffary into large pots.

This fort may likewife be raifed from feed, which fliould
be fown in pots in the early fpring filled with light rich
earth, covering them well in, and plunging the pots in the
hot-bed, or the bark-lied of the ftove ; and when the
plants have a few inches growth, they ftiould be pricked

out into feparate pots, re-plunging them in a hot-bed, giving
proper fliade and water, managing them afterwards as the
cuttings.

The fuckers may be taken off with root-fibres in the au-
tumn or fpring, and planted where they are to grow.

The two firil forts afl^ord variety iu the borders, clumps,
Sec. and they may be planted in thickets and wilderneflfes
under trees with perfcft fuccefs ; while the laft has a fine
cftcft in ftove coUeftions as an elegant evergreen and flower-
ing flirub.

V INC AC, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Eaft Pyrenees ; 4 miles E.N.E. of
Prades.

VINCELLES, a town of France, in the department
of the Jura ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Lons le Saunier.

VINCENNES, a town of France, in the department
of Paris, in which was a royal palace, originally begun
by Philip de Valois, but repaired and finilhed by Louis
XIV. : the ancient towers ferved as a ftate prifon. At
this place the duke d'Enghien fuffered death; i poft E.
of Paris.

ViNCENNEs, a town of America, the capital of the
territory of Indiana and county of Knox, on the bank of
the Wabafli, 150 miles from its mouth ; in a delightful
fituation, furrounded by a prairie four miles long and one
broad, moftly cultivated, and the remainder being a fine
meadow which produces good grafs. The foil, which is
not inferior to any in the United States, yields corn, rice,
wheat, tobacco, hemp, hops, grapes, &c. The Wabafli is
navigable, almoft through the whole year, as far as this
place. Commerce centres here, as the merchants bring
their goods from Canada down the Wabafli, from Orleans
up the Miflifippi, and from the eaftern ftates, down the
Ohio and up the Wabafli. The fort, crefted in 1787,
ftands on the E. fide of AVabafli river. It is garrifoned
by a major and two companies. The inhabitants, prin-
cipally of French extraftion, amount to 670. It is a
poft-town ; 743 miles from Wafliington. — Alfo, a town-
flilp in the fame territory and county, containing 223
inhabitants.

VINCENT, Willi A m, D.D. in Biography, dean of Weft-
miiifter and vicar of Iflip, Oxon, was a dcfcendant of a race of
anceftors who officiated as clergy men of the eft abliflied church,
and belonged to that clafs of ccclefiaftics ufually denominated
the " High Church Party." They were feated at Shepey, in
the county of Leiceltcr. The dean was the laft furviving fon
of Mr. Giles Vincent, who acquired a fortune as a packer
under Spanilh and Portugal mercliants ; but afterwards,
by loflcs and diiappointments in his commercial conneftions,
retired from trade without being enriched by it. He was
born in London, Novcmiber 2, 1739, and being defigned for
the church, was entered at Weftminfter fchool in September,
174S, and in 1753 "'^^ admitted on the foundation. In
1757 he was eleftcd to Trinity college, Cambridge, and
fujiported there by his elder brother, who continued the bu-
finefs of a packer. He took his firft degree of B.A. in
1761, and in the following year was appointed teacher at
Weftminfter fchool. In 1764 he was graduated M.A. ; in
1771 he became fecond mailer ; in 1 776, D.D. and one of his
majerty's chaplains; in 1788, head-maftcr of the lehool ; and
in 1708, prefidcnt of Sioii colteije. Having married in e.irly
life, his family rapidly increafed, and fome of his children
were arrived at inalnrity before he obtaimd any confider-
able preferments in the church, notwilhllanding the favour-
able fiuialiori which he occupied. In 1777 he was nominated
by Dr. Markham, upon his elevation to the fee of York, fub-
almoncr to the king, an ofScc which he held until his deraife;
1 1 and

VINCENT.

and in 1778 he was advanced to the reftory of AUhallows,
which in 1 803 he refigned in favour of his elded fon. In 1 80 1
he obtained a prebendal ftall in the collegiate church of St.
Peter, Weftminfter, which preferment enabled him to refign
the laborious office of head-maftar of the fchool ; and in
1802 he became dean. In 1807 he took poffeffion of the
reftory of Iflip. On the parfonage-houfe, rebuilt by Dr.
South, he expended between two and three thoufand pounds,
1000/. of which arofe from dilapidations, and the remainder
furniflied by himfelf, fo as to render it a convenient and com-
fortable refidence. It is mentioned as a remarkable circum-
ftance in the life of this learned divine, that he pafled twice,
with great applaufe, through Weftminfter fchool; firft, from
the loweft form to the higheft as a fcholar, and fecondly as
an uftier : nor is it lefs fingular, that he almoft conftantly re-
fided within the precinfts of the Abbey, from his eighth to
his feventy-fixth year, or during the interval of fixty-eight
years, allowing for his temporary abfence at Cambridge
during his education, and on occafion of taking a degree.
Notwithftanding his affiduous appli'-ation to the duties of
a fedentary profellion, his life was p olonged to an advanced
age ; and after a fortnight's illnefs, he died at his favourite
refidence of the deanery, December 21ft, 1815, in the 77th
year of his age ; leaving behind him two fons, both of whom
are married and have children.

Whilft he was unremitting in his attention to his ofEce as
tutor, and to his various clerical duties, he devoted a portion
of his time to compofitions which have iftued from tlie
prefa. Of thefe, the firft we ftiall mention was " A Letter
to Dr. Richard Watfon (afterwards Biftiop of Llaiidaff'),
King's Profeftor in the Univerfity of Cambridge," 8vo. 1 780,
in reply to fome obfervations introduced by this learned pre-
late into a fermon preached before the univerfity of Cam-
bridge, which was afterwards printed under the title of
" The Principles of the Revolution x-indicated," and into
another difcourfe " On the Anniverfary of His Majefty's
Acceffion." In 1787 he publiihcd his traft on " Parochial
Mufic ;" in 1789, a fermon delivered before the fons of the
clergy ; and in 1792, a fermon preached at St. Margaret's,
Weftminfter, for the Grey-coat fchool of that parifh. In the
latter difeourfe he noticed opinions, which were then preva-
lent, refpefting the doftrines of natural liberty and equality ;
and more than 20)O0O copies of it were printed and dif-
perfed in and near the metropolis, and a great number was
circulated through different parts of the kingdom. The
ne»t pubhcation of Dr. Vincent was " The Origination of
the Greek Verb, an Hypothefis," 8vo. ; the title of which
was altered in the fecond edition to " The Greek Verb
analyfed." This work was criticifed with fome humour,
and not without a degree of afperity, in a piece entitled
" Hermes unma(l<ed." Our author's next publicatioa was
an elaborate diflertation on military affairs, entitled " De
Legione Manliana Quaeftio, ex Livio defumpta, et Rei
Militaris Romanx ftudiofis propofita," 1795. Six years
afterwards appeared" his principal performance, evincing
his acquaintance with both ancient and modern geogra-
phy and navigation, under the title of " The Voyage of
Nearchus to the Euphrates; coUefted from the original
.Tonrnal preferved by Arrian, and illuftrated by Authorities
ancient and modern, containing an Account of the firft Na-
vigation attempted by the Europeans in the Indian Ocean,"
4to. 1799 > '""■•^ ^^^^ ^^"^^ ^"'^" after followed by " The Pe-
riplus of the Erythrean Sta ; containing an Account of the
Navigation of the Ancients from the Red Sea to the Coaft
of Zanquebar, with Differtations, Part I." 410. 1800. Our
learned author was next engaged in a controverfy with Dr.
Rennell, prebendary of Winckefter and maftcr of the Tem-

ple, occafioned by fome refleftions on the negleft of religion
in our p iblic inftitutions, which were introduced in a fermon
preached in 1799, before the Society for promoting Chriftian
Knowledge, at the annual meeting of all the charity-fchools
of the metropolis, in the cathedral of St. Paul's. To this fer-
mon was annexed a note, in which the preacher declares his
opinion, " that there is fcarcely any internal danger which
we fear, but what is to be afcribed to a Pagan education,
under Chriftian eftaWiflimeats, in a Chriftian country." Dr.
Vincent, then mafterof the only great pubUc fchool in the me-
tropolis, feemed at firft to think that this attack was perfonal ;
but in order to avoid public contention, he commenced a
private correfpondence with Dr. Rennell, in the courfe of
which ample and fatisfaftory explanations were made. But
at the next anniverfary, in 1800, Dr. O'Beirne, biftiop of
Meath, delivered a fermon, wliich was printed at the re-
queft of the Society, accompanied by a note, containing the
fame obnoxious aftertions, together with additional remarks
of his own. Dr. Vincent applied to the Society for per-
miflion to inclofe in the parcels, containing its annual com-
munications, a juttification of the public inftruftors of
England ; but the Society declining to take a part in tlie
controverly by complying with this requeft, the author com-
mitted to the prefs his " Defence of Public Education,"
addrefled to the biftiop of Meath, in which h.- makes an
apology for the prefent fyftem, and expreffes himfelf in a
high and indignant tone, in refpeft to the diftinguiftied in-
dividuals whofe fiippofed indifcretion had incurred his cen-
fure. As no reply was made, the conteft terminated ; and
in order to prevent the recurrence of a fimilar event, the
Society refolved, that the notes as well as the text of the
annual fermon fliould for the future be fubmitted to its re-
vifion and approbaiion.

In 1802, our author publiftied his thankfgiving fermon,
preached at St. Margaret's, Weftminfter, before the ho-
nourable houfe of commons; in 1805, ^^^ fecond part of
" The Periplns of the Erythrean Sea;" in 1809, " The
Voyage of Nearchus, and the Periplus of the Erythrean
Sea," tranflated from the Greek ; and in Mr. Valpy'sclaffical
Journal, No. 18. " Obfervations on the Geography of
Sufiana." The dean alfo reviewed feveral articles in the
Britifti Critic, particularly that relating to the controverfy
about the Troad, and occafionally contributed articles to
the Gentleman's Magazine. By fuch literary lucubrations
Dr. V. amufed himfelf in the intervals of his more laborious
employments, paffing a long and honourable life hy de-
voting his mornings to reading and his evenings to the
fociety of his friends; and towards the clofe of life, dividing
his time between his deanery and his living of Iflip. " In
the bofom of his family," fays one of his biographers,
" Dr. Vincent was feen to the greateft advantage." In
the tranquil and peaceful circle above briefly delineated,
" he endeared himfelf to all around him, by the benignity
of his difpofition, the aff'ability of his demeanour, and the
charms of his converfation. Here were laid open that fin-
glenefs of heart and fimphcity of mind, which none could
appreciate juftly, but thofe who faw and were conver-
fant with him in the free and familiar hours of domeftic
privacy. With qualifications wliich would have conferred
dignity on the higheft ftation in the church, and with an
ambition, perhaps, not wholly averfe from rank and eleva-
tion. Dr. V. neverthelefs loved quiet and retirement." We
ftiall clofe this article with fome extrafts from a biogra-
pher who has duly appreciated his talents and charafter.
" As a clergyman," fays this writer, " Dr. Vincent was
regular and exemplary in the difcharge of his duties ; ftriftly
orthodox in point of faith ; and a firm fupporter of all the

do£lriuc5,

V I N

doftrines, tenets, and pradlices of the church of England.
His perfon, as well as enunciation, were well fitted for pul-
pit oratory : his voice, in particular, was fonorous ; his anima-
tion produced a lively intereft in the hearts of his auditors,
while a certain dignity of manner commanded their implicit
attention." — " As a writer, he poffeired all the necelTary re-
quilites to gain the approbation of intelligent critics ; he was
indefatigably induftrious ; addifted to refearch ; and learned
in no common degree. While his literary labours evinced
his intimate acquaintance with the ancients, his fermons were
admirably adapted to the abilities and underilandings of an
ordinary audience. In both capacities his language was
challe ; his compofition elegant: in fliort, he continually
reflefted the images of a mind, richly imbued with learning,
both human and divine."

" As a controvcrfial writer, he fometimes bordered on
afperity, and this, too, in refpeft of minor points ; while
with certain perfons, from whom he differed in effentials, he
exhibited no common (liare of moderation and liberality.
Accordingly he did full juftice to the talents of a Tooke,
a Porfon, and a Gibbon."

" As a fchool-mailer, he mud be allowed to have
had a number of diftinguilhed pupils," among whom we
may reckon the late and prefent dukes of Bedford, fir
Francis Buixlett, and his fuccelFor, as head-mafter. Dr. Carey ;
and in this capacity he is faid to have been the acute, able,
indefatigable, and llrenuous affertor of the ancient difci-
pline. Annual Biography and Obituary, for 1817, vol. i.
Gent. Mag.

Vincent, Thomas, a celebrated performer on the liant-
bois, was a fcholar of the admirable San Martini ; and,
after his mafter had ceafed to perform in public, and had
furnifhed him with concertos, was an unrivalled favourite on
his inftrumcnt, till the arrival of Fifcher.

In 1765 he became joint imprefario of the Opera with
Gordon.

Vincent, after tlie deceafe of San Martini, had been in
great favour with liis royal highnefs Frederic, prince of
Wales, father to his prefent majefty ; had acquired a con-
fiderable fum of money in his profeffion, which he aug-
mented by marriage. However, the ambition of being at
the head of fo froward a family as an opera vocal and inftru-
mental band, turnnl his head and his purfe infidc out ; in
fliort, he foon became a bankrupt, and his colleagues,
though they efcaped utter ruin, were not enriched by the
connedtion. He ended his days in the evening of life, of
which the morning had been fo brilliant, in poverty and ob-
fcurity, and paid dear for his ambition and imprudence,

Vincent, Riciiahd, who performed the firft hautbois
at Vauxhall Gardi-ns from the beginning of mufical per-
formances there, and at Covent-Gardcn theatre more than
thirty years. He was the father of the young mufician who
married the celebrated Mifs Birchell, poirened with one of
the fined treble voices that was ever heard in pubhc. After
performing at Vauxhall with great and conftant applaufc,
on the death of licr hufband fhe went to the Ea(l Indies,
where (he was ilill more applauded than in England, and
where flie was married a fecond time to .John Mills, cfq., a
gentleman of fortune and confidcration, with whom (he re-
turned to her native country, and lived happily in a fplendid
manner. She was buried in St. Pancras church-yard,
where there is an honourable and affeftionate epitaph in-
fcribcd on a tablet dedicated to her memory, by her fiir-
viving hufband.

Vincent nf Bcauvnis, a Dominican monk of the 13th
century, was appointed by St. Lewis, king of France,
infpertor of the education of his children. About the

Vol.. xxxvn.

V I N

year 1244, he compiled a kind of encyclopjedia, entitled
" Speculum Majus," which confided of four parts, viz.
" Speculum Naturale, Doftrinale, Morale, et Hiftoriale.'"
Notwithftanding all its errors, it paffed through many edi-
tions ; the fird at Strafbnrg in 1476, and the lad at Douay
in 1624. He was alfo the writer of a " Letter to St.
Lewis on the Death of his elded Son," and of a " Treatife
on the Education of Princes;" and died in 1624. Brucker
by Enfield.

Vincent Ferkif.r, or Ferrer, a Dominican, was born
at Valencia, in Spain, in 1357 ; and having entered into the
order of preachers in 1374, obtained the degree of doftor
in theology at Lerida in 13S4. He was the chofcn com-
panion of cardinal de Luna, the pope's legate to France ;
and on his return was fummoned to Avignon, in 1394, by
the fame cardinal, when he rofe to the papal chair under the
name of Benedift XIII. Yielding to an imagined impulfe
for preaching the word of God, he became a miffionary in
1397, and travelled through feveral countries, not excepting
Britain and Ireland. He alfo exerted himfelf in terminating
the difcord of the Romifh church with regard to the papacy,
and finding BenediA unrelenting, he abandoned him, and
aflided at the council of Conftance. In 1407 he accepted
the invitation of John, duke of Brittany, and fixed the feat
of his midion at Vannes, where he died in 1410. After
his death, miracles were faid to have been wrought at his
tomb, and he was canonized by pope Calixtus III. He
was the author of many devotional trads ; and iiis " Treatife
on the fpiritual Life, or interior Man," was frequently re-
printed. Dupin. Moreri.

Vincent of Leritis, was a native of Gaul in the fifth
century, who abandoning the mihtary profeffion, and adopt-
ing a religious life, retired to the monadery of Lerins in
Provence, where he became a pried. He was held in high
edimation for his piety and learning ; and after his death, in
the reign of Theodofius and Valer.tinian, was canonized by
the Roman church, to which he was thought to be entitled
for his " Commonitorium adverfus Hasreticos," which was
neatly written, and much applauded by the Roman Ca-
tholics. Of this work Dr. Maclaine, deviating from the
article of Mofheim, fays, that he can fee nothing in it but
a blind veneration for ancient opinions. It has been printed
in the " Bibliotheca Patrum," and has been pub!i(hed fc-
parately, particularly at Cambridge, in 1687. Dupin.
Mofheim.

Vincent de, Paul, founder of the congregation of the
" Pri?ds of the Miflions," (fee Mission,) waa born at Poui,
or Poy, in the diocefe of Acqs, in the year 1576, and ad-
vanced, on account of his extr.iordinary talents, and by a
courfe of education at Acqs and Touloufe, from the liumble
condition of a fhepherd to the office of pricll in 1 600.
Having occafion foon afterwards to vifit Marfeillcs, for the
purpole of receiving a fmall property whicli devolved ipon
him by inheritance, he was, upon his return by fea to Nar-
bonne, taken captive by a Barbary corfair, and fold for a
(lave at Tunis. Here he ferved fcvcral niadcrs, thi' l:.d of
whom, who was a Savoyard renegado, lie was fucccfsful in
reclaiming. They both determined on making their cfcape,
and arrived fafely in a fmall boat at Aigues Mortes, in 1607.
Upon his return to his native country, he was deputed by
Peter Montorio, vice-legate of Avignon, on bufinels of im-
portance to the court of Rome ; and here he was intruilod
by tiie miniftor of Henry IV. with a commiffion to that
monarch in 1608. In return for this fervice, Lewis XIII.
eonfernd upon him the abbey of St. Leonaid dc Chauomc.
Having been introduced as tutor to the family of M. dc
Goudy, general of the galleys, he conceived the df fign of
B b founding

V I N

V I N

founding the congregation above-mentioned ; and in the
mean while, wifhing to ferve the miferable objefts that were
under the care of his patron, he applied to court for the ap-
pointment of almoner-general of the galleys, and obtained it
in the year 1619. His alTiduity in the difcharge of the
duties of his office, as well as the piety and benevolence of
his difpofition, engaged the general efteeni and refpeft of
the inhabitants of Marfeilles. Devoted to afts of com-
paflion and beneficence, he was entrufted, in the year 1620,
with the direftion and government of the order of the
♦' Daughters of Charity." His next objedl was the accom-
plifhment of his purpofe with regard to a new community,
in which he obtained the concurrence of iome priells, who
made choice of him as their principal. This inftitution
was profperous, and the number of the fociety having in-
creafed, he accepted the great houfe of St. Lazarus, in the
fuburb of St. Denis, which became the principal houfe of
his order; and in 1632, its utility was acknowledged by
pope Urban VHL, who formed it into a regular congrega-
tion, and appointed its founder as the firft fupenor general.
The rule prefcribed to the fociety enjoined, independently
of attention to their own religious exercifes, the appropria-
tion of eight months in the year to the inftruftion of the
common people in the neighbouring pariflies, to the relief
of the fick and indigent, to infpetlion of feminaries in
which young perfons were educated for holy orders, and to
other adls of private and public fervice. The fupenor con-
duced himfelf with fo much zeal and aftivity, that he ob-
tained encouragement in the profecution of his plan, not
only in all parts of France, but alfo in Italy, Scotland,
Barbary, Madagafcar, &c. Not fatisfied with the fingle
objeft to which his benevolent attention was firft directed,
he took a very aftive part in the conduft and fupport of
many other inftitutions of a benevolent and ufeful kind.
So highly was he edeemed on account of his piety and pru-
dence, and his zeal for doing good, that he was engaged in
regular attendance on Lewis XHL during his laft ficknefs ;
and under the regency of Anne of Auftria, mother of
Lewis XIV., he was the chief advifer in all the ecclefiaftical
affairs of the kingdom. For a period of ten years, during
which he poffefled this influence, he maintained the moft
exemplary character in the difcharge of his pubhc duties, as
well as in his private conduft. He died in 1660, at the
age of nearly 85 years. He was beatified by pope Bene-
diA XIII. in 1729, and canonized by Clement XII. in
1737 ; and it muft be allowed, that he occupies a diftin-
guifhed rank among the faints in the Romifh calendar.
Moreri. Mofheim.

Vincent, Gkegory St. See Gregory St. Vincent.

Vincent, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the
ftate of Pennfylvama, and county of Chefter, containing
1630 inhabitants ; 25 miles W. of Philadelphia.

ViNCEST, St., one of the Cape Verd iflands, being one
of the four fituated towards the north-weft, about 30 miles
in circumference ; the land of which is generally elevated,
but towards the north-weft low and fandy ; fo that it is un-
produftive, and the ifland probably ftill uninhabited. It
has good frefh water, which fprings up on digging a Uttle
way into the foil of the valley, but the hills are totally defti-
tute of it ; and, therefore, the ifland is improper for cattle.
It has a fine large road called Porto Grande, with a rock
like a tower in the centre. The bay, which is about a
league and a half broad at the mouth, is furrounded with
high mountains, and ftretching into the middle of the ifland,
is thus (heltered from the weft and north-weft winds ; and,
therefore, it is deemed the fafeft harbour in all the Cape
Verd iflands ; but difficult of accefe, on account of the im-

petuous winds that blow off' the mountains along the coaflv
fo as to endanger Ihips before they can arrive at this place of
fecurity. Befides this bay, there are feveral others on the
fouth fide, in which (hips may anchor ; and thefe are gene-
rally chofen by the Portuguefe for landing their hides.
The fifli are numerous and excellent. The fouth part of
the ifland is fituated in N. lat. 16^ 50'. W. long. 25°. See
Cape Verd.

ViKCENT, St., one of the Charibbee iflands in the Weft
Indies, about 40 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. Dr.
Campbell fays, that the Spaniards called it by this name,
becaufe they difcovered it upon the 22d of January, which,
in their calendar, is St. Vincent's day ; but it does not ap-
pear that they ever, properly fpeaking, had pofleflion of
it ; as the Indians were very numerous here, on account of
its being the rendezvous of their expeditions to the con-
tinent. At length, however, ambition and avarice effefted
an ellablifhment for a clals of intruders, who were long dif-
tinguiflied by the name of the black Cliaraibes, whom the
native Charaibes regarded at firft with contempt and pitv.
Of the origin of thele intruders Campbell gives the following
account. In 1672, king Charles II. divided the govern-
ments in the Weft Indies, and, by a new commiffion, ap-
pointed lord Willoughby governor of Barbadoes, St. Lucia,
St. Vincent, and Dominica ; and fir William Stapleton
governor of the other Leeward iflands, which feparation
has ever fince fubfifted. On the demife of lord Wil-
loughby, he was fuccecded by fir Jonathan Atkins, who
continued governor until the year 1680, when the govern-
ment was transferred to fir Richard Dutton ; who, being
fent for to England in l68j, appointed colonel Edwin
Stade heutenant-governor ; and he, with a view of aflerting
and maintaining the Britifli rights, by conftituting deputy-
governors for the other iflands, exerted himfelf in prevent-
ing the French from wooding and watering in this ifland
without permiffion. At this time it was intimated to him,
that the king had figned an aft of neutrality, and that com-
miflioners were appointed by the two courts to fettle all
differences relating to thefe iflands. Some years after, a
fliip from Guinea, with a large cargo of flaves, was either
wrecked or run afiiore upon the ifland of St. Vincent, into
the woods and mountains of which great numbers of the
negroes efcaped, whom the Indians fuffered to remain.
Partly by the acceflion of runaway flaves from Barbadoes,
and partly by the children they had by the Indian women,
thefe Africans became very numerous ; fo that about the
beginning of the i8th century, they conftrained the Indians
to retire into the north-weft part of the ifland. Thefe
people, as may be reafonably fuppofed, were much diffati's-
fied with this treatment ; and complained of it occafionally
both to the Englifli and to the French, that came to wood
and water amongft them. The latter at length fuffered
themfelves to be prevailed upon to attack thefe invaders.
After much deliberation, in the year 1 7 19, they came with
confiderable force from Martinico, and landing without
much oppofition, began to burn the negro huts, and deftroy
their plantations, fuppofing that the Indians would have at-
tacked them in the mountains ; which, if they had done, the
blacks had probably been extirpated, or forced to fubmit,
and become flaves. But either from fear or policy, the
Indians did nothing, and the negroes fallying in the night,
and retreating to inaccefllble places by day, deftroyed fo
many of the French, that they were forced to retire. When
by this experiment they were convinced that force would not
do, they had recourfe to fair means ; and by dint of perfua-
fion and prefents, patched up a peace with the negroes as
well as the Indians, from which they received great advan-
tage.

V 1 N

V I N

tage. Things were in this fituation, when captain Uring
came with a confiderable armament, to take poflcflion of St.
Lucia and this ifland, in virtue of a grant of king George I.
to the duke of Montague. When the French had didodged
this gentleman, by a fuperior force, from St. Lucia, he lent
captain Braithwaite, in the year 1723, to try what could
be done at the ifland of St. Vincent, in which he was not at
all more fuccefsful. After this, the country became a
theatre of favage hoflilities between the negroes and the
Charaibes, in which it is believed that the former were
generally viftorious : it is certain they proved fo in the end,
their numbers, in 1763, being computed at 2000; whereas
of the red or native Charaibes, there were not left more
than ICO families, who retained only a mountainous diftrift,
and moft of thefe are by this time faid to be exterminated.
It is, however, worthy of remark, that the African intruders
have adopted moft of the Charibbean manners and cuftoms :
among the reft, the priclice of flattening the foreheads of
their infants; and it was perhaps from this that they ac-
quired the appellation of black Charaibes. St. Vincent
being ceded to the Englifh by the peace of Paris, in the
year 1763, as well as Dominica and Tobago, St. Lucia
being affigned to France, (the Charaibes not being men-
tioned in the whole tranfaftion,) the firit meafure of the
Englifh government was to difpofe of the lands, without
any regard to the claims of the Charaibes of either race ;
which, in truth, were confidered as of no confequence or
vahdity. This gave rife to a war with the Charaibes, in the
courfe of which it became the avowed intention of govern-
ment to exterminate thofe miferable people altogether ; or
by conveying them to a barren illand on the coaft of Africa,
confign them over to a lingering deftruftion. By repeated
protefts and reprefentations from the military officers em-
ployed in this difgraceful bufinefs, and the dread of parha-
mentary inquiry, adminiftration at length thought proper to
defift ; and the Charaibes, after furrendering part of their
lands, were permitted to enjoy the remainder unmolefted.
On the 19th of June 1779, St. Vincent fliarcd the common
fate of moft of the Bntiih Weft Indian poftelTions, in that
unfortunate war with America, which fwallowed up all the
refources of the nation, being captured by a fmall body of
troops from Martinico, confifting only of 450 men, com-
manded by a lieutenant in the French navy. The terms of
capitulation, however, were favourable, and the ifland was
reftored to the dominion of Great Britain by the general
pacification of 1783. It contained at that time 61 fugar
eftates, 500 acres in coffee, 200 acres in cacao, 400 in cot-
ton, 50 in indigo, and 500 in tobacco, befides land appro-
priated to the railing of provifions, fuch as plantains, yams,
maize, &c. All the reft of the country, excepting the few
fpots that had been cleared from time to time by the Cha-
raibes, retained its native woods. St. Vincent contains
about 84,000 acres, which are every where well watered ;
but the country is very generally mountainous and rugged :
the intermediate valleys, however, arc fertile in a higli de-
gree, the foil confifting chkfly of a fine mould, compofed
of fand and clay, well adapted for fugar. The extent of
country at prcfent poffeffed by the Britilh fiibjeds is 23,605
acres ; and about as much more is fuppofcd to be held by
the Charaibes. All the remainder is thouglit incapable of
cultivation or improvemcijt. The ifland, or rather the Bri-
tifli territory within it, is divided into five panlhcs, of which
only one had a church, and this was blown down in tiie hur-
ricane of 1780. There is one town called Kingfton, the
capital of the ifland, and the feat of its government ; and
three villages that bear the name of towns, but they are in-
conjiderable hamlets, confifting each of a few houfcs only.

The botanic garden of St. Vincent confifts of 30 acres, of
wliich no lefs than 16 are in high cultivation. In the frame
of its government, and the adminiftration of executive juf-
tice, St. Vincent feems not to differ from Grenada. The
council confifts of twelve members, the affembly of feveuteen.
The falary of the governor is 2000/. fterling, half of which
is raifed within the ifland, the other half being paid out
of the exchequer of Great Britain. The mihtary force, ac-
cording to Mr. Edwards, confifted in his time of a regiment
of infantry, and a company of artillery, fent from England,
and a black corps raifed in the country. The militia in-
cludes two regiments of foot, ferving without pay. The
number of inhabitants, fays Mr. Edwards, amounts to
1450 whites, and 11,853 negroes. The feveral fmaller
iflands dependent on the St. Vincent government are Bequia,
containing 3700 acres, a fmall ifland, valuable for the com-
modioufnefs of its bay, called Admiralty bay ; Union, con-
taining 2 150 acres; Canouane, containing 1777 acres; and
Muftiqua, containing about 1 200 acres. The negroes cm-
ployed in the cultivation of thefe iflands, being about 1400,
are fuppofed to be included in the 1 1,853 before mentioned.
There are likewife the little iflets of Petit Martinique, Petit
St. Vincent, Maillereau, and Bellefeau, each of which pro-
duces a little cotton. N. lat. 13° 10'. W. long. 61°. Ed-
wards's Weft India Iflands, vol. i.

Vincent, St., a town of United America, in the weftern
territory of the Wabafli. N. lat. 38° 44'. W. long. 88° 6'.

Vincent, Si., a town of France, in the department of
the Lot ; 6 miles W. of Cahors.

Vincent, St., a fea-port town of Brafil, in the govern-
ment of St. Paul, fituated on the fea-coaft ; 150 miles W.
of Rio Janeiro. See Santos, St. Vicente, and Vicente.

Vincent, St., a river of Madagafcar, which runs into
the Indian fea, on the eaft coaft, S. lat. 21° 48'. E.
long. 44°.

Vincent, St., a town of Peru, in the diocefe of La
Plata ; 40 miles N.E. of Lipes.

Vincent d'Ardentes, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Indre ; 7 miles S.E. of Chateauroux.

Vincent, Cape St., the fouth-weft point of Portugal,
where commences a chain of lime-ftone mountains, which
terminates at Tavira, N. lat. 37° 2'. W. long. 9^ 5'. To-
wards this cape the hills become flatter, and this promontory
itfelf is a defert plain, confifting of a grey lime-ftone, fo
naked and rough near the front, that it is very difficult to
travel over it. In other parts it is nearly covered with fand.
Toward the fea the rock is every wiiere fra&urcd, about
50 to 80 feet high, being of equal height with Cabo de
Rocca, which it fomewhat refembles. At the utmoft ex-
tremity in this defert country is a monaftery ot Capuchins.
Ships can approach very near the rock, fo that in fine
weather the monks can fpeak to the perfons on board. The
famous naval engagement between the Spaniards and lord
St. Vincent was diilinftly lecii from this monaftery. On
another point ot the rock, leparated by a creek from the
extreme end, is the fmall iorl of Sagres, within which no-
thing is leen but the commaudanl's dwelling, tiie foldiors'
barr.icks, and the works whicli arc not allowed to be fur-
veyed. Without the fort are only two lioufcs. At the time
when the earthquake of 1755 deftroyed Lilhon, the fea
fwelled here, and pouring from the creek ovlt the land,
laid the country wafte. At Sagies a great quantity of fi(h
and ir.ufcles is taken, and fmall fifliing-fmacks he at anchor
under the rock in the creek. Five fmall leagues from Cape
St. Vincent is the city of Lagos, which is properly the chief
town of Algarve, though it be no longer the rcfidence of
the governor of that province. — Alfo, a cape on the weft
Bb 2 coaft

V I N

V I N

coaft ot Madagafcar. S. lat. 25" 38'. E. long. 43^= 50'.—
Alfo, a cape on the eafl coaft of Terra del Fuego, S. lat.

54' iS'-

Vincent de Conmzal, St., a town of France, in the
department of the Dordogne ; 14 miles W. of Perigueux.

Vincent de Bcira, St., a town of Portugal, in the pro-
▼irce of Beira ; 15 miles Vv^.N. W. of Caftel Branco.

Vjncent de la Barquera, St., a fea-port of Spain, in
the province of Afturia ; 9 miles W.S. W. of SantiUana.

Vincent de Rivedot, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Dordogne ; 6 miles S. of Riberac.

Vincent'^' Bay, St., a bay on the north coaft of Terra
del Fuego, a little to the eaft of Cape St. Vincent. Before
the anchorage ground, fays captain Cook, lie feveral rocky
ledges that are covered with fea-weed ; but not lefs than
eight and nine fathoms over all of them. It appears llrange
that where weeds, which grow at the bottom, appear above
the furface, there fhould be this depth of water ; but the
weeds which grow upon rocky ground in thefe countries,
and which always diftinguifh it from fand and ooze, are of
an enormo.is fize. The leaves are four feet long, and fome
of the ftalks, though not thicker than a man's thumb,
above 120. Mr. (fir Jofeph) Banks and Dr. Sohnder ex-
amined fome of them, over which we founded and had
14 fathoms, which is 84 feet ; and as they made a very acute
angle with the bottom, they were thought to be at leaft one
half longer. The footilalks were fwelled into an air-veffcl,
and thefe eminent naturalifts called this plant /ul-i« gigantevs.
They went on (horc, and in about four hours returned with
above a hundred different plants and flowers, all of them
wholly unknown to the botanifts of Europe. They found
the country about the bay to be in general flat, the bottom
of it in particular was a plain, covered with grafs, which
might eafily have been made into a large quantity of hay ;
they found alfo abundance of good wood and water, and
fowl in great plenty. Among other things, of which nature
has been liberal in this place, is Winter's bark, Winteranea
aromatlca ; which may eafily be known by its broad leaf,
fliaped like the laurel, of a light green colour without, and
inclining to blue within ; the bark is eafily ilripped with a
bone or a ilick.

Vincent de la Pazes, St., or Onda, a town of Popayan,
in Ten-a Firma, about 25 miles E- of St. Sebaftian's, with
a port, where canoes from Carthagena and St. Martha un-
load their merchandize.

Vincent, Port St., lies on the coaft of Chili, in the
South Pacific ocean, 6 miles N.N.E. of the month of the
river Bobio, with a fafe harbour, fecure againft all winds
but that from the weft, which blows right into it. Talca-
guana port is fix miles to thciiorth of it.

Vincent'j Rocks, St., rocks on each fide of the river
Avon, about three miles below Briftol ; at the bottom of
which is the fpring from which rife what are called the
Briftol waters.

Vincent IJland, a fmall ifland in the North Pacific ocean,
at the entrance into Portlock's harbour. N. lat. 57° 48'.
W. long. 136° 30'.

VINCETOXICUM, in Botany, from I'inco, to conquer,
and toxicum, poifon, a name which firft occurs in Dodonoeus,
Pempt. 407, and which he fays had been recently given to
the ofRcinal yj^/^/iiaj-, (A. Vincetoxicum, Linn. Sp. PI. 314.
Cynanchum Vincetoxicum of Brown, in Ait. Hort. Kew.
T. 2. 77.) — The plant thus denominated was fuppofed dtl-
titute of the dangerous and acrid properties of the reft of its
tribe, becaufe its juice is not milky. The root, whofe
flavour and fcent refemble Valerian, has been ufed as a
counter-poifon, in the place of Contrayerva, whofe name

has the fame meaning, and each may have its ufe as a tonic,
or ftimulant, however erroneous the idea may feem of a
fpecific, againft any poifon whatever, except by a chemical
alteration of its qualities. Among plants, at leaft, no fuch
marvellous power has hitherto been afcertained. The above
root is fcarcely ever ufed in this country.

Vincetoxicum, in the Matrla Medica, As a medicine,
this root has been chiefly ufed in droplical diforders, but its
good effects are not fufficiently eftdblifhed ; which is alfo the
cafe with refpedl to Stahi's pulvis antihydropicus, in which
the vincetoxicum is an ingredient. It has been alfo re-
commended in malignant fevers, and even in the plague, by
fome German authors ; and hence called " Contrayerva Ger-
manorum." It is faid likewife to be ufefiil in fmall-poj:,
fcrophula, and uterine obftruftions. The dofe, in powder,
is from a fcruple to a drachm, or an infufion of three or four
drachms. WToodville.

VINCI, LlONARDO DA, in Biography, the illegitimate fon
of Picro da Vinci, a Kotary of the fignoria of Florence, diftin-
guifhed himfelf during his life as a man of fcience and of liter-
ature, a philofopher, poet, painter, and mufician of the moft.
profound ftudy, and the moll exalted tafte. He was born at
the caftle of Vinci, in the lower vale of the Arno, in 1452.
From his earlieft years he teltified a more than ordinary
fhare of ingenuity, and particularly exhibited an ardent
defire for drawing. This at length became fo decided a
preference above all other purfuits, that it determined his
father to indulge and cultivate it ; and for this purpofe he
placed him under the tuition of Andrea Verocchio, a flcilful
defigner, and eminent as a fculptor, an architeft, and a
painter. The progrels of Lionardo equalled the fanguine
expectation his intelleAual abilities had excited ; and whilft
a youth, he furpafied his mafter in the praftice of the art he
had learnt of him. Verocchio had been employed by the
monks of S. Salvi at Valombrofo, to paint the Baptifm of
Chrift, as an altar-piece for their church, and having made
his defigns, he entrufted the preparation of the parts to his
difciples. Among them, the young Da Vinci was ordered
to paint the figure of an angel, which he did with fo much
tafte and fltill, and fo far furpaffing the work of his mafter,
that Verocchio, mortified at being excelled by a youth,
abandoned the art, and from that time confined himfelf to
fculpture.

The career of this extraordinary man, thus begun in ho-
nour, was purfued with enthufiafm in all things relative to art
and fcience. Nature had endowed him with the beauties of
body and of mind, and he cultivated the ufeful exercife of
both. His perfon was finely proportioned, and his features
beautiful and exprcffive ; he was dexterous in feats of arms,
the management of the horfe, and all the favourite amufe-
ments of the time. He was admirably fkilled in mechanics,
was an able anatomift, and an architect ; was learned in
natural philofophy, optics, and geometry : in fhort, he had
fteadily applied himfelf to acquire a thorough knowledge
of the operations of nature ; and was bcfides an excellent
poet and mufician.

Thus endowed, and conftituted to apply thefe endow-
ments with energy to every ufeful and ornamental purpofe,
fame crowned his portion of human felicity by fpreading
the renown of his uncommon talents throughout Italy.
His various application of them had however one evil at-
tending it, — a certain portion of inftability : the impetuofity
of his nature, leading him too rapidly to new projefts, often
prevented the completion of thofe already commenced. In
his youth, Vafari fays, he invented mills and engines to go
by water for various purpofes, and contemplated fchemes for
making the Arno navigable from Plfs to Florence he ; made
9 plans

VINCI.

plans for roads, for railing water, &c. : yet amidft Uiffe
occupations he cultivated drawing moil afliduoufly from all
kinds of objefts of animated nature, in a ftyle of the molt
laboured and cxquifile finifiiing, as if he never could attain
too clofe an imitation of the obiedl he had felefted. He
always ftrove to malce them appear as ftrongly relieved as
poiTible ; thi'ir def.'ft is, that not having hit upon the true
nature of relieving objects, fuch as has been exemplified in
the Dutch fchool fince his time, he laboured his works to
blacknefs ; and whilll his principal obiefts appeared illu-
mined by the light of the day, his fliadows partook of the
blacknefs of night.

He delighted in obfcrving thofe whofe charafter was
ftrongly marked, who liad any thing extravagant in the
llyle of their beards, their hair, or drefs, and would follow
them till he had fixed their form fully in his mind, and then
go home and draw them. By ftudies of this nature he be-
came poflefled of ftrong ideas of exprelTion and of clia-
rafter, and employed himfelf actively in the ufe of them in
defigns ; though the finifhed works of his hand, which
conjecture places at this period of his life, are not of a kind
to exhibit much of their application.

His life, Lanzi obferves, " may be divided into four
periods, the firll of which wa"!, as we have feen, fpent in pro-
fecuting his ftudies in art, and occafionally applying them to
praftice in Florence : to this belong not only the head of
Medufa, and the few works m'ntioned by Vafari, but pro-
bably all thofe paintings of his which have lefs energy of
(hade, lefs complicated drapery, and heads of forms rather
delicate than exquifite, feemingly derived from the fchool of
Vcrocchio. Such are the Maddalenas of the Pitti palace
at Florence, and the Aldobrandini at Rome ; fome Madonnas
or holy families in various galleries, as the Juftiniani and
Borghefe ; fome heads of the Saviour and of the Baptift ;
though the multitude of his imitators muft render all deci-
fion on their originality ambiguous. Of a different clafs,
however, and without a doubt of his hand, is the Bambino,
who lies in a little ornamented bed, richly drefled and
adorned with necklaces, which is in the apartment of the
Gonfaloni^re at Bologna."

After this firft period of his life, when he was forty-two,
■vin. in 1494, he was invited to Milan by the duke Ludo-
vico Sforza, to whom Lionardo rendered himfelf more par-
ticularly acceptable by playing upon the lyre, and upon one
of a peculiar form, which he himfelf had made. To this
inftrument he fung alfo admirably, and recited verfesextem-
poraneoufly, fiirpafting all who attempted that fpecies of
amufement. But the more efFeftive caufe aftigned for his
going to the duke, was a defign entertained by that prince
of erefting a monument of bronze to the memory of his
father. Among the manuferipts ftill exifting of Lionardo,
is a memorial prefented by him to the duke about 1490. In
it he offers his fervices in various military mechanical con-
trivances, for the purpofe of aiding in lieges, pafTing rivers,
&c. and alfo for the condufling watcr-courfes, fculpture in
bronze or marble, and painting ; and in conclufion remarks,
" that at the fame time that thcfe things arc going on, the
cqucftrian ftatiie to the memory of the duke's father need
not be neglected." So that it appears by this, that the
modelling and ereftion of this ftatue were the primary objedts
for which he was carried to Milan ; and it was executed by
him in bronze, and ercdted in the city, where it remained till
it was demolifhed on the incurfion of the French, after the
defeat of Ludovico. The duke appointed him direftor of
the academy of painting and fculpture, which he had re-
cently revived with additional fplcndour ; and under his
inftrudtions many pupils arofe, who incrcafcd the love and

renown of the arts, as he in great mcafure banilhed the re-
mains of the Gothic ftyle, and introduced his own new and
more elevated one in its ftead.

Here, by dflire of the duke, he painted a Nativity, which
was fent by him as a prefent to the emperor of Germany ;
but if we except this, the portraits of the duke and duchefs,
and his grandeft work in the art, the Laft Supper, painted
on the walls of the refectory of the Dominican convent of
the Madonna delle Grazie, he does not appear to have occu-
pied much of the time he fpent at Milan (which was about
five years) in painting. Indeed he fcarcely could devote
more time to it, as the duke engaged him as an engineer to
conduft the waters of the Adda to the walls of Milan : an
immenle operation, in which, after much ftudv and labour,
he had nearly fucceeded, when it was interrupted by the
French. He alfo made many models of ingenious mechanical
contrivances, and among them a lion, in compliment to the
king of France, on his arrival at Milan, which, after ad-
vancing by itfelf many paces to meet the monarch, fud-
denly ftopped when it came near him, reared upon its
hinder legs, and threw open its breaft, which was filled with
lilies.

Whilft thefe various inventions (hewed the verfatility of
his powers, the pidture above alluded to, the Laft Supper,
gave immortality to the fame of the moment. Of tliis
pidture, one only charafter is given by all who have written
or fpoken of it, — that of fuperior excellence in all the moft
admirable and exalted quahties of the art. Unfortunately,
his knowledge in chemiftry was not equal to his love of
novelty, or he would not have painted it with a vehicle and
a ground totally difcordant, which neceffarily led to a
fpeedy deftruftion of the furface. He painted it with oil
colours upon the plaftered wall, and in confequence the
colour cracked and peeled off ; fo that in fifty years after
it was painted, when Armcnini vifited it, he fays " it was
already half fpoiled ;" and Scannelli, who faw it in 1642,
fays, that " the fubjedt was fcarcely difcernible." Lanzi,
in fpeaking of it recently, obferves, that " what with the
attempts to n.-ftore it by oils and varnilhes, and with the re-
painting which has accompanied ihefe attempt?, there nov.-
remain only three heads of the apoftles by the hand of Da
Vinci, and thofe rather drawn than coloured." The alTent,
therefore, which may be now given to the high teftimony
of contemporary authorities as to the merit of this great
work, reds with the copies which were made when the
pidture was perfedt, (and they are many,) and the general
charadtcr of Lionardo's talent.

There has lately been introduced into England, and is now
exhibiting, ( 1817,) a copy as large in length as the original,
faid to be the one painted by M. Uggione, a pupil of Da
Vinci, for the convent of the Carthufians at Pavia : which
in 1793, upon the breaking up of that order, was fold with,
the other cfFcdts of the convent, and is now brought here.
In it there remains futRcient of the grandeur of (tylc adopted
by its great author to fatisfy every beholder of the jufticc
fame has done to his talents. The feledtion of matter, the
general treatment of the fubjedt, the unequalled truth and
variety of exprefiion, the clofe attention paid to charadter
and to nature, the depth, richncfs and brilliancy of its co-
lour, with tlip high degree of finifh to which it was carried,
— all are manifefted in this copy, though in fome parts
impcrfcftly. In it alfo arc feen the want of many points in
chiaro-fcuro and in colour, wliich, if they could have been
combined with the matter it contains, (and they have fince
then been combined by Titian and others,) would place the
original of this pidture in every re fpedl at the head of all the
pidturee which ever were painted.

During

VINCI.

During his refidence at Milan, Du Frefne fays he com-
pofed his very ufeful work " II Trattato della Pittura," for
the ufe of the pupils in the academy under his care ; and his
ftudies for the equeftrian ftatue doubtlefs gave rife to the
curious and learned memoranda of the ftrufture of that
animal, as his former ftudies did to thofe concerning the
human figure, which are found in the manufcript in the
library of Buckingham-Houfe. It appears to have been his
cuftomary practice to wrrite his thoughts conftantly, and ac-
company the palfages by appropriate illullrations in draw-
ing ; and it would have been well for the art, if every emi-
nent profeflbr had adopted the fame habit : we (hould then
have been in pofleflion of a mafs of information which would
much alleviate the neceffities involved in praftice, and enable
men to exprefs their thoughts and inventions without en-
countering the difficulties which not unfrequently ftifle the
moft beautiful and fublime conceptions in their birth.

The aftivity and exertions of Lionardo, fupported by
fuch uncommon talents, had already formed many ikilful
artifts, who afterwards became renowned, and who would
probably have rendered Milan the rival of Florence as a
ichool of art, but for the difailrous ilTue of a contell be-
tween the duke and the king of France, in which, in 1500,
the former was defeated, captured, and carried into the
country of his enemy, where about ten years afterwards
he died.

By this event the progrefs of the arts at Milan was
broken up, with its academy for a time, and its illuftrious
prefident returned to Florence, where the arts were en-
couraged by the houfe of Medici. In this third period of
his Ufe, his firft work was a defign for an altar-piece for the
chapel of the college of the Annunciate, the fubjeft of
which was a group, of our Saviour with the Virgin and St.
Anne, which was univerfally approved and admired ; yet it
does not appear that the piAure was ever painted, at leaft
to remain in Italy. It is faid, that by the defire of
Francis I. he made a pifture from it, and certainly one is
fhewn in the royal colleftion at Paris, painted from the
defign, though in a heavy and low tone of colour.

He employed himfelf alfo about this time on a portrait
of Mona Lifa, known by the name of La Gioconda, a Flo-
rentine lady, wife of Francifco del Gioconda, for whom it
was painted. This pifture he is faid to have employed
himfelf upon during four years, but we mud conceive it
to mean only that it remained unfinifhed that length of time.
It is in poflcffion of the king of France, and attefts, by its
exquifite finifh, the laborious attention of its author. It has
a very beautiful expreflion, particularly about the mouth ;
but is black and heavy in the {hadows : in faft it is over-
laboured, and had probably been far better had it left his
fludy fooner.

In 1503, the council of Florence having determined to
decorate their chamber with works of art, Lionardo was
appointed ti; execute one fide of it ; and M. Angelo, then
only twenty-nine years of age, but whofe gigantic powers
were already matured, was felefted, as his competitor, to
undertake the other. A moft unfortunate coalition, as the
emulation it excited, aided and ftrengthened to bitternefs by
the miftaken aifeftion of admiring partifans of either mafter,
produced in the end the moft confirmed jealoufy, and even
hatred, between thefe two great men, and divided Florence
into parties, who embittered their difputes, without being
able to reconcile their differences. Lionardo chofe for his
fubjeft the battle of Nicolo Picinino againft Attila. He
had prepared his cartoon, and proceeded in a certain degree
with his piAure in oil colours, when to his great mortifica-
tion he found, that owing to fome imperfeiftion in the pre-

paration of the ground, his colours began to peel from the
wall, and he abandoned the work.

The cartoon, however, of which we have one group pre-
ferved to us in the Battle of the Standard, engraved by Ede-
linck, had exalted his name highly among artifts and con-
noiifeurs, who flocked to Florence to fee it and its rival,
which had been prepared by M. Angelo ; and among others
Raff^aelle, in 1 504, was drawn there, allured by the defire of
improving the tafte he had imbibed in the fchool of Peru-
gino ; and there, with the benefit he derived from thefe great
works, and the inftruftion of Bartolomeo della Porta, he
ftiook off in a great degree the dry and Gothic manner of
his mafter, and laid the foundation of his future fame.

Lionardo appears to have divided his refidence at Flo-
rence and at Milan till 1513, during which time he probably
painted his own portrait, which is in the gallery at Florence,
a head whofe energy leaves all the reft in the room far be-
hind, and that perhaps which in many cabinets is called the
portrait of Raffaelle. The half figure alfo of a young nua
in the palace Nicolini ; Chrift among the dodlors, formerly
in the Doria palace ; the fuppofed portrait of queen Gio-
vanna, adorned with beautiful architeAure ; that pifture in
the Barberini of Vanity and Modefty, the beauty and finifti
of which no one has ever been able to convey in a copy ; —
thefe appear, with many others, to belong to this period,
when, free from other ferious occupations, he was at liberty
to attend to painting with increafing power.

No work, however, of any confequence like his Laft
Supper, was entrufted to him after the failure in the Hall
at Florence, fo that his great and deferved renown in the
art is principally upheld by that work, and the remnant of
the cartoon above-mentioned, to which his minor works,
though beautifully wrought, are but trifles.

The eleftion of cardinal Giovanni di Medici to the tiara
under the title of Leo X. induced Lionardo to vifit Rome,
which he had never feen : and from his previous knowledge
of the pontiff, he hoped for honour and employment. He
went there with his patron Giuliano di Medici, and was
gracioufly received by Leo, who foon after fignified his in-
tention of employing his pencil. Upon this Lionardo began
to diftil his oils and prepare his varniflies, which the pope fee-
ing, and being unacquainted with the neceffities of the painter's
ftyle, he exclaimed with furprife, that nothing could be ex-
pefted of an artift who thought of finifhing his works before
he had begun them. This unlucky bon mot difconcerted the
painter, and prevented him from proceeding : and probably
he found the ground too firmly occupied by Raflfaelle and
M. Angelo, (who as the pope faid produced works while
Lionardo gave words, ] to leave room for the expeft ation of
honourable employment for himfelf. He therefore accepted
an invitation from Francis I., king of France, to vifit his
court, and left Rome in 1514 for that purpofe, having fpent
his time there principally in the produftion of various fan-
taftic and diverting mechanical contrivances, but in nothing
of importance.

This change of circumftances marks the fourth period
into which Lanzi divides the life of this moft extraordinary
man, and with its commencement terminated his career in
art, as he appears to have been fo exhaufted by anxiety and
ficknefs on his arrival in France, that he was never more
able to ufe the pencil. For the five years that he continued
to exift, it was but to ftruggle under an incurable com-
plaint, during the continuance of which the king fre-
quently vifited him ; and it has been faid, that in one of
thefe vifits Lionardo, exerting himfelf beyond his ftrength
to ftiew his fenfe of his majefty's condefcenfion, was feized
with a fainting fit, and that the king ftooping forwards to

fupport

VINCI.

fupporl him, he expiii-d in his arms. This cvtnt occurred
on the 2d of May, 1J19, at a place called Cloux, near
Amboife, and in the 67th year of his age.

There are fo many imitators of the ftyle of Da Vinci,
that it is extremely difficult to know what to regard as his
among the numerous minor produftions which arc prefented
to us as the product of his eafel. Among thofe imitators,
Bernardino Luini holds the firft rank, and his piftures are
conftantly impofed upo;i us as thofe of I^ionardo. Lorenzo di
Credi is another who copied Lionardo with great exaftnefs.
Antonio Sogliani alfo imitated and copied him as well as
others ; fo that no wonder there are fo many works brought
to fale under the high pretenfion of his name, by which our
connoifleurs are duped and our pifture-dealers are enriched.

The real character of Lionardo da Vinci as a painter is
of the higheft quality, as we have before obferved. He is
the parent of the chiaro-fcuro, upon which the fame of Cor-
reggio principally depends ; and he firft attempted to com-
bine high finifh with feletlion of parts and grandeur of ftyle,
particularly aiming to give int-elligence to charafter and
exprcffion to features ; in fadl, to pourtray the mind : and in
this no one has ever furpafTed him, not even Raffaelle, who
followed in this refpeft the road opened by Da Vinci. What
is commonly called the beau-ideal, was not exaftly the form
he appears to have fought ; but he had fo much the feeling
which generated it, that he always took from his model the
effential and charafteriftic, leaving out the mean and ufelefs.
Hence we find in his pifture of the Laft Supper fo great a
variety of charatler and of expreffion, which thofe who have
attached themfelves to thf antique as their guide have
never given ; the imitation having, as we conceive, always
fuperfeded the original fpirit of feleftion which diftated
the tafte of the ancients.

Two different manners are obfervable in his painting ;
one with dark fliades, ttrongly contrafting with the lights,
the other more placid, and coiiduded with more of middle
tcint. Grace of defign, expreflion of the mind, and fubtile
management of the pencil, triumph in and adorn each ;
all is gay in his piftures, but efpecially the heads of his
women and children. In thefe he conftantly repeated one
idea, giving a fmilc to them which it is impoflible to be-
hold without experiencing a fympathetic impulfe. Yet,
if one may judge from the labour of his piftures, he
rarely readied the point at which he aimed, having an
impreflion in his own mind more full and complete than
he could render by his pencil ; and, like Protogenes of old
with liis Jalyfus, knew not, as Apelles faid of him, when
to leave off, nor could be contented with good, when he
afpired after the bcft.

As an author, Lionardo da Vinci has rendered effential
fervicc to art, particularly in his Treatife on Painting, which
is the only one of his numerous compilations that has been
given to the public, and which has been recently (in 1802)
tranflated into Englilh by a member of our Royal Academy,
J. F. Rigaud, efq. Vcntuii fpeaks of this work as having
been compiled from various of his manufcripts, which were
doubtlefs the produft of his every-day refleftions, fct down
as they occurred, and without attention to order or arrange-
ment. It treats of proportion, anatomy, motion and equi-
poife of figures, perfpeftive, compofition, expreflion, light
and fhade, colouring. Sec. in 365 precepts, feme of which
are confufed and not cafily to be unravelled, others are com-
mon place, but moft are learned, ingenious, and ufeful.
The reft of his mifceUancous works, treating of the anatomy of
the horfe and of the human fubjeft, of perfpeftive, optics,
hydraulics, botany. Sec. were left by him in his will to his
friend and pupil Francifco Melzi, and confiftcd of fourteen

volumes, large and fmall, which by various means found theu
way into the national hbrar^- at Paris, and one is in poffeJIion
of our own fovereign. Venturi, who faw thefe at Paris,
fays " that they contain fpeculations on thofe branches of
natural philofophy nearcft allied to geometry, are extremely
mifcellaneous, and entered without regard to method or ar-
rangement." Whether the change of events in the pohtical
world fince his time has reconveyed thefe remains to the
Ambrofian library at Milan, we know not, but moft pro-
bably they are again returned there. The one in the library
at Buckingham-Houfe was the property of Pompeo Leoni,
who obtained it, with two others fince returned, from H.
Melzi, and it is probable it was acquired by the earl of
Arundel for Charles I. It was found, foon after his prefent
majefty's acceffion, in the fame cabinet where queen Caro-
line found the portraits of the court of Henry VIII. by H.
Holbein.

ViNXi, Leonardo, an admirable opera compofer of the
Neapohtan fchool, is faid to have run away from the con-
fervatorio of Gli poveri in Giefu Crifto in that city, where
he was the fcholar of Gaetano Greco, on account of a quar-
rel with Porpora, a lludent of the fame feminary. He
began to diilinguifii liimfelf in the year 1724, when he fet
the opera of Farnafe for the Alibcrti theatre at Rome. So
great was tiie fucccfs of this drama, that he was called upon
to furnifh at leaft one opera every year till 1730, when he
compofed two, " Artaferfe," and " Aleffandro nell' Indie,"
both written by Metaftafio. Thefe, as we were informed at
Rome, he fet for half price, to gratify his enmity to Por-
pora, who was then his rival, in that city.

The vocal compofitions of Vinci form an era in dramatic
mufic, as he was the firll among his countrymen who, fince
the invention of recitative by Jacopo Peri, in 1600, feems
to have occafioned any confiderable revolution in the mufical
drama. The airs in the firft operas were few and fimple ;
but as finging improved, and orcheftras became more
crowded, the voice-parts were more laboured, and the ac-
companiments more comphcated. In procefs of time, how-
ever, poetry feems to have futfcred as much as ever from the
pedantry of muficians, who forgetting that the true charac-
teriftic of dramatic mufic is clearncfs ; and that found being
the vehicle of poetry and colouring of paflioii, the inftant
the bufinefs of the drama is forgotten, and the words are
unintelligible, mufic is fo totally feparated from poetry, that
it becomes merely inilrumcntal ; and the voice-part may as
well be performed by a flute or violin, in the orcheftra, ai
by one of the charafters of the piece, on the ftage. Vinci
feems to have been the firft opera compoler who faw this
abfurdlty, and, without degrading his art, rendered it the
friend, though not the Have to poetry, by finiplifying and
polifliing melody, and calling the attention of the audience
chiefly to the voice-part, by difentangliiig it from fugue,
complication, and laboured contrivance.

In 1726, he fct Metaftafio's " Didone Abandonata" for
Rome, which cftabliflied his reputation ; for in this exqui-
fite drama, not only the airs were greatly applauded, but
the recitative, particularly in the laft aft, which being chiefly
accompanied, had fuch an cffeft, that, according to count
Algaiotti, " Virgil himlelf would have been pUafed to hear
a compofition fo animated and fo terrible, in which the
heart and foul were at once aC^ai' ' by :'ll the powers of
mufic." Saggio fopra I'Opera in ivlufiia.

V/e ftiall mention the rell of this plcafing and intelligent
compofcr's operas, the airs of which long fervcd as models
to other maftcrs, and are not yet become cither ungracefid
or inelegant.

In 1727, he compofed " Gifmondo, Re di Polonia ;" in

1728,

V I N

V I N

1723, "Catone in Utica ;" in 1729, " Semiramide Rico-
nofciuta;" and in 1730, " Aleffandro nell' Indie," and " Ar-
taferfe," all for the theatres in Rome. The celebrated air
at the end of the firft aft of Artaferfe, " Vo folcando un
— — crudele," originally compofed for Careftini, is well

tians did not touch the lake of Conftance, except in a part
of their borders, that is, between the Rhine and Bregentz ;
but this town, which Ptolemy afligns to the Rhaetians, really
belonged to the Vindelicians. The Helvetians and Vindeli-
cians occupied a great part of the banks of the lake. Upon

known, and is perhaps the only produftion of Vinci by the whole we may conclude, from the obfervations of Strabo,
which his merits have been favourably eftimated in England. ■"'■'"•
In the printed book of the words, Vinci is called " Pro-vice
maeftro della Real Capella di Napoli."

We have been able to find no more of his works after this
period ; fo that he mufl either have begun late, or been cut
off early in life, as his great and durable renown feems to
have been acquired in the fhort fpace of fix years of his
exiftence.

Vinci began that free and truly dramatic ftyle of compo-
fition, which Hafle and Pergolefi afterwards, perhaps, im-
proved ; but it is a ftyle which no good compofer, except
Gluck, has abandoned. It has been, indeed, embellifiied
and rendered more elegant by the difciples of Durante :
Piccini, Sacchini, Traetta, and Anfofli ; but they have all
been guided by the outline of Vinci.

This juftly admired compofer died at Rome in 1731, dur-
ing the firft run of his Artaferfe. Metaftafio, in a letter
to the Romanina, makes a melancholy refleftion on the fub-
jeft : " Poor Vinci ! Now that merit will be known, which
during his life vfas blafted by his enemies.

" What a miferable being is man ' H-e thinks fame the
only good that can render him happy ; but alas ! he muft
die ere he is allowed to enjoy it ; and if he does not die,
envy will make him wretched for attempting to acquire it."

One of our own poets has made a fimilar refleftion on
the vanity of human wiflies for any other than pofthumous
fame.

" For fuch the frailty is of human kind.

Men toil for fame, which no man lives to find ;
Long rip'ning under ground the china lies :
Fame bears no fruit, till the vain planter dies."

Earl of Mulgrave.

VINCIA, Vexce, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Gallia Narbonnenfis, N. of Antipolis, and the capital of
the Narufci. Tlie town feems to have been confecrated to
the god Mars, and Cybele was worftiipped there.

VINCULO Matrimonii, Divorce a. See Divorce.
VINCULUM, in Algebra, a charafter in form of a line,
or ftroke drawn over a faftor, divifor, dividend, when com-
pounded of feveral letters, or quantities ; to conneft them,
and (hew that they arc to be multiplied, or divided, &c.
together, by the other term.

Thus, </ X a + b — c, fhews that d is to be multiplied
into a -'r b — c.

VINCUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Ger-
many. Anton. Itin.

VINDALIUM, ViD~ENE, a village of Galha Narbon-
nenfis, upon the left of the Rhone, N.W. of Cyprefleta.
VINDANA, a port of Gallia Lyonnenfis. Ptol.
VINDELICIA, acou.ntryof Europe, N. of the Alps
and S. of the Danube, near Rh^tia. It has been conjec-
tured that this name is for.med of two words, which are the
names of two rivers that water the country ; one called Viiido
(the Wertach, which pafTes to Auglburg), and the other
J Jehus ( the Lech ) . Strabo and Ptolemy differ in their affign-
ment of the bounds of this country. According to Strabo,
the Vindelicians lived near the Salaffes, and inhabited apart of
the mountains which regarded the eatt and turned towards
the S. He adds that they were the limitrophcs of the Hel-
vetians and Boians. ^According to this author, the Rhse-

PHny, Tacitus, and Sextus Rufus, who have all taken ?.
part in fettling the boundaries of Vindehcia, that in its an-
cient ftate it had the Danube to the N., and that the river
.^nus feparated it from Norica on the E. fide, and that on
the W. it extended from the lake of Conftance to the Da-
nube. Its boundaries on the S. are lets fatisfaftorily afcer-
tained. Strabo fays that the Vindelicians poflefTed moun-
tainous plains at the extremity of the Alps ; and he repre-
fents this country as contained between the Licus and the
jEnus. M. D'Anville, in his Ancient Geography, fays
that the country of the Vindelici extended from the town
of Brigar.tic, (Bregentz), on the lake of Conftance, to the
Danube ; and that the lowe- part of the courfe of the .£nus
or of the Inn feparated it from Morbihan. A powerful
colony was eftabliftied in the angle formed by the two rivers
Vindo and Licus, whence the nation feems to have derived
the appellation of Vindelici ; and Augufta, given to this
colony, preferves its name in that of Augftjourg, between
the two rivers Lech and Wertach, the firft of which aftually
feparates Suabia from Bavaria.

Vindelicia, when it was fubjugated by the Romans, was
joined to Rhaetia, and the whole country, contained between
the lake of Conftance, the Danube, the Inn, and the coun-
try of the Carni, the Infubres and Venetians, was always
called Rhsetia, or Provincia Rhjetia. Neverthelefs, the
Rhxtians and Vindelicians formed two feparate people, al-
though they inhabited the fame province. Accordingly
Horace calls the inhabitants of Vindehcia, Rhaiti Vindeli, to
diftinguifh them from the inhabitants of Rhaetia properly fo
called.

VINDELIS, or Visdilis, an ifland placed by the
Itinerary of Antonine between the Gauls and Great Bri-
tain ; but this is done in fo vague and indefinite a manner,
that it is not poffible to fay what ifland is meant. Some
authors think that it is the ifie of Portland.

VINDEMIATING, formed of -vindemia, mintage, the
gathering of grapes, or other ripe fruits ; as apples, pears,
cherries, &c.

VINDEMIATRIX, or Vindemi.itor, a fixed ftar of
the third magnitude, in the northern wing of the conftella-
tion Virgo.

VINDENUTA, ViNDUNlTA, Findimita, or Vindoniten/ts
infula, in Ancient Geography, an idand of France, in de-
pendence on the town of Nantes. It was to this ifland
Friard is fuppofed to have retired in 560, to pafs the life of
an indolent and ufelefs hermit ; and he thus acquired the
name of St. Friard.

VINDERIUS, a river of Hibernia, having, according
to Ptolemy, its mouth on the eaftern coaft, between the
promontory Ifamnium and the mouth of the river Logia.
Camden thought that it is the prefent bay of Knock-
fergus.

VINDIA, or ViNDA, a town of Afia, in Galatia, upon
the route from Peftinunte to Ancyra, between Germa and
Papira. Anton. Itin.

VINDICATION, Claiming, in the Civil Law, an
aftion arifing from the property a perfon has in any thing :
or a permiflion to take or feize a thing, as one's own, out
of the hands of a perfon, whom the law has doomed not to
be the true proprietor.

VINDICATORY Part of a Law. See Law.

VIN-

V 1 N

VINDICTA, ;imong the Romans, the prstor's rod or
fwitch, with which he touched a flave's head when he was
onfranchifed.

VINDINATES, in Jnc'unt Geography, a people of
Italy, in Umbria.

VINDINUM, a town of Gallia Lyonnenfis, belonging
to the Aulerci or Cenomani. Ptol. — Alfo, a town of Italy,
in Unnbria.

VINDIUS or VlNN'lUS Mcins, one of the mod confi-
derable mountains in Hifpania Citerior, according to Pto-
lemy and Florus. The name is applicable to tlie chain of
mountains which, detaching itfelf from the Pyrenees, tra-
verfes Bifcay and the Afturias, and forms, at the entrance
of Galicia, two branches, one extending itfelf to Cape Fi-
niften-e, and the other, turning to the S., traverfes the coun-
try of the ancient Bracares.

ViNDius Mom, a mountain of India, on this fide of the
Ganges. Ptol. It extends from the S.W. to the N.E.,
S. of the country called Sandrabatis. '

VINDO, a river of Germany. See Vindelicia.
VINDOBONA, Vienna in Aujlna, a town of Superior
Pannonia, fix miles from Cetium, according to the tables of
Peutinger. It is marked in the Itinerary of Antonine upon
the route from Sirmium to Treves, between Motanum and
Comagenes.

VINDOGLADIA, Vindugladia, or V'mdocladia, a
town of Great Britain, in the 1 2th Iter of Antonine, on
the route from Calkva to Uriconium, between Sorbiodunum
(Old Sarum) and Durnovaria (Dorchefter) ; fuppofed to
be near Cranburn. Dr. Stukeley traced the Roman road
all the way from Old Sarum, for 13 miles, to near Borof-
ton, where he places Vindocladia.

VINDOMAGUS, one of two towns mentioned by Pto-
lemy, as belonging to the Volcac Arecomici : the other
being Nemaufus. Although the precife fituation of Vindo-
magus is not certainly known, the prefumption lies in favour
of Vigan, becaufe it affords many monuments of antiquity,
and has been mentioned under the name of Vicanus for 600
or 700 years. It is in the fame parallel with Nimes, and
only about half a degree differing in longitude, and corre-
fponds in a variety of refpefts to the place marked out by
Ptolemy.

VINDOMIS, ViNDOMUM, or Vindomum, a town of
Great Britain, in the 12th Iter of Antonine, on the route
from Callcva to Uriconium, between Calleva (Silchelter)
and Venta Belgarum ( Wiiicheller). If Mr. Horfley has
rightly placed Calleva at Silchefter, it is probable that he
has fixed juftly on the fcite of Vindonis at Farnham.

VINDOMORA, a town of Great Britain, in the ift
Iter of Antonine, on the route from the limit, vallum or
wall to Prxtorium (Broughton), between Corllopitum
(Cowbridge) and Vinovia (Binchefter). The fituation of
this place, fixed at Ebchefter, is evidently miftaken by Gale
and Camden, the former fixing it at Dolande, within lefs
than five miles of Cowbridge, and the other at Wall's-End,
which is altogether out of the way of this Iter, that pro-
ceeds from N. to S. along the famous military road called
Watling-ftrcet. See Hordcy's Brit. Rom. p. 396.

VINDONISSA, the Ration of the 2 1 11 legion, accord-
ing to Tacitus, the pofition of which unites many Roman
ways. The diflance marked xxii in the Tlicodofian table,
with refpcft to Augulla Rauracorum, is more fuitable than
tftat of xxvii in the Itinerary of Antonine. VindonifTa is
named Viiido in a panegyric of Conftantine by Eumenes ;
and Caftruin Vindoiiidenfc in the notitia of the provinces
of Gaul lies in Maxima Sequanorum. This town had
been an cpifcopal fee ; but having been ruined towards the
Vol. XXXVII.

V I N

end of the fixtji century, or the commencement of llic
feventh, this bifhopric became that of Condance, and
Mayence was recognifed as the metropolis, although Vindo-
nifla, included in the Sequanois, fhould have acknow-
ledged Befan^on under this dignity. The place which it
occupied upon the bank of the Rufs, near its junftion with
the Aar, is denominated Windifch.

VINE, in Botany and Gardening. See ViTls.
It is faid that vines were firft planted about the rivers
Rhine, Maine, and Mofelle, and alfo in Hungary, and the
northern part of Gaul, abbut the year 276. But with rc-
fpe6t to the provinces of Gaul and Spain, which border on
the Mediterranean fea, as well as to Italy, many are of opi-
nion that vines grew fpontaneoufly there. Julius Csefar
found vines growing in Gallia Narbonnenfis, /. e. Languedoc
and Provence ; and Strabo remarks, that the faid province
produced all the kinds of fruit which Italy afforded. The
Phoenicians are faid in early times to have planted vines in the
ifles of the Mediterranean fea, as well as in feveral parts of
the continent both of Europe and Africa. It appears that
there were real vineyards in England in 1140 and 1230.
And. Com. vol. i. p. 16, and p. 81.

Vine, Black. See Tournefortia Volubilis.
Vine, Climbing Jive-leaved, of Canada, a fpecies of Hc-
dera ; which fee.

Vine, Spanifh Arbor, a fpecies of Jpomtea; which fee.
Vine, JVild, or White Fine. See Cissus Sicyoides, and
Acida.

Vine, Culture of, in the Field or open Ground, in Rural
Ecmomy, the growth and management of it in fuch fitua-
tions for the ufe of the grapes in making wine. It would
feem probable that the cultivation of this plant might be
condufted with advantage in this intention, in many fituations
in the fouthern parts of this country ; efpecially as feme of
them are well known to be nearly within the vinous latitude,
which is found to extend between the twenty-fifth and fifty-
firft degree in the northern hemifphere : and, as in Germany,
it is found by experience, that all fuch vineyards as are
fituated within the latter of thefe limits, are capable of being
cultivated with confiderable profit ; though where they
flretch much beyond it, their fuccefs is extremely doubt-
ful. Proper cultivation and management are, therefore,
all which appear neceffary in raifing crops of this fort.

In fpeakiiig of the means of eftablifhing vineyards in
this country, Mr. Speechly has remarked, in his ufeful
work on the fubjeft, that there are four things which ought
to be materially confidered ; namely, the fituation ; the
foil ; the kinds of vines which are the mod fit and proper
to be planted ; and the mode of their management.

In regard to the firft, it is faid that an elevated fituation,
where there is a gentle declivity to the fouth or fouth-caft,
is efteemed preferable to low grounds, which are generally
fubjeft to damps and fpring-frofls, even at times when the
adjoining high grounds arc entirely free from both. Vine-
yards or grounds of this kind, too, (hould be well pro-
tefted and flieltercd to the north, as well as to the iiorth-wcft
and north-eaft. In a hilly country there are generally many
favourable fpots, where nature has given important advan-
tages, and which (hould be ftill further improved by art for
this purpofe. Plantations of foreft -trees, judicioufly formed,
would, it is fuppofed, contribute much to give w.Trmth and
flicker ; but thefe fhould not be placed too near the vine-
yards, fo as to confine the air, as that would prove very
injurious to them.

In wine countries it is well known, that vineyards are

often not only confined to gentle declivities, but that

they are frequently formed on Hopes, on the fides of

C c hills

VINE.

hills and rockS) which are fometimes fo fteep as even to bor-
der upon precipices ; and that vineyards thus fituated pro-
duce ^apes uncommonly rich, yielding wines of the moft
excellent quality. Confequently, from the hills which
border upon the Enghfh Channel having declivities which
tend towards the fouth, they would appear, it is thought,
to be highly proper for the growth of the vine. And
that the excavations in them, from which chalky ma-
terials have been taken, where they have a fouthern expo-
fure, would likewife feem well calculated to anfwer the fame
pnrpofe.

In what refpefts the nature of the ground, it has been
obferved that the vine delights in fuch gravelly and rocky
foils as are frequently found on the fides of fteep hills and
rocks, and that it has fometimes been known to flourifli
among mere ftones and gravel. It grows mod favourably
in a light, dry, fandy, or gravelly foil, which is perfeftly
free from ftagnant moiilure : confequently it may be noticed,
that the introduftion of the vine into this country would
have no bad effifcl in refpeft to agriculture, as all ftrong
and deep lands, which are beft adapted for tillage, are the
moft unfuitable for the cultivation of the vine.

But bcfides gentle declivities and light foils, vines, it
is faid, grow in fituations and foils where the land could
hardly be rendered profitable in any other way. And thus,
though vines would not grow robuft on the fteeps of poor,
gravelly, and rocky foils, ftill they would be more produc-
tive than when planted on rich lands, and the fruit be
greatly preferable. All fuch hills as have the above afpeft
or expofure, and are compofed of either flate, gravel,
icaly rock, or lime-ftone, are of courfe highly proper for
being planted upon. It is therefore evident, that there is a
confiderable portion of foil in the fouthern diftrifts of this
kingdom that is well adapted for the growth of vines.

However, the fuccels of a vineyai-d in this country would,
it is thought, moft eflentially depend on the kinds of vines
•which are propagated and cultivated. It is believed that it
has been a prevaihng, though certainly an erroneous notion,
that the fweet early kinda of grapes are the beft to plant
for the purpofe of making wine in this country. And that
moft or all of the modern trials in this way have been made
from vines brought from France. It is not doubted by the
above writer, but that there are, among the abur.dant va-
riety of grapes, pecuhar forts, which aie by nature Angu-
larly fuited to make wines in different climates and fituations.
Thus the different forts of grapes propagated and grown in
the Madeira and Canary iflands, might not, it is thought,
be found, if tried, to make good wines in France. It is
hence concluded, that as the fouthern part of this ifland is
almoft on the verge of the vinous latitude, it ftiould feem
reafonable to fuppofe, that there would be the greateft pro-
bability of fuccefs from thofe kinds of grapes which have
been known to thrive and profper beft in the moft northern
latitudes. On this account, therefore, the kinds of vines
cultivated in Germany are recommended, and particularly
the fort producing the grapes of which the Rhenilh wine is
made, in preference to any kind cultivated in France.

It is noticed above, that the early fweet kinds of grapes
are improper for making of wine in this country : the reafon
of which is this, it is fuppofed, that though fuch grapes
yield a fweet juice, it is not calculated to undergo fer-
lUentation in a proper manner. It is found by experience,
that good bodied, or generous wines, can be made from
grapes of an auftere tafte, and that too even before they are
quite arrived at a ftate of maturity. But then wine from
fuch crude grapes requires to be kept to a good age. The
cafe is fjniilar, it ia faid, in refped to apples. It is well

known that the fweet kinds of them, wliich ripen in the
fummer months, are very unfit for making cyder. And
that the nobleft liquor of this fort, fuch as that of the ftyre
and cockagee, is made from apples not much better than
wildings. Mr. Loudon, however, remarks, in fpeaking of
the culture of the vine in other intentions, that the general
imperfedtion of Englifh grapes is their defect of facchai-ine
matter and want of fweetnefs. This is, perhaps, it is thought ,
in part owing to the humidity of the atmofphere, more than
to its coldnefs, as very fweet grapes grow, and fpirituous
wines are made, in much colder and more northern latitudes
than a great part of England. Another reafon why the
fruit of Enghfti vines pofteffes confiderable acidity, is the
general tafte for large globular grapes, without regard fo
much to the delicacy of their flavour as the grandeur of
their appearance. Tliis fpecies of vine does not produce
delicious grapes in the hotteft climates, it is faid, and con-
fequently fhould not be fo generally cultivated in this. But
the appearance in this intention is of little importance.
The grapes moft abundant in faccharine matter, are, it- is
faid, always round, as thofe of the currant grape. It muft
be confcfTed, however, that the more expofed the vine is to
the intenfe meridian fun, fo much the fweeter will be the
grape, and the greater the quantity of faccharine or fpiri-
tuous juice that it will contain.

The forts of vines moft fuitable for this purpofe may pro-
bably be, the chaffilas, or common white mufcadine, the
berries of which are not large, or very fweet. The morillon,
noir hatif, a good fort of grape in this intention, which
has a fmall round black berry, of a fugary juice, is much
efteemed, as being early, ripening in September. Tke Malm-
fey mufcadine, which fomewhat refembles thb above, the
juice of which is very fweet, and of a high flavour, is a
good bearer, and a fine grape. Tlie black fweet-watcr
has a fmall roundifti berry, of a fweet tafte ; but which,
being apt to crack, is not in much repute. Birds are fond
of it. It ripens in the fame month as the above. The fmall
black clufter, which has fmall oval berries, and the leaves
covered with a hoary down, is a very pleafant fruit. The
early white grape from Tenerifi"e ; the berries of which are
of a middhng fize, and the flefti remarkably fweet and
juicy : the Auverna, or true Burgundy grape, fometimes
called the black morillon, which is an indifferent fruit for
the table, but efteemed one of the beft for making wine
from : and the white fweet-water, which has a large berry
of a white colour, and very agreeable juice, is efteemed an
excellent grape, and ripens in the above month : — it is fup-
pofed that from fome of thefe, and perhaps a few others,
the cultivator may probably find a proper grape for culti-
vating in the intention of making wine in this country.

In regard to the culture of the vine with this defign, as even
the moft fouthern parts of this ifland are but nearly on the
verge of the vinous latitude, as has been feen, every pofli-
ble advantage ftiould be confulted and had recourfe to in the
formation and management of vineyards. Thofe abroad,
it is faid, are formed by planting the vines in rows, and bv
training them in a perpendicular direftion. The firft of
the above writers would, however, in this country, greatly
prefer the mode of training the vines in a lateral or horizontal
form, fimilar to the method which is praftifed in Hol-
land with vines in frames. There would, it is thought, be
httle difficulty in this method, as the vines might readily be
trained along fmall poles, not thicker than thofe ufed for
hops ; thefe poles being fixed nearly parallel to the ground.
Vines thus trained, it is apprehended, would derive many
advantages, not only by means of warmth and ftielter, but
that they would moft eafily be protefted alfo from fpring-

froils.

VINE.

frofts, by applj'ing the boughs of trees, particularly thofe
of the evergreen kind. The grapes too, it is obferved,
would be greatly benefited by the refleftion from the foil of
the ground underneath them.

It is fuggelled, that when vines are intended to be planted
on the fteeps of hills, and on the fides of rocks, the ground
ihould be prepared and formed in the manner of fteps,
which it is particularly neceflary fhould be lower at the inner
angles, as without this the vine-plants would lofe the ad-
vantage of fuch i-ains as fall haftily and perpendicularly. It
is eafy to conceive that much advantage would be gained
from a fituation thus formed, as the back would be nearly
equal to a wall. And the expence attending the formation
of the ground could not be very confiderable. The work
fliould be begun at the top, and the foil taken out be thrown
down the hill. It would likewife be further beneficial to
have a httle good foil or earth put in at the angles, before
the vines are planted.

In refped to the plants, they may be provided either by
feeds, cuttings, or layers, but the two laft are moftly the
beft methods. When they are raifed from feed, after they
have had a year's growth, they (hould be planted out, about
the latter end of March, or beginning of the following
month, againft the poles or treilhs to which they are to he
trained, if from feeds ripened in this country ; but when
from fuch as are imported from the vine countries, too many
(hould not be planted till their value be known. When they
have been thus planted, they (hould be cut at the third eye,
if ftrong, but at the fecond, if weakly ; at the fame time
rubbing o(F the lower end with the finger and thumb.

When by cuttings, they (hould be chofen from (hoots that
are beft ripened, and have the (horteft joints ; always having
one or two joints of the laft year's wood to them, cutting
each perfe&ly fmooth, and a little rounding at the lower
end, and as near to a joint of the old wood as pofiible.
The upper end too (hould be cut fmooth, and (loping to-
wards the treillis or poles. They (hould afterwards be trained
as circumftances may direct. It has been advifed too by
fome, that choice (liould be made of cuttings after a warm
and dry feafon, when the wood ripens well ; each cutting
having two inches of the old wood with one eye of the
new. When the old vines are pruned, there is moftly great
choice, they (hould therefore be then felefted of a middhng
fire, and the wood round.

In raifing vines for this purpofe in the layer mannei', a
method very ufually made ufe of is to lay the ftools down
in an open fituation, in the fame mode as for foreft-trees and
(hrubs ; though the beft way, in the opinion of fome, is to
take layers from fuch vines as have been trained.

They (hould be cut fo as to leave one or two ftrong eyes
on each, and when the (hoots begin to run, be trained to the
treilhs or poles. Thofe which have the ftrongeft and moft
▼igorous (hoots (hould be feleftcd and prcferved for this pur-
pofe. They (hould afterwards be carefully trained and
pruned, as circumftances may require, always confidering
that much of the goodnefs of the grapes in thefe cafes
depends upon the Uving wood being ftrong and well
ripened.

In planting the grounds, the vines may be fet in rows at
fuitable diftanccs, according to the foil, fituation, and mode
of training wliich is to be praftifcd, but moftly about throe
or four feet diftant in tlic rows, and five, fix, or more from
row to row. The intervals between the rows are to be
kept quite clean and free from weeds, by frequent hoeing
and digging them over. After the vines have been thus
raifed, and carefully pruned and trained for three years,
they moftly produce crops of fruit, which, when for wine.

(hould be well ripened before it is ufed, efpecially in this
country.

TJie mode of the culture of vines in Madeira may pro-
bably fuggeft fome hints for their growth in the open
grounds in this country. It is ftated, that the beft feafon
for planting them there, is from the middle of the month of
November to the end of February ; that the (lips or cuttings
are made from a foot and a half to two feet and a half in
length ; they are fet two feet in the ground, about three
feet diftant, in ftraight rows or ti-enches, about four or five
feet afunder. After one trench is opened, and the earth
taken out and laid on one fide of it, fo as to form a bank,
the butt ends of the vines are put into the bottom of the
trench, and the fmall ends extended (loping up the bank ;
the trench is then filled with earth dug from the found land
the depth of it, breaking the clods, taking out tlie ftones,
bawling all the earth towards the vines, and thus making a
fecond trench, at the diftance noticed above, from the firft ;
proceeding to plant the whole vineyard or ground in the
fame manner. By this means the ground is lightened all
over, as well as where it touches the vines, arid is cleared
of ftones, the roots of trees, plants, fhrubs, and grafs,
which are all carefully picked out. A vineyard or ground
planted in this manner will, it is faid, laft there fifty or fixty
years.

Afterwards the young vines are not pruned until they
have been two or three years planted. The feafon for
pruning is nearly as above ; in doing which, no part of the
vine is cut but the new (hoots, which are cut o(f every
year at the end of every fecond or third jouit. The largeil
of thefe cuttings are faved for planting, and will keep for
feveral weeks above ground ; but if cut early, and not
planted till late, it is better to cover the butt-end witli
earth.

The fupporting of the vines, and other fuch matters, is
done to the height of three or four feet, by fticking ftakes
in the ground from end to end of the rows, then lafhing
long (lender poles near the heads of them ; and acrofs the
poles are laid, both ways, reeds or canes, at the diftance of
two or two and a half feet, which are tied to one another,
and to the poles where they crofs, with fplit-willow twigs :
thefe, if full grown and hard, will laft two or three years.
In the fecond or third year after planting, the' vines are
raifed and faftened to the ftakes and poles by means of
twigs, and the branches fpread open, and loofcly tied to the
poles or canes, fo that they may not be too thick in fome
places and too thin in others.

In the third year after the vines have been planted out,
they commonly produce a pretty good crop of grapes fit
for making wine. In which cafes, when they are almoll
come to their full fize, they are gradually expofed to the
fun, by frequently thinning the leaves till every br.inch lies
open to the fun fome part of the day. But if this (hould be
done while the fruit is green, or, all at once, when nearly
ripe, it would wither the grapes, and the juice would never
be rich. The grapes are here to hang until they are very
ripe, and many, on almoft every branch, begin to turn to
raifins, othcrwife the wine will be weak, har(h, and rougli,
and without much flavour ; hence it is evident the grapes
(hould not be promifcuoudy gathered all at once, but two
or three gatherings made, taking only what are ripe each
time.

It is likewife found, that in foils which are hot, dry, and
poor in quahty, the culture of vines in this country in the
open ground may be conveniently accomplilhed in another
manner ; as by their growth being greatly limited and
rcftridcd in fuch cafes, their tendency to fruiting is con.
C c 2 fiderablc

V I N

V J N

fiderably increafed and expedited, they can, of courfe, be
managed by being kept in a dwarf ftate, in fomewhat the
manner of the currant, and in this way produce much fruit
for the purpofe of wine. It is a method which feems to
have anfwered well in fome cafes, and which is perfeftly
fuited to many fituations, where the vine might be culti-
vated for the making of wine in the fouthern parts of this
country. See ViTis and Wine.

It is evident from a variety of circumftances, that the
cultivation of the vine in the open ground of this country,
in the view of procuring wine from the fruit, fhould be
more attended to than has hitherto been the cafe. In fome
fituations it would probably afford a better profit and advan-
tage than the hop, and with much lefs expence of cultiva-
tion ; while in others it is alraoft the only plant that could
be introduced with any chance of fuccefs.

Vine Gall-Infia, an infedl of the gall-infeft clafs, prin-
cipally found on the vine, though capable of living on fome
other trees, and fometimes found on them. It is much of
the fame (hape, figure, and manner of life, with the other
animals of this clafs ; but differs from them in this, that as
they lay their eggs all under their body, and continue ab-
folutely to cover them till they are hatched, thefe pro-
trude them from their body, and they are found in pro-
digious abundance, lodged in a fort of cottony or filken
bags, all over the llalks and branches of the vines : the dead
animal is fometimes found covering them in part, but more
frequently they are abfolutely naked, and often are fo
numerous, as to appear like thin cobwebs hung one over
another all over the vine.

Thefe eggs might be eafily miflaken for thofe of fmall
fpiders ; they always hatch well, and come to maturity on
the vines they are found on ; but if removed to others,
they feldom come to any thing, which is very Angular,
fjnce the gall-infedls of almofl all other trees may be re-
moved and propagated either on the fame or on different
trees.

Thefe vine-infefts are of the boat-fafhioned kind ; but
befide thefe, there are fome other fpecies which lodge their
eggs in a cottony neft of the fame kind. The common
ihoro affords a fhorter and more convex kind than this
does ; thefe are a very fmall fpecies ; others are fomething
larger ; but the oak affords a fort equal in fize, if not ex-
ceeding thofe of the vine ; fome of thefe are brown, others
blueifh, and others reddilh ; and there are fome minute
differences in their fhape. Reaumur, Hid. Inf. torn. iv.
p.6i.

ViNE-Grufo, a name given by fome authors to the
pucerons, or httle infefts which are ufually of a green
colour, and are found, often in prodigious numbers, llick-
ing to the leaves of trees and plants, and to their young
ilalks.

M. Reaumur has been very curious in his inveftigation
of the nature of this infeft ; but the manner of propagating
its fpecies was never clearly obferved, till Mr. Bonet dif-
covered it.

Reaumur obferves, that in every family of pucerons, there
^e fome that have wings, and fome that have not ; and that,
according to the ufual courfe of nature, the winged ones
Ihould be males, and the others females ; but, on the con-
trary, that both the winged and the unwinged vine-grubs
are females, all being viviparous, and each kind producing
a number of living young ; fo that the males of thefe
pucerons were never difcovered, even by that careful ob-
lerver ; nor could he ever find out what it was that im-
pregnated the one and the other kind. He leaves us queries
on this fubjeft, whether there is no copulation among them ?

10

and whether they are all hermaphrodites, each having im
itfelf the organs of both fexes, as is the cafe of the river
mufcles ?

Mr. Bonet, in order to inform hirafelf of the procefs of
nature in thefe creatures, brought up one of them in perfeft
folitude from its birth ; he had an opportunity of obferving
it in the place where it was kept, and watched it ver\'
flriftly for many months together. At the end of twelve
days this creature, without having had any copulation with
a male, began to breed. She produced in the whole ninety-
five young ones, all alive, and conftantly under the eye of
the obferver. This experiment was repeated feveral times
with the fame fuccefs : and, at length, repeated upon the
young ones produced in this manner, and they were found
to breed at the fame period, and in the fame manner with
their parent, without having had any copulation with a
male, as far as to the fourth generation.

A hafty obferver would immediately conclude from this,
that there was no copulation among the pucerons ; but
farther enquiry proves that this is not the cafe ; for the
fame obferver has found a fpecies of them in which there is
copulation ; fo that both the winged and the unwinged
kinds are truly females, and the male is a fmail fly, of a
very different (hape, as is the cafe in regard to many other
infefts. This male is the moft falacious creature imagin-
able, copulating a vait many times fucceffively, with the
fame, and with different females As this is the cafe in
regard to one fpecies of this creature, it doubtlefs is fo
alfo in regard to the reft, though that has not yet been
obferved : and the Angularity feems to be this, that after
the male has copulated with the female, fhe not only
becomes prolific, but her young ones are born ready im-
pregnated, as far as the fourth generation ; after which,
probably, there is a necelTity for the copulation with the
male again.

There is another very Angular obfervation alfo in the pro-
duftion of the youug pucerons ; the females are properly
viviparous, and ufually bring forth live young ; but they
fometimes produce only a fort of fcetufes, which are laid
in a long feries one befide the other, as the caterpillar eggs
are laid by the butterfly ; and they are left to hatch, as
it were, afterwards, by the heat of the fun. Phil. Tranf.
N° 469.

Vine or Bine Hop, in Rural Economy, a term often
applied to the fhoot of the hop-plant. After picking the
hops, it is moftly the befl praftice to tie up the vines, bines,
or binds, into fmall bavins while perfeftly dry, in order to
preferve them in iome way or other as fuel for different
ufes, and to clear the ground for future operations. The
work ufually coils about fixpence the hundred.

VlNE-Pny}, a fort of prefs and vat conftrufted for the
purpofe of fqueezlng and receiving the liquor from the
grapes, where wine is to be made from them. It may be
formed of different fizes, as from fix to nine feet fquare, or
more, according to the extent of the vineyard, being made
of planks which are about eighteen or twenty inches in
breadth, and two and a half or three inches in thicknefs, io
fixed to a bottom of the fame kind. Or of greater thicknefs,
that they may be capable of being preffed clofe to it, and to
one another, at the corners, by the help of polls or lluds,
with wedges and levers ; it being caulked, where neceffary,
in order to prevent the waile of the liquor. On one fide a
fpout is to be placed, on which a wicker baflcet is to be
hung during the operation, to flrain the liquor through as it
runs into a tub, which is often put half way in the ground,
to accommodate it to the height of the vat. When the
grapes are gathered, they are thrown into the vat of the

prefs,

V I N

picis, and the fpout being (lopped, receive a gentle prefTiire ;
and thea the fpout is opened, and the juice drawn off as
long as it will run without further prefling : when the
fpout is again (lopped, the grapes are again fubjcfted to a
ftronger preffure, fomewhat in the manner of the cyder-
prefs, and the liquor afterwards drawn o(f as before. In
this manner tl>e work proceeds until the liquor is wholly
drawn off.

Thefe preffes are perfeftly fimple in their nature, being
merely fo contrived as to a(Tord a proper degree of pre(rure,
without doing too much injury to the grapes, which would
probably hurt the flavour and quality of the wine. See
Wine.

VINEjE, in tlie Roman Art of War, were defenfive en-
gines, compofed of wicker hurdles, laid for a roof on the
tops of pods, which the foldiers who went under it for
(helter bore up with their hands. Some fay that they had
two roofs ; the firll and lower of planks, and the upper
roof of hurdles, to break the force of any blows, without
difordering the machine. See Mantelets.

VINEGAR, AcETUM, an agreeable, acid, penetrating
Lquor, prepared from wine, cyder, beer, and other liquors,
and varying in hue from light red to brown ftraw-colour,
malt vinegar being more highly coloured than that of wine :
and of confiderable ufe, both as a medicine and a fauce :
or, vinegar js a vegetable acid liquor, produced by the
fecond degree of fermentation, or that which fucceeds the
fpirituous, and is called the acid or acetous fermentation.
Every liquor, which has completely undergone the fpiritu-
ous fermentation, is fpontaneouny and neceffarily difpofed
to the acid fermentation. Accordingly, every vinous
liquor does continually tend to become vinegar, and is
actually changed into it, fooner or later, according to cir-
cumftances ; unlefs this change be prevented by fome
obftacle to fermentation in general. If vinegar be long
kept, and particularly if it be expofed to the air, it will
become muddy and ropy, acquirmg an unpleafant fmell,
lofing its acidity, and putrefying. In order to preferve it
for a longer time, it fhould be boiled for a few miiuites, fo
that the gluten may coagulate and feparate, on the prefence
of which thefe changes depend, and alfo kept in well-corked
bottles.

The word is Frencli, mnalgre ; formed from ■vin, wine,
and aigre, four.

The method of making vinegar has long been kept a
fecret among the people of that profeffion ; who, it is faid,
oblige themfelves to each other by oath not to reveal it ;
but, notwithilanding this, the Philofophical Tranfadtions,
and fome other late writings, furnifh us with approved ac-
counts of it. Whatever be the materials uled in the pre-
paration of the liquor for producing vinegar, it is merely
neceffary to admit air into the veffel in which it is kept, and
to preferve it in a temperature fomewhat higher than that of
the atmofphcre in this climate, that is, from about 75° to
80°. When a liquor already fermented is ufed, it is alfo of
almoft indilpenfable importance that yeall, or fome other
ferment, be added, in order to hailcn the fermentation,
or elfe the change will be too gradual to obtain vinegar in
perfeftion, and the fird acetilied portion will turn mouldy
before the lall has become four. But if the material em-
ployed has not undergone fermentation, the whole proccfs
of the vinous and preceding acetous fermentation will go on
without interruption, with the fame ferment which lir(l fet
it in aftion, as, e. g. in making vinegar from malt, or from
fugar and water. It is neccfTary alfo to (lop the procefs of
the manufafture in that ftage of it, in wiiich the acid has
attained to its highert degree of ftrength and perfcftion,

V I N

after which the liquor would then fpeedily be deteriorated,
the acetous acid would gradually difappear, and an ofFenfivc
mouldy watery liquor remain, with fcarcely any acidity.
It depends upon the fliill and experience of the manufafturer
to determine when his vinegar is in a tit (late to be drawn
off and clofely barrelled.

Vinegar, Method of making Cyder. The cyder (the
meaneil of which will fcrve the purpofe) is firft to be drawn
off line into another veflel, and a quantity of the muft, or
pouze of apples, to be added; the whole is then to be fet in
the fun, if there be a conveniency for the purpofe ; and, at
a week or nine days end, it may be drawn off.

Vinegar, Method of making Beer. Take a middling
fort of beer, indifferently well hopped ; into which, when
it has worked well, and is grown fine, put fome rape, pr
hufks of grapes, ufually brought home for that purpofe ;
malh them together in a tub ; then, letting the rape fettle,
draw off the liquid part, put it into a calk, and fet it in the
fun as hot as may be ; the bung-hole being only covered
with a tile, or flate-ftone ; and in about thirty or forty days
it will become a good vinegar, and may pafs in ufe as well
as that made of wine, if it be refined, and kept from turning
mufty.

Or, vinegar may be made thus : To every gallon of fpring-
water, add three pounds of Malaga raifins ; which put into
an earthen jar, and place them where they may have the
hotted fun from May till Michaelmas ; then prefling all
well, tun the liquor up in a very ftrong iron-hooped veffel,
to prevent its burfting : it will appear very thick and
muddy, when newly preffed ; but it will refine in the veffel,
and be as clear as wine. Thus let it remain untouched for
three months, before it be drawn off, and it will prove ex-
cellent vinegar.

ViNEGAK, To make Wine. Any fort of vinous liquor,
being mixed with its own fsccs, flowers, or ferment, and
its tartar firll reduced to powder ; or elfe with the acid
and aulleie (lalks of the vegetable from whence the wine
was obtained, which hold a large proportion of tartar : and
the whole being kept frequently (lirring in a veffel which
has formerly held vinegar, or fet in a warm place full of
the fleams of the fame, will begin to ferment anew, and
conceive heat, and will grow four by degrees, and foon
after turn into vinegar.

The remote fubjeds of acetous fermentation are the fame
with thofe of vinous ; but the immediate fubjecls of it are
all kinds of vegetable juices, after they have once under-
gone that fermentation which reduces them to wine ; for it
is abfolutely impoffible to make vinegar of mull, the crude
juice of grapes, or other ripe fruits, without the previous
affidance of vinous fermentation.

The proper ferments for this operation, by which vinegar
is prepared, are, i. The fxces of all acid wines. 2. The
lees of vinegar. 3. Pulverized tartar ; efpecially that of
Rhenifh wine, or the cream or crydals of it. 4. Vinegar
itfelf. 5. A wooden veflel well drenched with vinegar, or
one that has long been employed to contain it. 6. Wine
that has often been mixed with its own ficcs. 7. The
twigs of vines, and the (lalks of grapes, currants, cherries,
or other vegetables of an acid audere tade. 8. Bakers'
leaven, after it is turned acid. 9. All manner of ferments,
compounded of thofe already mentioned.

Vuieg.ir is no produCti'in of nature, but a more creature
of art : for verjuice, the juices of citrons, lemons, and the
like native acids, are improperly faid to bo natural vinegars ;
bccaufe, when didilled, they afford nothing but vapid water ;
wliereas it is the property of vinegar to yield an acid fpirit
by didillation.

The

VINEGAR.

Tlie wine which is generally converted into vinesrar, and
which for its cheapnefs is commonly employed for this pur-
pofe, is fuch as has already become four ; although the
better and the more fpirituous the \nne, and alfo the more
of the vinous fpirit that can be retained in the \nnegar, the
better and ftronger it will be. Becher fays, in his " Phyfica
Subterranea," tliat Iiaving digefted wine in order to convert
it into vinegar, in a bottle hermetically fealed, he found,
that although a longer than the ordinary time was required,
the vinegar produced was much ftronger than when free
air is admitted. Mr. Cartheufer alfo afBrms, that the
ftrength of vinegar may be much increafed by adding fome
aqua vitas to the wine, before it is expofed to the acetous
fermentation. Nothing more feems requifite in the prepa-
ration of good vinegar than to employ good wine, and to
cOnduft the fermentation in the moft advantageous method ;
the principal part of the operation being performed by
nature.

ViXEGAR in France, Method of maiing. The French ufe
a method of making vinegar different from that above
defcribed. They take two very large oaken veffels, the
larger the better, open at the top ; in each of which they
place a wooden grate, within a foot of the bottom : upon
thefe grates they firft lay twigs, or cuttings of vines, and
afterwards the ftalks of the clufters of grapes, without the
grapes themfelves, or tlieir ttones, called the rafie, till the
whole pile reaches witliin a foot of the brim of the veffels ;
then they fill one of thefe veffels with wine to the very top,
and half fill the other ; and with liquor drawn out of the
full veffel, they fill up that which was only half full before ;
daily repeating the fame operation, and pouring the liquor
back from one veflel to the other ; fo that each of them is
full and half full by turns.

When this procefs has been continued for two or three
days, a degree of heat will arife in the veffel which is then
but half full, and will increafe for feveral days fucceffively,
without any appearance of the like in the veffel which hap-
pens to be full during thofe days ; the liquor of which will
ftill remain cool : and as foon as the heat ceafes in the
veffel that is half full, the vinegar is prepared ; which, in
the fummcr, happens on the fourteenth or fifteenth day from
the beginning ; but, in the winter, the fermentation pro-
ceeds much (lower ; fo that they are often obliged to for-
ward it by artificial warmth, or the ufe of ftoves.

When the weather is exceedingly hot, the liquor ought
to be poured off from the full veffel into the other twice a
day ; otherwife the liquor would be over-heated, and the
fermentation would prove too ftrong ; whence the fpirituous
parts would fly away, and leave a vapid wine, inftead of
vinegar, behind.

The full veffel is always to be left open at top ; but the
mouth of the other mull be clofed with a cover of wood,
in order the better to keep down and fix the fpirit in the
body of the hquor ; for, otherwife, it might eafily fly off in
the heat of fermentation. The veffel that is only half full
feems to grow hot, rather than the other, becaufe it con-
tains a much greater quantity of the vine -twigs and ftalks
than that, jn proportion to the liquor ; above which the
pile rifing to a confiderable height, conceives heat the more,
and fo conveys it to the wine below. Boerhaave's Elem.
of Chemiftry, part iii. p. 143, &c. Phil. Tranf. vol. ii.
p. 657.

There is another method, by which a very good vinegar
is commonly made at Paris from the lees of wine. A
quantity of wine-lees is put into a large tun, and worked
Lip with wine fufRcient to render it very fluid. This is
then put into cloth facks, which are arranged in a large

iron-bound wooden vat, the heavy cover of which is laid
over them, and ferves as a prefs, that is gradually fcrewed
down till all the liquor is preffed out. The wine, thus
loaded with the extradlive and tartareous matter of the lees,
is diftributed in large caflcs fet upright, tl rough the heading
of which a hole is cut, which is conftantly left open. I;i
fummer thefe caflcs are fimply fet in the fun ; but in
winter they are arranged in a itoved room. The fermentation
comes on in a day or two, and when it has got to its height,
fo much heat is excited, that fometimes the hand can hardly
be borne in it. In this cafe, it muft be checked by a cooler
air, and by adding fome frefh wine to the caflcs ; and, indeed,
it is in a due regulation of the heat that moft of the prac-
tical lliill of the maker confifts. The procefs goes on in
this way tiU the whole of the wine is thoroughly acidified,
which requires about a fortnight in fummer and a month in
winter ; after which the new vinegar is put into barrels, at
the bottom of which are laid a good many chips of beech
wood. Here it remains for about a fortnight, during
which time it clarifies, and the clear part is then drawn off
and kept in well-clofed caflcs. Thefe beech chips may be
ufed over and over again for feveral years.

The natural colour of good wine-vinegar is a very pale
red, but a higher colour is given, if defired, by the addition
of elder-berries.

There are feveral (light variations in the mode of making
wine-vinegar, but which need not be detailed. They all
confift in exciting a frefh fermentation in wine, and keeping
it np in a moderate degree till acetification is complete.
Many refufe parts of the vine are of ufe for this purpofe,
fuch as the hufli", the four fucculent twigs, the mare or
cake left in the wine-prefs, and the hke ; and after they
have once ferved, they are ftill more valuable, as the acid
which they naturally contain, or which is evolved by them,
is more readily produced.

Wine may alfo be converted to good vinegar without
thefe additions, fimply by adding wine, efpecially when on
the fret, to vinegar already made, and expofing it to a
proper heat. In this way many manufacturers proceed,
keeping their cafks always full, by taking out of them at
intervals about a third or fourth part, replenifhing them
with wine, and again bringing the contents to the ftate of
vinegar.

In this country vinegar is chiefly made from malt. The
following is the ufual procels in London. A nia(h of malt
and hot water is made, which, after infufion for an hour and
a half, is conveved into a cooler a few inches deep, and
thence, when fufficiently cooled, into large and deep fer-
menting tuns, where it is mixed with yeaft, and kept in fer-
mentation for four or five days. The liquor ( which is now
a ftrong ale without hops) is then diftributed into fmaller
barrels, fet clofe together in a ftoved chamber, and a mode-
rate heat is kept up for about fix weeks, during which the
fermentation goes on equally and uniformly till the whole is
foured. This is then emptied into common barrels, which
are fet in rows (often of many hundreds! in a field in the open
air, the bung-hole being juft covered with a tile to keep off the
wet, but to allow a free admiffion of air. Here the liquor
remains for four or five months, according to the heat of
the weather, a gentle fermentation being kept up, till it
becomes perfcft vinegar. This is finiflied in the following
way. Large tuns are employed, with a faKe bottom, on
which is put a quantity of the refufe of raifins or other fiTiit
left by the makers of raifin and other home-made wines,
called technically rape. Thefe rape-tuns are worked by
pairs ; one of them is quite filled with the vinegar from the
barrels, and the other only three-quarters full, fo that the

ferment-

VINEGAR.

fermentation is excited more eafily in tlie latter than the
former, and every day a portion of tlic vineg:u- is laded from
one to the other, till the whole is completely finifhed and
fit for fale.

Vinegar, as well as fruit-wines, is often made in fmall
quantity for domeftic ufes, and the procefs is by no means
difficult. The materials may be either brown fugar and
water alone, or fug:ir with raifins, currants, and efpecially
ripe goofeberrics. Thefe fliould be mixed in the propor-
tions which would give a ftrong wine, put into a fmall
barrel, which it fliould fill about three-fourths, and the
bung-hole very loofely flopped. Some yeaft, or, what is
better, a toaft; fopped in yeaft, (hould be put in, and the
barrel fct in the fun in fnmmer, or a little way from a
fire i.T winter, and the fermentation will foon begin. This
fliould be kept up conftant, but very moderate, till the tafte
and fmell indicate that the vinegar is complete. It fliould
be poured off clear and bottled carefully, and it will keep
much better if it is boiled for a minute, cooled and drained
before bottling.

In both the vinous and acetous fermentations, an inteftine
motion, a fwelling, a hilling noife, and an ebullition, may
be perceived ; but the heat produced by the former is
fcarcely fenfible, whereas that produced by the latter is vei-y
confiderable. Moreover, the vapour which exhales from
vinegar, during fermentation, is not noxious, like that of
fermenting wine : on the contrary, as the acid of vinegar
difengages itfelf, it feems to acquire more power to bind
and retain the inflammable principle, which is the truly
dangerous part of thcfe vapours. Befides, vinegar docs not
depofit tartar as wine does, even though it has been made
with wine that had not depofited its tartar ; but the fedi-
nient of vinegar is a vifcid, oily, and very putrefcent matter ;
which is ufed to cover the grape-ftalks tiiat are employed
in the making of vinegar, in order to promote the ferment-
ation. The acid of the grape-llalks, which are waflied clean
and preferved to promote the fermentation of more vinegar,
afts powerfully as a leaven or ferment. The caflts which
have been ufed are alfo to be cloanfed from the vifcid matter
juft mentioned, and kept for the fame ufe, as they are fitter
for the purpofe than new cafks. When the acetous ferment-
ation is finiflied, the nature and charaftcr of the liquor that
has undergone it are totally ch.nnged. The tafte and fmell
of wine are partly fpirituous and partly acid ; though in
good wine the latter is fcarcely perceptible : the tafte and
fmell of vinegar are alfo acid and fpirituous ; but the former
quality prevails fo much, as almoft totally to conceal the
latter. The properties of wine and vinegar prove, that the
acetous fermentation unfolds in a very fingular manner the
acid parts of wine, and intimately combines them with the
inflammable fpirit ; fo that by changing wine into vinegar,
the ardent fpirit is no longer perceptible, fo that it cannot
affeft the head and intoxicate ; and if it be diftilled, the
fu-ft liquor that rifes with a heat lefs than that of boiling
water is not an ardent fpirit, as when wine is diftilled, unlefs
the vinegar be too new, and the acetous fermentation has
not been completely finidied ; but when old vinegar is dif-
tilled, the liquor that firft rifes is a flightly acid phlegm,
which contains the nioft volatile, the moft odoriferous, and
the moft fpirituous part of the vinegar.

When vinegar has run a little beyond the acetous ftate, and
begun to enter on the putrcfaftivc, the putrefaction may be
flopped by quenching a red-hot iron in the liquor ; and the
acid, which has been loft, may in fome mcafure be rcUored,
by the addition of a little fpirit of wine, rye-bread, muflard-
feed, &c. The piitrefaAion of vinegar may alio bo pre-
vented, by racking it off from the feculenciee, • and keeping

it in a clofe-ftopped veflel, in a cool place. However, fuch
as has once fuflered a confiderable heat, cannot long be pre-
ferved from corruption.

In England, the excifc laws relating to vinegar are as
follow :

Evei-y maker of vinegar for fale fliall take out a licence,
for which he fliall pay lo/. ; and fliall renew the fame an-
nually ten days at leaft before the end of the year ; on pain
of 50/. 43 Geo. III. c. 69. Sched. (A.) 24 Geo. III.
C.41.

But perfons in partnerfljip need only take out one licence
for one houfe.

By 43 Geo. III. c. 68. for all vinegar or verjuice im-
ported, a certain duty fliall be paid per ton (quantity 252
gallons).

By 43 Geo. III. c. 69. Sched. (A.) for every barrel
of vinegar, vinegar beer, or hquors preparing for vinegar,
which fhall be brewed or made in Great Britain for fale,
fliall be paid by the maker a certain other duty.

And upon every hogfliead of verjuice which fliall be made
in Great Britain for fale, fhall be paid by the maker a cer-
tain duty.

And by 49 Geo. III. c. 98. a duty is impofed in lieu of
all former duties of cuftoms.

By 10 & II W. c. 21. thirty-four quarts fliall be ac-
counted a gallon of vinegar, according to the ftandard ale
quart.

Every vinegar-maker fliall make entry with the officer of
excife of the houfe or place where he intends to carry on the
bufinefs ; and whether he intends to make vinegar from malt
or corn, or molafles or fugar, or from any and what other
materials. 26 Geo. III. c. 73.

Such officer may at all times by day and night (but if in
the night, in the prefence of a conftable), enter into any
places ufed by fuch perfons, and take an account of fuch
liquors therein, and fliall make a report thereof in writing
to the commiifioners, leaving a true copy thereof under his
hand, with fuch maker, if demanded, in writing, under the
penaltyof 10/. 7 & 8 W. c. 30. 12 Geo. c. 28. 12 Ch.
c. 24.

By 10 & II W. c. 21. no vinegar-maker fliall receive
into his cuftody any liquors for maknig vinegar, nor deliver
out any vinegar in caflis, or by the gallon, without notice
firft given to the officer, unlefs from Sept. 29, to Mar. 25,
yearly, between feven in the morning and five in the
evening, and from Mar. 25, to Sept. 29, between five in
the morning and feven in the evening ; on pain of 50/.

On receiving fuch liquors into his cuftody, he fliall fhew
the fame to the ganger before he mixes them with aay other
liquors, rape, or other materials ; on pain of 20/.

If any vinegar-maker fliall, without giving notice at the
next excife-ofiice, or to one of the commiifioners, ufe any
ftore-houfe, wareiioufc, cellar, or other place, for making
or keeping any vinegar beer, or liquor preparing for vinegar,
he fliall forfeit 50/.

If any maker of vinegar for fale fliall conceal any vinegar,
or liquor preparing for vinegar, from the view ot the
gauger, he fhall for every barrel forfeit 40?. 7 & S W.
c. 30.

if fuch makor fliall, on demand made by fuch gauger in
the day-time (or if by night, in the prefence of a cmillable),
refufe to permit him to enter his houfe, llore-houfe, or
other place ufed by liim, and to take an account ot the faid
liquors, he fliall forfeit ly/.

No iKpfon carrying on tlia trade of a vinegar-maker from
molafles or fugar, or other materi.ilt;, (except malt or corn,)
fliall carry on "(either .alone or in parincrfliip) the trade of a

diftiUcr

VINEGAR.

didiUer or re&ificr ot Ipirits in tlie fame premifes, or within
two miles thereof; and all entries made by fuch perfon
fhall be void. 26 Geo. III. c. 73.

All dale beer, returns of beer or ale, cyder, verjuice, or
any other liquor proper to be made into vinegar, which (hall
be found in the pofleffion of any common vinegar-maker,
except fuch as are to be drunk in his family, and which
(hall be kept feparate for that purpofe, fliall be deemed
vinegar or liquors preparing for vinegar. 10 & II W.
c. 21.

Every fuch vinegar-maker (liall make entry once a month
at the next excife-office of all liquors made within that month,
»nd alfo within a month after fuch entry, fliall clear off the
duties, on pain of double duty. 12 Ch. II. c. 24.

All penalties and forfeitures are to be recovered, levied,
and mitigated as by the excife laws. 43 Geo. III. c. 69.

Vinegar, Chemical Properties of the pure Acid of the dif-
ferent Kinds of. See Acetous Acid,

The quantity of fixt alkaline fait which vinegar is ca-
pable of faturating, is one of the fureft criterions of its
ftrength. The beft of the German vinegars, according
to Stahl, faturate little more than ^\.\\ of their own
weight ; the French vinegars, examined by Geoffroy,
above -1'5-th ; and fome of them no lefs than -rV^h ; the
common dillilled vinegar of our (hops about .-Vth. By
congelation, and diftillation from alkaUes, and from fome
metallic bodies, particularly copper, the acid may be
fo far concentrated as to faturate nearly equal its own
weight. The beft way of judging of the faturation, ac-
cording to Dr. Lewis, is by trying the liquor from time
to time with certain coloured vegetable juices, or on paper
ftained with them. For this purpofe, a thick writing paper
may be ftained pale blue on one fide with the blue prepara-
tion of archil, commonly called lacmus ; and pale red on the
otlier fide, by a mixture of the fame infufion with fo much
diluted fpiril of fait as is juft fufficient to redden it. If a
fmall flip of this paper be dipped occafionally into the liquor
to be tried, or a drop of the liquor be applied on both fides
of the paper, the red fide turns blue as long as any of the
alkali remains unfaturated ; the blue fide turns red, when
the acid begins to prevail ; and no change at all is produced,
vrhen the faturation is complete. Where lacmus cannot be
procured, the paper may be coloured with the juices of
yiolets, iris, cyanus, &c. or with the blue juice preffed out
from fcrapings of the cortical part of common radifh roots ;
with which it is fufficient to ftain the paper on one fide ; this
one colour difcovering both acidity and alkalefcence, the
former changing it red, and the latter green.

The acetous acid differs effentially from all the others :
from the native vegetable acid, in fubtility and volatility ;
not being obtainable in the form of a concrete fait, which
moft, perhaps all, of the native ones are, and rifing in dif-
tillation witli a moderate heat, which very few of the native
ones have been found to do : from the mineral acids, in its
habitude to different bodies, and the nature of the com-
povmds which it forms with them, being much weaker than
the mineral acids : thus, whatever alkaline, earthy, or me-
tallic fubftance the acetous acid be combined with, the ad-
dition of any mineral acid will disjoin them, the mineral
taking the place of the acetous; neutral falts, compofed of
the acetous acid and fixed alkalies, diffolve totally and plenti-
fully in reftified fpirit of wine, whilft thofe compofed of
the fame alkalies and mineral acids are not at all foluble in
that menftruum : in this property, the acetous acid differs
alfo from moft, perhaps from all, of the acids of its own
kingdom ; and from all acids in general, in its peculiar
odour.

The acid of vinegar diffolvcs ali fubftances upon which
other acids can ai5t, and forms with them neutral falts, all
wliich may be called acetous falts. With calcareous earth
it forms falts, which in cryftallizing fhoot into filky ramifi-
cations and vegetations ; thefe falts are named, from their
earthy bafes, fait of chalk, fait of crabs' eyes, &c. (See
AcETiTE of Lime, Sec. ) The folubility of calcareous
earth in this acid, and its precipitability bv that of vitriol,
afford a ready method of difcovering the fophiftication of
vinegar, faid to be fometimes praftiled, with vitriolic acid.
If a faturated folution of any calcareous earth, as chalk,
made in ftrong vinegar, be added to fuch as is fufpefted of
containing vitriolic acid, no change will enfue, if the vinegar
was pure ; but if it contained even a minute portion of that
acid, the mixture will immediately become milky, and, on
ftanding for a little while, depofit a milky fediment : if the
calcareous folution be gradually dropt in, fo long as it pro-
duces any milkinefs or cloudinefs, all the vitriolic acid will
be abforbed by the chalk ; and as this new compound is very
fparingly diffoluble, nearly the whole of it will precipitate,
fo as to leave the vinegar almoft pura. Its adulteration
with vitrioHc or fulphuric acid may alfo be detefted by a
folution of nitrate of barytes, which forms a white precipi-
tate, when dropped into the fufpefted vinegar, infoluble in
nitric acid, after having been expofed to a ftrong heat.
With fixed vegetable alkali the acid of vinegar forms a very
pungent and very deliquefcent fait, called Regenerated
Tartar, or T^RR A foliata tartari ; which fee. (See alfo
AcETiTE of Potajh. ) With fixed mineral alkali it forms a
neutral cryftallizable fait. With volatile alkali it forms
an acetous ammoniacal fait, called fpirit of Mindererus.
See AcETITE of Ammonia.

Vinegar diffolves, among metallic bodies, zinc and iron ;
and the reft with difficulty, if at all. f See Acetous Acid. )
United with copper, it forms a verdigris and cryftals of
Venus. With lead it forms cerutfe, and fait or fugar of
lead ; difiblving it more eafily when reduced to a calx than
in its metallic (late ; boiled even with the glafs of lead, or
in the common glazed earthen veffels, in the glazing of
which this metal is a principal ingredient, it extrafts fo
much as to become ftrongly tainted with the pernicious qua-
lities of the lead. Gold, platina, filver, and quickfilver, are
not affefted by vinegar in their metalhc ftate ; the two firft
have not been obferved in any ftate to be affefted by it.
Silver precipitated from the nitrous acid, and thoroughly
edulcorated with water, and mercury treated in the fame
manner, or changed by fire into a red powder, flowly and
fparingly diflblve in it. Of the affinities of this acid to dif-
ferent metals, or its forfaking one to unite with another,
few experiments have been made. Dr. Lewis obferves,
that it depofits lead and copper upon adding iron. ( See
Tables of Affinity.) It diffolves the vegetable infpilfated
juices, and feveral of the gummy refins, and extrafts the
virtues of fundry plants in tolerable perfeAion, fuperadding
at the fame time a virtue of a different kind. However, it
excellently affifts and coincides with fome drugs, as garlic,
fquills, and ammoniacum ; and in many cafes, where this
acid is principally to be depended upon, it may be advan-
tageoufly impregnated with the flavour of certain vegetables.
Vinegar very much concentrated, as the reftified fpirit of
Venus, or radical vinegar, being diftilled with equal parts
of highly redified fpirit of wine, furnifhes a liquor which
has all the elTential charafters of ether, and is called acetous
ether. It was difcovered by the count de Lauraguais.
(See Hift. Acad. Scienc. Par. 1759.) It mingles equally
with blood and its ferum, and with moft of the fluids of
animals ; not thickening or coagulating them, like the atids

VINEGAR.

of the mineral kingdom, but teiidiug rather, as Boeriiaavc
juftly obfervcs, to attenuate and refolve coagulations. It is
likewife, when taken internally, kfb flimulating than the
mineral acids, and lefs difpofed to afieft the kidneys. Pro-
feffor Culkn obferves, that it is lefs liable to undergo
changes in the tirit paffages than the native vegetable acids,
which have yet to go through the procefs of fermentation.
The ufe of vinegar as a condiment, and as an antifcptic for
pickling and preferving dead animal and vegetalsle matter,
is well known.

Vinegar, Medicinal Properties of. This mild, unftuous
acid is a medicine of great ufe in the different kinds of in-
flammatory and putrid diftempers, both internal and external.
Nothing is more extolled in many cafes of putrefaftion, and
as an antidote againft venomous bites, by Diofcorides and
Hippocrates, than oxycrate ; and vinegar, when applied to
fores in animal bodies, is known to ftimulate and refill
putrefadion. When weak, it pofl'elfes the virtues of water ;
when ilrong, its effefts approach to thofe of lalts and acid
fpirit. Med. E(f. Edinb. vol. v. art. 24.

It is one of the moil certain antiphlogiilics and fudorifics
vCi high fevers, and one of the bed prefervatives againft
peftileutial and other putredinous contagions. Accordingly
Boerhaave informs us, that Francifcus de la Boe Sylvius
rifited his patients in the plague with fafety, by dnnking
firft an ounce or two of vinegar. And it is now a common
pratlice to wa(h and fprinkle the rooms of hofpitals, the
decks of (hips, &c. with vinegar, in order to purify the
air. Dr. Hales (Ventilators, parti, p. 46. ) recommends
dipping many cloths in vinegar, and hanging them up in all
proper vacancies between the decks of fliips, and in the
chambers of fick perfons, by which great quantities of
vinegar would intermix and float in the air ; and he found
by an experiment, mentioned in his Statical Effays, vol. i.
p. 266, that an air which palTes through fuch cloths, could
be breathed to and fro as long again, as the like quantity of
air which was not impregnated with vinegar. Fainting,
vomiting, lethargic and hyileric paroxyfms, are likewife
frequently relieved by vinegar, applied to the mouth and
nofe, or received into the ilomach. Lethargic perfons are
often found to be excited more effedually by vinegar blown
into the nofe, than by the far more pungent volatile fpirits.
Boerhaave obferves, that this acid ceunterafts, in a peculiar
manner, the effefte of fpirituous liquors. The daily ufe
of vinegar with food is falutary in hot, bilious difpofitions,
and where there is a tendency to inflammation or putrefac-
tion. It is prejudicial to children, to aged, hyllerical, and
hypochondriacal perfons ; in cold, pale, phlegmatic habits,
where the veffels are lax, the circulation languid, and the
power of digeiljon weak. It tends in all cafes, if ufed
freely, to prevent corpulence. Hoff^man fufpefts that it
produces this eflFedl by impeding the formation of chyle, or
deftroying the union of the unftuous and ferous fluids of
which chyle is compofcd ; an efleft common to all acids, as
appears from their coagulating milk and artificial emulfions.
Dr. Lewis obferves, that he has known great corpulence
reduced by the liberal ufe of vinegar, but not with im-
punity : difcafes fucceeding, which eluded the power of
medicines, and proved at leiigtii fatal.

Combinations of vinegar with different earthy bodies,
differ in virtue according to the nature of the earth. A
Tolution of the aluminous earth in this acid is ftrongly
ftyptic ; of vegetable earth, or magncfia alba, bitterifli and
gently purgative : both thefe foiutions are milder, and lefs
ungrateful, than thofe of the fame earths made in the mineral
•41 ids ; and, though as yet unkr.own in praftice, certainly
dekrves, as Dr. Lewis fays, to be introduced. Soltitions

Vol. XXXVII.

of different animal and the calcareous mineral eai'ths are bit-
terifh and fubauflere, in various degrees, and fuppofed to
aft as mild refolvents, fubaftringents, or diaphoretics.
Combinations of vinegar with fixed alkaline falts are ufeful
aperients, diuretics, and cathartics. Dr. Lewis has known
two drachms of the alkali, diffolved in as much vinegar as
was fufficient to faturate it, occafion ten or twelve copious
watery llools, and a plentiful difcharge of urine, without
griping or fatiguing the patient. Mixtures of alkali and
dillilled vinegar, evaporated to a dry fait, are kept in the
(hops ; either in a brownifli oily ftate, as obtained by timple
evaporation, or purified to perfeft whiteneff, by gentle
fufion or folution in water. Thefe preparations are given
in dofes of ten or twenty grains as mild aperients, and to a
drachm or two as purgatives and diuretics. See Tartah,
Regenerated, Sal Diunticus, Terra Foliata, and Ar-
canum Tartari.

Combinations of vinegar with volatile alkaline falts, com-
monly made with diftilled vinegar, added gradually to the
fait, till the effervefcence ceafes, fcarcely yield any folid
fait ; the faline matter evaporating with the watery fluid, or
even before it : on diflilling the mixture in a retort, a fait
fometimes concretes about the tides of the receiver, but
liquefies again as the veffels grow cold. Thefe mixtures,
called J'pintus Mindereri, have little purgative virtue, but
operate powerfully as api-rients ; by urine, if the patient
walks about in the cool air ; by perfpiration or fweat, if
kept warm in bed. They are principally made ufe of in
this laft intention, in dofcs of half an ounce ; and, as they
aft without irntation, they have place in inflammatory cafes,
where the warm fudorifics, if they fail of exciting a fweat,
aggravate the dift;emper. Vinegar and honey, or oxymel,
of the confiftencc of a fyrup, fwallowed warm, is very good
in many cafes of fore throats arifmg from colds. A very
important medicinal virtue has been attributed to vinegar,
namely, that of curing the canine niadncfs. See HvDUO-
I'lroBlA, and Madness yVom the Bile of enray^cd Animals.

M. Buchoz, in a work, entitled " An hiitorical Treatifc
of Plants growing in Lorraine, &c." affirms, that feveral
fuccefsful trials hare afcertained the efficacy of vinegar
againfl the ill effefts arifing from the bite of mad dogs,
when it is given in the quantity of a pound each day,
divided into three dofes ; one to be taken in the morning,
another at noon, and a third in the evening. Upon the
whole we (hall here obferve, that vinegar, taken into the
Itomach, afts as a refrigerant, promotes diaphorefis and the
difcharge of urine ; and is a powerful antinarcotic : exter-
nally its aftion on the living fibre is moderately flimulant
and aftringent. In inflammatory fevers it may be ufcd to
acidulate the ordinary beverage. It is given as a remedy in
putrid difeafes and fcurvy ; and is the mofl cafily procured,
and the belt means of counterafting the fatal effefts of over-
dofes of opium, and other narcotic poifons ; for which pur-
pofe it fhould be adminiftercd in table fpoonfuls, frequently
repeated, after the flomach has been emptied by a proper
emetic. It is employed as a glyfler in obflinate coflivencfs ;
and externally, in the form of fomentation, or of lotion, is
applied in burns, bruifes, fpraine, and chronic ophthalmia ;
and diluted with water, it is the beft lotion for clciring the
eye of fmall particles of lime, when they adhere to any part
of the ball, or the lids. Its vapour is inli.iled in putrid forc-
thro.it ; and diffufed through fick rooms, with the view of
neutralizing peffilential effluvia; but as a fumigation it has
little efficacy. The dofc of vinegar is f \i to f ^ij ; and the
quantity given in clyfters f^j to fjij. See on the fubjeft of
this article, Boerhaave's Elem. Chem. by Dallowc, part iii.
p. .'46, &t. Ncumann'f Chrm. by Lewis, p. 458, f<o.
D d Diet.

VINEGAR.

Diet. Chem. Lewis's Mat. Med. Thornton's Lond.
Difp- See alfo Acet;c Add, Acetite, Acetous Add,
and AcETUM.

Vinegar, in Rural Economy, is an acid or cooling hquid
that may be made ufe of with confiderable benefit in dif-
ferent forts of field labour, in mixture with water or other
fluids, as quenching third very effeftually, without Simu-
lating or increafing the heat of the body too greatly. It
has been Hated, on the authority of a manufcript paper
found in pofTefiion of fir William Pulteney on the ufe of
vinegar, by the writer of the Correfted Report of the Agri-
culture of the County of Middlefex, that during the firft
American war, the interruption given by oirr cruizers to
the trade of that country, and fome other circumftances,
prevented the inhabitants of it from procuring proper fup-
plies of molafles for their diftilleries, and a diftrefs was ex-
perienced, particularly in harveft-time, from the want of
rum to mix with water, which was the drink of their labour-
ers. It is commonly known, the writer thinks, that cold
water is dangerous, when ufed by perfons heated -vvith
labour, or by any fevere exercife ; and yet it is neceflary to
fupply the wafte and cxhauftion of perfpiration in fome
mode or other. When rum or wine is added in fmall quan-
tity to water, it may be ufed, even if cold, with little
danger : it would, however, be fafer, it is fuppofed, if a
little warm water were mixed and employed in fuch cafes.

On this account. Dr. Rufti, of the fame coimtry, after
making proper experiments on the fubjeft, recommended in
a publication, that inllead of rum, which could not then be
had, the labourers in harveft {hould mix a very fmall pro-
portion of vinegar with the water they made ufe of as
drink. Some years aftervi'ards, in another publication, the
fame writer mentioned that the praftice had been adopted,
and had fucceeded even beyond his expeftations ; indeed fo
much fo, t'hat in many places vinegar was ftill continued to
be ufed, though rum could eafily be had. The preference
of vinegar to rum is accounted for in this manner ; fevere
labour or exercife excites a degree of fever ; and that fever
is increafed by fpirits or fermented liquor of any lort ; but
vinegar, at the fame time that it prevents mifcliief from
drinking cold water during the heat and perfpiration occa-
fioned by exercife, allays the fever ; and the labourers found
themfelves more refreflied and lefs exhaufted at night, when
vinegar was ufed inftead ot rum.

■ The exad propoi-tion of the vinegar is not known by the
writer, but it is fuppofed that it was not more than about
a tea-fpoonful to half a pint of water.

The difcover)', it is faid, was not altogether new, as the
Romans ufed vinegar to mix with water for the drink of
their foldiers.

The writer of the above agricultural report adds to
this, that M. Denon, a celebrated French draughtfman,
who accompanied their army while it was in Upper Egypt,
experienced the advantage of vinegar mixed fomewhat in
this way in that burning climate, which he relates in this
manner ; " I cooled the heat of my blood with vinegar,
which I mixed with water and fugar, and drank of it
largely."

Independently of this, however, the fame writer ftates,
that the quality of water, which produces the ill effefts
above defcribed to perfons drinking it cold, when under
any confiderable degree of perfpiration, may probably be
correfted by the fimple addition of (kim-milk. The la-
bourers in fome diftrifts of this kingdom, it is faid, during
harveft, make ufe of.no other beverage than milk and water,
which is found to allay the fever, and quench the third,
rauchmore than beer. At the fame tiiiie, the labourers are

glad when they can get beer or ale, though they confefs
that they are much fooner thirfty after drinking either, than
they are after drinking milk and water, or it would feem
than vinegar and water.

As it is necelfary to have good and well-kept vinegar in
this intention, as well as for fome domeftic and other pur-
pofes, it may be proper to confider the nature of it, and the
means of preferving and preventing the decompofition and
injury of it in any way. Where good vinegar is wanted,
wines of good quality are necelfary, as the bed kinds of it
are thofe that have been made from generous wines. The
more fpirituous the wine is, and the more of this vinous
fpirit that can be retained in the vinegar, of courfe the
better and dronger it will be, and conlequently the more fit
for the above ufes. In regard to the means of its preferva-
tion, they principally confid in defending it well againd the
aftion or influence of the external air, by keeping it in
proper veffels, well clofed, and placed in cool fituations. Its
alterations and injuries may likewife be further retarded,
where neceifary, by depriving it of a portion of the water
which it contains ; for which purpofe, nothing more is
wanted than to jud let it boil for an indant ; but the veffels
which are employed in this kind of bufinefs Ihould obvioufly
not be made of copper. The procefs too, which has been
propofed by fome with a fimilar intention, is quite fimple ;
it confids in filhr.g with this acid glafs veffels of a proper
kind, which are to be then placed in boilers full of water ;
the water being in this cafe made to boil for a full quarter
of an hour, after which the vinegar in the veffels is taken out,
when it may be kept for feveral years without undergoing
any alteration or decompofition. Didillation, too, has been
advifed as a means of preferving vinegar ; but beCdes the
circumdance of its being a tedious and difficult procefs, it is
apt to deprive the acid of the agreeable fmell and tade
which are pecuhar to it in its natural date, and which is
always defirable, but more efpecially when lor ufe in the
above intention. And the fame is the cafe with vinegar
that has been concentrated by freezing. The acid by this
fimple operation becomes much ftronger, and capable of
being kept for a much greater length of time ; but it ac-
quires fomething of a burnt fmell and tafte, which render it
unfit for being employed for many domedic purpofes, as
well as that above dated.

There is another manner of accomplidiing this bufinefs by
a fahne fubdance, which is that of fea-falt, or muriate of
foda, which is advifed by fome to be added to vinegar, as
being able to preferve it, and which fucceeds well enough
in fome cafes, though it is not without its inconveniences ;
for the vinegai-s that contain this material grow turbid,
and at length lofe their primitive quaUties. Bi't though it
may not fucceed quite fo perfectly as might be wiftied, it
may ftill be employed in ■ certain cafes with advantage, efpe-
cially if the quantity of fait that is neceffary to be added to
the vinegai' be not in too large a proportion.

What refpefts the iigns by which vinegar may be known
to be good, adulterated, or fpoiled, deferve confiderable
attention, as nothing is more common than to meet with
vinegars that are of bad quality. Two caufes principally
contribute to their being in that date : the fird of which is,
that they have been manufaftured or prepared with weak
wines, or fuch as are already in a fpoiled condition ; the
fecond, that they have been mixed with acrid fubdances,
fuch as pimento and others ; or that mineral acids, fuch as
the fulphuric or muriatic, have been added to them. Nothing
is, however, more eafy than to detect fuch frauds and im-
pofitions, it being fufficient for the purpofe to merely fatu-
rate a given quantity of potalh with the vir.egar which is

fufpefted

VINEGAR.

fiifpefted of adulterauoii, and to i^mpare the quantity of
vinegar that has been obliged to be employed before a com-
plete faturation could be obtained, with tliat confumed in a
fimilar trial made with-vinegar, the good quality of which is
well known ; and by evaporating or reducing the fubftance
of the folution naarly to drynefs afterward,:, the nature
of the material employed may be afcertained. And
as to the acrid vegetable fubftances that may have been
mixed with it, they may be readily recognized by their
tafte, which will be altogether different from that of the
vinegar, and which will become the more perceptible, the
more the acid has been concentrated or reduced by evapo-
ration, or any other means.

It may be noticed in general, that vinegar which
has not been adulterated, or which has not been fpoiled
by an incipient decompofition, is readily and eafily
known by its penetrating acid tafte, its Iranfparency,
and its agreeable fmell, which becomes ftill more developed
if fome of the vinegar be rubbed between the hands, or in
any other way.

In fome of thefe modes, vinegar that is fit for ufe in the
above intention, and for other purpofes, may be readily
known.

Vinegar is frequently alfo of much utility and advantage
as an application in different cafes of bruifcs and flight
fwellings, arifing from blows and other accidents among
different kinds of hve-ftock or domeftic animals.

ViN'EGAR of Antimony, is an acid fpirit, befl made by
diftillation from the ore of antimony. See Antimony.

Its ufe is recommended in continued and malignant
fevers.

ViVEGAR, Aromatic, of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared by
taking of rofemary tops dried, and fage leaves dried, of each
4 oz. ; lavender flowers dried, 2 oz. ; cloves bruifed, 2 dr. ;
and diftilled vinegar, 8 lbs. : macerating thefe ingre-
dients for feven days, and filtering the expreffed liquor
through paper. The odour of this liquid, which is a folu-
tion of the volatile oils of the fubftance employed in vinegar,
is pleafant, pungent, and aromatic ; and it is a grateful per-
fume in fick rooms, but cannot be regarded as a pro-
phylaAic from fever, or other contagions.

The aromatic fpirit of vinegar, originally invented and
fucccffively improved by the late ingenious and refpeft-
able Mr. Henry of Manchefter, is compofed of highly
concentrated vinegar, joined with the moft pleafant aromatic
and efficacious antifeptics, and may be kept unimpaired for
any length of time, and in any climate. Its fragrant odour
adapts it for affording relief in head-aches, faintings, &c.
and renders it peculiarly grateful and refrefliing in crowded
rooms, places of public refort, and the apartments of the
fick. It is alfo faid to counteraft the infeftion of con-
tagious difeafes.

ViN'P.cAR, D'ljl'tlkd, is the fpirituous acid of vinegar ob-
tained by diftillation. The procefs of diftilling vinegar is
very fimple. A quantity of good ordinary vinegar is put
into a large cucurbit or ftill, which ought to be made of
ftone-ware, and not of metal, as the acid of vinegar is ca-
pable of afting upon moft metals. This cucurbit is funk
in a deep furnace, fo that five or fix fingers' breadth only
near its neck appear. The neck is to be carefully luted
with clay all round the furnace, that the capital may not be
heated too much. A capital and a glafs receiver arc then
to be fitted, and the dillilktion is to be begun with a very
gentle heat. The acid fpirituous liquor paflts by drops into
the receiver. This liquor is white, traniparcnt, penetrating,
fomewhat empyreumatic, and dif( ngaged from an acid, but
not fpirituous fubftance, and alfo from an cxtraftive fapo-

naceous matter, both which are contained in ordinary
vinegar. Tfiefe latter fubftances remain in the ftill with the
colouring matter, and form together an extremely acid ex-
traft of vinegar. This refiduum contains alfo fome tartar,
and by incineration yields much fixed alkali, as all matters
bclongmg to vines, grapes, and wine do.

The thicker vinegar is, the lefs fit it proves for diftil-
ation, as there is always the greater danger of an empy-
reuma, or burnt fmell, which would fpoil the whole pro-
cefs, and as it ufually in this cafe comes over oleaginous.
And the pureft white fait of tartar, faturated with this dif-
tilled vinegar, being afterwards ignited, turns black, and
yields a fmell extremely like that of crude tartar in the cal-
cination. Shaw's Chemical Effays.

On the other -hand, the more the vinegar is diluted im-
mediately before diftillation, the lefs danger there is of
burning ; and if the thick remaining mafs, when the thinner
part is diftilled from it, be again diluted with water, it may,
by a fecond diftillation, be brought to afford an acetous
fubftance ; though this latter be by no means comparable
to this former volatile part. This Vigani juftly fufpe<fts to
be a circumftance known but to very few. And even when
the vinegar is diftilled with the utmoft labour and care, it ftill
has this effeft in a higher degree, and contains an immenfe
quantity of phlegm, in proportion to its acid fait.

In this cafe, the method of condenfation by freezing is of
the utmoft fervice ; firft of all feparating the more aqueous
part, and in the next place that which is fomewhat acetous,
though not comparable to what remains behind ; fo that,
by this means, a moft concentrated and fubtle fpirituous dif-
tilled vinegar may be produced, t'/z. by freezing the whole
parcel of diftilled phlegm and diftilled vinegar together, a
thing of great moment to the curious in ihe ckemia fuHlmior,
and particularly to thofe who underftand Hollandus. And
when the vinegar is froze without diftillation, by this means
you have a noble rob, or a rich concentrated vinegar, freed
from its diftillatiug aqueous and ufclefs part. Vigani,
Medull. Chem.

The Lond. Ph. direfts the acetic acid to be diftilled
from a gallon of vinegar iji a glafs retort, placed in a fand-
bath, into a glafs receiver kept cool ; the firft pint to be
thrown away, and the fix fucceeding pints which arc dif-
tilled to be preferved. The diftilled acetous acid of the
Edinb. Ph. is prepared by diftilling 8 lbs. of the acetous
acid in glafs veflels, with a gentle heat, rejecting the albs,
which firft came over, as being too watery ; and the 4 lbs.
that follow will be the diftilled acetous acid : the refidue is
a ftronger acid, but too much burnt. The diftilled vinegar of
the Dub. Ph. is obtained by taking of wine vinegar ten
pints, and diftilling with a gentle heat fix pints : the dif-
tillation is to be perfoi-med in a glafs vefTel, and the firft pint
which comes over rejefted. The fpecific gravity of this
acid is to that of water as 1006 or 10095 *° 1000. (See
Acetous Acid.) Darracq has afcertained (Annales de
Clumie, xli. 264.) that diftilled vinegar diff'ers from acetic
acid, by containing fome uncombined mucilage and ex-
iraftivc matter, but that the acids are otherwil'c the fame.
To this cxtradive it is owing, that when diftilled vinegar is
boilrd with potafs, the folution has a deep rcddidi-brown
colour, and during evaporation carbonaceous matter is de-
pofited. Sulphuric acid is detefted by a precipitate being
produced on the addition of a folution of acetate of barytes ;
le.id, by a folution of fulphuretted hydrogen, forming a
dark-coloured precipitate ; and copper, by Us allummg a
blue colour, when fuperfaturated witii ammonia. 'I'iie
medical properties and ufes of diftilkd viiu'gar arc the fame
with thofe of common vinegar ; but, bti"g purer, and lefs

D d 1 hable

V I N

V 1 N

liable to fpontaneous decompofition, it is fitter for pharma-
ceutical purpofep. Thomfon's Difp.

Vinegar, Concentrated. See Concentration.

ViN'EGAR of Lead, is a liquor formed by digefting cerufTe
or litharge, with a fufficient quantity to difTolve it perfeftly.
This is called the acetum Uthargyrites, and is prepared by di-
gefting four ounces of litharge about three days in a fand
heat, with a pint of ftrong vinegar, now and then (baking
the vefTel. The liquor, filtered, will receive a ftrong im-
pregnation from the litharge, and will be found to have dif-
folved about one-tenth of it. When a faturated folution is
required, the ceruffe is preferred to the litharge. This vine-
gar is of the fame nature with folutions of faccharum fa-
turni, and when diluted with a large quantity of water, it
abates external inflammations, the itching and other unea-
fineffes in cancerous ulcers ; and before Mr. Goulard's prac-
tice, it was nfed for bathing inflammations in fcirrhous tu-
mours, to prevent their becoming cancerous. Inflamma-
tions and inflammatory tumours, in general, are difperfed
by it. Dr. William Saunders has obferved, that the acetum
lithargyrites, or Goulard's extraft, is not the fame in its
operation and powers as the faccharum faturni, as medical
praftitioners have generally fuppofed. In the preparation
of the former, the acid is fully faturated with lead ; but in
that of the latter, the acid is in a much greater proportion
to the lead. The former, when diluted by the pureft dif-
tilled water, gives out a copious precipitation, which he
finds, by experiment, to be cerufle. The latter remains
diffolved in diftilkd water, and is, therefore, applied topi-
cally in a ftatc more immediately aftive, both on account of
its greater proportion of acid, and its preferving its folubility
under high degrees of dilution. He has alfo found by ex-
periment, that, by adding a very fmaU proportion of dif-
tilled vinegar to the aqua faturnina of Goulard, the white
precipitate is rediflblved, and that the folution procured in
this manner is more aftive, but lefs adapted to remove in-
flammation, and abate irntation, as a fedative, than the aqua
faturnina itfelf. Dr. Saunders, however, is perfeftly con-
vinced that no degree of dilution of faccharum faturni will
anfwer the many valuable purpofes obtained from the ufe of
the acetum lithargyrites. Water alone, in the cafe of the
aqua faturnina, proves a precipitant of lead, by attracting
the acid, and reducing the preparation to a itate of cerufle,
an intermediate Itate between lead and the faccharum faturni ;
fo that cerufle diffufed in water more nearly refembles the
aqua faturnina of Goulard, than a folution of the faccharum
faturni does. The faccharum faturni may be confidered as
an union of ceruffe with vinegar ; whereas Goulard's ace-
tum lithargyrites is an union of lead with vinegar. See Per-
cival's Phil. Med. and Exp. EfT. 1776. Append, p. 323,
&c. See alfo Lead.

Vinegar of Meadow Saffron, Acetum Cokhic'i, is ordered
by the London College to be prepared by taking of the mea-
dow faffron root (bulb) fliced, I oz.; of acetic acid, a pint;
and of proof-fpirit, a fluid-ounce; macerating the root with
the vinegar in a covered glafs veffel for twenty-four hours,
then exprefling, and fetting the liquor afide, that the fecu-
lencies may fubfide, and adding the fpirit to the clear liquor.
This is given as a diuretic in afcites and hydrothorax, but is
lefs to be depended on than the fquill. The dofe is from
f 5fs to f 5j, united with honey, or any bland fluid. See
CoLCHlcuM and Meadow Saffron.

Vinegar, Portable, a name given by the chemifts to a
fort of vinegar-powder, or vinegar in a dry form. It is a
preparation of tartar with vinegar, and is made in this man-
ner : Take white tartar, half a pound ; let it be carefully
waflied, then dried and powdered ; infufe this powder in tlie

Vinegar of Rofes.
Vinegar o/" Squill.
Vinegar, Eels in.
covery of eels in vineg

ftrongeft wine-vinegar ; then dry it, and infufe it again, re-
peating this operation ten times : after this the dry powder is
to be kept for ufe. At any time, a fort of extemporaneous
vinegar may be made by diflblving a fmall quantity of this
powder in any proper liquor.

Vinegar, Prophykaic. See Acetum Prophylaaicum.

Vinegar, Radical, is a name given to the acid of vinegar,
highly concentrated, by diftilhng verdigris, or cryftals of
verdigris. Sec. See Acetic Acid.

M. de Laflbne has lately found, that in the procefs of
diftilling verdigris for this purpofe, a fluid efcapes of the
nature of thofe called by the ancient chemifts gas, and by
the moAerns fixed air ; and he alfo obferved, that if the dif-
tillation be fufpended the moment before the acid concen-
trated vapours appear under a white form, copperifti flower.s
are obtained : before this period, the radical vinegar con-
tains no copper ; it only begins to contain fome, when the
copperifh flowers, carried along by the acid vapours, mix
themfelves with this vinegar : if it is then reftified by a new
diliillation, thefe flowers are no more fublimed, and, there-
fore, a radical vinegar, exempt from copper, may be ex-
trafted from verdigris. The copperilTi flowers are in a
high degree cauftic, and may be confidered as a violent poi-
fon. Hift. Acad. Sc. Par. 1777.

See Acetum Rofatum.
See Squill.
The common opinion, from the dif-
jar, that its fliarpnefs to the tafte was
occafioned by thefe animals, caufed the accurate Leeu-
wenhoeck to attempt a careful examination of it by the
microfcope.

Some of the ftrongeft and ftiarpeft vinegar, after having
been expofed for fome hours to the air, and afterwards exa-
mined by the microfcope, entertains the fight with a number
of corpufcles, called the falts of vinegar, which are acute at
both extremities, and have many of them in the middle an
oblong figure of a brownifti colour, and others were altoge-
ther clear, pellucid, and bright as cryftal. Others of thefe
particles appeared of an oval figure, and fome of the half
of fuch a figure, hollowed hke a fmall boat, or the half of
a nut-lhell. The more perfeft figures, pointed at both
ends, and pellucid, are fo very minute, that fome thoufands
of them are comprehended in a fmall drop.

Thefe feem to be what affect the tongue with the acid
fharpnefs, when we tafte vinegar ; and it is very probable,
that befide thefe, minute as they are, there are multitudes of
others, equally pointed, and infinitely fmaller than thefe.

If vinegar be placed in an open glafs, and fuff"ered to re-
main fome weeks, the lurface of it will be found, on exa-
mination with good glafles, to be full of the fame figures,
double-pointed, and verv pellucid ; and in thefe, very often,
there may be cavities plainly difcovered ; but examining the
liquor a little deeper down, there are found numbers of mi-
nute eels ; yet thefe, though minute, are prodigioufly larger
than the fait particles, and can never be fuppofed to be the
occafion of the ftiarpnefs of vinegar to the tafte, by any
who rightly confider, fince it is not all vinegar that contains
them ; nay, the much greater part of vinegar is wholly
without them, and in winter they all die ; yet vinegar is not
lefs fliarp at that feafon than in the fummer.

Mr. Mentzelius was fo lucky as to fee thefe undergo their
laft metamorphofis, and change into fmall flies ; and though
this is a fingle inftance, in regard to the microfcopical world
of animalcules, yet it is highly probable that the whole race
of thofe, whofe appearance in medicated fluids we have been
fo long puzzled to account for, may, like thefe, be the
vvorin-uate of fome winged aerial iufed, and have owed

their

V I N

V I N

their origin, where wc fee them, to the egg? of parent flies,
too fmall for our fight. Reaumur, Hill. Inf. vol. iv.

If vinegar be impregnated with crab's-eyes, or any other
alkaline fubftance, which blunts, and in a great mcafure de-
ftroys its acidity, thefe doubU'-poinled figures are no longer
found in it, on a microfcopieal infpeftion ; but in their
places we find others with an oblong quadrangular bafe,
from which they fhoot up into pyramids, and appear like
polidied diamonds. Thefe are alfo fo very' minute, that fix
thoufand of them are computed to be contained in a drop of
the liquor, no larger than two corns of barley ; and thefe
will be ufually found all of the fame fize, or very nearly fo,
which is by no means the cafe with the other forts of vinegar
in its natunJ flatc. See Microfcopic Eels.

Vinegar-/^///, in Geography, an eminence near the town
of Ennilcorthy, famous for being a ftation of the rebels in
1798.

VINER's Island, a fmall ifland in the fouth-weft part
of James Bay, Hudfon's Bay.

VINERY, in Gardening, a fort of garden ereftion, con-
fiding of a wall twelve or fourteen feet in height, extending
from eaft to weft, furniflied with lloves, and proper flues,
with roof and lights of glafs, covering a border of fome
extent ; as ten feet or more in width. When vines are to
be forced at an early feafon, upright glafles, two and a half
or three feet in height, are often employed in front, to fup-
port the roof, and to admit fun and light to the border,
which is frequently occupied with low-growing vegetables :
but when th'-y are not wanted early, a low wall will anlwer
equally well. In forcing vines, the following dimenfions
are fuppofed to form an improved vinery, or houfe of this
kind, and one that has been found to anfwer well in
a6liial praftice. In houfes of this fort, if the wall be
twelve feet high, the breadth ten feet, and tlie height of the
upright wall in front three feet, the roof will form an angle
of about forty-three degrees ; which experience has (hewn
to be a fuitable pitch for forcing vines with advantage.

Thefe forts of buildings may likewife be conftrudted on a
plan fomewhat fimilar to that of a fingle-pitted pine-ftove,
having the back wall fourteen feet high ; the roof flanting,
and covering an extent of about fixteen feet ; with a flue
running from eafl; to weft near the front wall. This is well
fuited, not only for grapes, but early crops of melons, ftraw-
berries, and other fimilar kinds of fruit.

To fave the expence of glafs ; where there are peach-
houfes, tlie glafs frames may alfo be employed for the
vinery, when conftrufted with this intention, and good
grapes may be obtained from vines trained againft walls
about fix feet high, by means of melon-frame glaftijs, where
a fmall flanting roof is made proper to receive them. But
a fmall degree of fire-heat is of great advantage, and might
be applied either by a flued wall, the flue running through
the houfe, or by caft-iron pipes for the pnrpofe.

Thefe forts of houfes, Mr. Nicol remarks, vary exceed-
mgly in their conftruftion ; and although fome lay great
llrefs on this article, (and there are extremes which ought
not to be followed,) he is convinced the failure of fucccfs
in the produftion of the grape, is much Icfs a confequence
of irtJ conllruftion in the houfe, than in the preparation of
the border, the clioice of the kinds, and the general manage-
ment. It has fallen to his lot to have the conftruftion and
management of three feveral and diff'erently conftrufted
grapc-honfes in the fame garden, under his care for years,
which have equally and uniformly produced excellent crops.
This, in his opinion, is a proof of the neceflity of a greater
nicenefs in the formation of the border being obferved,
than in the conftruiftioa of the houfe ; tin fire-place and

flues excepted, which ftiould always be particularly at-
tended to.

He alfo thinks that the fcite of a vinery is an objeft of
fuch confequence to the welfare of the plant, and fucccfsful
cultivation and produftion of well-flavoured fruit, that the
greatefl: care fttould be taken in the choice of it. A gentle
hill, having a fouth afpeft, and confiderable declivity that
way, the foil a ftrong brown loam of two feet, over a bot-
tom of dry fand, gravel, or foft clay, is, he thinks, the moit
defirable, and would be the leaft expenfive of all fituations.
In this cafe the border requires no paving or draining ; and
admits of a proper mixture of fandy loam, vegetable mould,
marie, and dung, by the removal of two feet of the natural
bottom, with the natural foil, to form a border, perfeftly
adapted to the growth of the vine, in the follovring propor-
tion ; viz. one half ftrong brown loam, a quarter light fandy
loam, an eighth vegetable mould of decayed tree -leaves, and
an eighth ftable-dung ; to which add about a fiftieth part
of ftiell-marlc. This is the compofition of the vine-borders
at Wemyfs Caftle, none of which are lefs than four feet
deep, and one (owing to the accidental fituatlon of the
houfe) is fix. See Forcing, ¥LoT-Houfi, and Stove.
Sec alfo Vjtis. ■

In order to form borders againft thefe hot-walls in other
cafes, they ftiould have the earth taken out two feet deep
where the ground is dry, but in other cales one foot will be
fiifficient, as in wet foils the borders ftiould be raifed at leaft
two feet above the level of the ground, to prevent the roots
of the vines from being injured by the wet. The bottom of
this trench fliould be filled with ftones, lime-rubbilh, Sec. a
foot and a half or two feet in thickncfs, which fliould be
levelled and beaten down pretty hard, to prevent the roots
from running downward. The trenches fliould be made five
feet wide at leaft, otherwife the roots will, in a few years,
extend theinfelves beyond the rubbifti, and, finding an eafy
pafl'age downwards, run into the nioift ground, and be
thereby much injured, or dcftroyed ; but before the rubbifli
is filled into the trench, it is a better method to raifc a nine-
incli wall at that diftance from the hot-wall, which will
keep the rubbifli from intermixing with the neighbouring
eartii, and alfo confine the roots to the border in which they
are planted. This wall ftiould be raifed to the height of the
intended border, and may be nfcful to lay the plate of tim-
ber of the frames upon, which will be ncceflary to cover the
vines with when they are forced ; and where the borders are
raifed to any confiderable height above the level of the
ground, thefe walls may preferve the earth of the borders
from faUing down into the walks ; but in carrying them up,
it will be proper to leave little openings, about eight or ten
feet diftant, to let the water pafs oft" by. As foon as the
walls are finiftied and thoroughly dry, the rubbifli flunild be
filled in, as direfted above, when there ftiould be frefli light
earth laid upon it two feet thick, which will be a fufficitiit
depth of mould for the vines to root in. The borders fliould
be prepared in this manner at leall a month or fix weeks be-
fore the vines are planted, in order that they piay have time
to fettle. See Vrris.

Improved and more economical modes of heating and
fteaming the plants in vineries have lately been had rccourfe
to by Mr. Loudon and others, as by the ordinary fires, and
the ufe of caft-iron plates, &c. Vineries have fometimes
fteam-vaults under the ground, for fupplving occafional
warmth to the roots of the vine plants. Houfes of thefe
kind.H are fometimes called graperies, and grape-hou/et. See
Stovi;.

VI NET, Eli AS, in Biography, .i learned man of the fix-

tccnth century, was born at Vincts, a village of Saiiitongc,

J I and

V I N

V 1 N

and having gained a fmall fum of money by tuition, he went
to Paris for the ftudv of mathematics and improvement in
claflical literature. He was invited to Bourdeaux in 1541,
and appointed to a profeflorfhip by Govea, principal of the
college in that city. He accompanied his patron to Co-
imbra in 1547, but after his death returned to Bourdeaux,
where he was appointed principal of the college in 1558.
Having performed the duties of this office for twenty-five
years, he was releafed from fcrvice in his advanced age, but
retained his falarj-, and died in 1587, at the age of 78.
Vinet edited various ancient authors ; and befides his tranf-
lations into French, he publifhed fome original works, fuch
as " The Art of making Dials ;" a treatife " On Modera-
tion ;" the " Antiquities of Saintes and Barbefieux," 4to.
157 1 ; and " Antiquities of Bourdeaux and Bourg," 410.
1574. Moreri.

VINEUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Loir and Cher, on the Couflbn ; 3 miles E.
of Blois.

VINEYARD, ViNETUM, a plantation of vines. See
Vine.

Vineyards were formerly common in England, but for a
confiderable time the cultivation of them has been altogether
neglefted. There was a famous vineyard at Bath, planted
with white Mufcadine and black duller grapes, which, at one
time, yielded fixty hogfheads of wine at a vintage, though,
in 1 72 1, it only yielded three hogflieads.

Bradley alfo mentions a fmall vineyard of a private perfon
at Rotherhithe, confifting only of a hundred vines, which
yielded at a vintage ninety-five gallons of wine, that had
the true Burgundy flavour, as being made of that fort of
grape, and exceeded any made on this fide of Paris.

Vineyard, in Geography, a town of America, in the dif-
triA of Vermont, and county of Grand Ifle ; containing 338
inliabitants.

Vineyard, Martha's. See MarthaV Vineyard.

Vineyard, Neiv, a townftip in the dillrift of Maine, and
county of Somerfet ; containing 484 inhabitants ; 60 miles
N.W. of Brunfvvick.

Vineyard Sound, a narrow fea, on the north-weft coaft of
Martha's Vineyard, feparated from Buzzard's bay by Eli-
zabeth idands.

VINFELD, a place of Weflphalia, in the county of
Lippe, near Horn.

VINGENNA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Gaul,
which difcharges itfelf into the Loire.

VINGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro-
vince of Aggerhuus ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Berga.

VINGORLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Concan, where the Dutch had a fettlement, from which they
were driven by the natives in 1696. About ten miles to the
weft-north-weft are fome rocks, in the Indian fea, called
Vingorla Rocks. The town of Vingorla is fituated near the
mouth of a river ; 22 miles N.N.W. of Goa. N. lat. I5''53'.
E. long. 73° 27'.

VINHAES, a town of Portugal, in the province of Tra
los Moiites ; 1 2 miles W. of Braganga.

VINJA CUTARIA, a town of Hindooftan, in Cutch ;
i6 miles S. of Tahej.

VINIE Lake, a lake of Norway, in the government of
Aggerhuus ; 45 miles W. of Conft)erg.

VINIOLiE, in Ancient Geography, a place in the ifle of
Sardinia, on the route from Portus Tibulis to Caralis, be-
tween Fanum Carifi and Sulci. Anton. Itin Alfo, a place

of Spain, belonging to the Carpetani, between Accatucci
and Mentefa Baftia.

VINITZA, in Gfoj;v7/i/>_y, a town of Croatia ; iz miles
W. of Varafdin.

VINIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in the
vicinity of the town of Cafinum, according to Varro, fup-
pofed to be now known by the name of Fiume di San Ger-
mane.

VINKATTY CHILLUM, in Geography, a town of
Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 10 miles S. of Nellore.

VINKENBOOMS, DA\-in,m Biography, a landfcape
painter, born at Mechlin in 1578, was the ion of an obfcure
painter in diftemper. His landfcapes, which are in the ftyle
of Roland Savery and of John Breughel, are fometimes
adorned with ftories from the Bible, but more frequently
are convivial ; being fairs or merry-makings. He ventured
occafionally on hiftory, with landfcape backgrounds ; fuch
is the pidiure of Chrift bearing his Crofs, in the colleftion
of the eleftor palatine, and of Chrift healing the Blind, at
Frankfort. His compofitions are ingenious, but his touch is
petite and hard.

VINKISH, the name of a difeafe in flieep. See Van-
quish.

UINMARSUCK, in Geography, an idand near the coaft
of Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 60° 40'. W. long. 45° 45'.

VINNA, a town of Hungary; 2 miles N.W. of
Ungvar.

VINNAS, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Guamangaj
50 miles W. of Guanca Velica.

VINNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the Bifhopric of
Munfter ; 10 miles N.E. of Munfter.

VINNET, in our Statutes, is ufed for a flower or border,
which printers ufe to ornament printed leaves of books. See
Vignette.

VINNIUS, (ViNNEN,} Arnold, in Biography, an
eminent jurift, was born in Holland in 1588, ftudied at Ley-
den, and taught the dailies at the Hague till the year 1633,
when he became law-profeflbr in the univerfity of Leyden.
Whilft he occupied this office, he acquired diftinftion by
various works of jurifprudence, in an elegant and ornamented
ftyle. The principal of his publications are, " Commenta-
rius Academicus et Forenfis in quatuor Libros Inftitu-
tionum Imperialium," Amft. 1642, often reprinted, and par-
ticularly by Heineccius, with a preface and notes, Lugd.
Bat. 1726, 4to.;" Nota: ad Inftitutiones," accompanying the
preceding ; " IntroduAio ad Praxin Batavam," &c. &c.
He died at Leyden in 1657, or, as fome fay, in 1668.
Moreri.

VINNY, in Agriculture, a term fignifying mouldy and
fufty, when applied to hay and other fuch fubftances. We
have thus vinny hay, &c.

VINOVIA, ViNONIA, or Viconia, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Great Britain, in the ift Iter of Antonine, on
the route from Vallum to Praetorium, is fixed at Binchefter
on the Were, in the bilhopric of Durham, between Vm-
domora (Ebchefter) and Cataraftori (Cataraft), on the
fouth fide of the river Swale. Ptolemy affigns it to the Bri-
gantes.

VINOUS, ViNOSUS, fomething that relates to wine ; or
that has the tafte and fmell of it.

All vegetables, by a due treatment, afford a vinous liquor ;
as corn, pulfe, nuts, apples, grapes, &c.

A fecond fermentation, duly managed, turns any vinous
liquor into an acetous one.

The proper charafter and effeft of fermentation are, to
produce either a vinous, or an acetous quality in the body
fermented.

Some of our countrymen, bound on a voyage to the Eaft
Indies, having filled feveral caiks with Thames water, to

carry

V 1 N

carry along with them, obferved an inteftine motion in it
when they came to the equator ; and found it afterwards
turned into a kind of vinous liquor, capable of affording
an inflammable fpirit by diftillation. See Putrefaction
of Water.

VINSOBRES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Drome ; 4 miles S.E. of Nions.

VINTAGE, the crop of wine, or what is got from the
vines each feaion.

The word is alfo ufed for the time or feafon of gathering
or prefllng the grapes.

In France, a decree or ordinance of the proper judge, and
a folemn publication of it, are required, before the vintage
can be begun.

VINTAIN, or BiNTAiv, in Geography, a town of Africa,
and capital of the kingdom of Fouia, on a river of the fame
name, which runs into the Gambia. This town is much
frequented by Europeans for the purchafe of wax, ivory,
and Ikins.

VINTIMIGLIA, a fea-port town of Genoa, defended
by a caille. It is the fee of a bifhop, under the archbifhop
of Milan; 13 miles N.E. of Nice. N. lat. 43° 48'. E.

VINTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Ne-
rufii, according to Ptolemy, recognized by infcriptions in
honour of Gordian and Trajaii-Dccius, in which are read
CiviT. Vint. In the Notitia of the provinces of Gaul, Ci-
vitas Vintuntiiim is om- of thofc of the Maritime Alps. In
later times it was called Vincium, and this name is preferved
in that of Vence.

VINUESA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in Old Caftile ;
13 miles N.W. of Soria.

VINUM, a liquor, or drink, popularly called Wine ;
which fee.

ViNUM, in Medicine, J^niim Meilicamentum, is particularly
applied to leveral medicated wines, /. e. medicinal prepara-
tions, of which wine is the bafis. Wine, as a folvent, is liable
to the objeftion of inequality of ftrcngth ; and on account of
its fpontaneous dtcompofition by expofure to the air, it is
more objeftionable, this change being more likely to occur
fooner when it is imbued with principles which tend to haltcn
the fermentative procefs. In order to obviate thcfe diiadvan-
tages, Parmcntier (Annalesde Chiniie, lii. 46.) propofes,
that inflead of preparing medicated wines in the uliial way,
the alcoholic tinctures well prepared (hould be added to wine
in given quantities; by which means, lie fays, the preparations
are lefs nauleous, and always of a d'.tcrminate flrength. By
the general term wine, the London College defignates (herry
wine. Thefe medicated wines fhould be kept in very wcll-
corked bottles, and in a cool fituation. Some of thefe are
denominated from the ingredients uf.d in thein ; fome from
the intentions with which they are prefcribed ; and fome
from their qualities, &c. Such are the

ViNUM Abfintbites, or Wormwood Wine ; made of the great
or little abhnthir.m, by taking the apices, or tops, with the
flowers, putting them in a facculus, or bag, and fiifpending
it in the middle of a vetTel of wine ; winch, fermenting, ex-
trafts the talle, linell, and virtues, of the wormwood. See
Absintihtf.s.

ViNUM Aloes, Wine of Aloes, is prepared, according to the
Lond. Ph., by rubbing eight ounces of extraft of fpiked
uloes to powder with white land previonfly freed from any
impurities, and alfo rubbing two ounces of canella bark into
powder, and on thefe, mixed together, pouring fix pints of
wine and two pints of proof-lpirit ; macerating for fourteen
days, frequently fhaking the veffel containing the mixture,
and afterwards llrainiiig. The Dub. Ph. dirctts four

V J N

ounces of focotorme aloes and one ounce of canella alba
to be feparately reduced to powder, and mixed together,
and then to pour over it three pints of Sp<auifh white wine,
mixed with a pound of proof-fpirit ; then to digeft for
fourteen days, with frequent agitation, and lailly to ftrain
the folution.

ViNUM Aloes Socotorina, WineofSocolorine Aloes, of the Edin.
Ph., commonly called Sacred TinSure, is prepared by taking
one ounce of focotorine aloes in powder, leffer cardamom-
feeds bruifed, and ginger-root bruifed, of each a drachm,
and two pounds of Spanilh white wine ; digefling for feven
days, with frequent agitation, and then ftraining. This me-
dicated wine is an excellent warm purgative and ftomachic ;
and has been employed long and beneficially in cold
phlegmatic habits, paralyfis, gout, dyfpepfia, and chlorolis ;
the dofe is from f5j to f^ij as a ftomachic, and from t'sj
to fjij as a purgative.

ViNUM Aloetieuni Alhalinum, a form of medicine in the
late London Difpenfatory, intended to ftand in the place of
Helmont's elixir proprietatis. It is prepared in this man-
ner : Take of bay fixed alkaline fait, eight ounces ; aloes,
myrrh, and fafFron, of each an ounce ; puritied fal ammoniac,
fix drachms; white wine, a quart; infufe them together
without heat for a week, or longer, and then filter the wine
through paper for ufe.

VlNUiM Amaruni, Bitter Wine, is an infufion of certain bitter,
ftomachic herbs, as gentian-root, juniper-berries, tops of
centaury, orange and lemon-peel, in wine. Tliis wine may be
made by infnfing for a week, without heat, gentian-root,
and yellow rind of lemon-peel, of each one ounce, and two
draclims of long-pepper, in two pints of mountam-wine, and
ftraining out the wine for ufe.

Tlie Ftnum Gentiaiiis Compofitum, vulgo l^inum Amariim,
or compound wine of gentian, commonly called bitter wine,
is obtained by flicing or bruifing lialf an ounce of gentian-
root, one ounce of cinchona bark, two draclims of orange-peel
dried, one drachm of canella alba, and pouring upon them
four ounces of proof-fpirit, and, after twenty-four hours,
adding two pounds and a half of Spanilh white wine ; then
macerating for feven days and ftraining. This wine, newly
prepared, is ftomachic and tonic, but by keeping becomes
acefcent. The dofe is from fjiv to f5vi, given two or
three times a day. For other preparations, fee Genj'ian-
Root.

In complaints arifing from wcakncfs of the ftomach, or
indigeftion, a glafs of this wine may be taken an hour before
dinner and fnpper.

ViNUM Anthelminlicum, Aiilhelmintit Wine, may be made
by infnfing, without heat, half an ounce of rhubarb, and
an ounce of worm-feed, bruifed, in two pints of red Porw
wine, for a few days, and ftraining off the wine. As the
llomachs of perfons afflittcd with worms are always debili-
tated, red wine alone will often prove lerviceable : it mult,
however, have Itill better effects when joined with bitter and
purgative ingredients, as in the above form. A glafs of this
wine may be taken twice or thrice a day.

ViNUM Anlimoniale, Antimonial Wine, is made by digefting,
without heat, half an ounce of glafs of antimony, reduced
to a fine powder, in eight ounces of Lifbon wine, for three
or four days, occafionally (liaking the bottle, and afterwards
filtering the wine through paper. The dofe of this wine
varies according to the intention. As an alter.itive and dia-
phoretic, it may be taken from ten to fifty or fixty drops.
In a larger dofe it generally proves cathactic, or excites
vomilin-.';.

The Lirjiior Antimnnii T.ntariaali, or foln'ion of tartarized
autimony of ^iie Lund. Ph., is obtained by diflolviiig a Icruple

uf

V I N

of tartarized antimony in four fluid-ounces, of boiling diftiJled
water, and then adding fix fluid-ounces of wine. The V'mum
Tartritis Antimomi, formerly Viuum AniimonlaU, is had by
mixing twenty-four grains of tartrate of antimony m one
poundofSpani(h white wine, fo that the tartrate may be dif-
folved. Thefe folutions are of equal ftrength ; fsj of either
containing two grains of tartarized antimony. They are dia-
phoretic or emetic, according to the extent of die dofe. In
dpfes of ?l],x to fjj, in any proper vehicle, repeated every'
three or four hours, diaphorefis is ufually excited ; but this
folution is principally ufed as an emetic for infants, a tea-
fpoonful being given every five minutes till it produces full
vomiting. See Antimony.

ViNUM Aromatkum, is made by infufing aromatics, or
fpices, in new wine, or muft.

. ViNUM Bcncdi8um, Bkjfed Wine, is made of crocus me-
tallorum and mars infufed in wine. This was formerly a
celebrated emetic, but is now almoft out of ufe, on account
of its roughnefs.

ViNUM Chalybeatum, Chalybeate Wine, is thus prepared :
Take filings of iron, four ounces ; cinnamon and mace, of
each half an ounce ; of Rhenifh wine, two quarts ; infufe a
month without heat, often fhaking the vefTel ; then filter it
off for ufe. Some fuperadd a reddifh colour, by ufing a
fmall quantity of cochineal.

Fine iron wire, cut in pieces, is more eligible than the
filings, as we may always depend on the wire being pure
iron ; and as it expofes a larger furface to the fluid, it is
more eafily atted upon.

This wine is an excellent ftomachic and aperient ; it may
be drank in the quantity of a common fpoonful, or even of a
moderate glafs, once or twice a day, or mixed in apozems of
the aperient vegetables.

In obftruftions of the menfes, this preparation of iron may
be taken in the dofe of half a wine-glafs twfice or thrice a
day. Dr. Buchan fays, that the medicine would probably
be as good if made with Lilbon wine, fharpened with half an
ounce of cream of tartar, or a fmall quantity of the fpirit of
vitriol.

The Vinum Ferri, or IVine of Iron, is by the Lond. Ph. di-
rected to be prepared by mixing two ounces of filings of iron
svith two pints of wine, and fetting the mixture afide for a
month, occafionally (baking it ; and filtering it through paper.
The Dub. Ph. orders four ounces of iron wire cut in pieces,
and four pints of w liite Rhenifh wine ; and direfts to fprinkle
a little of tlie wine over the iron filings, and expofmg them to
the air, until they be covered with ruft, tlien to add the re-
mainder of the wine ; to digeft for feven days, with frequent
agitation, and laftly to filter. This is a vinous folution of
tartrate of iron and potafs, and when prepared as the London
College direfts, each pint contains about twenty -two grains
of oxyd of iron. It is the lealt unpleafant of the preparations
of iron ; chiefly employed in chlorofis, and the relaxed ha-
bits of young femalef. The dofe is from f5J to f5vj, given
twice or thrice a day.

ViNUM Cydonites, Quince Wine ; made of flices of that firuit,
fteeped Ln mufl;, or new wine.

Vinum Emeticum, Emetic Wine, is wine in which the glafs
or regulus of antimony, or crocus metallorum, has been
fteeped. See Emetic.

This only takes a certain degree of efficacy from the mat-
ters ; nor is it found any llronger at three months end,
than at the end of three days. It purges both upwards
and downwards.

Vinum Enulatum, Elecampane Wine, is an infufion of the
root of that plant, with fugar and currants, in white Port.
It cleanfes the vifcera, prevents diforders and obltruftions

V I N

of the lungs, and is good in afthmatic cafes, cachexies, &c-
See Elecampane.

ViKUM Hippocraticum. See HippoCRAs.

Vinum Ipecacuanha is prepared, according to the Lond.
Ph., by macerating for fourteen days two ounces of the
root of ipecacuanha bruifed in two pints of wine, and filter-
ing ; according to the Ed. Ph., by macerating for feven
days one ounce of the root bruifed in fifteen ounces of
Spanifh white wine, and filtering through paper ; and ac-
cording to the Dubhn Ph., by digefting for feven days two
ounces of the bruifed root in two pints of Spanifli white
wine, and then filtering. As an emetic, this is equally
efficacious, and milder in its operation than antimonial wine,
and, therefore, better adapted for infants : for this purpofe,
a tea-fpoonful, or f5fs, is given for a dofe, and repeated
every ten minutes till it operates. In fmaller dofes it
anfwers the fame purpofes as the powder, and is given in
coughs, diarrhoea, dyfentery, and other complaints in which
a determination to the Ikin is indicated.

Vinum Marinum, Sea-wine, is made by calling fea-water
oa the grapes in the vat.

Vinum Millepedum. See Millepedes.

Vinum Nieotiann Tabaci, Wine of Tobacco, of the Edinb.
Ph., is prepared by macerating for feven days one ounce of
tobacco-leaves in one pound of Spanifli white wme, and
filtering through paper. This is the only form in which
tobacco can be conveniently adminifliered as an internal re-
medy. It is given to produce diuretic and antifpafmodic
effefts in dropfies, colica piftonum, and ileus. The dofe is
from mx to li\xxx, in any proper vehicle.

Vinum Opii, Wine of Opium, is obtained, according to
tlie Lond. Ph., by taking an ounce of extraft of opium,
cinnamon bark bruifed and cloves bruifed, of each a drachm,
and a pint of %vine ; macerating for eight days, and filtering.
Mr. Ware introduced the ufe of this tinfture as a local ap-
plication in the fecond ftage of ophthalmia, when the inflam-
matory fymptoms have fubllded, and the veflels of the
conjunAiva remain turgid with red blood. Two or three
drops are dropped into the eye every morning, until the
rednefs be removed.

Vinum PeSorale, PeSoral Wine, is prepared by liquorice,
fafiron, coriander-feeds, caraway, anife, fait of tartar, penny-
royal, and hyfTop leaves, digefted with Canary wine, and
ftrained. It is a good expeftorant, helping to deterge and
cleanfe the lungs, &c.

Vinum Picatum, Pitched Wine, is made of pitch infufed
in m.ufl.

Vinum Rhei Palmaii. See Rhubarb.

Vinum Rofatum, Rofe Wins, is made by fteeping rofes
for three months in wine.

Vinum Scilliticum. See Squills.

Vinum Stomachicum, Stomachic Wine, is prepared by in-
fufing an ounce of Peruvian bark, grofsly powdered, carda-
mom-leeds, and orange-peel, bruifed, of each two drachms,
in a bottle of white Port or Lifbon wine for five or fix days,
and ftraining off the wine. This wine is not only of fervice in
laxity and debihty of the ilomach and inteftines, but may
alfo be taken as a preventive, by perfons hable to the inter-
mittent fever, or who refide in places where this difeafe pre-
vails. It will be of ufe to thofe who recover flowly after
fevers of any kind, as it afGfts digeftion, and helps to reftore
the tone and vigour of the fyflem. A glafs of it may be
taken two or three times a day.

Vinum Strobilifes, denotes pine-apple wine.

Vinum e Tartaro Antimoniali, is made by diffolving tartar
emetic in white wine, in the proportion of twenty-four
grains to a pouud.

ViKtil

V I o

V I o

ViNUM Kiperinum. See Vlper-^/W.

ViNUM Ejffatum, in Chemijlry. See ESSENCE of Wine.

ViNUM Extemporaneum, a name given by Dr. Shaw and
others to a fort of extemporaneous vinous liquor, made
without fermentation, from the melafles fpirit, lemons,
water, and fugar, in the foUowi-ng manner. Some good
found lemons are to be cut in dices, rind and all, and put
into a quantity of pure and fine melafles fpirit ; when they
have flood in infufion three or four days, the liquor is to be
ftrained clear off, and filtered ; and having before prepared
a very thin fyrup of the fineft fugar diffolved in fpring-water,
the two liquors are to be mixed together. The proportions
of this mixture can only be hit by repeated trials ; but when
once found, it will be eafy to continue them ; and a vinous
liquor will thus be prepared not inferior to many foreign
wines.

VINZELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Galatia, belonging to the Teftofages. Ptolemy. — Alfo, a
town of Afia, in Pifidia. Ptolemy.

VIO, in Biography. See Cajetan.

Vio, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon ; 1 1 miles
N.W. of Ainfi.

VIOL, Viola, a mufical inftrument, of the fame form
with the violin, but larger, and having fix firings ; and
ftruck, like that, with a bow.

The viol played with a bow was very early in favour with
the inhabitants of France, and is very different from the
•uieUe (wiiich fee), wiiofe tones are produced by the friftion
of a wheel, which performs the part of a bow.

There are viols of divers kinds. The firft. and principal
among us is the bafe-viol, called by the Italians I'iola di
gamba, or the leg -viol ; becaufe held between the legs.
(See Gamba.) It is the largeft of all, and is mounted
with fix firings. Its neck is divided in half-notes, by feven
frets fixed thereon. Its found is very deep, foft, and
agreeable. The tablature, or mufic for the bafe-viol, is
laid down on fix lines, or rules.

What the Italians call alto -viola, is the counter-tenor of
this ; and their lenore viola, tlie tenor. They fometimes
call it, fimply, the viol: fome authors will have it the lyra,
others the cithara, others the chelys, and others the telludo,
of the ancients. See Viola.

2. The love viol, viola ePamore, which is a kind of triple
viol, or violin ; having fix brafs or fteel firings, like thofe
of thi harpfichord. This yields a kind of filver found,
which has fomething in it very agreeable. See Viol
li' Amour.

3. A large viol, with forty-four firings, called by the
Italians viola di bardone ; but little known among us.

4. Fiola bajlarda, or ballard viol of the Italians ; not

ufed among us. BrofTard takes it to be a kind of bafe-viol,
mounted with fix or feven firings, and tuned as the com-
mon one.

5. What the Italians call viola di braccio, arm viol ; or,
fimply, braccio, arm ; is an inftrument anfweriug to our
counter-tenor, treble, and fifth violin. See Viola.

6. Their viola prima, or firil viol, is really the counter-
tenor violin ; at leaft, thoy commonly ufe the clef c-fol-ul
on the firfl line, to denote the piece intended for this in-
ftrument.

7. Viola fecmida is much the fame with our tenor violin ;
having the clef of c-fol-ut on the fecond Ime.

8. Viola terza is nearly our fifth violin ; the clef c-fol-ut
on the third line.

9. Viola quarta, or fourth viol, is not known in England,
or France ; though we frequently find it mentioned m the
Italian compofitions ; the clef on the fourth line.

Laftly, their violetta, or little viol, is, in reality, our triple
viol ; thougli ftrangers frequently confound the term with
what we have faid of the viola prima, fecunda, terza, &c.

Viol d' Amour, an inftrument played with a bow, like the
violin, of which it has the form. The only one we ever
examined was many years ago in the hands of Giardini. It
had but four ilrings, tuned fifths like thofe of the violin ;
but underneath thefe there were four metaUine ftrings of
fmall brafs or iron wire, which were called fympathetic
ftrings. Thefe were never touched by the bow, but were
caufcd to vibrate by the found of the ftrings over them,
when played upon by the bow.

In the Supplement to the firft Encyclopaedia in folio,
another viol d'amour is mentioned with twelve ftrings, fix
upon the great bridge, and fix upon a fmaller bridge below.
The fix inferior ftrings are of metal, and tuned oilaves to
the fuperior.

Viol d' Amour is alfo an inftrument with feven ftrings, in
the ftiape of a violin, but larger ; it is played with a bow,
but the finger-board is fretted. Its tone is fweet, but more
feeble than the violin.

Viol is a term ufed by mariners, when a hawfer, or
ftrand-rope, is bound faft with nippers to the cable, and
brought to the jeer-capftan, for the better weighing of the
anchor, where the main-capftan proves infufficicnt.

VIOLA, and Alto Viola, the tenor violin. What the
contralto is in vocal mufic, the alto viola is in inftnimental.
The lame clef is ufed for both : the tenor on the third line.
The inftrumcntal tenor, or viol da braecio, as it is often
called by the Italians, from its rcfting on the arm or
ftioulder, to diftinguifh it froni the 7110/ da gamba, which
refts on the leg, is an odlave above the violoncello, and five
notes below the violin.

Scale of the Tenor.

c d e f

4 Open a

4 Open c f

:::; — a — ©-

3S:

4 Open

■■OQ_

-e— c-

1

3C3:

4th Striiii;.

3d String.

3d String.

ill Siring.

Thefe, with the femitones, are all the notes that were when quartets, a parti equaVt, came into favour, the tenor

given to the tenor during the firft fifty years of the laft cen- was made an important inftrument ; and \vhen played by a

tury, in the concertos of Corelli, Geminiani, and Handel ; Hindmarfti, a Shields, a Stamitz, and by Giardini himfelf,

.Tud the tenor was the inftrument to which great violinifts was as much and as dcfervcdiy applauded as the violins and

retreated, when the hand, and perhaps the eyes, failed, violoncello.

But during the laft fifty years of the preceding century, Vjola, in Botany, the common and well-known Latin

Vol. XXXVII.

£e

VIOLA.

name of a charming flower, moft probably originated in its
Greek fynonym it.». At leaft, the vague and forced ety-
mologies of this word, for which Latin authors have ran-
facked their own language, prove it not to have come from
thence. Nor are the explanations of the Greek much more
fatisfaftory, though the fable of this plant having fprung
up on purpofe to be the food of the metamorphofed lo, is
too poetical to be forgotten. The names of the Violet in
modern languages all proceed from the Latin, or from the
fame fource, whatever it may be. The poetry, the ro-
mance, the fcenery, of every country, is embroidered with
the violet, from Caledonia to Arcadia, and the very fame
individual fpecies is, or has been, the objeft of homage in
both thofe diftant countries. Yet it muit be remembered,
that lor, Fiola, and even the Englifh yiolet, are names of
more wide-extended and indefinite application, than thofe
of perhaps any other flower, even the Rofe not excepted ;
fo as to be nearly fynonimous with the word Jlo-wer itfclf ;
nor can any thing be more diffimilar from the true kind, or
from each other, than the Calathian Violet, a Gentiana,
or the Dame's Violet, Hesperis ; the Dog's-tooth Violet,
Erythronium, or the Water Violet, Hottonia. ( See
thofe articles.) — Linn. Gen. 457. Schreb. 597. WiUd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 1159. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 244. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. v. i. 145. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 2. 43. Purlh 171. Jufl". 294. Tourn.
t. 236. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 725. Poiret in Lam. Dift.
T. 8. 623. Gaertn. t. 112. — Clafs and order, Syngtnejla
Monogamia, Linn. Pentandiia Monogyuia, Smith, Willd.,
&c. Nat. Ord. Campanaceit, Linn. C'tfti, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fhort, permanent, of
five ovate-oblong, ereft leaves, moft acute at the fummit,
inferted above their bafe, which is obtufe ; they are equal,
but varioufly difpofed ; two of them fubtending petal a,
one each of the petals /3 and -/, and the fifth the two petals
i and e together. Cor. irregular, of five unequal petals ; of
which petal a. is at the top of the flower, the broadeft and
moft obtufe of all, ftraight, looking downwards, emar-
ginate, ending at the bafe in a horn-(haped, obtufe Neftary,
projefting betwixt the calyx-leaves ; S and 7 are lateral,
both alike, oppofite, obtufe, ftraight ; I and s are the
loweft of all, both alike, larger than the two former, re-
fiexed upward. Stam. Filaments five, very fmall, two of
them adjoining to petal %, are furnilhed with two combined
appendages, which enter the neftary ; anthers converging,
hardly connected, obtufe, with a terminal membrane to
each. P'ljl. Germen fuperior, roundilh ; ftyle thiead-
fhaped, projedling beyond the anthers ; ftigma obhque,
pointed or concave. Perk. Capfule ovate, triangular,
obtufe, of one cell and three valves. Seeds feveral in each
cell, ovate, polilhed, inferted into the valves. Recept. linear,
running along the centre of each valve.

Obf. The Jligma, in the Common March Violet, F.
odoraia, and its allies, is a fimple reflexed hook ; in the tri-
color, or Panfy, tribe, it is a hollow knob, perforated at
the fummit, and more or lefs gaping occafionally. In the
European fpecies, the flower is always inverted ; in the
Indian ones, moftly ereft ; hence the different afpeft of
the two.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of five petals, irregular, fpurred be-
hind. Anthers fomewhat connefted. Capfule fuperior, of
three valves and one cell. Calyx of five leaves, extended
at their bafe.

Viola is a very numerous, alm.oft entirely herbaceous,
genus, for the moft part of humble ftature, though of great
elegance. The Jlem is either traihng, or ereft ; fometimes
wanting. Leaves alternate, rarely oppofite, flalked, Cmple,

crenate, or ferrated, occafionally deeply divided. Stipula/
various and remarkable. Flowers on fimple ftalks, blue, or
rather purphlh, whitifli, or yellow ; in one inftance, at leaft,
green ; very often ftreaked in a radiant manner, like thofe of
Veronica. The fpecies abound in cold or cool countries,
fuch as Europe and North America, though fome are of
tropical origin ; but the habit of thefe latter is peculiar.
One fpecies has but two perfeCl ftamens.

The difcoveries of North American botanifts have, of
late, greatly enriched this genus. New Holland hkewife
has contributed feveral new and curious fpecies ; but of
thefe we fhall probably learn much more than is at prefent
known, from Mr. Brown, whenever he continues his valu-
able Prodromus.

Two fections are moft commodious for the diftribution
of the fpecies, others, which have been propofed, proving
problematical or obfcure.

Seft. 1. IVithout Jlems.

1. V. palmala. Palmated Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1323.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Purlh n. 3. Curt. Mag. t. 535.
(V. alba, folio fecuris amazoniae effigie, Floridana ; Pluk.
Amalth. 208. t. 447. f. 9. ) — Downy. Leaves heart-
fliaped, lobed in a haftate or palmate manner, more or lefs
notched. Calyx-leaves lanceolate, fmooth. Two lateral
petals bearded at the bafe. — Native of North America, on
dry hills and pafture ground, generally in a fandy foil.
Perennial, flowering from April to June. Purfh. Hardy
in our gardens, but rarely cultivated. The firft haves are
kidney-lhaped, ferrated ; the fabfequent ones deeply and
varioufly palmate, five-lobed, an inch and a half or two
inches long, occafionally fmooth. Footjlalis ereft, from
two to four inches long. Flower-Jlalks rather taller, fimple,
and fingle-flowered, as in the whole genus, with a pair of
oppofite awl-fliaped bradsas below the middle. Flowers an
inch broad, light blue, whitifh at the bafe, inodorous.

2. V. pedala. Cut-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1323.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Purfh n. i. Curt. Mag. t. 89.
Andr. Repof. t. 153. (V. virginiana tricolor, fobis mul-
tifidis, cauliculo aphyllo ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 114. f. 7-) —
Leaves pedate, fmooth, with feven or nine lanceolate, nearly
entire, lobes. — Native of dry fandy hills and fields, from
New England to Carolina. Perennial, flowering in May
and June. Rare in our gardens. According to Mr.
Curtis, it (hould be planted in a pot of loam mixed with
bog earth, plunged into a north border, and kept in a frame
through the winter. The truly pedate lea-ves diftinguifh
this fpecies. The fowers are larger than the preceding,
pale blue, with prominent orange-coloured tips to their
anthers, Purfti mentions a variety, whofe petals are very
handfomely ornamented with a dark purple velvet at the
bottom, fimilar to V. tricolor. This may be Plukenet's
plant, fo meanly figured, as ufual with him.

3. V. digitata. Finger-leaved Violet. Purfli n. 2 —
" Leaves palmate, tapering down into the footftalk, of five
or feven undivided lobes." — Native of Virginia. Leconte.
Perennial, flowering in May. Flowers pale blue. Purjh.
May not this be nearly akin to the entire-lobed variety of
the following ?

4. V. fnnnata. Wing-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. PI.
1323. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Allion. Fed. v. 2. 97.
(V. acaulis, fohis pinnatifidis ; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 101. t. 49.
f. 4. V. n. 561 ; HaU. Hift. v. i. 241. V. montana, la-
ciniato folio ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 309.)

/S. V. acaulis, foliis digitatis ; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. ico.
t. 49. f. 3. (V. montana, folio multifido ; Bauh. Hift.
V. 3. 544.)

Leaves in many deep, toothed or jagged, fegmcnts,

tapering

VIOLA.

tapering at their bafi-, fomewl.at downy. — Native of Si-
beria, as well as of the mountains of Switzerland and Savoy,
flowering in the fpring. Cultivated by Miller in 1752, but
we know not that it exifts at prefcnt in the Englilh col-
leAions. This fpecies is rather fmaller than /-''. pedata.
Leaves generally as deeply divided, into about five feg-
ments, which are either unequally three-cleft, or pinnatifid,
as well as jagged, and very narrow ; or, in the variety /3,
lanceolate and only fomewhat notched. Their ribs and
edges are more or lefs downy. Floivcrs pale blue, with
darker veins. Sometimes tl;e leaves are lefs deeply divided,
in a pedate manner, with bluntidi lobes ; but this variety
does not feeni confined to any particular country.

5. V. fagiitata. Arrow-leaved Violet. Ait. n. 4.
Willd. n. 4. Purfli n. 4. — Downy. Leaves oblong,
acute, fomewhat ferrated ; heart- (haped, cut, a little elon-
gated, at the bafe. Calyx linear, fmooth. Three lower
petals bearded at the bafe On dry hills, from New Eng-
land to Virginia. Perennial, flowering from April to .June.
Dr. Fothergill imported it from Pennfylvania in 1775.
Linnscus confounded this fpecies with his hirta, an European
plant, dillinguifhed by its uniformly heart-fliaped, regularly
crenate, leaves. The fag'tttata has remarkably elongated
leaves, very obfcurely ferrated, except towards the bafe,
where they are more or lefs deeply toothed. Flonver-Jlalls,
in our fpecimens, much ihortcr than the leaves ; Mr. Purfii
fays longer. He defcribes 'Coe Jioivers, which we have not
feen frefli, " blue ; lower petal white towards the bottom,
with purple veins ; the reft longer, narrower, and white
towards the bafe."

6. V. dentata. Toothed-leaved Violet. Purfh n. 5

Smooth. I^eaves oblong, acute ; abrupt, dilated, with
large afcending teeth, at the bafe. Flower-llalks fliorter
than the leaves. Calyx hnear, fmooth. Three lower

petals bearded at the bafe Native of wet meadows and

woods in Pennfylvania. Perennial, flowering in May and
.lune. Flowers nearly the fame as the laft. Purjh. The
leaves are of a haftate figure, two to three inches long,
fomewhat fhorter than the preceding.

7. V. belonlcifaliii. Betony-leaved Violet. — Rather
downy. Leaves linear-oblong, obtufe, crenate ; heart-
fhaped, and flightly dilated, at the bafe. Flower-ftalks
taller than the leaves. Calyx lanceolate, fmooth. Petals

ill bearded at the bafe Native of New South Wales.

Dr. lyhite. The root is fomewhat woody, and doubtlefs
perennial. Leaves the fi/e of the laft, but (mooth or flightly
downy only, regularly crenate throughout ; not toothed,
nor much dilated, at the bottom. Stalks generally, but not
always, denfely downy for an inch and a half below the
ftotuers. Calyx-leaves broader than in tlie two laft. Petals
apparently light purple, not much veined.

8. V. lanceolata. Spear-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. PI.
1323. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. Puifli n. 6. Forft. Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. fi. 310. — Smooth. Leaves lanceolate,
obfcurely crenate ; tapering at the bafe ; rather fhorter
than the flower-ftalks. Petals beardlefs. — In overflowed
meadows, from Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering in June
and .July. Perennial. The leaves are an inch and half
long ; their fooljlalks nearly twice as much. Flowers the
fize of y.palujlris, white ; three of their petals marked with
purple ribs.

9. V. fujiformis. Tap-rooted Siberian Violet. (V.
acauhs, foliis lanceolatis, crenatis, hirfutis ; Gmel. Sib.
V. 4. 99. t. 49. f. 2. ) — Leaves ovato-lanceolatc, crenate,
downy, longer than their footftalks, much fliorter than the
flower-ftalks. Root tap-fliaped. — Native of Siberia, in
rather dry places, flowering in autumn. Gmelin. Mr.

Forfter, in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 3K5, has lonp ago

pointed out this Siberian f^iola as a diftinft fpecies from
the North American lanceolata. We have never feen a
fpecimcn. The leaves in the figure cited are above an inch
long ; the jlower-Jlalks near three inches, with two lanceo-
late braSeas, rather above the middle. Flowers larger than
the laft, blue or purphfli.

10. V . microphylla. SmaI14caved Yellow Violet. Poiret
in Lam. n. 11. — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, crenate, fomewhat
downy, fliorter than their footftalks. Root fcaly. Flower-
ftalks taller than the leaves, fmooth, with two awl-fliaped

brafteas near the top Gathered by Commerfon on hills

on the Patagonian coaft, in the ftraits of Magellan. Poiret.
Leaves feveral, radical, four or five lines long, and three
broad. Stipulas two, narrow, membranous at the bafe of
each footjlalk. Flowers yellow ; Up twice the fize of the
other petals, emarginate, marked witli purple lines, and
ending behind in a fliort blunt fpur ; two lateral petals
bearded at the bafe. This feems nearly akin to V. magella-
nica of Forfter ; fee h. 18.

11. V . pygmta. Dwarf Linear-leaTcd Violet. Poiret
ill Lam. n. 18. — Leaves feflile, linear, entire, fomewhat
flefliy, fmooth, rather longer than the flowtr-ftalk. Root
tap-ftiaped. — Gathered in Peru, by .Tofeph dc .Tuflleu. A
very diftinft fpecies, according to the defcription of Poiret,
hardly an inch high, with thick flefliy roots, crowned by
tufts of narrow, linear, obtufe leaves, having fcaly, oval,
pointed Jlipulas at their b.afe. Flowers fmall, drooping,
pale blue, ftriated ; the petals obtufe, fcarcely longer than
the (harp, lanceolate, white -edged leaves of the calyx.

12. V. obliqua. Obhque-flowered Violet. Ait. n. 6.
Willd. n. 6. Purfli n. 8. — Smooth. Leaves heart-fliaped,
acute, flattifli, acutely crenate, taller than the flower-ftalks.
Flowers ereft. Petals obliquely twifted ; the lateral ones
narroweft and loiigeft, bearded below the middle — In
fliady wet places, from Pennfylvania to Virginia, flowering
from April to June. Perennial. Flowers white, with
purple and yellow veins. PurJh. Leaves an inch and
half long ; their Jlalis twice or thrice as much. Flower-

Jlalks thread-fliaped, ufually the length of the footftalks.
Calyx fmooth. Petals oblong-ovate, ftraw-coloured ; blue
at the bafe ; the iippermoft half an inch long, with blue
ftreaks, beardlefs ; two lateral ones rather narrower and
longer, bearded below their middle ; two lowcft as long as
thefe, and rather broader, beardlefs. SolanJer in jiil.
H. Kew.

13. V. cucullata. Hollow-leaved Violet. Ait. n. 7.
Willd. n. 7. Purlh n. 10. Curt. Mag. t. 1795. — .Smooth.
Leaves hcart-fhaped, acute, ferrated ; involute at the bafe.
Petals twifted, obtufe ; the lateral ones bearded at their
lower part. — Common in North America, in grafly wet
places, flowering in May and .lune. A hardy perennial
with us. Root tuberous. Leaves rather larger than onr
Sweet Violet, ercft and fmooth, remarkably rolled in .it
theip bafe, fo as to form a fort of cup. Flowers alfo larger
than in that fpecies, ligiit purplifli-blue, with dark veins ;
the centre white. The late Mr. Curtis, as Dr. Sims re-
cords, obferved the fpring_y?oii'frj to bear no feed ; though
later ones, on very fliort ftalks, without petals, were all
prolific. Such is, more or lefs, the cafe with many of this
feftion, as well as with the caulefcent V. mirahilis, hereafter
dcforibcd.

14. V. fororia. White-rooted Violet. Willd. Hort.
Berol. t. 72. Ait. n. 8. Purfli n. 11.— Leaves hcart-
fliaped, crenate, obtufe ; downy beneath. Petali oblong ;
the lower one bearded at the bafe. — Found in overflowed
meadows of Pennfylvania, and other parts of North

E e 2 America.

VIOLA.

America. Perennial, flowering from April to June.
Floiuers blue, white at tlie bottom ; lower pttal veined.
Purjh. This fpecies was fent to Kew garden, in 1802, by
the late Mr. Maffon, during his laft botanical expedition to
North America.

i^.W . prlmuUfolia. Cowflip-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1324. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 9. — Smooth. Leaves
ovate-heartfhaped, obfcurely crenate, obtufe, running down
into the bordered footftalks. Calyx naked. — Native of
Pennfylvania and Virginia, flowering in the fpring. We
have fpecimens from the late Dr. Muhlenberg, exaftly
agreeing vyith thofe of Linnxus. The root feeras to be
perennial and creeping. Leaves an incli and half long,
on fcotjlalks half as long again, and fometimes flightly
downy, fiirnifhed with a narrow, leafy, entire border, gra-
dually dilated upwards, till it unites with the leaf; hence
the fohage of this plant is compared by Linnsus to that of
the Cowflip, not the Primrofe. The Jlowirs are rather fmall,
pale flefh-coloured or blueifh ; the lower petal Itrongly and
copioully veined with dark purple; the lateral ones bearded
at the bafe. Calyx-leaves linear-lanceolate, unequal in
breadth, always, as it appears to us, quite fmooth.

16. V . Jimbriatuld. Fringed Violet. (V. primulifolia ;
Pur{h n.9. ) — Leaves heart-fhaped, crenate, fringed, acute,
running down into the bordered footftalks ; moft downy
beneath. Calyx moftly ciliated. — Sent from North Ame-
rica, by Mr. Francis Boott, as the V . primulifol'ta of Purfh,
with whofe definition it agrees. That author fpeaks of it
as growing on dry hills, from Canada to Virginia; perennial,
flowering from April to June. The appearance of this
plant is very different from the lafl. Root rather tuberous,
not creeping. Leaves more heart-fhaped and acute, fringed,
and fomewhat downy on both fides, their length, like that
of their bordered footjlalis, about an inch. Flowers nume-
rous, blue, thrice the fize of the preceding, with obovate
petals, two of which are loofely bearded at the bafe. Calyx-
leaves lanceolate, unequal in breadth, diitantly but ftrongly
fringed ; occafionally naked.

17. V. hirta. Hairy Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1324.
Willd. n.9. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 894. Curt.
Lond. fafc. i. t. 64. Fl. Dan. t. 6j8. (V. niartia major
hirfuta inodora; Morif. feft. 5. t. 35. f. 4. ) — Leaves heart-
fliaped, hairy as well as their footftalks. Calyx-leaves
obtufe. Lateral petals marked with a hairy central line. —
Native of groves and buihy places, principally on a chalky
lime-ftone foil, in various parts of Europe, from Denmark to
mount Athos, flowering in April and May. The whole
herb is of a hoary green, clothed with foft pubefcence.
Stem none, except very ftiort leafy fcyons, which do not
throw out roots, but compofe a denfe leafy tuft, lafting
many ■j'ears if undifturbed. Flonuer-Jlalks taller than the
leaves, fmooth, with a pair of lanceolate fmooth braBeas
below their middle. Flou-ers light greyifh-blue, ftreaked
with black, fcentlefs. Calyx fmooth. Anthers dittinft.
V. campejtris, Marfch. a Bieb. Taurico-Caucaf. v. 1 . 171.
may pofiibly be a Iweet-fcented variety of this.

18. V. magellanka. Magellanic Violet. " Forft. Com-
ment. Soc. Goett. V. 6. 4it t, 8." Willd. n. 10 " Stem

none. Leaves kidney-ihaped, wavy, villous." — Native of
boggy fituations, in Terra del Fuego. Perennial. Flower
large, yellow, ftreaked with brown veins. Forjier. Per-
haps not diftinft from V. microphylla, n. 10. We have not
feen either.

19. V. papilionacea. Butterfly Violet. Pur(h n, 12

" Leaves triangular-heartftiaped, acute, crenate, fomewhat
hooded, nearly fmooth. Flower-ftalks the length of the
leaves. Petals obovate : three lower ones converging.

bearded below the middle ; two upper reflexed." — Near
Philadelphia, in wet places. Perennial, flowering in May
and June. Flowers blue, elegantly ftriated, bearded with
yellow down. PurJh.

20. V. clandejlina. Subterraneous Violet. Purlh n. 13.
(V. rotundifoiia ; Michaux Boreal. -Amer. v. 2. 150?
Muhlenb. Cat. 26?) — " Nearly fmooth. Leaves aknoft:
orbicular, bluntifli ; heart-fhaped with converging lobes at
the bafe ; with blunt glandular ferratures at the margin.
Flowers from lateral fhoots. Petals linear, hardly longer
than the calyx." — On the high moiuitains of Pennfylvania,
in fhady beech woods, among rotten wood and rich vege-
table mould. Perennial, flowering from June to September.
This fingular fpecies differs from all the reft, in producing
its flowers as it were under ground, they being always
covered with rotten wood or leaves. They are very fmaU,
of a chocolate-brown. The Jeed-veffel buries itfelf ftill
deeper in the ground, and is large in proportion to the plant.
The inhabitants know it by the name of Heal-all, being ufed
by them to cure ail kinds of wounds or fores. PurJh.

21. v. paluftAs. Marfti Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1324. Willd.
n. II. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 444. Abbot Bedf. 190.
t. 3. Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 58. Fl. Dan. t. 83. {V. pa-
luftris rotundifoiia glabra; Morif. feft. 5. t. 35. f. 5.) —
Leaves kidney-fhaped, fmooth. Root creeping. Two la-
teral petals bearded. — Native of moffy bogs, in the colder
parts of Europe, flowering in April or May. More fre-
quent in Scotland, and the north of England, than in the
fouth, growing on the moift parts of fandy or turfy heaths.
The root is thread-fhaped, rather flefhy, creeping confider-
ably. Herb fmooth. Leaves fhining, obfcurely crenate,
generally abrupt, or emarginate, often purple beneath, on

Jlalhs exceeding their own length. Flower-Jlalks longer than
the leaves, with a pair of lanceolate bradcas about the middle,
not always below thai part. Flowers fcentlefs, fmallerthan
the Sweet Violet, of a very pale blue or flefh -colour, ftreaked
partly with red, partly with dark purple ; the two lateral
petals marked at the lower part with a central downy line.
This is a very pretty fpecies, not eafily to be cultivated.
Ray's V. rubra ftriata Eboracenfis, Syn. ed. 3. 365, is fcarcely
to be deemed a variety.

22. V . blanda. White-flowered American Violet. "Willd.
Hort. Berol. t. 24." Ait. n. 12. Purfh n. 7. — Leaves
heart-fhaped, bluntifh, crenate, fmooth. Root creeping.
Petals beardlefs. — In wet places, or boggy meadows, from
New York to Carolina. Perennial, flowering from April
to June. Flowers yellowifh-white ; lower petal marked with
blue ftripes and veins. PurJh. Nearly akin to the laft, but the
leaves, though variable in acutenefs, are not at all kidney-
fhaped. The roots are very flender. Petals marked with
fimilar veins to the foregoing fpecies, but they appear not
to be hairy in any part.

23. V. hederacea. Ivy-leaved Violet. Labillard. Nov.
Holl. V. I. 66. t. 91. — Leaves heart-fhaped, wavy, nearly
fmooth, running down into the flightly bordered footftalks.
Root creeping. Flower-ftalks folitary, much taller than the

leaves. Two lateral petals bearded below the middle

Found by Labillardiere, at the Cape of Van Diemen. We
have the fame, or a very fimilar fpecies, from New South
Wales, in which the Jlowers feem to be pale pink, with a
purple eye ; the petals obovate, veiny, the lateral ones denfeiy
hairy in their lower half. The leaves however are larger,
more kidney-fhaped, and more toothed, than in the figure
above cited ; but it may be only a luxuriant variety. M.
Labillardiere defcribes his with a trailing root, or runners,
throwing up here and there folitary tufts of numerous heart-
fhaped, or rather kidncy-fliaped, long-ftalked leaves, half an

iuch

VIOLA.

inch broad, with copious awl-(haped radical Jiipulas. Each
tuft bears one foiuer-JlaH, three inches hig!i, with two awl-
fhaped Iradeas towards the middle, and one fniall ercil
Jlo<wer, the fizc of l^, pnlvflr'n, whofe two lateral petals are
villous near the bafe. The calyx-ltaves projeft but very little
at the bafe, which is the rale with our fpccunens above-
mentioned, from New South Wales, and indeed with V.
paluflrh and blanda. Yet they all have enough of that
charafter to prove them true Violee.

24. V. odorata. Sweet Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1324.
Willd. n. 12. FI. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 619. Curt.
Lond. fafc. i. t. 63. Fl. Dan. t. 309. Bulliard t. 169.
Renealm. Spec. 141. t. 140. (V. nigra, five purpurea;
Ger. Em. 8?o. V. purpurea; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 522.
Camer. Epit. 910. ) — Scyons creeping. Leaves heart -fliaped,
crenate, fmoothifh as well as the footllalks. Calyx obtufe.
Two lateral petals with a hairy line. — Native of thickets,
groves, and banks, throughout Europe, from Sweden to
Greece, flowering in March. It appears, by Dr. Muhlen-
berg's catalogue, to be cultivated, not wild, in North Ame-
rica. There can be no doubt of this being the io» ■jvr.f . i^tov
of Diofcorides, who fpeaks of the ivy-like leaves, and very
fweet-fcented ^ur^XeJlomers, which he recommends for fore
throats, and for children in the faUing-ficknefs ; hence fyrup
of violets is ftill kept in the (hops. The long trailing leafy
runners, by which the plant is widely increafed, charafterize
this fpecies. Thefe feldom he-ir Jloiuers till the fccojid year.
Leaves truly he.irt-{haped, dark green ; (lightly downy be-
neath. Sitpulas lanceolate, toothed, pale. Floiver-Jlalls
taller than the leaves, with two lanceolate narrow bra3eas,
more than half way up. Flower nodding, twice the fize of
!^. palujlris, and about equal to that of hirta, whofe fcent
refembles Orrice-root, or the flowers of Mignonette, or the
Vine, and indeed is too generally known and efteemed to re-
quire defcription. The colour is that dark purpli(h-blue,
peculiarly called a •violet colour. There is a white variety,
frequently found wild ; and a very double one cultivated in
gardens, which requires a pure air. Whether the more early
pale grey, and very fweet double Violet, be a variety, or a
diftinft fpecies, we have had no opportunity of enquiring.
Thejlamens of y. odorata are quite dillinft. Capfule foft, pale
(Treen, minutely dotted with red, like an unripe Cranberry.
Leers, in his Fl. Herborn. 189, mentions having once found
a curious flower of this fpecies which had live regular ^c/a/j-,
all fpurred, refembling the neftaries of an ylquilegia, ftrippcd
of its own petals. This was, as he fays, an indance of Pelo-
RIA in Viola; fee that article. The petals are often want-
ing in our wild, as well as garden, Violets.

25. V.pyrenaica. Pyrcnean Violet. " Decand. Franc.
V. 4. 803." Poirct in Lam. n. 19 — Leaves (lightly heart-
Ihapcd, crenate, fmooth. Footllalks dilated at the fimi-
mit. Calyx obtufe. Spur very fliort. — Found by M. Ra-
mond, on thv- Pyrenee.s, in (lony ground. Perennial. This
is faid to differ from /'''. odorata in having more woody roots,
without runners. Slipulas greener, and narrower. Leaves
fcarcely heart-fhaped. Netlary fliortcr, (Iraighter and more
obtufe. Flowers fmaller, lefs fragrant, the lip more
ilrongly radiated. Decandolle and Poiret.

Sea. 2. ll^itlj Lafyjkms.

26. V. canitLi. Dog's Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1324.
Willd. n. 13. Fl. Brit. n.4. Engl. Bot. t. 620. Curt.
Lond. fafc. 2. t. 61. I V. canina fylvedris ; Ger. Em. 851.
V. canina cserulea inodora fylvedris ferotina ; Lob. Ic. v. i.
609. V. inodora major ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. I19.) —
Stem at lengtli afcending, channelled. Leaves oblong-
heart(haped. Calyx acute. Slipulas ferratrd — Even more
tommon throughout Europe than the Sweet Violet, bcjjig

as abundant in Greece, and its neighbouring iflands and
mountains, as it is in England or Sweden, flowering from
April throughout mod part of the fummer, when every
thicket, grove, bank, and barren heath abounds with its pale
purple itentlels blofloms. The root is woodv, ihouo-h (len-
der. The fird Jloixiers are radical ; but fcvei al branched,
angular or furrowed, fmooth, leafy Jlems (oon Ipring forth,
extremely variable in length, directioi., and luxuriance,
which continue growing, and bearing numerous, axillary,
ftalkcd^t/Wtrj-, for feveral weeks. The leaves vary no lefs
in fize, and fomewhat in figure, but are always crenate,
fmooth, heart-(haped ; more or k fa oblong. /"oa//ia//j (lightly
dilated upwards- i'/i/'u/at not very deeply toothed. BraHeas
above the middle oi l\xe Jloiver-jlalks. Capfule ir.ore oblong
than in the V. odorata. See a fpecies nearly related per-
haps to tiiis at n. 63.

Several varieties are mentioned by authors. That with a
•w\\\te Jloiver is lefs frequent than in V. odorata. Can this
be V. negleBa of the Fl. Taur.-Caucaf. v. i. 172 ? The y
of Fl. Brit., found by M. Du Bois about Mitcham, is
fmaller in all its parts, and faid by Dillenius to have a yel-
lowifh, not a whitilh fpur, a very triflmg dilFerence indeed !
We have in Norfolk a diminutive, though truly (hrubby
plant, fird noticed by the late Mr. Crowe, in which we can-
not difcern any fpecific diflerence from V. canina, except
fize, and perhaps a thicker texture of leaf. Yet it has re-
mained unchanged in a garden, where the foil is manured,
for above twelve years. This cannot be the '0 of Fl. Brit.
(V. alpina ; Hndi. ed. I. 379. V. martia alpina, folio
tenello circinato ; Rail Sjn. 366.) The leav.s are exaftly
heart-(haped, obtufe, fmooth, coriaceous, minutely crenate.
Flowers like canina, but not half fo large. V . jarmentoja,
Fl. Taur.-Caucai. v. i. 172, we have not Icen, and there-
fore mud leave it in doubt.

27. V. laBea. Cream-coloured Violet. Fl. Brit. n. 5.
Engl. Bot. t. 445. Alt. n. 15. (V. canina, var. 3 ; With.
262. V. Ruppii ; AUion. Ped. v. 2. 99. t. 26. f. 6. V.
flore albo ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 120.) — Stem afcending,
round. Leaves ovato-lanceolate. Stipulas deeply ferrated.
— Native of moid rather mountainous heaths, in the fouth
of England. Mr. T. F. Forller found it firlt on the wolds
at Tunbridge ; Mr. Stackhoufe at Pendarvis, Cornv/al].
M. Reynier gathered fpecimens, now before us, in the bogs
of Switzerland, but rarely, and he has indicated Rivinus's
figure, which, though taller and larger, refembles our plant.
Neverthelefs we much doubt the permanency of the Ipecies,
and were only led by the great authority, in this genus, of
our friend Mr. Forder, to adopt it. The whole plant is
fmaller than the ordinary canina, but the chief diflerence
confids in the leaves being lanceolate or ovate, decurrcnt at
the bafe, not heart-(haped. 'Y\v: Jiipulas are fuppoted to be
more deeply cut, and braHeas broader. T\k petals are nar-
rower than in canina, obtufe, whitifli, dreaked with purple
lines exaftly like canina. They even vary often to a light
blue.

28. V. montana. Long-leaved Mountain Violet. Linn.
Sp. Fl. 1335. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 16. ( V. flore ciruleo
longifolia ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 121. V. allurgens tri-
color; Ger. Em. ^54. V. arborefcens ; Camer. Epit. 911.
Matlh. Valgr. v. z. 523, bad. V. ereCta, flore ca:ruleo
et albo ; Morif. feft. 5. I. 7. f. 7.) — Stems crecf. Leaves
ovate-oblong, foniewiiat hearl-fliapcd. Stipnias pinnatifid
at one fide. — Native of the mountains of Lapland, Ger-
many, Switzerland, and the north of Italy ; a hardy pe-
rennial in our gardens, flowering in May and June. The
name of arborefcens, given iird by Mailhiolus, has been
judly thought abfurd. The mimcrous_//<./nj are herbaceous
o and

VIOLA.

and annual, tweKe or eighteen inches high, ereft, ftraight,
fmooth, leafy, but httlc branched. Lea'ves two inches and
a half long, and one broad, bluntly ferrated, fmooth. Foot-

fialks an incli long. Stipulas for the moft part longer than
the footftalks, lanceolate, obtufe ; half-ovate at the bafe,
and more or lefs pinnatifid at the outer, more rounded,
margin. Floiucr-Jlalhs axillary, Ihorter than the leaves, each
vfith two awl-fhaped bracleas above the middle, and a large,
greyifh-blue, inodorous_/?owfr. Calyx-leaves acute, unequal
in breadth ; much elongated and toothed at the bafe. Cap-

fule oblong, triangular. Seeds oval.

29. V. concolor. Green-flowered Violet. Forfter Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 6. 309. t. 28. Ait. n. 24. Purfh n. 21.
Muhlenb. Cat. 26. — Stem ere£l, downy. Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, tapering at each end. Stipulas linear-lanceolate,
entire. — Native of hme-ilone rocks in Pennfylvania, flower-
ing in June and July. Purjh. Mr. Forfter received living
plants from America before the year 1788. The root is
fibrous, perennial. Stems fimple, ereft, leafy, from one to
two feet high, angular and furrowed, moft hairy in the
upper part. Leaves three inches long, more or lefs, and
above one broad, entire or fomewhat toothed, taper-pointed,
ciUated, running down into fhortifh bordered footjlalks.
Stipulas four, two fmaller than the reft. Floivers very
fmall, green, on axillary ftalks, two together, one of them
imperfeft. The Jlo-ivers are very rarely produced in a
garden. Their diminutive fize, and green petals, are very
peculiar, as is indeed the whole habit of this curious fpecies;
yet we fee no poffible reafon for feparating it from Viola.
The capfule, figured, but not defcribed, by Mr. Forfter,
appears rather large in proportion to the flower, elliptical,
acute, with large, oval, not numerous, feeds.

30. V. canadenfis. Canadian Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1326.
Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 18. Purfti n. 14. — Stem nearly
ereft, partially hairy, almoft round. Leaves heart-lhaped,
pointed, ferrated, fmooth. Stipulas (lightly notched. Cap-
fule downy. — In ftiady woods, in rich moift fituations, on
the mountains, from Canada to Carolina ; perennial, flower-
ing from June to Auguft. Floivers fweet-fcented ; on the
outfide piirphfti-blue ; on the infide white, elegantly veined.
PurJh. The habit of the plant is fomewhat akin to V.
ianiua. Stem a fpan high, fimple, moft leafy in the upper
part ; often marked partially, more or lefs diftinftly, with
a downy lateral line. Leaves ftalked, broad at the bafe,
fomewhat deltoid, with about feven ribs ; their length an
inch and a half; breadth nearly as much. Stipulas ovato-
lanceolate, rarely notched. Floiver-Jlalhs about equal to
the leaves, angular, with one or two minute hraSeas towards
the bottom. Calyx-leaves lineas-lanceolate, fmooth ; heart-
ftiaped, very little elongated, at the bafe. Corolla often
white on both fides. Capfule globular, denfely villous,
efpecially in an early ftate ; which we do not find noticed,
but it appears to diftinguifli the fpecies very fatisfaftorily.

^i.V.Jlriata. Streaked Violet. Ait. n. 19. Willd. n. 18.
Purfli n. 15. — Stem nearly ere A, femi-cylindrical. Leaves
heart-ftiaped, pointed, fmooth, ferrated. Stipulas with
fringe-like ferratures. Capfule fmooth. — In ftiady woods,
from Pennfylvania to Virginia ; perennial, flowering from
May to July. Flotuers white, with purple veins. PurJh.
This refembles the laft, but the Jipulas, and if we miftake
not, the fmoothnefs of the capfule, afford a clear fpecific
diftinftion between it and the laft. The Jlower-flaHs bear a
pair of very narrow awl-fhaped IraHeas towards the top.
The calyx is confiderably elongated at the bafe.

32. V. dehilis. Weak-ftalked Violet. Michaux Boreal. -
Amer. v. 2. 150. Purfh n. 16. — Stem afcending. Leaves
kidney-heartfhaped, fcarcely pointed, fmooth, crenate. Sti-

pulas with fringeJlke ferratures. Flower-ftalks twice the
length of the leaves. — In low grounds, from Pennfylvania to
Carolina ; perennial, flowering from May to July. About
half the fize of the two preceding, with light-blue //owirrj'.
BraSeas linear, on the upper part of the (talks. Calyx de-
cidedly elongated at the bafe. Capfule cjuite fmooth. Moft
akin to V.flriata, but apparently diftinft.

33. V.rojlrata. Larkfpur Violet. Purfh n. 17. — Stem
afcending. Leaves roundilh-heartftiaped, ferrated, fmooth.
Stipulas deeply fringed. Flower-ftalks twice the length of
the leaves. Neftary longer than the petals. — On ftiady
rocks, near Eaftown, Pennfylvania ; perennial, flowering in
May and June. Floivers blue. Purfn. About the ftature
of the laft. The leaves have a fmall blunt point. Stipulas
often rather pinnatifid than fringed, almoft as long as the

footjlalks. Bra^eas awl-fliaped, above half way up the
flalks. Flowers large, vei-y much like Delphinium Confolida

in fize, colour, and general afpeft. Neilary an inch long,

obtufe, flightly recurved.

34. V. pulefcens. Downy Yellow Violet. Ait. n. 20.
Willd. n. 19. Purfti n. 18. ( V. penfylvanica ; Michaux
Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 149.) — Stem ereft, fimple, downy,
leafy at the top. Leaves triangular-heartfhaped ; moft
downy beneath. Stipulas ovate, notched at the extremity.
— In fhady woods among rocks, particularly lime-ftone,
from New York to Virginia ; perennial, flowering in May
and June. PurJh. Sent to Kew garden in 1772, by Mr.
W. Young. We are indebted to Mr. Francis Boott, a young
botaniil of great zeal and intelligence, for finer fpecimens of
this, and many other North American plants, than have
ever before been feen in Europe. The root has many long,
ftout, fimple fibres. Herb rather fucculent, more or lefs
clothed with fine fhort filky pubefcence. Stem fimple ;
naked in the lower part ; with three or four leaves at the top,
which are two inches wide, ferrated, bright green, many-
ribbed. Stipulas ftiorter than the loweft_/bo//?rt/^, longer than
the others. Flonver-fialks downy, rather fhorter than the
leaves, deftitute, as far as we can difcern, of bralleas.
Flotuers nearly as large as V. canina, yellow, with brown
veins. Calyx fcarcely elongated at the bafe.

35. V. hajiata. Halberd-leaved Yellow Violet. Michaux

Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 149. Purfh n. 19. Ait. Epit. 376

Stem ereft, fimple, leafy at the top, fmooth as well as the
haftate, nearly feffile, leaves. Stipulas minute, finely
toothed — On high mountains, from Pennfylvania to Caro-
lina ; perennial, flowering in May and June. Flotuers yel-
low. PurJh. Introduced at Kew, we prefume by Mr.
MaflTon, in 1803. This feems nearly related to the laft, and
indeed to the following, though all are fufficiently well dif-
criminated. We have not feen fpecimens of this or the
V. Nuttallii. It is much to be wifhed that fuch as are not
yet figured, might find a place in fome periodical work.

36. V. Nuttallii. Yellow Miflburi Violet. Purfti n. 20.
— " Downy. Stem fimple, ereft. Leaves ovate-oblong,
acute, ribbed, flightly toothed ; tapering down into long
footftalk.s. Stipulas lanceolate, undivided. Flower-ftalks
the length of the leaves." — Found by Mr. Nuttall, on the
banks of the MifTouri ; perennial, flowering in June. Flotuers
yellow. PurJh.

37. V. mirabilis. Broad-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp. PI.
1326. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n. 21. Jacq. Auftr. t. 19.
Fl. Dan. t. 1045. (V. montana latifolia, flores ex radice,
femina in cacumine ferens ; Dill. Elth. 408. t. 303.) — Stem
ereft, triangular, leaflefs in the middle. Leaves kidney-
heartfhaped, acute, crenate, fmooth. Upper flowers with-
out petals. Calyx much dilated at the bafe. Stipulas lan-
ceolate, entire. — Native of woods and buffiy places in Swe-

den

VIOLA.

den and Germany. A hardy perennial, flowering in .luly
and Auguft. Thejlemj are a foot high, leafy at the bottom
and top only, fmootli. Leaves two or three mches broad,
acute ; the radical, or lower, on very long ftalks ; the upper
on very fhort ones. ^itdica\J2oivers the fize of f^, ojorita,
light reddifli-purple, with a veiny lip : axillary ones about
the top of the ftem, on fhorter Jlalis, generally without
petaL, but alone, for the moll part, perfecting feed. The
bafe of the calyx-leaves in all is much dilated, abrupt, one-
third as long as the reft of the calyx. Capfule large, rigid,
veiny, fmooth. The fpecific name alludes to X-hv fruit being
produced by apparently {m-perieSi floivers , not, as De Theis
imagined, to their great fize or admirable beauty. Such a
circumflance in the frnftification of Violets occurs in feve-
ral other fpccies.

38. V. hiflora. Two-flowered Yellow Violet. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1326. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 22. Fl. Dan. t. 46.
(V. flore hiteo ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 121. V. montana
prima; Cluf. Hilt. v. i. 309. V. alpina rotundifolia minor;
Pluk. Phyt. t. 233. f. 7. ) — Stem ereft, about two-flowered.
Leaves kidney-fhaped, ferrated, nearly fmooth. Stipulas
ovate, entire. — Native of the mountains of Lapland, Auf-
tria, Switzerland, and Savoy, but not of Britain. Some-
times kept, with other alpine plants, in pots, under a frame,
in our gardens, flowering in the ipring. This is a pretty
delicate fpecies, three or four inches high, allied to feveral
of the preceding, but perfeftly dillmft. The (lender fimple
Jlem bears three or four ftalked leaves, an inch or inch and
half in diameter ; and ufnally two diftant, axillary, flender-
ftalked, fmall, yellow flowers, whofe lip is ftreaked with
black. Bradeas minute, about the middle of each ftalk.
Calyx-haves fcarcely dilated or elongated, but rather gib-
bous, at the bafe. Capfule fmooth, rigid. Seeds few,
large.

^(). V . unlflora. Siberian Yellow Violet. Linn. Sp. PI.
1327. Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 23. ( V. n. 67 ; Gmel. Sib.
V. 4. 101. t. 48. f. 5. ) — Stem fingle-flowered, leafy at the
top only. Leaves heart-fliaped, toothed. — Native of Si-
beria. Said to have been cultivated in 1774, by the late
Mr. James Gordon ; but we prefume it would be as eafy to
find one of the artificial golden flowers of the ancient Mexi-
cans in our gardens at prefent, for its name does not even
appear in Mr. Donn's Cambridge catalogue. The root of
this rare and very curious fpecies is thread-fhaped, toothed,
perennial, with long fimple fibres. Herb about the fize and
habit of the Winter Aconite, Helleborus hyemalis, but ra-
ther downy, efpecially the Jlem. Leaves two or three,
crowded at the fummit of the llcm, on very fliort ftalks,
ovate or heart-ftiaped, an inch long, fcarcely downy,
coarfely toothed, with a blunt point ; their bafe entire.
Slipulas fmall, lanceolate, with glandular teeth. Flo-wers
yellow, larger than any of the prccedmg ; their petals
rounded, an inch long ; two lateral ones bearded at the
bafe. Calyx-leaves oblong, fomewhat heart-ftiaped .it their
infertion, but hardly dilated or elongated. Gmelin's figure
is very incorreft.

40. V. deeumbens. Narrow-leaved Cape Violet. Linn.

Suppl. 397. Willd. n. 23. Thunb. Prodr. 41 Stems

procumbent, round. Leaves linear, crowded, acute, entire.
Calyx fmooth. Petals of nearly equal length. — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. Stems fmooth, fomewhat branched,
rather fhrubby, a fpan long. Leaves nunuToufly crowded
about the ends of the branches, alternate, an inch and
half long, hardly a line broad ; tapering at the bafe, where
they are united to a pair of minute lanceolate ftipiilas.
Flowrr-Jlalks axillary, folitary on each branch, and rifing
above its fummit, twice the length of the leaves, Ikndtr,

with two awl-ftiaped braStas about the middle. Flower
blue, far more like V. canina than tricdor, to which Lin-
iiiEus compares it ; but the calyx-leaves are very fliglitly
extended at the bafe. NeSary pale green.

41. V . arborefeens. Shrubby Dwarf Violet. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1325. Willd. n. 30. Ait. n. 30. {V. hifpanica fru-
ticans; Barri-1. Ic. t. 568.)— Stem afcending, flirubby,
branched. Leaves lanceolate, downy, entire. Calyx mi-
nutely fringed. Petals of nearly equal length Native of

the fouth of Spain, about Conil and Tariffa, flowering in
February. Durand. A greenhoufe plant, cultivated by
the late Mr. Blackburne, in his rich garden at Orford,
Lancalhire, in 1779, as appears by his Catalogue; but
fcarcely now, probably, exiftmg in any colleftion. The root
IS long and woody, as are alio the Jlems, whofe extremities
terminate in many denfe, crowded, leafy branches. Leaves
refembling thofe of a Cheiraiilhus, more or lefs hoar)-, an
inch long, tapering down into (lender fooljalh, each accom-
panied by two longifli very mrrow Jlipulas. Flowers fome-
what like the laft, but the neSary is very ftiort, and calyx-
leaves more elongated at the bafe, each marked with three
ribs. Poflibly r. cheiranthifolia, Poiret in Lam. n. 43,
may not be diftinft from this.

42. V. capenfis. Hoary Cape Violet. Thunb. Prodr. 40.
Willd. n. 29. — Stem flirubby, ereft, downy. Leaves obo-
vate, crenate, hoary. Calyx-leaves ovate, hairy. Lower

petal abrupt, thrice as long as the reft Gathered at the

Cape of Good Hope by Thunberg, from whom we have
an unnamed native fpecimen, which can belong to no other
fpecies. It is more or lefs downy in every part, efpecially
ihefoiver-Jlalks, and calyx, which is not at all extended at the
bafe. Leaves alternate, ftalked, an inch long. Slipulas ex-
tremely minute, lanceolate. This is one of thofe fpecies
of which the lower petal, or lip, is fo much extended,
or rather the other four petals fo diminilhed, as to have a
very peculiar afpeft ; added to which, the bafe of the calyx
is quite fimple, not protrafted beyond the infertion. Such
fpecies have given occafion to the late M. Ventenat to
cftablifh his genus lonidium, in Jard. de la Malmaif. t. 27,
of wl'.ich the diftinftive charafters are, the want of a fpur
to the corolla', and of appendages, or elongations, to the
calyx-leaves. Thcfe charadlers flionld fecm to indicate a
diftinft genus from Viola ; but there are fo many grada-
tions, fome of which we have noted in their proper places,
with refpeft to the calyx, and no lefs with regard to the
nciiary, that we cannot rely on cither part ; efpecially as
the habit does not always concur with thefe differences.
Several of the fuppofed fpecies of lonidium have as cvideut
a fpur, though fhort, as any Viola. Their caUx, it mull
be allowed, is more conftant, but feveral undoubted VioU
have as little of a projeftion there. Ventenat was, moreover,
but imperfedlly convcrfant with the fpecies of his fuppofed
genus, as will appear in the courfe of our hillory of them.

43. \ . buxifolia. Box-leaved Madagafcar Violet. Poiret
in Lam. n. 56. { lonidium biixifolium ; Venten. Malmaif.
under t. 27. ) — Stems afcending, fmooth, herbaceous. Leaves
obovate, fmooth, revolute, entire. Calyx-leaves ovate,
naked. Lower petal abrupt, twice as long as the reft. —
Gathered by Commerfon in Madagafcar. jhoiiin. Allied
very nearly to the laft, but fmooth, and lefs Ihriibby. The
leaves are rather fmaller, and greatly refemble Bov, or rather
Polynala Chamxbuxus. The root is woody. Stems fix
inches long, fprcading every way, leafy, fcarcely branched.
Stipulas iniiuite, awl-fliaped. Floiver-Jl.ills twice the length
of thi- leaves, with two fmall awl (li.ipcd brafleas towards
the top. Calyx-leaves broad at the bale, elpecially the two
lowermoft, which have membranous edges, and embrace the

rounded

VIOLA.

rounded fpur of the tie^ary, which is extended a little be-
yond tliem. Here a material charafter of lonidium fails us.
Lateral petals veined, half as long as the fpatulate lip.
Capjuk ovate, fmooth. Seeds four in each cell, pale, oval,
abrupt, beautifully ftriated longitudinally.

44. V. enneafperma. Nine-feeded Violet. Linn. Sp. PI.
1327. Willd. n. 33, excluding the fynonym of Burmann.
( lonidium enneafpermum ; Venten. Malmaif. under t. 27.
I. heterophyllum ; ibid, according to the charafters and
fynonym. Viola furrefta maderafpatenfis, lini facie, rotun-
dioribus imis foliis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 120. f. 8. " Nelam-
parenda; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 9. 117. t. 60.") — Stem
ereft, much branched from the bottom. I^eaves lanceolate
or linear, fomewhat revolute, fmoothifh, (lightly toothed.
Calyx-leaves lanceolate, naked. Lower petal twice as long
as the reft. — Native of Ceylon, Tranquebar, and Mada-
gafcar. The root is long, fimple, woody, perennial. Stems
feveral, branched chiefly in the lower part, ereft, fix inches
high, angular, fmooth. Leaves rather glaucous, various in
length and breadth, ftalked ; the lower ones fhorteft and
roundeft ; none more than an inch, or an inch and half,
long. Stlpulas minute, awl-fhaped, fpreading, like little
prickles. Floiver-JJalhs (horter than the leaves. Flotvers
purplifh, very like the laft ; but the calyx-leaves are much
narrower and more acute ; lip obovate, not fo abrupt.
Seeds only three in each cell, ftriated in the fame manner,
but rather larger. Such is the plant of the Linnian her-
barium, which muft be n. 317 of Linn. Fl. Zeyl. 149,
though its leaves are certainly not quite entire, nor in any
fenfe linear ; neither are the Jlipulas wanting. Ventenat
rightly finds fault with Willdenow for citing a plant of
Burmann's Fl. Zeyl. t. 85, which he alfo cites, more cor-
reftly, for Polygala t/ieezaiis ; but the error is Linnaeus's,
and Willdenow copies him without examination. V. lint-
folia, Poir. in Lam. n. 61, from Madagafcar, has perfcftly
linear, very narrow, leaves, but is certainly a mere variety.

45. V. fuffruticofa. Madder-leaved Violet. Linn. Sp.
PL 1327. Fl. Zeyl. n. 318. ijo. Willd. n. 34. (Ru-
beola zeylanica, foliis latioribus, ratmul difta ; Burm. Zeyl.
208.) — " Stem procumbent. Leaves lanceolate, crowded,
fomewhat ferrated. Calyx even at the. bafe." — Native of
Ceylon. Herb procumbent, much branched, hard, like
Cijius Helianthemum. Leaves acute, fcarce evidently fer-
rated, tapering down into footjialks. Stipulas awUfliaped,
hardifh, permanent ; hence the plant becomes rough, and in
a manner prickly. Flowers as in the laft. Linn, in FL
Zeyl.

We have feen no fpecimen of this. However the Jlipulas
may be, the procumbent Jlem feeras the moft ftriking dif-
ference between thefe two fpecies.

46. V. verlicillata. Whorl-leaved Violet. " Ortega
Decad. 4. 50." Ait. n. 25. (lonidium polygalsfohum ;
Venten. Malmaif. t. 27.) — Stems procumbent. Leaves
oppoCte, lanceolate, entire, with lanceolate ftipulas, one-
third of their length. Flower-ftalks drooping, as long as
the leaves. Corolla without a fpur, nearly equal. — Native
of South America. A greenhoufe perennial herbaceous
plant, brought from Spain, in 1797, by the late marchionefs
of Bute. The inconfpicuous reddifh Jloiuers are produced
during fummer. This is related to feveral of the laft-
defcribed, inafmuch as the calyx is not extended at the bafe ;
but the corolla is alfo nearly, or quite, deftitute of a fpur,
without any great difproportion between the kyerdl petals .
The oppofite leaves are almoft unparalleled in this genus.
They are erroneoufly called whorled, though the large^ipu-
las, refembling leaves, give that appearance. The feeds aire
imooth, black, twp in each cell.

47. V. Jiriffa. Stiff Oppofite-leaved Violet. Poiret in
Lam. n. 66. (lonidium ftriftum ; Venten. Malmaif. under
t. 27.) — "Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, entire. Stipulas
very ihort. Flo\^er-ftalks ereft, (horter than the leaves." —
Found in Hifpaniola by M. Poiteau. Ventenat. Stems above
a foot high. Lea-jes an inch long. Flowers whitilh, with
narrow obtufe petals. Poiret. It is faid to be related to
Poiret's V. linariafolia, a fpecies concerning which we have
not fufficient information.

48. V. labiofa. Large-lipped Violet Stem ereft.

Leaves oppofite, linear, revolute, fmooth. Stipulas miiuite.
Flowers racemofe. Lower petal obovate, very large, with

a fliort fpur Sent by Dr. White from New South Wales,

among the firft fpecimens collefted in that country. This
very remarkable fpecies is evidently akin to V. enneafperma
and verticiltata, with their allies, but neverthelefs fo dittinft
in many important charadlers, that we are at a lofs which
to feleit for difcrimination. The flems are from nine to
twelve inches high, angular, eredl, rigid, fmooth like the
reft of the herbage. Leaves an inch and half or two inches
long, very narrow, acute, entire ; tapering at the bafe, fef-
file ; fome of the lower ones fcattered, but the greater part
oppofite. Stipulas hardly difcernible. Flowering branches
like the reft of the ftem in thicknefs, but deftitute of leaves,
bearing feveral rather diftant flowers, on (hort, drooping,
partial flalks, fo as to conilitute a true clujler. Calyx very
fmall ; its leaves lanceolate, acute ; the two lower ones gib-
bous at the bafe, clifping the fpur. Four of the petals
ovate, pointed, very little longer than the calyx, pale, with
dark veins ; the two lateral ones much dilated and rounded
at the lower fide: the fifth petal, or Up, is difpropor-
tionately large, an inch long, broadly obovate, abrupt or
emarginate, veiny, apparently rofe-eoloured ; its claw chan-
nelled, the length of the other petals, ending behind in a
rounded fpur, extending beyond the bate of the calyx.
Capfule ovate, fmooth. Seeds two in each cell, large, or-
bicular, black and fmooth, as in V. vertidllata; not fur-
rowed, as in enneafperma and buxifoUa.

49. V. thefiifoim. Toad-flax-leaved Violet. Poiret in
Lam. n. 69 Leaves alternate, linear, entire, fmooth, very-
long. Stipulas awl-fliaped. Flowers axillary, nearly feflile.
— Gathered by Adanfon, in Senegal. Roots (lender. Stem
ereft, herbaceous, fcarcely branched, cylindrical, or a little
comprefTed, fmooth. Leaves two or three inches, or more,
in length, a line or two broad. Stipulas very acute. Flowers
very fmall. Calyx-leaves narrow, acute. Petals whitifh,
hardly longer than the calyx. Capfule roundifh-oval, ob-
tufe. Poiret.

50. V. longifoUa. Long-leaved Cayenne Violet. Poiret
in Lam. n. 68. — Stem Ihrubby. Leaves lanceolate, fer-
rated, very fmooth. Flowers foUtary or aggregate, on
capillary ftalks, hardly fo long as the awl-fhaped neftary.
— Native of Cayenne. Preferved in the herbarium of pro-
feflbr Desfontaines. Remarkable for the great fize of its
leaves, which are four or five inches long, finely ferrated, and
the fmallnefs of its Jowers, which grow on capillary axillary

Jalis, fix lines at moft in length, either fobtary, or feveral
together. The calyx is fmooth, minute. Petals whiti(h,
with a ftrajght awl-fhaped fpur, at leaft as long as the
(talk.

We prefume, from Poiret's authority, that this laft
fpecies has no pofterior elongation of the calyx, though the

Jpur is fo confiderable. It may therefore, confidering the
leaves, ferve to conned the foregoing fpecies with the
following.

51. V. glutinofa. Clammy Violet. Poiret in Lam.
n. 63. (lonidium glutinofum ; Venten. Malmaif. under

t.27.)

VIOLA.

t. 27.) — St«m branched. Leaves ovate, ferrated, fmooth ;
tapering at the bafe ; the lower ones oppofite. Stipulas
lanceolate, acute. Flower-ftalks the length of the leaves.
Lip twice the length of the calyx, without a fpur Ga-
thered by Commerfon, on rocks at Monte-Video. The
ftem is perhaps fhrubby, apparently two feet at leaft in
height, our fpecimen having feveral oppofite, angular, leafy
branches, each a foot long, fomewhat downy. Doth the
Jlem and leaves are faid to be covered with a glutinous
moifture. The upper leaves are chiefly alternate, an inch
long, (talked, veiny. Flowers numerous, axillary, folitary,
not bigger than a large pin's head, drooping, whitifh, with-
out hradeas. Calyx-leaves ovate, acute, combined at the
bafe, a little gibbous, but not elongated, in that part. Four
of the petals rather longer than the calyx : lip twice as long,
abrupt, with no protruding fpur. Capfule globofe. The
form and ^proportion of the petals appear fimilar to F. ver-
ticillata, n. 46.

52. V. parviflora. Small-flowered South American
Violet. Linn. Suppl. 396. Willd. n. 32. Poiret in

Lam. n. 60. Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 21 Stem branched, diffufe,

downy. Leaves ovate, ferrated, fmooth ; obtufe at the
bafe. Stipulas awl-fliaped. Flower-ilalks the length of
the leaves. Lip twice the length of the calyx, without a
fpur. — Native of Mexico. The root is woody. Stems fe-
veral, (hrubby, branched, leafy, a foot or more in length.
Leaves about half as long as the laft, but of a broader, more
ovate, form, not at all tapering at the bafe ; their ferratures
few and large. The lower ones are fometimes oppofite.
The Jlowers are fo much like the preceding, that we can
fcarcely find any difference. Thevtjlalks, about half an inch
long, remain after the capfules are fallen off. The ftp has
perhaps a flight rounded protuberance at its bafe, but not
extending beyond the calyx.

53. V. oppoJitifoUa. Lanceolate Oppofite -leaved Violet.
Linn. Sp. PI. 1327. Willd. n. 36. (Calceolaria, n. i ;
Loefl. It. 183.) — Stem (hrubby, crofs-branched, fmooth.
Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, nearly feffile, acutely ferrated.

Flowers racemofe Gathered by Lcefling, is South

America. Many circumftances, indicated by that author,
(hew an affinity between this and ten or eleven of the fore-
going fpecies, efpecially perhaps the two lad. They all,
in fome particular or other, form exceptions to the cha-
raders or habit of a Fiola. The Jlems of that before us
are defcribed as creft, from a fpan to eighteen inches high,
woody below, round, fmooth, with oppofite branches.
Leaves on very fliort (lalks ; their ferratures long, not
deep ; the extremity entire. Flowers white, in folitary
fpreading clujleri (fee n. 48.), their (talks partly permanent.
Calyx gibbous below. Lip fcarcely fo broad as its claw,
bent upwards, and revolute, at the end. Capfule triangu-
lar. Seeds fomewhat angular. This plant has fomethiog
of the habit of Feronica jinagatlis, or F. fcuttllala.
Lafling.

54. V. Calceolaria. Shaggy Slipper Violet. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1327. Willd. n. 35. (V. Itoubou; Aubl.
Guian. 808. t. 318. Calceolaria, n. 2 ; Loefl. It. 184.) —
Stems hairy, herbaceous. Leaves fcattered, nearly fertile,
ovate, ferrated, very hairy as well as the lanceolate (\i-
pulas and bradleas. Calyx fliaggy with branched hairs.
Lip kidney-fhaped. — Native of South America. Gathered
by Aublct in Cayenne and Guiana, in fandy ground, flow-
ering at various fcafons. This is diftinguifhcd by the co-
pious, filky, (haggy hairs, covering every part of the
herbage. T\\e Jlems arc a foot high, fimple or branched,
leafy. Leaves an inch long. Flowers folitary, (lalkcd,
white or blue. Four petals fmall, convoluted. Lip very

Vol.. XXXVII.

large, brillly underneath. Capfule hairy. Suds oval,
fmooth.

55. V. Ipecacuanha. Ipecacuanha Violet. Linn.
Mant. 484. Suppl. 397. (V. grandiflora, veronica; folio
villofo, Ipecacuanha alba difta ; Barrere Fr. equinox. 113.
Pombalia Ipecacuanha; Vandelli Fafc. 7. t. 1.) — Stem
(hrubby, ereft. Leaves fcattered, ovate, crenate ; hairy
underneath and at the margin. Calyx hairy. Lip very
abrupt, twice as broad as long. — Native of Brafil. Culti-
vated by Vandelli at Lifbon, where it flowered in Oftober,
in the greenhoufe. The root is white, woody, with many
cyhndrical branches, and is reported to poflefs the qualities
of the true Ipecacuanha (fee that article) ; though in a
weaker degree. The Jlem is two feet high. Leaves
(talked, an inch or inch and half long. Flowers fragrant,
pale red, with a very (hort but broad hp, near an inch wide,
involute at each fide. Seeds roundifli, five or fix in each
cell.

56. V. diandra. Diandrous Climbing Violet. Linn.
Syit. Veg. ed. 13. 669. Willd. n. 39. — Stem herbaceous,
trailing. Leaves oblong, remote. Stalks fingle -flowered.
Neftary very long and twilted. Three of the (tameris
abortive. — Native of Guiana. Stem thread-(haped, cUmbing
up hedges. Leaves alternate. Flowerjlalks axillary, fo-
litary, with a joint ; fwelling upwards. BraSeas two,
minute. Calyx not at all prominent behind. Corolla white.
Lip uppermoll, very large, with a long twided fpur,
Lateral petals afcending ; two lower ones fmaller, deflexed.
Two hm&iv Jlamens only perfeft. Allamand.

57. V. Hybanlhus. Gibbous Chmbing Violet. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1328. Willd. n. 37, excluding Aublet's fynonym.
(V, n. 209 ; Loefl. It. 282.' Hybanthus havanenfis ;
Jacq. Amer. 77. t. 175. f. 24, 25.) — Stem (hrubby,
climbing, prickly. Leaves oblong, flightly ferrated,
fmooth, aggregate. Flowers feveral on a (talk. Lip
fomewhat longer than the other petals, without a fpur. —
Native of uncultivated hills about the Havannah. An in-
elegant branching Jhrub, feven feet high, erett. Leaves
feveral from one bud, an inch aiid half long, emarginate ;
each tapering at the bafe into a Ihort footjlalk. Flower-
jlalks one or two from the fame bud with the leaves, (hort,

divided in the upper part, each bearing a few minute whitifh
Jlowers, about the fize of F. glutinofa and parviflora, and
nearly agreeing with thofe fpecies in (Irufture, except that
the lip appears (horter in proportion. Capfule the fize of a
pea. Seeds few, globofe. We take our defcription from
Jacquin, having feen no fpecimen of his plant, or of Loc-
fling's ; fo that we have no means of determining whether
the Fiola of the latter author, cited as above by Linnxiis,
be the plant in quellion, or whether Jacquin's conjectural
reference to Lcefling's Calceolaria frutefcens. It. 184, be
more correal. We are only certain that Aublet's F.
Hybanthus is extremely different from the above j fee the
following fpecies.

y8. V.laurifolia. Laurel-leaved Climbing Violet. Linn,
fil. MSS. (V. Hybanthus ; Aubl. Guian. 81 1 . t. 31 9 ; ex-
cluding Loefling's fynonym.) — Stem flirubby, climbing.
Leaves ovate, pointed, very obfcurely crenate, fmooth, al-
ternate. Flowers corymbofe. Neftary cylindrical, obtufe,

thrice as long as the petals Found by Aublet, on the

banks of waters in Guiana, flowering m April. The main
trunk is three inches in di.wieter, and three or four feet
high, fending forth long, round, twining branches, which
climb the neighbouring trees. Leaves from four to fix
inches long, veiny, very fmooth, entire, or flightly crenate
towards the end, which Aublet's figure cxprclTcs too
(trongly. Foniftalks (lout, half an inch long, fn\ooth.
F f Flower'

VIQLA.

Floiuer-Jlalks axillary, long, corymbofe, rarely fimple and
folitary, each bearing, about the middle, two minute oppo-
fite braHeai. Flowers pale yellow, fweet-fcented, not un-
like fome fpecies of Impatiens, the iteclary being full an inch
long. Two lateral petals much larger than the others.
The ftrufture of the parts of fruUification anfwer well to
Viola, fo far at leaft as we can examine them. The caly»-
haves are, in fome degree, gibbous, or extended at their
bafe, though Aublet notices it not.

59- ^ ■ Jl'pvlaris. Trailing Fringed Violet. Swartz
Prodr. 117. Ind. Occ. 1956. Willd. n. 31. {V. per-
ficariacfolia-; Poiret in Lam. n. 39.) — Stem creeping,
round, fimple. Leaves ovate, crenate, fmooth ; tapering at
each end. Stipulas fringed, longer than the footilalks.
Flowers folitary, without a fpur. Calyx dilated at the
bafc. — fathered by Mr. Francis Mafibn, on a lofty moun-
taiii called mount Mifery, in the ifland of St. Kit's. Stem
rather Ihrubby, trailing probably to the extent of fcveral
feet, fmooth, taking root, and fending up fliort leafy
branches, not above an inch long, from each joint. Leaves
with their footjlalis an inch and half or two inches long.
Stipulas near an inch in length, crowded, ovato-lanceolate,
taper-pointed, membranous, deeply fringed with fine, long,
capillary teeth. Floiver-Jliilis few, axillary, Dender, (horter
than, the leaves, each with two awl-fhaped bradeas above the
middle. Calyx-leaves awl-fhaped, long and (lender, gibbous
or dilated at the bafe, and apparently longer than the fmall
blue corolla, t^o/pur is difcernible. Poiret has taken an
inadmiflible liberty, in changing the original name of this
fpecies, in compliance with an error of Cavanilles ; fee the
following.

60. V. feto/a. Upright Fringed Violet. (V. ftipu-
laris ; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 21. t. 531. f. 2. Poiret in Lam.
II. 38.) — Stem ereft, round, much branched. Leavesovate,
acute, ferrated ; unequal at the bafe. Stipulas fringed,
longer than the footftalks. Flower-ftalks folitary, twice

the length of the leaves Native of the neighbourhood of

Talcahuano, in Chili. Thejlem is (hrubby, a foot high ; we
prefume it, from the plate, to be ereft, though nothing is
faid by the author upon tliat lubjeft, nor whether the leaves
be fmooth, the calyx dilated at the bafe, or the corolla fur-
niilied with a fpur. By the figure, the two latter cha-
rafters fecm wanting, and the petuls are drawn obovate, the
Up being broader, and rather longer, than the reft. The
Jliprilas are fringed with long prominent briltles, much like

the preceding. Cavanilles did not perceive that the foe-
cific name he chofe had been long pre-engaged.

We (hall here introduce lome new fpecies of this author,
which, according to the incomplete information alForded by
his work, leem naturally to follow what have jnft been de-
fcribed ; though fome eifential particulars are neglected,
efpeciaUy the ilrufture of the calyx-leaves at their bafe. If
the figures be faithful, thefe are not at all dilated beyond
their infertion. The figure and defcription of V.philtppica,
t. 529. f. 2, are fuch, that we dare not adopt that fpecies
at all.

61. V. rubella. Little Red Violet. Cavan. Ic. v. 6. zo.
t. 531. f. I. Poiret in Lam. n.\37 — Stem ereft, (hrubby.
Leaves ovate, acute, ferrated. Stipulas (horter than the
footftalks, with briftly ferratures. Flower-ftalks folitarv,
(horter than the leaves. Spur half as long as the petals. —
Native of Chili, flowering in February. This appears to
be fmooth, and the Jlem round. Leaves thrice the fize of
the laft, obtufe and equal at the bafe, on footftalks an inch
long. Stipulas fcarcely half fo long. Flowers reddifh,
much like the laft in fize and (hape, except the ncBary,
wliich is obtufe, projecting beyond the bafe of the ealyx.

4

62. V. maculata, Dotted-leaved Violet. Cavan. Ic.
V. 6. 2C. t. 530. (V. pyrolsfolia ; Poiret in Lam. n. 32.)
— Stem fimple, ereft. Leaves elliptical, crenate ; acute at
each end ; dotted beneath. Stipulas pinnatifid. Flower-
ftalks longer than the leaves. — Native of the Falkland
niands, flowering in December. This is certainly remark-
able in its tribe for having yellow ^sw-tj-. The dots on
the leaves occur in fome other fpecies, even in canina, yet
furely the name ought not to be arbitrarily changed. The

ftem is fix inches high. Leaves an inch and ha'f long ; their
Jlalhs ftiU longer. Sli[>ulas hardly an inch in length, deeply
and copioufty pinnatind. Floiuer-Jlalhs axillary, riling much
above the ftem. Flotuers drooping, the fize of V. odorata,
but yellow, their fpur projeAing beyond the bafe of the
calyx, whofe lanceolate taper-pointed leaves are reprefented
a little gibbous at that fide.

63. V. aduiica. Hooked Violet. — Stems fimple, afcend-
ing. Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart -fhaped, obtufe, crenate,
dawny, dotted. Stipulas loofely fringed. Flower-ftalks
longer than the leaves. Neftary hooked. — Brought by Mr.
Menzics from the weft coaft of North America. This
fpecies has the fize and habit of V. canina, and thinT flipulas ,

flower fialks, and braHeas are fimilar. The caly;<-leavej too
are extended, in like manner, at the bafe. The whole of
the herbage is minutely fpeckk-d, as in our laft fpecies, as
well as in canina. But the plant is more or lefs downy, and
clearly diftinguilhed by the ftrongly recurved form of the

fpur, which if llraight would be as long as the lip. The
two lateral petals are downy at the bafe. Perhaps this
fpecies is more akin to canina than to any other, and ought
to ftand near it ; at Icaft if the rubella and maculata have no
elongation at the bafe of their calyx.

64. V. tricolor. Panfy Violet, or Heart's-Eafe. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1326. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 26. Fl. Brit. n. 6.
Engl. Bot. t. 1287. Curt. Lond. fafc. I. t. 65. Woodv.
Suppl. t. 252. Fl. Dan. t. 623. Ger. Em. 854. Re-
nealm Spec. 144. t. 140. Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 122.
Ehrh. PI. 0(F. n. 278. ( V. n. 568 ; Hall. Hift. v. i. 244.
Jaccea, five Flos Trinitatis ; Camer. Epit. 912.)

/S. V. arvenfis ; Murray Prodr. Gotting. 73. Sibth.
Oxon. 84. Sym. Syn. 61. (V. bicolor ; Rivin. Pentap.
Irr. t. 122. Ehrh. PI. Off. n. 359. Purfli n. 22. V.
n. 569; Hall. Hift. V. I. 244. V. tricolor petrsa ; Ger.
Em. 854. Jaccea altera ; Camer. Epit. 913. Corn Pan fie ;
Pctiv. Herb. Brit. t. 37. f. 9.)

Stem angular, diffufe, divided. Leaves oblong, deeply
crenate. Stipulas lyrate, pinnatifid. Brafteas obfolete —
Native of cultivated ground throughout Europe, from
Sweden to Greece, as well as in North America, flowering
all fummer long. Root annual. Stems more or lefs
branched, efpecially from the bottom, angular, moft hairy
on one fide, extremely variable in luxuriance, when fimple
nearly ereft. Leaves ftalked, ufually ovate, deeply cre-
nate ; fometimes more oblong ; and in the more ftarved
plants of variety 0 merely undulated. Stipulas always
deeply pinnatifid, with narrow tongue-lhaped fegments ;
the terminal one very large, ovate, crenate. Flonver-flalks
axillary, folitary, firm, longer than the leaves, bearing to-
wards the top a pair of extremely minute, clofe-preffed,
fcarcely vifible hracleas. Calyx-leaves greatly and unequally
dilated at the bafe, lanceolate in front, acute, entire. Petals
extremely variable in fize and colour, from the large,
fplendid, velvet-like Panfy of the gardens, which if allowed
to fow itfelf without attention, foon becomes fcarcely dif-
ferent from the wild plant ; to the fmall pale-yellowi(h
variety B, whofe ultimate ftate of degeneracy, among the
fcoris of mount .^tna, is the V. aetnica erefta bicolor hir-

futa

VIOLA.

futa minima, of Cupani's Hort. Cath. 130, fent us by-
Baron Bivona. In general, however, there are two to-
lerably diffinnilar wild varieties, as above indicated ; one with
the petals longer than the calyx, the two uppermoft purple ;
two lateral w'Tiiiifh, ribbed with purple, hairy at the bafe ;
lip yellow, inverfely heart-fhaped, ilreaked with purple,
ending behind in a fliort_^ar; the other variety (iS) has
petals of a pale yellow, or cream-colour, hardly lo long as
the calyx, but little marked with blue. The hairincfs of
the calyx, like that of the herbage in general, is certainly
variable.

65. V. p'llofj. Blue Hairy Heart's-Eafe. Donn Cant,
ed. 3. 40. ed. 5. jz. (V. hifpida ; Lamarck Franc, v. 2.
679. V. rothomagenfis ; Poiret in Lam. n. 45. " Decand.
Franc, v. 4. 809." Desfont. Tabl. 178. Sims in Curt.
Mag. t. 1498. Ait. Epit. 376.) — Stem angular, zigzag,
hairy, diffufe, branched. Leaves ovate, crenate, fringed.
Stipulas pinnatifid, fomewhat lyrate. Brafteas lanceolate,
toothed at the bafe. — Native of ftony hills near Rouen, as
well as in other parts of France, and on the downs near
Dunkirk ; perennial, flowering in the ipring. This plant
has long been uuiverfally known in our gardens, under the
apt name of V. p'llofa, given by- the late Mr. Curtis, who
gave us a fpecimen, fo named, from his garden at Lambeth
marfh, in May 1781. The date of its introduftion is,
therefore, anterior, even to what the late Mr. Donn has're-
corded, 1783. We had a fpecimen alfo of the fame as his
V. p'llofa, from the Cambridge garden in 1803; and we
regret that Dr. Sims has followed lels claflical authority and
example, in tlie appellation he has retained, to the dilpa-
ragement, though undefigned, of his old friends and our's.
The plant in qucflion is not very eafily dillinguifhable, by a
definition, from tricolor, though unqueftionatjly a different
fpecies. Tht root is perennial. Herb much more hairy.
Flowers bright blue, the fide petals and lip itriped with
black. Calyx and fpur much like tricolor. Braclras nearer
the top of ihe Jloiuer-Jlalks, and much larger, lanceolate,
with two very evident teeth on each fide at the bafe. This
charafter fccms material, though not yet mentioned. The
reader of M. Poiret's defcription may, at firft fight, fuppofe
it to have been fotmd out by him, but a flight examina-
tion will difcover that author to have written hraHtas for
Jlipulas.

66. V. luka. ^ Yellow Mountain Panfy. Hudf. ed. t.
331. FI. Brit. n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 721. Ait. n. 27.
Poiret in Lam. n. 46. " Decand. Franc, v. 4. 809."
Great Yellow Panfie ; Petiv. Herb. Brit. t. 37. f. 10.
(V. grandiflora; Hudf. ed. 2. 380. Lightf 508. Ait.
cd. I. V. 3. 291 ; but not of Linnaeus. V. flore luteo
majore ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 121. V. n. 566 p ; Hall.
Hift. v. I. 243.) — Stem triangular, unbranched. Leaves
ovate-oblong, crenate, fringed. Stipulas lobed, palmate.
BraiSeas minute, fcarcely toothed. Spur the length of the

calyx This plant is found in graffy mountainous paftures,

flowcriiigjfrom May to September. It is frequent in fuch
fituations, from Sweden, if we miftakc not, (fee Linn.
Lapland Tour, v. i. 41.) to Britain, Switzerland, and
France. A fpecimen before us, from the fon of the great
Hallcr, fhews it to have been confounded, amongil other
things, by that author, under his n. 566. The root is pe-
rennial. Stem weak and decumbent at the bafe, fcarcely
ever branched, three or four inches high, a little downy,
cfpecially at one fide, leafy. Leaves ilalked ; the lower-
moft fmall, nearly orbicular. Stipulas large, doei>ly cut,
their middle fcgmer.ts largell. Flowers one or two, on long
folitarv axillary ^(j//'j, riiing high above the leafy top of the
ftcm, larger than in the common tricolor, to which their

calyx is fimilar ; but their fpur is fmaller, not extending be-
yond the poilerior lobes of that part. Petals moftly yellow ;
the 'two lateral ones, and the lip, Ilreaked with black, and
all more or lefs downy at the bafe ; two upper ones fome-
times alfo ilreaked with black or purple, or partly fpotted
with tlie latter colour; not unfrequently they .are purple all
over ; as in Engl. Bot. The Jligma is club-ihaped, hairy,
hollow, with a purple line underiieatli. M. Poiret lias fliewn
great praclical knowledge in his remarks under this fpecies,
adverting to F. grandiflora. We hope to remove his doubts
in the next paragraph.

67. V. grandiflora. Great MouTitain Panfy. Linn.
Mant. 120. Willd. n. 25, excluding all the fynonyms.
(V. altaica ; Pallas Herb, according to Dr. Sims. " Ker.
Bot. Regiil. 54." Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1776.)— Stem
angular, unbranched. Leaves ovate-oblong, crenate. Sti-
pulas pinnatifid, fomewhat lyrate. Brafteas minute, fcarcely
toothed. Spur twice the length of the hind lobes of the
calyx. — Native of Siberia. Pallas is faid to have gathered
it on the Altay mountains. The Linnaean fpecimen feems
of older date than the difcoveries of this eminent traveller,
but has no mark to indicate where it grew. This fpecies is
certainly more akin to the preceding than to the following,
both wtiich have been confounded with it. The habit and
mode of growth agree with F. lutea, but every part is twice
as large. T\\z Jltm, weak and decumbent at the bafe, is
about a fpan high, fmooth, except a roughnefs on fome of
the angles, or at one of the fides. Leaves on longiih llalks ;
the upper ones ovate, or ovato-lanceolate, h little hairy,
not fringed ; lower orbicular or heart-fliaped, fmooth. Sti-
pulas very different from V. lutea, being oblong, pinnatifid
in their lower half only, not palmate. Flouoerflalks two or
three on each plant, axillary, folitary, eredl, five inches
long, rifing high above the (lem. Bratleas an inch or more
below the fummit, oppofite, membranous, lanceolate, ex-
tremely fmall, with a tooth on each fide at the.bafe. Flowers
pale yellow, above twice the fi/e of V. lutea, and of a
rounder figure ; their lateral petals hairy at the bafe, and
marked, like the lip, with a few black liJies. Calyx much
dilated and toothed at its bafe, but not reaching half the
length of the fpur, which is cylindrical, rather flcnder,
fiightly curved, affording the mod dccifive dillimSion. The
fpecimen reprefented in the Bot. Mag. feems to be the top of
a plant, with rounder upper leaves than our wild fpecimens
exhibit. The flower is unfortunately drawn fo as not to
fhew the calyx or fpur, but the defcription aiifwers to our
plant, except that the dried petals are not remarkably un-
dulated. The Linnxan defcriptiu-n is good, except that
ths flem is not branched. Some naked ft'jwer-Jlalks caufed
this error. The remark that this and cakarata are the
offspring of V. tricolor, is perfetlly Unauthorized.

68. V. calcarata. Dwarf Mountain Panfy. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1325. Willd. n. 27. Ait. u. 28. (V. n. 566 a;
Hall. Hid. V. I. 243. t. 17. f. 1. V. alpina purpurea,
exiguis foliis ; Bauh. Pin. 199. Melanium mont.;num ;
Dalcch. Hill. 1204.)

p. V. n. 566 ,?, n. 2 ; Hall. Hill. v. i. 243. (V. PsI-
lafii ; Ford. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 311. V. montana
lutea, fubrotundo crenato folio; Barrel. Ic. \.'.K>c)\, ct V.
montana cxrulea tricolor, folio fubrotundo crenato"; ibid,
t. 69:.) — Stems quite fimple, hardly fo long .ns the foot-
dalks. Leaves ovate, crenate. Stipuhis throe-cleft.
Bradicas toothed at the bafe, fimiewhat hadatc. Spur

thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx Native of the

mountains of Siberia, Aullria, Switzerland, Savoy, and
the fouth of France, flowering in July and Auguft. Gene-
rally known in gardens by tiie name of grandifcra, at lead

F r 2 '.! V

VIOLA.

the vai-iety 0 ; which is confounded by Linnseus in his
Synonyms with the true grandiflora ; by Haller with htta.
M. Poiret juftly obferves, that a fpecific character of the
variety jS, when it was announced in Tr. of Linn. Soc. by
the name of V. Pallafit, ought to have been given. That
name, however, is now fuperfluous, for we are perfeftly
fatisfied that no fpeciiic difference exifts between the plant
there intended and the original cakarata. The root is pe-
rennial, much branched under ground, and creeping ex-
tenllvely, each fhoot crowned with a fhort leafy Jlem, much
overtopped, not only by the generally folitary jfloiver-Jlalh,
but by its own crowded leaves or their ftalks. The leaves
are fmaller, thicker, blunter, more glaucous, and more uni-
formly orate, than in either of the two laft, with a few,
flight and rounded, notches. Stipulas ufually longer than
the footjlalis, in three deep fegments, fcarcely more, the
middle one obovate, varying in breadth. They are well re-
prefented by Barrelier. The herb is often fmooth, occa-
lionally more or lefs downy. Flotver-ftalks rifmg high
above the leaves, two or three inches long, more or lefs.
BraSeas above the middle, lanceolate, with feveral lateral
teeth, as if palmate, or hailate. Flower generally light
purple, with black lines at the bottom, larger than V. lutea,
fometimes parti-coloured hke that ; in /3 almoft the fize of
grandiflora, with more remarkable black lines, and either
yellow, parti-coloured, or all over violetf The calyx in both
varieties is elongated, dilated, and toothed, at the bafe.
Spur long, flender, cylindrical, flightly curved. HaUer's
figure is charafteriftic, but (hews no part with critical pre-
cifion. We have endeavoured to be explicit on the fubjeA
of the three lall (pecies, as no plants have been lefs under-
ftood.

69. V. Zci/(. Dwarf Carinthian Panfy. Wulf. in
Jacq. Coll. V. 4. 297. t. II. f. 1. Willd. n. 26, exclud-
ing the fynonym — Stems quite (imple, hardly fo long as
the footllalks. Leaves ovate, crenate, fmooth. Stipulas
elhptic-lanceolate, undivided, nearly entire. Bradeas toothed
at the bafe. Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the
calyx — Native of the mountains of Carniola and Carinthia,
communicated by Mr. Sieber. Wulfen received it from the
Baron de Zoys, whom he commemorates in the name. His
defcription and figure are complete, except that we cannot
account for his citing, without fcruple, t. 691 of Barrelier.
M. Poiret makes V. Zoyfii a variety of calcarata ; but they
are clearly diftinguifhed by their Jlipubs, which in the pre-
fent are always oval, never lobcd, though in one or two in-
ftances we find a flight lateral notch. The plant moreover
is fmaller, more perfeftly fmooth, green, not at all glaucous.
Flotuer-jlalhs two or three inches high, angular. Bradeas
minute. Petals large, yellow, with black hues at the bot-
tom ; fometimes partly tinged with blue. Spur afcending,
rather thicker than in calcarata, and not quite fo long.
Wulfen might well be puzzled with the determination of
this plant, grandijlora, &c.

70. V. cenifia. Violet of Mount Cenis. Linn. Sp. PI.
1325. WiUd. n. 16. Ait. n. 17. Allion. Pedem. v. 2.
98. t. 22. f. 6. Spec. 14. t. 3. f. 4. Poiret in Lamarck
n. 26. (V. n. 565 ; Hall. Hilt. v. i. 242.)

/S. Poiret ibid. (V. valderia ; Alhon. Pedem. v. 2. 98.
t. 24. f. 3.) — Stems fimple, procumbent. Leaves ovate,
entire. Stipulas obovate, ftalked, undivided, unequal.

Spur thrice as long as the hind lobes of the calyx Native

of the hill called Ronce, above the hofpital on Mount Cenis,
where we gathered fpecimens, with Dr. Bellardi, in Auguft
1787. It alfo grows on the alps of Savoy and Switzerland.
The roots are creeping. The whole plant bears a refem-
fclance to F. cakarata and its aUies, but has decumbent

Jlems, two or three inches long ; fleftiy entire leavis, either
fmooth, or rough with fhort reflexed hairs ; and very dif-
ferent Jlipulas, on long ftalks. Floiuers nearly the ufual
fize of calcarata, blue. BraBeas fmall, hardly toothed.
V. valderia is furely a moft trifling variety. The leaves are
falfely defcribed fmuated ; and the Jlems are not more ereft
than in the original cenifia.

71. V. arenaria. Sand Violet. Poiret in Lam. n. 25.
" Decand. Franc, v. 4. 806." — " Stems fimple, diffufe,
fomewhat downy. Leaves roundifh-heartfhaped, fmoothilh,
flightly crenate. Stipulas lanceolate, toothed. Calyx.
acute." — Native of fandy places, in the Lower Valais.
Root fcaly at the crown, fending out two or three fpreading

fiems, two or three inches long. Flotuer-Jlalks three or four
times as long as the leaves. Flowers pale blue, or whitifli,
with a thick obtufe fpur. Bradeas linear, acute, four or
five lines long, about an inch below the flower. Decandolle.
Poiret.

72. V. minuta. Minute Bafil-leaved Violet. Marfch. a
Bieberft. Fl. Taur.-Cauc. v. 1. 173. (V. orientalis mi-
nima, ocymi folio; Tourn. Cor. 30?) — "Stems fimple,
ilaccid, fingle-flowered. Leaves roundifh, crenate, nearly
fmooth. Stipulas ovate, entire." — Native of the Georgian
region of Mount Caucafus. Root apparently creeping.
Stems as long as the finger-nail. Leaves only two or three
lines in length and breadth, broadly but flightly crenate.
Footjialks about as long. Stipulas rough with hairs at the
edges. Flower the fize and fliape of V. odorata, with a

fpur the length of the petals. Bradeas remote, very minute.
Akin perhaps to V. cenifia and alpina. Marfch. a Bieberjl.
It may poflibly be more related to the following, though
the Jlipulas do not agree.

73. V. nummularfolia. Money-wort-leaved Violet. Al-
hon. Pedem. v. 2. 98. t. 9. f. 4. Willd. n. 15. (V.
alpina minima, nummularix folio ; Bocc. Muf. 163. t. 127.)
— Stems tufted, fimple. Leaves orbicular-heartfhaped,
nearly entire, fmooth. Stipulas lanceolate, membranous,
three-cleft. Spur rounded, rather longer than the dilated
bafe of the calyx. — Native of the rocks of Corfica, Dau-
phiny, and Piedmont. The long, flender, branching roots
divide at the top into tufts of httle, fmooth, leafy Jlems,
ereft or decumbent, not branched. Leaves flelhy, a quarter
of an inch in length and breadth, obtufe, occafionally cre-
nate, on flender Jlalks about twice as long. Stipulas half
or quarter the length of the Jootjlalhs, feffile, unconnefted
with them, pale, acute, with one or two taper teeth at each
fide. Floiuers blue, rather fmaller than V. odorata, not
unlike that fpecies in fhape. Very diftinA from V. cenifia,

74. V. alpina. Alpine Radical Violet. Jacq. Obf.
part 1. 21. t. II. Fl. Auftr. v. 3. 24. t. 242. Poiret
in Lam. n. 15. (V. montana fecunda ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1.
309.) — Stem fcarcely any. Leaves nearly radical, orbi-
cular-heartlhaped, flightly crenate, nearly fmooth. Stipulas
lanceolate, membranous, entire, united to the bafe of the
long footftalks. Spur rounded, twice as long as the dilated
bafe of the calyx. — Native of the fummits of the loftieft
mountains of Auftria, flowering in July and Auguft. Mr.
Sieber, to whom we are obliged for wild fpecimens, exaftly
agreeing with fome from Jacquin, juftly obferves, that bo-
tanifts in general have unaccountably neglefted this fpecies.
It is not to be found in Linnaeus, Murray, nor WiUdenow ;
yet none can be more diftinft. It ought perhaps to ftand
in the firft feAion, as having much lefs of 3. Jlem than fome
which are placed there ; but its affinity to feveral we have
juft defcribed is fo great, that it more naturally ranges with
the Panfy tribe, of which it has the large concave obUque

Jligma. Tht Jlipulas, being laterally united to the footjalis,

like

VIOLA.

like lliofe of a rofe or bramble,_ though hitherto unnoticed,
afford a moll flriking and clear cliaratter. The Jiotuers are
deep blue, ftriped or fpotted with black, or dark violet,
nearly the fize of V. calcarala, but with a ihorter _^ur, and
much (tiiiTieT Jlower-Jialts .

75. V. tenella. Little Syrian Violet. Poiret in Lam.
n. 53. — " Lower leaves oppofite, roundifh, minute ; upper
fomewhat alternate, oblong, obtufe ; all fmooth and entire.
Flower-ftalks rather longer than the leaves." — Native of
Syria ; preferved in the herbarium of profeflbr Desfontaines.
A very fmall plant, two inches high at the utmoil. Roots
fimple, thread-fliaped, whitifh. Stems ereft, very fmooth,
fimple, (lender. Leaves ftalked. Flower fmall, on a foli-
tary almoll capillary ftalk. Poiret. Nothing is faid of the

Jlipulas, IraBeas, calyx, or fpur, io that our knowledge of
this fpecies is very incomplete, and, but for the remark-
able circumftance of the partly oppofite leaves, we ftiould
fcarcely have ventured to admit it without examination of a
fpecimen.

76. V. tridentala. Three-toothed Magellanic Violet. —
Stems procumbent. Leaves crowded, wedge-fhaped, with
three terminal teeth. Flower-ftalks much longer than the

Jeaves. Calyx obtufe Gathered by Mr. Menzies, in

February 1787, on the mountains of Staten Land, growing
among the fnow. This little fpecies is fo different m habit
from all the reft, that we know cot where to place it. The
numerous Jlems, an inch or two in length, compofe denfe
tufts, and are thickly covered with alternate, clofely
crowded, or imbricated, fleihy, ftiining, fmooth leaves, a
quarter of an inch long, more refembling a Saxifraga than
a Viola, each ending in three broad blunt teeth, and fome-
times notched alfo at the fides : the bafe tapers down into a
ftiort broad footjlalk. We can difcern no Jlipulas, except
the imbricated fcales on the lower part of each branch may
fo be called. Floivers fmall, drooping, on thick Jlalks an
inch liigh, rifing above the top of each ftem. Calyx-leaves
ovate, obtufe, thick, fomewhat gibbous at the bafe. Spur
fcarcely any.

77. V. gracilis. Slender Mountain Violet. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gric. Sibth. n. 511. Fl. Grsc. t. 222, unpubliftied.
— Stem branched, angular, diffufe. Leaves lanceolate,
fomewhat crenate ; the upper ones crowded, oppofite.
Stipjlas deeply three-cleft. Spur much longer than the

bafe of the calyx Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the fum-

mit of the Bithynian Olympus. We have alfo fpecimens
from mount .£tna, coUcdlcd by Baron Bivona. The roots
are perennial, creeping, long and very flcnder, much divided
at the top. Stems flendcr, angular, hardly a fpan long ;
fubdivided at the bafe; leafy in the upper part; fimple,
either quite fmooth or very finely downy. Leaves on
longiih ftalks, lanceolate or obovate, very rarely and ob-
fcurely crenate, fmooth or a little downy, fcarcely an inch
long at the moft ; the lower ones alternate ; upper oppofite,
and much crowded at the top of the ftem. Stipulas like the
leaves, but about one third as large, in three deep, ftalked,
obovate, entire fegments, the middle one rather the largeft.
Floivcr-Jlalks axillary, few, three or four inches long.
BraBeas rather above the middle, fmall, lanceolate, mem-
branous, toothed at the bafe in a haftatc manner. Flowers
about the fize of V. lutea, but fomewhat more oblong,
of a dull purplifh-blue, occafionally yellow. Calyx-leaves
bluntifti ; much elongated and toothed at the bafe. Spur
llcndcr, about the length of the petals. Capfule oblong.

This is allied to the Panfy tribe, and perhaps more akin
to V. cenifui than any other, but very dillinft, and remark-
able for the oppofite haves ; a character occurring here and
there in fpecies otherwife little related to each olhcr-

78. V. cornuta. Horned Violet. Linn. Sp. PI. 1325.
WiUd. n. 28. Poiret in Lam. n. 48. Ait. n. 29. Curt.
Mag. t. 791. (V. n. 570; Hall. Hift. v. i. 244. V.
pyrenaica, longiiis caudata, teucrii folio ; Tourn. Inft.
421.) — Stem afcending, angular, branched. Leaves hcart-
fhaped, crenate. Stipulas feffile, pinnatifid. Calyx-leaves
awl-ftiaped, taper-pointed ; elongated and abrupt at the
bafe, much ftiorter than the fpur. — Native of the Pyrenees,
and of mount Atlas. Ray is reported to have found this
fpecies on the Jura ; but Haller afferts there is no record of
any perfon befides having met with it in Switzerland. Pro-
feffor Ortega is faid to have firft introduced it at Kew in
1776. The plant is hardy and perennial, now frequent in
gardens, flowering in May. The Jlems form large lax
tufts, producing abundance of ll<y-blue, or pale purple,
inodorous jlotuers, of the Panfy kind. Their lip has a fmall
point. The Jpur is flender, afcending, near an inch long.
Calyx-leaves remarkably long, flendcr, and acute. The
whole herb is fomewhat downy, of a greyifti-green. Stipulas
broad, variable in fize, ufually about as long as the Joot-
Jlalks. Ray in his Hift. Plant, v. 3. 510, feems to indicate
that fome of the leaves, at leaft, are oppofite. We have
feen no inftance of this.

The arrangement of the fpecies of this ample and intereft-
ing genus might, doubtlefs, be greatly improved, provided
any able botanift could compare the leading ones together,
in a fufficiently perfeft ftate. The Jloiuer being reverfed in
pofition, as in moft European and American Violets ; in
other words, the Up being turned downwards, feems the
natural pofture, though many of Indian growth are fup-
pofed to have ereft flowers. This charafter is not eafy to
afcertain in dried fpecimens, the only ones poffible to be ob-
tained of feveral of the moft Angular or curious kinds. We
have, therefore, fcarcely adverted to it. The intelligent
reader will trace out the leading circumftances which
have made us fwerve, in part, from Willdenow's diftribu-
tion, though we are confcious that much more remains to be
done. In the admiffion of new fpecies, we have pafled over
many American ones, mentioned by M. Poiret, bccaufe
they are probably fuperfeded by the labours of Mr. Purfti,
We could not, therefore, undertake, nor did it appear rc-
quifite, to fettle their fynonymy : efpecially as we have
reafon to think the American Vioh are not yet all well
known.

We regret that the elaborate treatife on this genus,
which, for near thirty years, has been medit.ited by our
accurate friend Mr. Foriter, and which is, in fa£t, promifcd
in the fixth volume of the Linnsan Society's TranfaAions,
has never been accompliftied. We are aware of the diffi-
culty of the fubjeft, and thofc who have ftudied it more
deeply, are perhaps ftill more fo ; but we do not fcruplc to
declare, that a full fcientific botanical effay on Viola, might
difplay as much fl<iU and learning, and be made fubfcrvicnt
to as much philofophical illuitration of Botany, as any
monographical fubjcft that could be chofen.

Vjola. See Cheiranthus, Lunarla, and Tbopa-

OLUM.

Viola ylquatilis. See Hottonia.

Viola Mariana. See Campanula.

Viola Matrona/is. See Hesperis.

Viola Palujlris. See Hottonia and Pinouicula.

Viola, in Gardening, contains plants of tlie herbaceous,
iibrous-rooted, perennial kind, among which the fpecies
cultivated are, the fwect-fcented M-irch violet (V. odiirata) ;
the palmated violet (V. palmatal ; the multifid-lcavcd violet
(V. pcdata) J and the panfy violet, or hcart'i-eafe (V. tri-
color).

The

V I o

V I o

The firft fort is a low creeping flower plant, which is in
general very highly elleemed for its fragrance. There are
different varieties of it, as the fingle blue and white, the
double blue and white, and the pale purple ; it is alfo found
with white flowers ; and it has been feen wild with double
flowers. This variety is in much efteein, both for the fu-
perior fize of the flowers, and their extreme fragrancy ; and
as they appear later, they keep up the fucceflion.

The fecond fort is curious, and rare in this country,
having no fweet fcent to recommend it.

The laft fort varies with more than two colours, as purple,
blue, yellow, white, improved and enlarged by gai-den cul-
ture. There is the low growing, with fmall flowers ; the
larger upright, with large flowers ; large Dutch, with
largeft flowers ; variegated, yellow ; purple and white
flowered ; yellow-flowered, with purple fpots ; purple, with
yellow or white fpots ; white, with yellow and purplfe fpots ;
entire yellow ; deep and pale vellow ; purple-flowered ;
fcentlefs flowered ; fweet-fcented flowered.

Method of Culture. — The firll fort may be increafed by
feeds, or parting the roots. The feeds may be fown in a
bed of light earth, foon after they become ripe, in the be-
ginning of autumn ; and when they have fome growth, be
removed into a fliady border, until the autumn, when they
may be fet out where they are to grow. The double-
flowered forts afford no feed. The bell mode is, however,
by parting the roots in the early autumn, or after they have
flowered, and planting them out in the borders, or in beds
at good diftances ; at the latter feafon watering them well.
When intended for flowers, they (hould not be parted
oftener than once in three or four years.

The fecond and third forts fucceed befl: by being planted
in pots filled with loam and bog-earth well mixed, plunging
them in the mould of a north border, where they (hould be
protected in winter, or removed under a common hot -bed
frame.

The fourth fort rifes readily from fcattered feeds, and
may be railed by fowing the feed where the plants are to
grow, in the autumn or fpring.

They may likewife be increafed by planting out the o(f-
fet flips of the large bufhy plants, taken off with root-fibres,
in the autumn or fpring, in the borders, or in beds for in-
creafing their growth. The varieties may be preferved in
this way with fafety.

Thefe plants afford much variety in the borders, and other
parts ; and the firft. fort is ufeful for the flowers. It is
proper to be planted out on the verges of fhrubberies and
wood-walks, as well as in tufts and patches in the borders,
clumps, and other parts of plcafure-grounds ; but when
cultivated for the purpofe of its flowers, it is bell planted
out in rows in beds, or in the borders, at the diftance of
a foot.

Viola, in the Materia Medica. The common fweet
violet, or viola odorata of Linnseus, is perennial, grows wild
in hedges and ftiady places, and flowers in March. The
flowers of the l^. hirta, or hairy, fcentlefs March violet,
are often fubftituted for the other in our markets : but this
fort may be eafily diftinguifhed ; the herb, by its having
ftalks, which trail on the ground, and bear both leaves and
flowers, and by the young leaves being hairy ; the flower,
by the three lower petals being fpotted with white, and bv
their want of fmell. The officinal violet is the I',» fi!>.av of
Theophraftus, and the In ro-ojcpujiv of Diofcorides ; it was
alfo well known to the Arabian pliyficians, as Mefue com-
mends its ufe highly in various inflammatory difeafes. Viola
is hkewife frequently mentioned by the Latin poets, who
allude to its etfefts as a vulnerary. The recent flowers only

are now received in the catalogues of the Materia Medica :
they have an agreeable fweet fmell, and a mucilaginous
bitterifn tafte ; when chewed, they tinge the faliva blue ; to
water they readilv give out both their virtue and their fine
flavour, but fcarcely impart any tinclure to reAified fpirit,
though they impregnate the fpirit with their flavour. Thefe
flowers, taken in the quantity of a drachm or two, are [aid to
be gently purgative or laxative ; and according to Bergius,
and fome others, they pofTofs an anodyne and peftoral qua-
lity. The ofiicinal preparation of thefe flowers is a fyrup,
vihich to young children anfwers the purpofe of a purgative.
This fyrup is ufually prepared from the petals of the culti-
vated violet ; and Dr. Withering tells us, that at Stratford-
upon-Avon, large quantities of the violet are cultivated for
this purpofe ; but the London herb-fhops are chiefly fup-
plied from Kent. (See Syrupus.) This fyrup is alfo
found ufeful in many chemical inquiries, to deleft an acid or
au alkali ; the former changing the blue colour to a red, the
latter to a green. The feeds of violets are reported to be
ftrongly diuretic, and ufeful in gravelly complaints. The
root powdered, in the dofe of a drachm, proves both emetic
and cathartic.

That fpecies of violet called panfy, or heart's-eafe, the
•viola tricolor of Linna;us, grows in corn-fields, wafte and
uncultivated grounds, flowering all the fummer months.
By the vivid colouring of its flowers, it often becomes very
beautiful in gardens, where it is diflinguiflied by various
names. To the tafte, this plant, in its recent ftate, is very
glutinous or mucilaginous, accom.panied with the common
herbaceous flavour and rouglmefs. By d:ftillation with
water, according to Haafe, it affords a fmr.U quantity of
odorous eflfential oil, of a fomewhat acrid tafte. The dried
herb yields about half its weight of watery extraft ; the
frefh plant about one-eighth. It was formerly reckoned a
powerful medicine in epilepfy, afthma, ulcers, fcabies, and
cutaneous complaints ; but its prefent charafter is owing to
its having been recommended by Dr. Starck, a German phy-"
fician, and others, as a fpccific in the crufta laftea of children.
He direfts a handful of the frefli, or half a drachm of
the dried leaves, to be boiled two hours in half a pint of
milk, which is to be ftrained for ufe. This dofe is repeated
morning and evening. Brrad, with this decoftion, is alfo
to be formed into a poultice, and applied to the part. He
obferveg, that when it has been adminiftered eight days, the
eruption ufually increafes confiderabl)', and the patient's
urine acquires a fmell Hke that of cats. When the medi-
cine has been taken a fortnight, the fcurf begins to fall off
in large fcales, leaving the flcin clean. The ufe of the re-
medy is to be perfifted in, till the fl<in has refumed the
natural appearance, and the urine ceafes to have any parti-
cular fmeU. Lewis. Woodville.

■ Viola, Francisco della, in Biography, macftro di
cappella to Alfonfo d'Efte, duke of Ferrara, a difciple of
Adrian Willaert, the matter of Z-arhno, and one of the in-
terlocutors in his " Ragionam.ente." He was the editor of
a curious work by his mafter Willaert, publiflied at Ferrara,
1558, under the title of " Mufica Noya."

Viola, in Geography, a river of Spain, in Guipufcoa,-
which rifes in the mountains of Adrian, and runs into the
fea, at Cumaja.

Viola, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome authors
have called the fmelt.

Viola Serotlna, the late violet, in Botany, a name given
by the ancients to a garden-flower, not properly of the violet
kind, but to which we, as well as they, have connefted' the
name violet, though with a diftinftive epithet, we call it
viola matronalls, or darnels violet.

Pliny

V I o

V I o

Pliny is very exprcfs in this dilliiiftion, but is not fuffi-
cieiilly attended to in it ; and by this means is mifunderllood
in fome other parts of his works, where he alludes to this
flower in his defcriplion of the colour called by the Romans
eonchylius, or conchyliaceus color; ho fays that the deepell
degree of it was that of the flower of the viola ferot'ma.
The commentators on his work have generally explained
this into Iiis faying, that the deepeft colour ot this name
was a blue purple, like that of the violet ; but he only
means that it is of a deeper red than the colour of the mal-
low flower, and with a proportionate mixture of purple, as
there is in that flower.

VIOLARIS Lapis, in Natural Hiftory, afoflile body,
called by the Germans violjlein, and by many authors lapis
odorc -violarum, from its having a fweet fmell when frelh
broken, which has been fuppoTed to refemble that of the
▼iolet.

The Germans have many ftones which have more or lefs
of a fweet fmcU when frefli broken, as they have many
which Itink very llrangaly ; the latter ot thefe they call all
by the common name of Jiuine-Jlone, and the former, all by
that of •uinkt-Jlone. The fubftance, however, which pofleffes
this quality in the highell degree of all others, and is, there-
fore, moll proper to be called diftuiftly by this name, is a
fpecies of talc, of the genus of the bradtearia, called by Dr.
Hill braScarium niveum lucidijftmum Iradeis tinduhitis, or the
fnow-white (hining bradlearium, with undulated fcales.
This is found in maflfes of an extremely rude and irregular
ftruclure, but very compaA and firm, ufually of a roundifh
or oblong figure : thefe are of various fizes, from an inch or
two, to a foot in diameter, and are compofed of almoft an
infinite number of thin, extremely beautiful, and fnow-white
plates, which are all broad, thin, and flaky, and of various
fizes, and perfectly irregular in Ihape and fignre, and are
naturally waved, bent, and curled: its fmell, when broken,
is not like that of any of tile known perfumes, but is a fort
of mixed one, refembling that of rofes and violets together :
it is vei"y heavy, and will neitliir give fire with Heel, nor
ferment with acid menllruunis. It is common on the fliores
of rivers in Italy, and in the mountains of Germany. Hill's
Hill, of Foflils.

VIOLATION, the aft of violating, i.e. forcing a wo-
man, or committing a rape upon her.

Amnon, David's fon, violated his filler, who was avenged
by Abfalom : Tereus violated his fi!ler-in-law Philomela.
To violate the queen, the king's eldell daughter, or the
princefs of Wales, is high-treafon.

ViOLAxroN is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for, a breach or
infringement of a law, ordinance, or the like.

Thus, we fay a violation of the law of nature, of the
law of nations, of a treaty of peace, of one's oath, &c.

Violation is alfo ufed for a profanation. In which
fenfe we fay, to violate a church, &c.

VIOLENT, in the Schools, a thing done by force. In
which fenfe it Hands oppofed to fpontancous.

A thing is faid to be violent, when affcfted by fome ex-
ternal princiiiL' ; the body that undergoes it contributing
nothing th.rcto, but ftruggling againll it.

The body, in fuch cafe, is faid to ftruggle, becaufe
whatever is violent, difcompofes and dillraCts a thing from
its natural conftitution, and tends to dclhoy it.

The fchoolmen all allow, that man, as being endued
with reafon, is capable of fiiffering fuch violence ; but brute
and inanimate bodies are not : in brulum. Sec. violentum non
cadet.

Vioj.ENT Motion. See Motion.

Violent Purging, or Cling, a difeafe in lliecp of the

more inveterate bowel kind, which not unfrequently attacks
them in fome Ctuations.

It is faid not to be peculiar to any foil, but appears moft
frequently, and fprt-ads moft rapidly, where the pafture is
of a foft gralFy nature. It is conllantly produced by im-
proper management, fuch as working among the flocks in-
confiderately in hot fultry Weather, and in crowded folds.
It is thought by fome to break out moll frequently in milk-
ing time, where that pradtice is carried on, when the flieep
lie, for fix or feven weeks in the later warm fummer months,
upon the fame fpot for fome time, during the morning and
evening at the bought or milking-place. Indeed, when flicep,
from wh.itever caufe, lie upon the fame fpot until the ground
turns foul, if the weather be foft, fultry, and warm, with
thunder, or Ihowers of that kind, this difeafe is much to
be apprehended, and is often very fprcading and fatal.

The appearances of the difeafe are, that the Iheep afi"e6led
with it acquires a fickly look, the ears of it drop and hang
low down, the eyes are languid, and the wool claps to tlie
body of it. It continues for fome time to follow the flock,
but modly ftands in the fame pofition, looking to the
ground. It often lies down, but foon rifes up again, and
walks to a Ihort diflance, during which it commonly voids
fueces. The fljin is hot, dry, and fcaly, and the pulfe and
refpiration quick. It eats very little, and does not chew
the cud, but feems to have an unquenchable thirll. Tiiere
is frequent rumbling heard in the bowels, followed by the
difcharge of faeces, which are thinner than ordinary, having
little or no refemblance to the hard purl of healthy fliecp.
As the difeafe advances, the purging increafes, the difcharge
becomes thinner, is firft mixed with blood, then flime and
blood, and at lalt is black and fetid, accompanied clearly
with fevere gripes and flraining. After a wet fummer, the
difcharge is fometimes green, the grafs feeming to pafs with
little change of colour. In the mean time, the flieep rapidly
waftes away, and in a few days is reduced to a perfect ikt-
leton, with its belly drawn up to ils back; it feparates from
the flock, wanders about in an iinlteady manner, and hides
itfelf among fern, heath, or buflifs, when they are prefent.
Its eyes are fuffufed with red, its breathing becomes more
laborious, an unpleafant fmell exhales from every part of
its body, its fxces are abfolutely putrid, it is quite overcome
b)' the difeafe, and it continues ftraining and purging until
it expires.

It is faid, in the third volume of the Traiifaftions of the
Highland Society of Scotland, to be diftinguilhed from the
ordinary diarrhoias and loofeneflfes in thefe animals, by their
chiefly attacking hogs, weak-gimmers and dinmonts, while
this difeafe is frequent among older flieep ; by their mollly
occurring in the fpring and ceafing in the fummer, when
this difeafe only commences ; by their having no fever,
ftraining, or pain before palling the iloolf, as is the cafe in
this difeafe ; by the faeces in them being loofe, but natural
in other refpefts, and without blood or llime, while in this
difeafe they confift of hard lumps occalionally palled, the
reft being blood and llime ; by there not being that degree
of fetor in the fxces in them, tliat takes place in this dif-
eafe ; by the appetite being rather lliarper than ufual in
them, while in this difeafe it is wholly gone ; by there
being nothing infeftious in lliem, while this difeale ir. often
greatly fo ; by there being only a temporary Hop put to the
thriving of the Iheep, which afterwards becomes rapidly
ftroiig and vigorous in them, while in this dileafc the animal
waftes fuddenly ; and by their having litllc danger in them
for the moft part, except where there is much debility,
while this difeafe is very commonly fatal.

According to fome, if a flioop furvivcs thia difeafe for a

fort-

V I o

V I o

fortnight, or even for a few days, it moftly recovers. In
this cafe, there is either very Uttle or no blood in the fgeces,
the flime dries up, and becomes mixed with hardened balls,
the feverilh heat abates, the fldn gets moid, the vigour of
the eye returns, the appetite increafes, and the wool rifes
flowly, and affumes its natural appearance, though a great
part of it frequently comes off. However, it grows again,
and (heep which have had this difeafe commonly become
Tery healthy and found, being feldom attacked by any other
difeafe. In fome cafes there is the feverifh appearances
without any flux at all, which is a lefs fatal and of courfe
more favourable ftate of the difeafe.

Notwithftanding the difeafe is always originally produced
by improper management, it is often greatly infectious, and
fpreads rapidly among the fame flocks and to different ones.
It is a very dangerous fort of diforder, which on foft foils
deftroys the greater number of fheep attacked with it, but
which on dry hard land is lefs fatal and lefs infeftious.

In preventing the difeafe, which is more certain and bene-
ficial than any thing that can be done in the cure of it when
it is formed, the principal circumftances to be regarded are,
the difperfmg the fheep as equally as poffible over the land ;
the preventing their coUefting together in clumps and foul-
ing the land ; the having the fituations for the boughts in
milking time, high, dry and airy, fhifting them often, and
dividing the fheep equally among them, to prevent their
being too much thronged and heated ; the changing thofe
fituations frequently, where they lie, before they become
foul ; the removing the difeafed fheep immediately as they
become affedled to fome confiderable diftance ; the ufing of
tar to the nofes and tails of the fheep, as well as in tubs
where they are confined ; and the falving of many of the
fheep, and putting them in clean paftures, to he at their
eafe. The difeafe however fometimes continues, in fpite
of thefe means, until the frofl fets in, when it difappears
flowly with much lofs.

The cure of the difeafe is to be attempted, when the
Iheep are ftrong and in good condition, by cutting the tails
acrofs, and afterwards caufing them to perfpire in fome way
or other freely, not letting them be fuddenly expofed to
cold after it. At the fame time the bowels are to be cleared
by the ufe of a Httle rhubarb, as about half a drachm, or,
what is better, by about four grains of ipecacuanha in
powder, given until they purge freely. A quantity of thin
flour-porridge well boiled, and barley or oatmeal, may then
be given with a pint of fweet milk two or three times a day.
If the difeafe be not foon removed by thefe means, reme-
dies of the powerful aflringent kind mufl be had recourfe
to, with opium in fmall quantities, fuch as a decoftion of
logwood, bark, Japan earth, and chalk made with milk,
and given in the proportion of a giU two or three times a
day. Fifteen or twenty drops of the tinfture of opium
may be put in each dofe of the decoftion. And it is
often very ufeful when taken alone in a very little cold
water.

VIOLET, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia Me-
dtca. See Viola.

Violet, Bulbous, a name fometimes given to the fnow-
drop, a plant which Linnaeus makes a diftinft genus under
the name galanthus ; but which Tournefort comprehends
among the narcijfo-leucoiums .

Violet, Cdathian. See Gentiana Pneumonanthe.

Violet, Corn, a name fometimes applied to the Campanula
hybrida.

Violet, Damaji. See Hesperis.

Violet, Dame's, Rocket, or Q^iieins GiUifiowtr. See

liESPERIS,

This plant U an antifcorbutic and diaphoretic, and is very
ferviceable in the atlhma, coughs, and convuhions. The
outward ufe of it is recommended in inflammations, can-
cers, gangrenes, fphacelus, and contagious difeafes. Bruifed,
it very potently refills putrefaction ; and appUed to peflilen-
tial buboes in the arm-pits, it ripens and foftens them.
James from Boerhaave.

Violet, Dog's-tooth, the name by which fome call the
dens canis of botanical writers. See Erythronium.

Violet, IVater. See Hottonia.

VIOLIN, an inflrument of four firings, tuned fifths, and
played by a bow. It has a neck like the treble viol, but
the finger-board has no frets. This may be pronounced
the moft powerful, the moil perfeft, and the moft ufeful
inflrument that has ever been invented. It is in the power
of the performer on this fovereign of the orcheflra, to
make the intonation of all keys equally perfed. We have
not been able to trace its antiquity higher than the i6th
century. In the beginning of the 17th century it was
hardly known to the Enghfh in fliape or name ; and, there-
fore, that fuperior power of exprelTrng almofl all that a
human voice can produce, except the articulation of words,
feemed at this time fo utterly impofTible, that it was not
thought a gentleman's inflrument, or one that fhould be ad-
mitted into good company. Viols of various fizes, with fix
firings, and fretted like the guitar, began indeed to be
admitted into chamber-concerts : for when the performance
was public, thefe inllruments were too feeble for the obtufe
organs of our Gothic anceftors ; and the low flate of our
regal mufic in the time of Henry VIII. 1530, may be ga-
thered from the accounts given in Hall's and Hollingfhead's
Chronicles, of a mafque at cardinal Wolfey's palace, White-
hall, where the king was entertained with " a concert of
drums and fifes." But this was foft mufic compared witli
that of his heroic daughter Elizabeth, who, according to
Henxner, ufed to be regaled during dinner " with twelve
trumpets and two kettle-drums ; which, together with fifes,
cornets, and fide-drums, made the hall ring for half an hour
together." Itinerarium, edit. 1757, Strawberry-Hill.

It has long been a difpute among the learned, whether
the viohn, or any inflrument of that kind, as now played
with a bow, was known to the ancients. The little figure
of Apollo, playing on a kind of violin, with fomething like
a bow, in the grand duke's tribuna at Florence, which Mr.
Addifon and others fuppofed to be antique, has been proved
to be modern by the abbe Winckelmann and Mr. ^Iings.
So that as this was the only piece of fculpture reputed an-
cient, in which any thing hke a bow could be found, no-
thing more remains to be difcufled relative to that point.
With refpeft to an inflrument with a double neck, befides
that on the broken obehfk at Rome, and one from a fepul-
chral grotto in the ancient city of Tarquinia, there is an
antique painting in the coUeftion of William Locke, efq.
which confifts of a fingle figure, fuppofed to be a mufe,
with an inflrument nearly in the form of a modern violin,
but the neck is much longer, and neither bow nor pleftrum
are difcoverable ne.v it. This, as Dr. Burney apprehends,
may have been a chelys, which was a fpecies of guitar,
either thrummed by the fingers, or twanged with a quill.
The ancients had, indeed, inftead of a bow, the pledrum ;
but in all the reprefentations which painting and fculpture
have preferved of this implement, it appears too clumfy to
produce from the firings tones that had either the fweetnefs
or brilliancy of fuch as are drawn from them by means of
the bow or quill. Dr. Burney fuppofes, though it is repre-
fentcd fo maflive, that it was a quill, or piece of ivory in
imitation of one, rather than a flick or blunt piece of wood
7 or

VIOLIN.

or ivory ; and, indeed, Virgil tells us, ^n. vi. 647, that it
was made of ivory. Bumey's Hill. Muf. vol. i.

The origin of the violin, according to the French ac-
count, is unknown. It is only fuppofed to have been in-
Tented about the ninth or tenth century, to which opinion
we ftiould have fubfcribed, had not fome ancient monuments
remained with an exaft reprefentation of its form. In the
pictures of Philottratus, p. 85, in an ancient grotto, may
be feen many violins uhich are reprefented much like thofe
of the prefent times, except that the neck is fhorter.

Amphion is there reprefented, p. 76, playing upon a kind
of viol or violin with five firings, and with a bow hke our's,
md quite different from the pleftrum of the ancients. It is
believed that Athenasus means the bow, when he fays,
" the fceptre is one thing and the pleftrum another." It
is imagined that by the fceptre he means the bow, which is
very probable, efpecially after the ancient monuments of
which we have preferved the figure. The pit or grotto, on
the walls of which we fee violins like the prefent, is found
on filver medals which were flruck by order of Scribonius
Libo, a very confiderable perfonage at Rome. An account
of thefe may be feen in Pierre Valerien, author of the
Hieroglyphics, book 47.

This is all that antiquity has preferved concerning the
violin, and, fays the author, it is fo little, that we learn
nothing from it.

The rebec is the moft ancient violin in France ; it had
but three firings, and the romancers and troubadours fre-
quently mention it. A figure of the minflrcl Cohn Mufet,
is ftill preferved at the entrance of the church of St. Julien
des Meneflriers, at Paris, playing on the rebec.

The time is not known when a fourth firing was added
to this inflrument. It is iliU ufed in its primitive flate as a
trichord in Turkey atid other Eaflern countries ; the oldeil
violins we have in France are not more ancient than the
time of Charles IX. made at Cremona by the famous
Amati, which are flill of the beft model poffible. Laborde,
torn. i.

The violin feems to have been brought into favour at the
court of France before any honourable mention is made of
it elfewhere, by the arrival of Baltazarini, a great performer
on that inflrument ; who, at the head of a band of violin-
players, was fent from Piedmont by marfhal BrifFac to Ca-
tharine dc Medicis, and appointed by that princefs her firfl
valet dc chambre and fuperintendant of her mufic. Galilei
(Dial. p. 147.) fays, that " both the violin and bafe, or vio-
loncello, were invented by the Italians, perhaps by the
Neapolitans ;" and wc arc unable to confute that opinion.
Corelli's violin, long in the pofTefTion of Giardini, was made
in 1578, and the cafe painted by Annibal Caracci, probably
feverai years after the violin was finifhed, at which time
Anib. Carach was but eight years old. Montagne, who
was at Verona in 1580, fays that there were organs and
violins to accompany the mafs in the great church. Journ.
du Voyage.

The refloration of monarchy and cpifcopacy feems to
have been not only favourable to facred mufic, but fecular ;
for it may be afcribed to the particular ploafiire which king
Charles II. received from the gay and fprightly found of
the violin, that this inflrument was introduced at court, and
the houfes of the nobility and gentry for any other purpofe
than country -dances, and fellive mirth. Hitherto there
feera to have been no public concerts ; and in the mufic of
the chamber, in the performance oi fancies on inflrumcnts,
which had taken place of voc.il madrigals and motets, the
violin had no admiflion, the whole bulincfs having been done
by viols.

Vol. XXXVII.

After Charlea had, in imitation of Lewis XIV., efta-
bhlhed a band of twenty-four viohns, tenors, and bafes, in-
flead of the viols, lutes, and comets, of which the court band
ufed to confifl, the violin family began to rife in reputa-
tion, and had an honourable place afTigned it in the mulic of
the court, the theatres, and the chamber ; and the fucceflion
of performers and eompofitions with whicli the nation was
afterwards fupphed from Italy and elfewhere, ilimulated the
practice and eflablifhed the charafter of that clafs of inftru-
ments, which have ever fince been univerfally acknowledged
to be the pillars of a well-ordered orchcflra. A general
pafTion for this inflrument, and for pieces exprefsly com-
pofed for it, as well as a tafle for Italian mufic, feem to
have been excited in this country about the latter end of
Charles II. 's reign, when French mufic and French politics
became equally odious to a great part of the nation. The
Hon. Mr. North, brother of the lord keeper North, who
liflened critically to every kind of mufic, and left manufcript
memoirs of the mufic of his time, flill in the poffeffion of his
family, fays, tliat the decay of French mufic, and favour
of the Italian, came on by degrees. Its beginning was ac-
cidental, and occafioned by the arrival of Nicola Matteis.

During the laft century, almofl all the great viohnifts of
Europe, except Somis and Tartini, have vifited this coun-
try ; but Giardini, at one time perhaps the beil performer
in Europe, refiding here fo many years, formed a fchool
which furnifhcd our orcheflras with a greater number of
able performers on that inflrument, than can be found in
the capital of any other kingdom in Europe. And we may
venture to aflert from our own knowledge, that the lowcfl
ripieno in the opera orcheflra at prefent, has more hand,
and is a better fight's-man, than the leader of that band
in Felling's lime.

The viohn confitls, like moll other inllrumcnts, of lhr«e
parts ; the necl:, the table, and xhc foundloard.

At the fide are two apertures, and fometimes a third to-
wards the top, fhaped like a heart.

Its bridge, which is below the apertures, bears up tli€
firings, which are faflcned to the two extremes of the in-
flrument ; at one of them by a fcrew, which flretchcs or
loofens them at pleafure.

The llyle and found of the violin are the gayefl and mod
fprightly of all other inllruments ; and hence it is, of all
inflruments, the fittefl for dancing. Yet there are ways of
touching it, which render it grave, foft, languifhing, and
fit for church or chamber mufic.

It generally makes the treble, or highefl parts in concerts.
Its harmony is from 5th to 5th. Its play is compofed of
bafe, counter-tenor, tenor, and treble ; to which may be
added a fifth part : each part has four 5ths, which rife to
a greater 17th.

In eompofitions of mufic, violin is expreffed by V : two
V V denote two violins.

The word violin, alone, flands for treble violin: when
the Italians prefix alto, tenore, or bajfo, it then expreffes tlic
counter-tenor, tenor, or bafe violin.

In eompofitions where there are two, three, or more
difTerent violins, they make nfe of prima, fecuiuto, terao, or
of the charafters P 11° III^ or 1° 2° 3°, &c. to denote
the difference.

The violin has only four firings, each of a different thick-
nefs, the fmallefl of which makes tlie ejl mi of the highell
odave of the organ ; tiie fecond, a fiftii below the firft,
makes the a mi la ; tlie third, a fifth below the fecond, is
dla re, lallly, the fourth, a fifth below the third, k ^r >f
fol. Moll n.itions, ordinarily, ufc the clef jj/' r;/o/on the
fecond line, to denote the mufic for the violin ; only, in
G g France,

V I o

V 1 o

France, they ufe the fame clef as the firft line at bottom :
the firft of thefe methods is beft, where the fong goes very-
low ; the fecond where it goes very high.

Merfennus fpeaks of the tenor and contra-tenor violin,
which, he fays, differ onlv in magnitude from the treble
violin. But we have at prefent no fuch inftrument in ufe as
the contra-tenor violin ; the part proper to it being with eafe
performed on the violin ; and accordingly in concertos, over-
tures, and other inftrumental compofitions of many parts,
the fecond violin is in reality the counter-tenor part. It is

much to be doubted, fays fir John Hawkins ( Hift. Muf-
vol. iv. p. 115.) whether the counter-tenor violin ever came
into England. Anth. Wood, fpeaking of the band of
Charles II., makes no mention of the contra-tenor violin.
Before the reftoration of Charles II. fays he, and efpecially
after, viols begun to be out of fafhion, and only violins
ufed, as treble violin, tenor and bafe violin ; and the king,
according to the French mode, would have twenty-four
violins playing before him while he was at meals, as being
more airy and briik than viols.

Natural Scale for the V'wUn.

Open

-e-=-

:nxzi

1

ii^

-op;.-..

.ZQQI

-Ofcn-

-e-

-r-«

"OO"

VIOLINO Piccolo, Ital. a kit, or the pocket-violin of
dancing-mafters.

ViOLiNO Scordalo, Ital., a fiddle out of tune.

VIOLONCELLO, the diminutive of niioloru, contra-
bajfo, or double-bafe. The violoncello is the natural bafe
to the violin and tenor, and has been very much cultivated
throughout Europe, and no where more fuccefsfuUy than in
England, during the laft century, in proportion as the bafe-
viol or fix-ftringed bafe loft its favour. The laft Englifti
performer on the viol di gamba, who was favourably no-
ticed, was Mifs Ford, afterwards Mrs. Thicknefs ; but (lie
made Httle more ufe of it than in accompanying her voice,
which (he did with great expreffion and effeft. But Abel,
in fpite of the natural defects of the inftrument, the tone of
which every one difliked, by his exquifite tafte, prodigious
execution when he pleafed, genius, and profound knowledge
of compofition, delighted all hearers, and made them forget,
or at leaft forgive, its querulous and nafal quality of tone.
The inftrument now is as dead as this great mufician, and
feems to have departed this life at the fame time.

The firft performer on the violoncello in our memory,
who was always heard with pleafure, was Caporale, whofe
chief excellence was his fine tone. Gordon and Paxton had
confiderable merit of that kind. The elder Cervetto and
Pafqualino, both defeftive in tone, had what was then
thought confiderable execution and knowledge of the finger-
board ; but Crofdil and the younger Cervetto became in all
refpefts the moil complete and delightful performers on the
violoncello, which not only England but all Europe can
boaft. So equally perfeft in all things elfc ai-e thefe admi-
rable artifts, that the fire of the one, and the vocal tone of
the other, can alone diftingui(h them. But, to the great
regret of the public, they have retired from all profeflional
exercife of their talents. We have however many per-
formers on the violoncello for general bufinefs, who would
have been thought wonderful players formerly ; and to con-
fole us a little for the lofs of Cervetto and Crofdil, a Linley,
who in every requifite of a great player, may be pronounced
wonderful at prefent ( 1 804 ) .

Diatonic Scale of tie Fioloneello, 'without Shifts.

'^t

-Open— I ' — ——».—

-0-0 • "•

4th String.

-O^e:

» 4

-£ >

i

3d String.

id Strin'.

il\ String.

.^

VIOLONE, a double-bafe, almoft twice as big as the
common bafe-violin, and the firings bigger and longer, in
proportion ; and, confequently, its found an oftave lower
than that of our bafe-violin ; which has a noble eff"e(ft in
great concertos ; but this depends upon the number of
ftrings, and the manner of tuning them ; fome performers
ufing four ftrings, and others three ; and in the tuning of
thefe there is a confiderable difference. The true ufe of the
violone is to fuftain the harmony, and in this refpeft it has a
noble effeft : divided bafes are improper for it, the ftrings
not anfwering immediately to the percuflion of the bow :
thefe can only be executed with a good effedl on the violon-
cello, the founds of which are more articulate and diftinft.

VIOLONISTA, Ital., a performer on the violin.

UJON, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Chufiftan ; 35 miles N.N-W. of Eftachar.

VIOTTI, , in Biography, a good compofer and

great performer on the violin. He is a native of Turin, and
faid to be the fon of the prince de Carignan's gardener, and
intended by his father to be brought up to his own profef-
fion, difcouraging as much as pofiible his paffion for mufic,
which he early difcovered ; and even complaining to the
prince that he fhould never make a gardener of liini, as he
was always fcraping upon a bad fiddle. The prince advifed
his father to fend him to Pugnani, and if he difcovered in
him the feeds of genius and promifing talents, he would pre-
vail on him to take the boy as a fcholar or an apprentice.

Pugnani immediately difcovered, that with proper culti-
vation, he would foon ditlinguilh himfelf among profeffors
of the firft clafs ; an opinion which a few years confirmed.

In 1783 he went to Paris, and firft performed at the con-
cert fpirituel, was extremely applauded, and increafed in

favour

V I P

favour till the time of the Revolution, when the Convention
invited foreigners to afllll them with their counfel in framing
a new government, and elefted as deputies many llrangers ;
among the reft, Viotti was chofen a member of the fenate,
who had mounted to great eminence in his profeilion, and
was a favourite of the public.

He continued to aft as a deputy till Danton, Marat,
and Robcrlpierre had difgraced the caufe of liberty, and
excited fueh horror as well as terror in every humane breall,
that he emigrated to England, where he was received as
his profeffional merit deicrved ; till an information was
lodged againil him at the duke of Portland's office (per-
haps by Jacobinical emiffaries from Paris), that he at-
tended Jacobinical clubs, and was caballing againit the
ftate. He was ordered to quit the kingdom ; but at
the peace returned, though not as a mufician or a politi-
cian, but eftabhihed hirafeif in London as a wine-merchant,
and has never been heard in public fince his fecond arrival,
which is much lamented by the lovers of m\ific. Yet,
though he is no longer a public performer, we may, per-
haps without impropriety, give our fentiments concerning
his abilities as a compofcr ; and confefs, that it has often
llruck us, in the midil of our fmcere admiration of Viotti's
great abilities, that his ftyle of compofition was a mefcolanza
delP antica e mod-erna ; writing fometimes with all the fo-
hdity of the great Italian mailers of the old fchool, and
fometimes with the levity and frivolity of the French in
modern times. He may perhaps have done this infenfibly,
in trying to pleafe in a ftyle which was the moft certain of
applaufe. We have fometimes, in his grave and elaborate
movements, thought he refembled Geminiani more than any
other old mailer, with more rhythm and pathos, and indeed
with more decided and meditated plans and fubjefts ; but
in his latter movements and finales, he generally degenerates
into French naivete, or rather niaiferie, which makes us for-
get that Viotti is a native of Italy, and a difciple of
Pugnani, whom he greatly furpalFes, when he does his beft,
both in hand and genius.

He has been a confiderable publiftier of pieces for his
inftrument, which, though every one cannot play, yet all
admire, when played.

In 1786, he publifhed at Paris, Berlin, and Amfterdam,
twelve violin concertos, in nine and twelve parts ; and the
next year fix viohn quartets. Moft of his pieces have been
adapted to the piano-forte by other mafters. The laft work
which he publilhed at Paris, was fix duets for violins.

VIOR, or DiUR, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana, according to Phny and Ptolemy.
Hardouin fays that it is now named Sus ; a river of which
name is known on tlie confines of the kingdom of Morocco.

VIORNA, in Botany, an old fynonym of our common
Traveller's .foy, Clematis Vitalba, and evidently of a limilar
meaning, being derived from via, a road, and orno, to adorn.
Gcrarde, wlio thus explains the word, declares himfelf the
author of the Englifti name. Viorna is transferred by Lin-
naeus to another fpecies of Clematis, with which it had ori-
ginally no connexion. Sec Clematis.

VIPACH, in Geography. See WiPACH.

VIPALANKA, or Uj Palanka, a fortrefs of Hun-
gary, in the bannat of Temefvar, on a fmall river which
runs into the Danube ; 50 miles S. of Temefvar. N.
lat. 45°. E. long. 21^.

VIPAO, a river of Carniola, which runs into the
Lifonzo, in the county of Goritz.

VIPATORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Baramaul ; 28
miles E. of Darempoury.

VIPER, ViPEHA, in Natural Hijlory, the eohher bens of

V 1 P

Lnmius, famed not only for the exceeding venomoufnefs of
its bite, which is one of tJie molt dangerous poifons in the
animal kingdom, but alfo for the great ufefulnefs of its flefh
in medicine ; whence vipers come to make a confiderable
article in the materia medica.

We have defcribed the common viper, as well as fome
other fpecies, under the article Coluber, and have detailed
fome of the moft interefting particulars relating to this
animal. Under the article Poisox, we have confidered the
nature of its venom, and fome of the ufual remedies applied
as antidotes to its pernicious and ufually fatal effefts. We
fhall not here repeat the obfervations that may be found
under thofe articles.

The method of catching vipers is by putting a cleft-ftick
on or near their head, after which they are feized by the
tail, and put into a bag.

Dr. Mead obferves, that the ancients efteemed the viper
facred ; and that the kings of the Eaft Indies caufed cot-
tages to be built for their entertainment, and their killers to
be puniftied with death. On medals, the viper is frequently
reprefented as a fymbol of divine power ; and, as fuch,
given by way of attribute to the ancient phyficians.

The ilory of the rattle-fnake's charming its prey has
been ferioufly difcredited or ridiculed by many, and by
others the effefts of the animal's fear have been fuppofed
the refult of a previous bite ; but we have reafon to be lefs
mcredulous, if we advert to an experiment mentioned in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions, of a like thing in regard to a
viper. It is well known that no viper will teed while in con-
finement, except a female which is with young, but that
fuch a one will. A viper-catcher, who had more than fixty
living vipers in a cheft, put a living moufe in among them ;
there happened to be one female big with young among
thefe, none of the others at all regarded the moufe, but (he
raifed up her head a little, and looked furioufiy at it. The
moufe was terrified, and ftood ftill for a confiderable time,
though the viper continued rolled up in a fpiral, only raifmg
up its head and looking at it, and vibrating its tongue ; the
moufe at length recovered from its fright, and began to
move, but without running away, only walking in a terrified
manner round and round the viper, and often fqueaking ; at
length ftie came before the head of the creature, which was
ftill raifed, and the mouth open. The moufe, after fome
time, went up to the creature, and crept into its mouth,
where ftie was gradually fwallowed without the viper's
altering its pofture.

By Mr. Boyle's experiments made upon vipers in vacuo,
it appeared, that on the withdrawing of the air from the
vcftcl where the viper was put, ftie began to fwell, and after
fome time, ftie opened her mouth very wide, and frequently ;
but on continuing two hours and a half in tlie receiver, (he
did not appear to be quite dead. The gaping of the jaws
was attended with a lofs of the fwelling, obferved at (irft in
her whole body ; but after every time clofing them (he
fwelled again, and thus became lank and plump reciprocally
many times in an hour. During the firft moments this
creature crawled about, as if in fearch of air, and after-
wards foamed at the mouth.

The neck and body continued fwelled longer in a feeond
experiment with another viper, and a blifter appeared on
the back. This creature lived an hour and a half. The
mouth remained vaftly diftended after death, and the in-
ternal parts of it were much diftorted, .ind thruft forw.irds.
After the admifDon of the air the moutli doled, and opened
again after a time ; and, in fine, on pinchnig the tail there
was fome motion perceived in the body that Icemed to argue
life. The common fnake bears the exhaufted receiver
G g 2 better

VIPER.

better than the viper, and, after many hours remaining in it,
and fecming dead, will give figns of hfe of. being warmed
by bringing the glafs to the fire ; but a longer continuance
in the rarefied air abfolutely kills it, as it does all other
creatures. Phil. Tranf. No. 62.

As to the manner in which the viper conveys its poifon,
authors are a little difagreed. Francifco Redi, and Moife
Charras, have each of them written very curious pieces on
the fubjeft ; but their refult is very different.

Redi maintains, that all the venom of the viper is con-
tained in the two veficulae, or bags, which cover the bafe
of the two canine teetli ; whence, upon biting, a yellowifh
liquor is fqueezed out into the wound ; where, mixing with
the blood, and other juices, it produces thofe dreadful
fymptoms. This hypothefis he maintains by a great
number of experiments ; as of animals, w'a. cocks, &c.
being bit with vipers, after thefe veficulae and their juice
had been taken out, without any figns of poifon, or any ill
confequence at all.

Charras, on the other hand, maintains, that this yellow
liquor is not poifonous ; that he has given it to pigeons as
food, without their being at all difordered by it ; that the
viper's bite he has always found mortal to animals, even
after the bag has been taken clear out, as well as before ;
and laftly, that the poifon muft lie in the irritated fpirits of
the viper, which it exhales in the ardor of its biting, and
which are fo cold, that they curdle the blood, and Itop the
circulation.

The controverfy between thefe two ingenious authors is
very extraordinary ; their fyftems are oppofite, yet both
are maintained by a great number of well-atteited ex-
periments.

Dr. Mead fuppofes the fentiment of Sig. Redi to be the
true one, in his efTay on the poifon of the viper, and adds
to Redi's account, that the poifon in the viper's bag is
feparated from the blood by a conglomerate gland, lying
in the lateral interior part of the os fincipitis, behind the
orbit of the eye ; from which gland there is a duft that
conveys the poifon to the bags at the teeth. The teeth,
he adds, are tubulated, for the conveyance and emifiion of
the poifon into the wound ; but their hoUownefs does
not reach to the apex, or tip of the tooth, but ends in a
long nit below the point, out of which flit the poifon is
emitted.

Thefe flits, or perforations of the teetli, Galeu tells us,
the mountebanks of his days ufed to Hop with fome kind
of parte ; after which they would publicly expofe them-
felves to be bitten without danger.

The abbe Fontana, in a tieatife on the poifon of the
viper, firft publilhed in Itahan, in 1765, and, in 1776,
tranflated into French by M. Darcet, who has made
feveral additions to it, has given the refult of no lefs than
fix thoufand experiments, in which upwards of four
thoufand animals were bitten, and moll of them killed
by the vipers.

The viper, he faya, has fometimes four, feldom three, but
generally two canine teeth in each jaw, falcated and in-
ferted and fixed in a focket ; at their bafes, and beliind
them, are fix or feven fmaller teeth, adhering by a mem-
brane, which, it is thought, are intended to fupply the
place of the larger teeth, fometimes loft in the zA of
biting. A fimilar conjefture, with refpeft to the ufe
of the fame kind of teeth in the rattle-fnake, was made
by Dr. Bartram, Phil. Tranf. No. 456. p. 358 ; or
Abr. vol. ix. p. 60.

Each of thefe has two cavities ; one tubular, beginning
near the bafe, and proceeding along the convex fide nearly
12

to the end, and open at each end ; the aperture near the
bafe being almoft clhptical, and the other longitudinal ; the
other cavity, fituated behind the former, and never before
obferved, is broad at the bafe, and diminilhes as it ap-
proaches towards the point. It has only one aperture at
the infertion in the gum, through which the nerves and
blood-veffels of the tooth are admitted. The fibrous
fheath, that covers all thefe teeth, feems to be a continu-
ation of the external membrane of the palate, being always
open near the points of the teeth. The receptacle of the
venom is a fmall bladder, a fpongy gland, fituated under
the mufcles of the fide of the upper jaw, and feldom con-
taining more than three or four drops of a yellow fluid,
which is conveyed thence by an excretory duft to the
focket of the canine teeth, whence it enters the lower aper-
ture of the tube, and finds its way out again at the longi-
tudinal orifice, near the point, into the internal part of the
wound occafioned by the bite : this fluid receives its im-
pulfe from a conftriftor mufcle, which, however, never pro-
pels at once the whole of the contents of the gland. For an
account of the efFefts of the viper's bite, we refer to Co-
luber, Bercs, and Poison. See alfo Wounds.

The cure of the venomous bites of vipers feems very un-
fettled : Mr. Boyle found a hot iron held near the place
very fuccefsful ; but it proved otherwife with M. Charras.
Again, the fnake-root from the Eaft Indies, immediately
applied to the place, is much commended ; but fignor
Redi and M. Charras found it of no ufe ; yet Baglivi and
Dr. Havers give inftances of its good fuccefs.

Dr. Mead adds, that the fnake-ftone, direftly applied to
a pigeon when bitten, faved its hfe four hours ; whereas
moft of the other pigeons bitten died in half an hour.

This ftone is not natural, but faftitious ; its virtue lies in
its porofity, which is fuppofed to imbibe the virus.

The viper-catchers, Dr. Mead adds, have a fpecific, in
which they can fo far confide as not to be afraid of being
bitten.

That fpecific is, the axungia of the viper prefendy rubbed
into the wound ; which, confifting of clammy, vifcid, pene-
trating and aftive parts, flieathes the falts of the virus.

The fame author applying it to the noftrils of a dog
bitten, found the creature well the next day : when this is
not timely applied, and the virus has infinuated into the
blood, the fal viper is excellent, given and repeated till
fweats be produced. This fucceeded well with M. Charras;
and Dr. Mead relates, that it recovered one after the virus
had induced an univerfal ifterus.

The bite of tb.e viper having been fuppofed certainly
curable by oil of olives, vulgarly called fallad-oil, alone ;
and a viper-catcher in England having fuffered himfelf to
be bitten by one of thefe creatures, and having recovered,
after many dangerous fymptoms, and the care being at-
tributed to the oil alone, though other medicines were given
him internally ; in confequence of which. Dr. Vater tried
the fame remedy with fuccefs at Drefden : Meffrs. Geoffroy
and Hunauld, of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
made a number of experiments, in which this oil proved
ineS'eftual ; and added to their accounts, fome other perfons
bitten, in which all the dreadful confequcnces of that poifon
are fliewn, and the remedies by which they were cured are
mentioned. Philof. Tranf. N"^ 443, 444, 445; or Abr.
vol. ix. p. 60.

Two inftances are mentioned, in which the fymptoms of
the bite appeared much in the fame manner with thofe of
the man who fuffered himfelf to be bitten in England, in
order to be cured by the oil. The fleep came on in all the
fame circuraftances, and they were all cured, as well he

who

VIPER.

who ufed no unftuous application at all, as he who ufod the
fat of the vipers, or the Engliflimaii who depciuled upon oil.
The internal medicines given to tiiem all were of much the
fame kind ; and all that can be concluded from the whole
is, that either tliefe bites would not have proved mortal in
themfelves, or that the cordial medicines which they took
internally, were the remedies that prevented the mifchief
that would have enfued ; and thefc feem to have afted not
as fpecifics againft the bite of this animal, but merely as
medicines that would itop the fpreading of a gangrene ; the
unprevented increafe of which is the thing that proves fatal
from the crer.ture's bite.

The dilTeftions of the animals which had died by the bite
of tlie viper, whether they had or had not been rubbed with
oil, afforded all the fame appearances. The limb which had
received the wound was in all fwelled and livid, and thefe
fymptoms were ufually carried along the thigh to the belly,
and fometimes up to the bread. Incifions made along thefe
parts always difcovered the cellules of the membrana adipofa
full of bloody-coloured water, and the membrane itfelf was
fwelled, blackifh, and gangrened. And this appeared
always more plainly in the belly than in any other part : the
membrana adipofa in all other parts of the body was in its
natural (late. The injured parts often had a cadaverous
fmcU ; the mufcles of the wounded limb were alfo found of
abrownifh colour, and their fibres had loft their confidence,
and fcemed ready to give way to the approaching gangrene.
Nor is this efFecfl confined to the external parts alone : a
goofe that had been bitten had three gangrenous fpots on
its heart, and all the indications of a beginning gangrene in
other parts of it ; the concave fide of the liver was alfo
gangrened, and had wholly loft its confiftence ; and the
lungs of a fowl, that had been bitten on the wing, were
found in part gangrened. The eff^efts, however, were
different in degree, from the bite of the feveral vipers ; and
there feems no reafon to doubt, but that the bites of differ-
ent animals, though of the fame fpecies, under different
circumftances, either in regard to the creature wounding, or
the creature wounded, may be followed with very different
confequenccs ; fo that remedies are not to be depended on
from their luccefs in one or two trials. Mem. Acad.
Scienc. Par. 1737.

The poifon of the viper is only noxious when immedi-
ately conveyed into the blood. Nor is it mortal to eat the
flefh of creatures killed by vipers, or to drink the wine in
which they have been drowned, or to fuck the parts they
have wounded. On the contrary, fignor Redi fays, fuck-
ing the wound is a fovereign lemcdy againft the bite of
vipers. This author denies what has been affirmed by
Ariftotle and Galen, that the fpittleof a fafting perfon kills
vipers. Phil. Tranf. N^y. p. 160.

The praftice of fucking out poifons is very ancient, and
indeed nothing can be more rational. Where the bite
cannot be cut out, this is the moft likely way for extraft-
ing the poifon. Tiiere can be no danger in performing
this office, as tlie poifon does no harm, unlefs it is taken
into the body by a wound. The perfon who fucks the
wound ought, however, to wafh his mouth frequently with
fallad-oil, which will fecure him from the lead incon-
venience.

The Pfylli in Africa, and the Merfi in Italy, were famed
for curing the bites of poifonous animals, by fucking the
wound ; and we are told that the Indians in North America
praftifc the fame at this day.

When the wound is well fucked, it fhould be afterwards
nibbed with warm fallad-oil. A poultice of bread and
milk, foftened with fallad-oil, fliould likewife be applied

to it, and the patient (hould drink freely of vinegar-whey,

or watei-grucl with vinegar in it, to make him fweat.
Vinegar is, indeed, one of the bed: medicines which can be
ufed in any kind of poifon, and ought to be taken very
liberally. If the patient be fick, he may take a vomit.
This courfe, fays Dr. Buciian, will be fnfficient to cure the
bite of any of the poifonous animals of this country.

Dr. Brookes fays, that the following remedy, v/hich was
the invention of a negro, who for the dil'covery obtained
his freedom and a penfion for life of 100/. per annum, from
the general affembly of Carolina, has been found effeftual
for the bite of the rattle-fnake. The prefcription is as
follows : Take of the roots of plantain and horehound in
fummer, roots and branches together, a fufficient quantity ;
bruife them in a mortar, and fqueeze out the juice, of which
give, as foon as poffible, one large fpoonful ; if the patient
be fwelled, force it down his tliroat. This generally will
cure : but if he finds no relief an hour after, give liim
another fpoonful, which is faid never to fail. If the roots
are dried, they muft be moiftened with a httle water. To
the wound may be applied a leaf of good tobacco moiftened
with rum.

Meffrs. Juffieu and Le Sage ftrongly recommend the ufe
of the volatile fluor alkali as an antidote againft tlie venom
of vipers ; but if the proofs alleged by the abbe Fontana,
that the poifon of vipers is not of an acid nature, be ad-
mitted, the utility of the alkali muft be precluded. The
abbe adds, that cantliarides, applied outwardly, always did
mifchief by increafing the inflammation ; when given in-
wardly, they operated as an emetic, which is fometimes bene-
ficial. Scarifications produced the fame effefts with the
external application of cantharides: Peruvian bark, theriaca,
oils, the fuition of leeches, and of the mouth, were all found
ineffeftual. He alio explodes, in this cafe, the boafted
virtue of the Piedra de Cobras, as an alexipharmic. Quick-
lime alfo, when applied to the wound in pigeons, has fome-
times been of ufe, but not fo as to judify any confidence in
the remedy.

Upon the whole this writer infers, that the greateft
fecurity we have againll the bite of vipers in one fpecies, is
the little probability of its being poifonous to the degree
that has been always imagined, and that lias caufed fuch
dreadful alarms, which alone are fufficient to irritate a
tainted habit. He alfo doubts whether the bite of the
rattle-fnake ia adtually fo venomous as is generally imagined.
See Fontana fur les Poifons el fur le Corps Animal, &c. in
2 vols. 4to. Florence.

Vipers make a confiderablc article in medicine. Moft
authors agree, that there is no part, humour, or excrement,
not even the gall itfelf of a viper, but may be f.vallowed
without harm. Accordingly the ancients, and, as feveral
authors affure us, the Indians, as well as many other
people at this day,- both of the Eaft and Weft, eat them as
we do eels.

Caro •viperina, viper's fiefli, cither roafted or boiled, the
phyficians have unanimoufly prefcribed as an excellent
reftorative ; and it has been particularly recommended in
the clephantiafis, incurable confumptions, leprofy, &c. ; and
Dr. Mead thinks they might be Itl's I'paring in the quantity
than they are : inftc.id of a little viper's ftefti, he recom-
mends the broth or jelly of vipers ; or, as the ancients did,
to boil and eat them as fi(h, or at lead to drink vinum
viperiiium, ;. e. wine in which they have been long intnled.

Viper's flefh, indeed, appears to be very niilnlious, and
therefore an ufeful reftorative ni fomc kinds of weakiieffes
and emaciaud habits ; but in fcrophnloiis, leprous, and
Other like diftcmpcre, ihc good efl'cds which have been

afcribed

V I P

V 1 R

afcribed to it are more uncertain. Dr. Lewis fays, that he
has known a viper taken every day for above a month, in dif-
orders of the leprous kind, without any apparent benefit.

The form in which they are ufed to the bed advantage, is
that of broth, or jus viperinura.

Viper's flefli ufed to be an ingredient in feveral of our
beft antidotes, as the theriaca Andromach. &c.

The apothecaries alfo formerly fold the pulvis viperinus,
which is only dried vipers pulverized, heart, liver, and all,
and paffed through a fieve. This, to heighten the price, we
fuppofe, they call animal bezoard.

The falts of vipers, whether volatile or fixed, alfo their
fat, or axungia, and their oil, chemically drawn, are drugs
that have been in confiderable repute.

The fat of the viper is accounted particularly ufeful in
diforders of the eyes ; but what advantages it has above
other foft fats, is by no means clear. It was formerly fup-
pofed to have fome fpecific power of refilling the poifon of
the viper's bite, by being rubbed immediately on the
wounded part ; but experience has now fhewn, that common
oil is, in this intention, of equal efficacy. Lewis. See
Coluber Berus.

Viper, Bites and Stings of, in jlnimah, the affeftions
which it produces in thefe ways. The bites of fuch reptiles
(Tiould conftanlly be guarded againll as much as poffible, as
they are not unfrequently attended with dangerous con-
fequences. Animals of the neat-cattle kind are more liable
to be bitten and ftung by thefe reptiles, than thofe of any
other fort of live-ftock. Inftanccs have been known where
die tongues of fuch cattle have even been bitten or ftung while
grazing or feeding, which have proved fatal. Such ftock
are, however, feldom attacked by reptiles of the adder kind,
except in cafes where thefe are difturbed by the animals in
pafturing or feeding ; which is the main reafon why fo
many of them are bitten or Hung about the head, and occa-
fionally the feet. There are moftly much pain, inflammation,
and fweUing produced by thefe bites and llings; the pro-
grefs of which may commonly be checked or Hopped, and
the complaint removed, by the ufe of fuch means as are
directed below.

A fort of foft hquid of the liniment kind may be pre-
pared by mixing ftrong fpirit of hartlhorn, faponaceous
liniment, fpirit of turpentine, and tinfture of opium, with
olive-oil ; the former in the proportion of about two ounces
each to three of the laft, incorporating them well together
by fljaking them in a phial, which will be found very ufeful
in many cafes. A proper quantity of it fliould be well
rubbed upon the afTetled part, two or three times in the
courfe of the day, until the inflammation and fwelling begin
to difappear, after the bottle has been well fliaken.

In the more dangerous cafea, it may often be advantageous
to ufe fomentations to the affefted parts, efpecially when
about the head, with the above application ; fuch as thofe
made by boiling white poppy-heads with the roots of the
marflimallow, the leaves of the large plantain, and the tops
of wormwood, in the quantities of a few ounces of the firft,
and a handful of each of the latter, when cut fmall, and
bruifed in five or fix quarts of the ftale grounds of malt
liquor. They may be applied frequently to the difeafed
parts, rubbing them afterwards each time well with the
above foft liquid liniment. Where there are feverifli ap-
pearances, as IS often the cafe in the fummer feafon, a proper
quantity of blood may fometimes be taken away with great
benefit, and a ftrong purge be afterwards given of the cool-
ing kind with much ufe.

In flight cafes of this kind, fome think the continued free
ufe of fpirit of hartflvorn, given intenially, and applied ex-

ternally to the affefted parts, is the beft remedy of any that
is yet known.

As they are fo dangerous, thefe reptiles (hould always be
deftroyed as much as poffible in all paftures and grazing
grounds.

Viper Wine, Vinum Viperinum, is a preparation of vipers
infufed in wine. It is commonly made by macerating for
a week, with a gentle heat, two ounces of the dried flefli
in three pints of mountain. This has been deemed a great
reftorative, and provocative to venery, and alfo good againll
cutaneous eruptions, &c.

But Dr. Lewis obferves, that it cannot perhaps be
affirmed from fair experience, that this wine has any great
virtue.

Viper'j- Buglofs, in Botany. See EcHIU^f.

The flowers of the viper's buglofs are fuppofed to polTefs
the virtue of cordials, in the fame degree with the borage
and buglofs. Some authors greatly recommend a decoftion
of the dried plant in epilepfies. It is faid that very fingular
cures have been done by it.

Viper'j Grafs. See Scorzonera.

The roots of the common viper's grafs, or fcorzonera
Hifpanica of Linnaeus, have been employed indifferently as
alexipharmics, and in hypochondriacal diforders andobftruc-
tions of the vifcera ; but at prefent are more properly con-
fidered as ahmentary articles, in general falubrious, and
moderately nutritious. They abound with a milky juice,
of a foft, fweetifli tafte, but which, in drying, contrafts a
fligh* bitternefs. Extrafts made from them by water are
confiderably fweet and mucilaginous : extraiSls made by
reftified fpirit have a lefs degree of fweetiftinefs, accom-
panied with a flight grateful warmth.

In Cartheuler's experiments, the fpirituous extraft
amounted to one-third the weight of the root, and the
watery to above one-half. Lewis.

Viper Key, in Geography, one of the Tortugas iflands.

VIPERA PiLEATA, or Vittata, in Zoology, a name by
which fome authors have called a remarkable fpecies of
Indian ferpent, more ufually known by the name of Cobra
de capella.

VIPERARIA, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to itie fcor'zonera, or viper's grafs.

VIPITANUM, in jneient Geography, a town of Ger-
many, between Veldidana and Sublavio, thought to be the
prefent Stortzingen, or rather Amoluz, a village at the
foot of mount Brenner.

VIPPACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the

territory of Erfurt ; 8 miles N. of Erfurt Alfo, a river

of Thuringia, which runs into the Gram ; 3 miles S. of
Somnierda.

ViPPACM^ March, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Eifenach ; 7 miles N.E. of Erfurt.

VIPULZAN, a town of Auflria, in the county of
Goritz ; 6 miles W. of Goritz.

VIQUE, or ViCQ, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; the
fee of a biftiop, fuffragan of Tarragona ; 22 miles W.S.W.
of Gerona. N. lat. 41=54'. E. long. 2" 8'.

VI R, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain, the mouth
of which, according to Ptolemy, is near the promontory on
which was the altau-s of the fun.

VIRABADRA, in Hindoo Mythology, a warlike cha-
rafter, ufuaOy fpoken of as a fon of Siva, the avenging
form of the trimurti, or divine triad of that polytheiftic
race. (See SiVA and Trimurti.) Sometimes he is faid
to be an incarnation of Siva. He is ufually reprefented
four-armed ; holding a fvtord, fliield, bow, and arrow ; and
in a threatening purfuing pofture, accompanied by Sivean

attributes ;

V 1 R

V 1 K

attributes; fuch as collar of fliulls, linga, &c. {See
LiNGA and Saiv'a.) A human figure with a ram's head,
and a handfomc female figure, arc commonly fccn befide
him, in the aft of adoration. Some account of Virabadra,
with rcprefL-ntations of him from metalhc calls, may be
feon in the Hindoo Pantheon.

Virabadra is a perfonage of extenfive and ancient cele-
brity. His exploits, parentage, &c. are recorded in the
Sivpurana, and his name frequently occurs in other San-
fcrit works. (See Purana. ) In the facred poem juft
named, it is faid that he was produced from a drop of
Siva's fweat. He is underftood, as one of the offspring of
Siva, to be included in the denomination of Bhairava ; a
word derived from bheru, meaning terrific or tremendous.
It is written, and we believe more correftly pronounced,
Vairava ; which name is given to another fuppofed fon or
incarnation of Siva. See Vairava.

Sonnerat mentions Virabadra as a Carnatic deity ; calling
him, in his inaccurate mode of writing Eallern names, Vira-
patrin. He calls him Siva's fourth fon, produced with a
thoufand heads and a thoufand arms, by the fweat of his
body, to avert the effefts of a facrifice. He is fometimes
called alfo Bhir Bhadr.

The other three fons of Siva, mentioned by Sonnerat, are,
we fuppofc, Kart'ihya, PolUar, and Vairava. See thofe
articles.

VIRACELLUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, in Liguria, S.E. of Apua.

VI RAGO, a woman of extraordinary ftature and courage,
and who, with the female fex, has the mien and air of a man,
and performs the aftions and exercifes of men.

The word is pure Latin, formed from vir, man, and is
feldom ufed but in the way of diverfion.

Such were Semiramis and Penthefilea among the ancients;
and Jeanne la Puceile, commonly called The Maid of Orleans,
among the moderns.

In the Vulgate verfion of the bible. Eve is called virago,
becaufe made of the rib of man. The Latin tranllator by
this, aimed to preferve the etymology as it is in the Hebrew,
and of vir, formed virago ; as Adam, in the Hebrew text,
called Eve Ifcha, of ifch, man.

VIRAGUE, in Geography, a town of HinJooilan, in
Dowlatabad ; 25 miles E. of Pcrinda.

VI RAJ, in Hindoo Mythology, a very myfterious per-
fonification, originating immediately from the godhead, in
a manner not reconcileable to minds which have happily
fhaken off the trammels of idolatry and fuperilition. In
the early portion of the InlUtutes of Menu (ch. i. v. 32.)
it is faid, " Having divided his own fubftance, the mighty
power became half male, half female (or, fays the commen-
tator, nature active and pajftve ] ; and from that female he pro-
duced Viraj." Menu next tells us that he him.felf was the
perfon produced by the male power Viraj, and tliat he pro-
duced her lords of created beings eminent in holincfs.
Thefe are ufually called Brahmadikas, or offspring of
Brahma ; but the Puranas do not agree as to their number :
fometimes nine, fcven, and three only are mentioned. Con-
flderable difficulty is found in the attempt to reconcile the
apparent contradictions in the hiftories of thefe early per-
fonages ; who, it may be reafonably imagined, have had
hiftorical exilleuce, though fo much obfcurcd by the fiftions
of mythology.

All travellers who have vifitcd the cavern temple, called
by the Englifh Elephanta, have been llruck with a cololTal
one-breafted figure ; and various have been the conjeftures
as to its allufion. The author of the Hindoo Pantheon,
who has examined the temple in q^ucflion, reafonably judges

it to be a rcptefentalioii of Viraj, or nature aftive and
paffive ; and he gives feveral reprefenlatioiis of fimilar fub-
jefts from original piftures. (See Si V A.) In our article
ELEPHANTA we have noticed the fuppofition of fome tra-
vellers, that the one-breafted armed female alluded to the
fable of the Amazons. It is now found that the Hindoos
alfo have fables of iflands inhabited only by warlike women,
who are called, in the Perfian tranflations of thefe ftories,
Hamazen ; which word means, in that language, uU-'women.
(See on this curious fubjeft, Moor on Hindoo Infanticide,
p. 82.) The whole ground-work of the Amazonian fable
may, therefore, have come from India to the embellifliing
Greeks, as well as the notion of male and female deities ;
all originating pofiibly in the myfterious fexual union, the
fubjcft of this article.

In the Hindoo mythology, the co-equality of the male
and female power is affertcd. There is lefs fexual con-
fufion among the Hindoo than among the Greek deities.
Among the latter, the fex of feveral is very dubious ; while
others were both male and female. Authority can be pro-
duced among weftern mythologifts, making both Minerva
and Venus male as well as female. Thefe goddeffes cor-
refpond with the Parvati and Lakflimi of the Hindoos : the
former of whom is feen in the biuiie figure Viraj ; and the
latter in her charaftcr of Sukra, or tlie planet Venus, is of
the male fex. Soma, the moon of India, is alfo male, as he
was among the Germans and Saxons. Tlie Parthians faid
that Venus was the moon, and a male deity ; as, according
to Macrobius, did fome weftern mythologifts. See Soma.

There ai-e fables connefted with the liiftory of Krilhna,
in which he and his miflreffes, to conceal the ftiamc of the
amorous deity from his enraged confort, were varioufly
metamorphoffd. On one occafion, as related in a Purana,
" when detefted dallying in a grove of fandal with Viraja,
the figure of a quadruped concealed his fhame ; and ftje
was changed into a river." This fable is noticed in our
article Radha. We know not if the nymph of the fandal
grove have any conneftion with the fubjecl of this article.

yiRAMSHAMPETTA, in Geography, a town of
Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 9 miles S.W. of Terriore.

VIRANDJIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
16 miles W. of Kiiitaja.

VIRANSHEHR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia ; 42 miles E.N.E. of Boli.

VIRATARUPA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo
god Vifhnu ; and given alfo to his warlike incarnation in
the perfon of Rama. See Rama and Visiixu.

VIRBIUS MoNS, in ^Indent Geography, part of a moun-
tain, now called " Mont Albano." The name Vir-bius
(from vir, man, and bis, twice) is faid to have been given
to this mountain in honour of Hippolytus, who, having
been put to death by a monfter, had been reilored to life
by Diana. From the Appian way another was detached,
which led to a temple of Diana on this mount. This
mountain was on the Appian way, from which diverged
two other ways, one of which led to the temple of Jupiter
Latialis, on mount Albano, and the otiur to the tcm])ie of
Diana, at the bottom of the centre of tile lake of Armenia.

VIRE, in Geography, a river of France, which riles near
Calvados, and runs into the Eii<;li(li Channel, to the north
of Iligny, between the departments of the Ciiannel and tiic
Calvados. — Alfo, a town of France, and princip;J place of
a diftridt, in the dLjjartment of the Calvados ; 27 miles
S.W. of Caen. N. lat. 48' 51'. W. long. 48'.

ViRK, or Matraca, a cape of Arabia, on the coall of '.lie
Indian fca ; 16 miles N.N.E. ot IlalKk.

VIREA, in Botany, Adanfon Fani. de» Plaiitcs, 1. z.

112,

V I R

V I R

112, a name which feems to aUude to the more green, and
lefs hoary, licrbage of the plants to which it is applied,
compared with many of the fame tribe ; like Vireo, the
Latin name of the Green-linch. See Apargia, under the
article THniNClA.

VI RECTA, a word derived from vireo, to be verdant,
alluding to the verdure of the plant, which however is
not peculiarly ftriking, except in the dried fpecimens ;
whofe colour, being better preferved than in fome of the
fame natural order, might perhaps fuggell to Linnaeus the
idea of the name. Virecium occurs in fome copies of
Virgil, for a green retreat ; but viretum is generally fup-
pofed the true reading. — Linn. Suppl. 17. Schreb. Gen.
125. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 972. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4.
Juir. 200. Poiret in Lamarck Did. v. 8. 676. (Sipanea ;
Aubl. Guian. 147. t. 56. Juff. 201, under Mujfienda.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 151.) — Clafs and order, Penlandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stellata, Linn. Rubiace<i, JulT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five narrow-
awlftiaped, ereft, equal, permanent leaves, with as many
folitary, glandular or briftly> intermediate teeth. Cor. of
one petal, funnel-rtiapcd ; tube thrice as long as the calyx,
ered, even ; flender below ; dilated in the upper half ;
limb horizontally fpreading, in five ovate, or lanceolate,
entire, equal fegments, not half fo long as the tube. Stam.
Filaments five, various in length, inferted into the middle of
the tube ; anthers terminal, very long, linear-awlfhaped, con-
verging, either contained within the tube, or prominent.
P//7. Germen inferior, globofe, crowned with an elevated
rim within the calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped, fmooth, the
length of the tube ; ftigma in two Ihort, acute, divaricated
fegments. Perir. Capfule globofe with five furrows, hif-
pid, crowned with the upright calyx, of two cells and two
valves ; the partitions tranfverfe, from the centre of each
valve. Recept. central, globofe, meeting the partitions.
Seeds numerous, fmall, angular, dotted with minute depref-
fions.

EflT. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Stamens inferted into
the tube. Calyx of five leaves, with intermediate teeth.
Stigma deeply divided. Capfule inferior, of two cells and
two valves, with contrary partitions. Seeds numerous.

Obf. Though Linnxus defcribed this genus with great
care and minutenefs, he erred in attributing to it a capfule
of only one cell. Hence M. Poiret juftly doubted the
propriety of referring hither the Sipanea of Aublet, which
has two cells, and if compared with the above defcription
will be found to anfwer in every material point. The only
difference indeed is, that Sipanea has five briifles between
the ealyx-leaves, inftead of the minute glands of the original
VireSa. A circumftance which confirms, rather than inva-
lidates, that part of the generic character.

I. V.biflora. Twin-flowered Virefta. Linn. Suppl. 134.
Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 197. Willd. n. i. (V. virens ; Vahl
Symb. v. 2. 38. Roudeletia biflora ; Rottb. Surin. 7.
t. 2. f. 2. ) — Stem creeping. Flower -ftalks unequal, ter-
minal, in pairs. Corolla fmooth. Stamens within the
tube. Leaves ovate, twice as long as their footltalks. —
Native of Surinam, in rather moill fituations, where it was
gathered by Dalberg and Rolander. The root is fibrous,
annual. Stems a foot or more in length, decumbent, throw-
ing out roots from their lower joints, afcending at the
extremity, fquare, a little hairy, leafy, forked. Leaves
ftalked, oppofite, near an inch long, fmooth, or nearly fo,
refembling fome Parietari<f, or Urtica. Stipulas fmall, tri-
angular, oppofite, connefting the bafes of the footftalks.
Flotuer-Jlalks from the forks of the ftem, fome of them
terminal, each beai'ing two xtA^x^ Jlotuers, about an inch

long, white in the centre ; the loweft of them nearly feflile.
Germen briftly. Calyx and Corolla quite fmooth.

2. V . procumbens. Procumbent Virefta. — Stem procum-
bent. Flowers terminal, aggregate. Corolla briftly. Stamens
prominent. Leaves ovate, thrice as long as their foot-
ftalks.— Difcovered at Siena Leone, by Mr. Afzelius, to
whom we are obliged for a fpecimen, and for the deter-
mination of the genus. This is about the fize of the pre-
ceding, but is more procumbent, and rather more hairy,
efpeciaily ihe Jiem and footjlalks. Leaves fimilar, but fome-
what fmaller, and more tapering from their broad bafe into
the footjlali. Fkivers in fome meafure capitate, at the end
of the ftem or branches, not numerous, fmaller than the
firft fpecies ; their corolla with narrow, almoft linear, feg-
ments, and clothed externally witl\ ftiining, briftly hairs.
Filaments as long as the limb of the corolla, with lliort pur-
pliftl anthers.

3. V. pratenjis. Savanna Virefta. Vahl Eclog. fafc. 2.
II. Schrad. Journ. v. 2. 333. ( Sipanea pratenfis ; Aubl.
Guian. 148. t. 56. ) — Stem ereft. Flowers terminal, ag-
gregate. Corolla fmooth. Stamens within the tube. Leaves
ovato-Ianceolate, ftalked. — Abundant in the meadows round
the town of Cai'enne, where it is almoft always to be found
in flower and leed. Aublet fays this herb fervcs to make
aftringent decoftions, ufeful for waftiing wounds and ulcers,
as well as in the gonorrhoea. The root is fibrous ; whether
annual or otherwife we are not informed. Stems two feet
or more in height, roundifh, with many oppofite branches.
Leaves about an inch and a half long, acute, rather tapering
at the bafe, a little hairy, efpeciaily their ribs beneath.
Footjlalls rather fhort. Stipulas membranous, abrupt.
Flowers five, fix, or feven, together, in httle terminal tufls,
white or rofe-coloured, about the fize of the firft fpecies.
The corolla appears to be fmooth ; its fegments broad,
rounded or obovate. The (hort filaments, inferted into the
middle of the tube, with their anthers of the fame length,
are altogether concealed therein, and do not reach near fo
high as the mouth. Calyx fringed with brillles, and fur-
nifhed with fmall fohtary hairs between its fegments ; but
thefe do not appear quite fo long in Aublet's own fpecimen
as in his figure. The capfule refembles V. bijlora.

4. V. mulliflora. Many-flowered Virefta. — Stem eredl.
Flowers terminal, aggregate, numerous. Corolla briftly.
Stamens and ftyle longer than the limb. Leaves ovato-

lanceolate, nearly feflile Found by Mr. Afzelius at Sierra

Leone. Very like the laft in fize and habit, but thejlem
is rather more quadrangular, and purplifh. Leaves an inch
and a half or two inches long, deflexed, rounded at the
bafe, hairy, on fliort ftalks. Stipulas lanceolate, hairy.
Floiuers many together, almoft feflile, in denfe, hairy, ter-
minal heads. Calyx denfely fringed with long briftly hairs,
fuch as clothe the outfide of the corolla. The fegments of
the latter are very naiTow, almoft Lnear. The Jlamens ex-
tend beyond them, and are quite capillary, fmooth, with
fhortifti terminal anthers. The Jlyle is ilender, ftill longer
than the Jlamens, with a fmall divided y//^ma. We have not
feen t\\e fruit.

VIRELAY, the name of a fong among the Provencale
poets, which fucceeded the chants royaux, or royal fongs,
ib called either becaufe Thibaut, compte de Champagne,
and king of Navarre, was author of fo great a number,
or to give them the dignity of poems the moft worthy to
be fung at court. For different from the Vaudevilles
which pafs from mouth to mouth, they were produced for
the moft delicate ears, and performed by the moft able
muficians of thofe times. From the clinnt royal, and from
the balade, came the lay and virelay, the rondeau, the triolet,

and

V r R

V I R

and all thofe little poems, of which the refrain, or burden, is
the moil agreeable part.

VI RET, Peter, in Biography, a famous Calviniftic
divine, was born in lyii, at Orbe, in the canton of Berne,
and during his ftudios at Paris formed an acquaintance with
Farel, with whom he co-operated in propagating the doc-
trines of the Reformation in feveral towns of Switzerland,
and particularly at Geneva, whither he accompanied Farel
in 1534. At Laufanne he exercifed his miniftry with great
fatisfaiftion, fo that he declined the offer of being colleague
with Calvin at Geneva. He is faid, in one of his vifits to
Geneva, to have efcaped death by poifon, adminiftered to
him by the inftigation of fome of the popifh canons of that
church, which, though it did not prove inftantly fatal, in-
jured his conltitution, which was dehcate, and (hortened his
life. From Laufanne he removed to Nifmes and Mont-
pellier, and at length fettled at Lyons. But in 1653 he
was obliged to quit his ftation, in confequence of the ediA
of Charles IX., wliich prohibited his fubjedls of the re-
formed religion from having minifters that were not born
in the kingdom. He then retired to Orange, and from
thence, by the invitation of the queen of Navarre, to Berne.
In 1569 he was in prifon, and exchanged for the governor
of a town. His death happened, probably at Pau, in
157 1, at the age of 60.

Viret pofTeffed a confiderable Ihare of learning, and was
an eloquent preacher. His works were numerous ; of thefe,
feveral upon the do£trines and fuperftition of the Romifn
church were written in a ilyle of ludicrous farcafm, but
others were ferious. His work " On True and Falfe
Religion," publifhed at Geneva in ij6o, difplays much
reading on the fubjeft of fuperftition : but his largeft work
i$ " An Expofition of the Doftrine of the Chriftian Faith,"
which Dupin depreciates, as lie does his fmall trafts of
controverfy. Bayle. Dupin.

VIRGA. See Yard.

ViRGA is particularly jufed in law ft)r verge, or rod, fuch
as fheriffs and bailiffs carry, as a badge of their office.

" Ranf. ap Howell, pr;r-pofitus de Lantiffin amerciatus
pro eo quod habuit in manii fua coram jufticiariis hie virgam
nigram & inhoneftam, ubi habere debuiffet virgum album
et honellum certae lonj/itudinis, prout decel." In fen\. Itin.
de Cardiff. 7 Hen. VI.

ViRGA Aurta, in Botany. See Solidago.

ViRGA Pajloris, a name given by fome authors to
Spfacus ; which fee.

Where the name virga paftoris occurs in the tranflation of
the Arabian writers, it is not to be fuppofed to mean the
plant we call virga paftoris.

It is, indeed, the literal tranflation of the hafTalclrheir of
Serapion and Avicenna ; but they called the common horfe-
tail by this name, when ihey applied the adjeftive female to
it ; and when they added the male, they meant by it the
common knot-grafs.

Virga Sangu'mea, a name given by Matthiolus, and fome
other authors, to the cornus fcemina, or dogberry-bufh,
common in our hedges. See Cornus.

VlRCE Lateralis Minimus, in Anatomy, a name given by
fome writers to a miifele, called by others levator ani
parvus, and by fome tranfvcrfus ani. It is called by Albinus
the tranfverfus perinxi, and by fome tranfverfahs penis.

Virg.t:, in Phyfiology, a meteor, called alfo eohmelU, and
Junes lenlorii ; being an alTemblage of feveral ftrcams of
light, reprefenting a bundle of rods or ropes.

It is fuppofed owing to the ftreaming of the fun-beams
through certain rimula:, or chinks ; at leaft through tlie

Vol. XXXVII.

more lax and open parts of a watery cloud, happening
chiefly in the morning and evening.

There is alfo another kind, confifting not of ftreams of
mere white light, but, as it were, painted of various colours,
like thofe of the rainbow.

VIRGANTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Segufians, according to Ammianus MarceUinus. Strabo
names it Brigantium : it is fo called by Ptolemy and Anton.
Itin. : it is the prefent Brian9on.

VIRGAO Alba, a town of Hifpania Citerior, called in
Anton. Itin. Urcao, Vircao, and Virgao, and marked be-
tween Calpurniana and Iliturgis.

VIRGATA Sutura, a term ufed by fome anatoraifls
for the fagittal future of the cranium.

ViRGATA Terra, or Virga Ternc, a yard -land.

VIRGATORES Serviemtes, in Fleta, are vergers,
or tip-ftavcs, who attend the judges. See Verger, and
Serjeant at Arms.

VIRGI, or Urca, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, upon the gulf Virginitanus Sinus.

VIRGIL, PuBLius ViRGiLius Maro, in Biography, a
celebrated Roman poet, whofe name is familiar to every claf-
fical fcholar, was born in the year B.C. 70 at Andes, a village
near Mantua, and liberally educated at Cremona, Milan, and
Naples. His teacher in philofophy was named Syro, and the
philofophy in which he was inftrufted was the Epicurean.
From his firft eclogue, in which he is fuppofed to have re-
lated his own adventures under the appellation of Tityrus,
it appears that he firft vifited Rome in his 30th year for
the purpofe of recovering lands that were in the poffefTion
of the mihtary belonging to Oftavius and Antony, after
the war againft the republicans ; and having been introduced
to Oftavius by PoUio, or fome other perfon, and to his fub-
fequent patron Mecznas, he fucceeded in the objeft of his
vifit by their influence. His life, however, was endangered
by the violence of the veteran who occupied his farm, and
who refilled the furrender of it, fo that he was obliged to
feek redrefs by another vifit to Rome, and to obtain an
order for Ins reinftatement. His eclogues, which were
completed in his 33d or 34th year, were very favourably
received ; and in his 34th year he was induced by Mecaenas
to commence his Georgics ; and during a period of feven
years, wliich he employed in the profecution of them, he
refided chiefly at Naples. The latter years of his hfe were
devoted to the jEneid. At this time he was ranked among
thofe friends, who were particularly diftinguiflied by the
attention and confidence of Auguftus. After the death of
Marcelliis, in the year B. C. 23, he paid that admirable
tribute to his memory, which occurs in the fixth book of
the iEneid, and concerning which Donatus fays, that when
it was recited before Auguftus, in the prefencc of Oiflavia,
the mother of the deceafcd, as foon as the word;. " Tu
Marcellus eris" were pronounced, flie fainted away ; and
afterwards rewarded the poet with ten fcfterces (above 80/. )
for each line of the pafTagc. After the completion of his
jEneid, Virgil went to Greece, with the view of further po-
lifhing it ; and on this occafion Horace is fuppofed to have
addrelTcd him with the third ode of his firil book, beginning
" Sic, te Diva potens Cypri," in whicli he exprefles tlie
warnu'ft afteftion for his brother poet. At Athens he met
with Auguftus, and propofed returning in his company ; but
at Mcgara he was feizcd with a diforder, whicli detained
him, as fome fay, at Brun<Jufium, or, accordiuj^ to others,
at Tarentum, and which foon terminated his life in the year
B.C. 19, in the 52d year of his age. His remains were
conveyed, in purfuaiicc of his icqucft, to Naples, and in-
H li terrcd

V I R

V 1 R

terrcd on the Puteolan way. On his death-bed he is faid
to have exprefled a wifh that his iEneid, which he regarded
as an imperfeft work, might be committed to the flames ;
but it was faved either by the interpofition of his friends
Tucca and Varus, who prevailed upon him to bequeath
it to them, on the condition that they fhould make no altera-
tion in it, or by the injunftions of Auguftus to his executors.
His modefty, indicated by this wiib, was combined with
other fimilar qualities. " He was mild and gentle in his
manners, unaifuming in converfation, fmcere and faithful in
friendfhip, fo that he was Angularly beloved by Auguftus,
Mecsenas, and all the nioft' diftinguifhed perfons of that
period." His poetical talents, as well as general charafter,
were highly appreciated by his contemporaries, infomuch
that whenfoever his verfes were recited in the theatre whilft
he was prefent, the audience rofe up and paid him the refpetl
which was ufually manifeited to the emperor. His eminent
merit has been alfo acknowledged by ancient and modern
critics, and though they have differed in opinion as to his
peculiar and diilinguifliing excellencies, they have generally
agreed, as one of his moft judicious biographers has iaid, " in
placing him upon one of the higheft feats in Parnaflus." Of
the faculty of invention he feems to have pofleifed a very
moderate fhare, infomuch that his Bucohcs, Georgics, and
jEneid, abound with traces of imitation, and even of tranfla-
tion ; but it is " in the didtion and phrafeology of poetry, in all
that conftitutes the artift, that his chief excellence confifts ;
and his admirers will not allow that the Virgilian fplendour
and majefty of ftyle have ever been equalled." — " In two
fpecies of compofition Virgil has afforded models to almoft^
all fucceeding poets, the didaftic and the epic." His
fame has been telliiicd by the numerous editions of his works,
as well as the commentaries and tranflations which they have
produced. Tlie learned profcffor Heyne has given an ac-
count of the various MSS. and editions of Virgil in his
edition of Leipfic, 1788, which has been confidered by com-
petent judges as the moil complete and valuable. For a de-
fcription and charafter of the iEneid, fee jEneid. Vita
Virgilii Ruaei et Heynii. Gen. Biog.

Virgil, in Geography, a poft-townfhip of America, in the
province of New York, and S.W. corner of Courtlandt
county ; 10 miles S. of Homer, and 155 miles W. of
Albany. It is ten miles fquare, well watered, and furnifhed
with good roads ; the foil is excellent ; the timber is maple,
beech, bafs, elm, butter-nut, &c. with fome pine and hem-
lock. In 1810, the population was 913 ; the fenatorial
eleftors 77 ; and the whole amount of taxable property
84,351 dollars.

VIRGILIA, in Botany, a genus dedicated by Lamarck
to the great Latin poet, whole Georgics may well claim
for him tliis fort of commemoration, has taken place of the
Virgilta of L'Heritier, Sm. Exot. Bot. v. i. 71, called by
Lamarck and otliers Galardta. We fhall fubmit to the
general determination ; for though L'Heritier thought
JM. Gaillard unworthy of diftinftion, he may be fcreened by
a hoft of names, which certainly confer lefs honour upon
their authors than their owners, however fmall the merits

of the latter may be Lamarck lUuftr. t. 326. Poiret in

Lamarck Dift. v. 8. 677. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 3. 4. Purfh 309. — Clafs and order, Decandrla Monogyma.
Nat. Ord. Papilionace<r, Linn. Leguminof,v, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-
(haped, two-lipped ; upper lip in two lefs deeply feparated
fegments ; lower in three fpreading ones ; the tube breaking
off circularly juft above the bafe. Cor. papilionaceous ;
fl-andard oval, afcending, aot jeflesed at the fides, emar-

ginate : wings oblong, direft, rather Ihorter than the
ftandard ; keel of two elliptic-oblong petals, nearly the
length of the wings. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-lhaped, dif-
tinft, afcending, converging, the length of the keel which
enfolds them ; anthers oval, notched. Pt/t. Germen fupe-
rior, oblong, compreffed ; ftyle curved, the length of the
ftamens ; ftigma obtufe, beardlefs. Perk. Legume ob-
long, compreffed, of one cell and two valves. Seeds feveral,
orbicular, compreffed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx two-lipped, with five unequal teeth.
Corolla papilionaceous, nearly equal ; ftandard not reflexed
at the fides. Stigma beardlefs. Legume compreffed, ob-
long, with many feeds.

1. V. capenjis. Vetch-leaved Virgilia. Poiret in Lam.
n. I. Lam. fig. 2. Ait. n. 3. (Podalyria capenfis ;
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 501. Sophora capenfis ; Linn. Mant.
67. Thunb. Prodr. 79. Andr. Repof. t. 347. S. oro-
boides ; Berg. Cap. 142.) — Stamens deciduous; woolly
at the bafe. Germen downy. Keel acute. Leaflets lan-
ceolate, downy beneath. Legume filky Native of the

Cape of Good Hope. The late Thomas Cornwall, efq.
an affiduous cultivator of exotic plants, is faid by Mr.
Alton to have firft introduced this fpecies in 1767. The
feeds have often been imported fince the plant, being frequent
near Cape Town. It flowers with us in July and Augurt,
being (heltered in winter in the greenhoufe. This is a tall
fhrub, or fmall tree, having alternate pinnate leaves, with an
odd leaflet, hke the whole genus. The leajlets are very
numerous, uniform, about an inch long, acute ; fliining, and
nearly fmooth, on the upper fide. Flowers in ftalked, axil-
lary, downy cluftcrs, fliorter than the leaves, each half the
fize of a common Sweet-pea, white, with a pink, lunate
fpot on i\\c Jlaiidard. Legume downy, two inches long.

2. V. aurea. Great-flowered Virgilia. Poir. in Lam,
n. 2. Lam. fig. I. Ait. n. i. ( Podalyria aurea ; Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. 502. Robinia fubdecandra ; L'Herit. Stirp.
Nov. 157. t. 7J.) — Stamens permanent. Germen downy.
Leaflets elliptical, obtufe, pointlefs. Legume fmooth. —
Native of Abyffinia. Sent to Kew in 1777, by M.Thouin.
A greenhoufe (hrub, flowering in July. The leajlets are
full as numerous as in the foregoing, and longer, more
elliptical and obtufe, fmooth on both fides ; paler, and a
little glaucous, at the back. Flowers yellow, according to
L'Heritier ; Poiret fays white ; the fize of the former, ti
axillary clufters as long as the leaves. Legume two or three
inches long, quite fmooth.

3. V. tntruj'a. Small-flowered Virgilia. Br. in Ait. n. 2.
— " Stamens permanent. Germen fmooth. Calyx concave
externally at the bafe. Leaflets oval, obtufe, with a fmall
point." — Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence
it was fent to Kew garden, by Mr. Maffon, about the year
1790. A greenhoufe flirub, flowering moft part of the
fummer. Alton.

4. V . fecundiflora. Unilateral-flowered Virgiha. Cavan.
Ic. v. 5. I. t. 401. Poir. in Lam. n. 3. (" Brouffonetia
fecundiflora; Ortega Dec. 5. 61. t. 7.") — Germen and
legume downy. Calyx tapering at the bafe. Leaflets
oval, obtufe, pointlefs. — Native of New Spain. It flowered
at Madrid in April. We have a fpecimen from Cavanilles,
but the plant has not yet found its way into the Englifli
greenhoufes. The Jlem is fhrubby, three feet or more in
height, with ftout, round, finely downy branches. Leajlets
rather fewer than in any of the reft, coriaceous, veiny,
fmooth or very flightly filky, an inch long, feffile, moftly
alternate, on a channelled common ftalk. Clujler terminal,
denfe, of numerous Jloiuers all turned one way, fcarcely fa

8 large

V I R

V I R

large as in the firft or fecoiid fpecies. Calyx finely filky,
with ftiallow divifions. Petals blue ; the Jlandarit much paler
than the reft. Stamens fmooth. Germen \eTY filky.-

5. V. lulea. Yellow American Virgilia. Purdi n. I

" Leaflets alternate, ovate, (liort-pointed, fmooth. Clufters
elongated, pendulous. Legumes ilalked, flat." — On moun-
tains between Georgia and TennafTee. A handfome tree,
much like our Laburnum, flowering in June. The bark
gives a beautiful yellow dye. Purjlj.

VIRGILIAN Husbandry. See Husbandry.
VIRGILIANiE SoRTEs. See Sortes.
VIRGIN, Virgo, a female who has had no carnal com-
merce with a man ; or, more properly, who has ilill the
jlos -virginis, or maidenhood.

By the Mofaic law, the priefts are enjoined to take none
to wife but thofe that are virgins ; the widow, the divorced,
and the harlot, are to be refrained from.

In the Roman breviary there is a particular office for virgins
departed, anfwering to thofe of faints, martyrs, and confeiFors.
Virgin is alfo applied, by way of eminence, to Mary the
mother of our Saviour.

Many of the fathers, with the modern churches, hold,
that the Virgin not only conceived, but brought forth, or
was delivered without breach of her virginity ; otherwife,
faith St. Augulline, it would be falfe which is faid in the
creed, that he was born of a virgin. It is even alleged
that (he ilill remained a virgin to the end of her life ;
whence the Greeks always called her <xu TafSsro;, ever
Virgin Mary ; and after them the Latins, femper virgo.
Though, as tliis is not recorded in Holy Wnt, many have
denied it, and held that (he had afterwards to do with
Jofeph, and bore other children ; and this as early as the
time of Origen. Tertulliau hiiiifelf is produced as one that
denied the perpetual virginity ; and the like may be faid of
ApoUinaris and Euuomius, with their followers. See An-
TiDicoMARiANiTES and Helvidians.

Virgin, Charily of the Holy. See Charity.
Virgin, Nativity of the. See Nativity.
Virgin, Prefcntation of the. See Presentation.
Virgins of Love. See Mission.

Virgin is alfo applied, figuratively, to feveral things that
retain their abfolute purity, and have never been made ufe of.
Thus,

Virgin Copper. See Copper.
Virgin Gold. See Gold.
Virgin OH. See Virgin Oil.
Virgin Parchment. See Parchment.
Virgin Quickfilver, is that found perfeAIy formed, and
fluid in the veins of mines ; or at leaft fuch as is got from
the mineral earth, by mere lotion, without fire.
Virgin Sulphur. See Sulphur.
Virgin Wax. See Virgin Wax.
Virgin'^ Bower, in Botany. See Clematis.
The leaves and flowers of the upright virgin's bower, or
clematis ercBa of Linnxus, called alfo Jlammula Jovis, and
diilinguiflied by its pinnated oval leaves and ercft ftalk, are
extremely acrid ; the former, when frefh, raifing bhllers on
the part to which they are applied.

This is one of the new medicines introduced by Dr.
Stoerck. He has publilhed feveral cafes of its efficacy in
cancerous, venereal, and other malignant ulcers, obilinate
pains of the head and bones, inveterate itch, and other dif-
cafes proceeding from peculiar acrimony. It was ufed in-
ternally, in iiifufion of the flowers or haves, and cxtracl of
the plants ; and the powder was fpnnkled 011 the ulcers ex-
ternally, where it was found to adt as a moll excellent eiclia-
rotic and detergent.

The medicine ia faid to haif proved diuretic to fome pa-
tients, and fudorific to others, but rarely to have moved the
belly. Small dofes, of only half a grain of the extraft, and
lialf a drachm of the dried leaves in iiifufion, were at iirft ex-
hibited, which were gradually increafed. Lewis.

Virgin'^ Mili, in the Materia Medico, is a name given
to a folution of benzoin in fpirits, mixed with twenty times
its quantity, or more, of water, which renders it milky.

It is faid to be of great fervice in diforders of the bread,
for refolving obftruftions of the pulmonary vefTels, and pro-
moting expeftoration. It is alfo ufed as a cofmetic.
Virgin'j Milk. See Virgin's Milk.
Virgin'j Thread, a fort of meteor that flies in tlie air,
like fmall untwifted filk, and which falhng upon the ground,
or open plants, changes itfelf into a fubllance like a fpider's
web.

In thefe northern climates it is moft frequent in fummer ;
the days being then temperately warm, the earth not ex-
ceeding dry, nor yet overcharged with moiilure.

This has formerly palled for a fort of dew of an earthy
flimy nature ; but naturalills are now agreed, that the vir-
gin's threads are no other than fo many fpiders' webs.

Virgin, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the S.E. coaft of
South America, at the entrance into the Straits of Magellan.
It was fo called by Magellan, becaufe he difcovered it on the
feall of St. Urfula. S. lat. 52° 24'. W. long. 67= 52'.

Virgin IJlands, a group of iflands in the Weft Indies, E.
of Porto Rico, extending 60 miles in length and upwards o£
36 in breadth ; dangerous to navigators, though in the midlt
of them there is a bafin, 18 or 20 miles long, and 9 or 12
broad, in which fliips may anchor and be fheltered from all
winds, called the " Bay of Sir Francis Drake," from his
having pafled through them to St. Domingo. Some have
erroneoufly fuppofed that the name was beftoived upon them,
in 1580, by fir Francis Drake, in honour of queen liliiia-
beth ; but the faft is, that thefe iflands were named " Laa
Virgines" by Columbus himfelf, who difcovered them in
1493, and gave them this appellation, in allufion to the well-
known legend in the Romiih church of the 1 1 ,000 virgins.
After having been long iicglefled by the Spaniards, they
were vifited in 1596 by the earl of Cumberland, in his way
to Porto Rico ; and the hillorian of that voyage dcfcribeS
them as " a haunt of little illands, wholly uninhabited, fandy,
barren, and craggy." The whole group comprehends about
40 illands, iflets, and keys, and they are at prefent divided
between the Englilh, the Spaniards, and Danes. The Eng-
li(h hold Tortola, and Virgin-Gorda, called Pennifton, and
corruptly Spaiiifh-Town, in which arc two very good har-
bours ; Jofvaii Dykes, Guana ifle, Beef and Thatch illands,
Anegada, Nicker, Prickly Pear,Camane's, Ginger, Cooper's,
Salt ifland, Peter's ifland, and feveral others of httle value.
The Danes poflefs Santa Cruz, or Sta. Croix (which fee),
St. Thomas, with about twelve fmaller dependent iflands,
and St. John, having the bell harbour of any ifland to the
leeward of Antigua : and the Spaniards claim Crab ifland,
tiie Green or Serpent ifland, the Tropic Keys, and Great
and Little Pafl^age. Thofe iflands which now belong to
tlie Brilifli government wire firll polfefled by a j'arty of
Dutch Buccaneers, who fixed themfelves at Tortola (whidi
fee), and the Englifli title has remained. The colony
ilruggled with diiriculties until the year 1773 ; when a
petition was prefented to his majelly, reqiielling that
the governor and council might be permitted to franw
proper laws for their government and welfare ; pledging
themfelves, in fuch cafe, to grant to his m.ijelly, liis licirs
and fucctli'ors, an impofl of 45 per cent., in fpecic, upon all
commodities the growth of thele iflands, fjmilar to that which
H h 2 was

V I R

V 1 R

was paid ill the other Leeward idaiids. This appKcatioii
fucceeded ; and an affembly was convened Feb. i. 1774,
which honourably complied v.i':h their engagement to the
crown. They afterwards paffed a grant of 400/. currency
per annum, as their proportion towards the falary of the
governor-general. Such was the price at which the Virgin
iflands purchafed the eftablifhment of a conftitutional legif-
lature. The chief and almoft the only ftaple produftions
of thefe iflands are fugar and cotton. Thefe iflands lie in
about N. lat. 18° 20'; and the paffage through them is fafe,
at W. by N. and W.N.W. as far as to the W. end of the
fourth ifland. Edwards's Hift. of the Weft Indies, vol. i.

Virgin Rods, rocks in the Atlantic, 60 miles S.E. of
Cape Race, on the coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 46° 20'.
W. long. 50°.

VIRGINAL, is a keyed mufical inftrument of one
ftring, jack, and quill to each note, like a fpinet ; but in
fhape refeinbhng the prefent fmall piano-forte. It has been
imagined to have been invented in England during the reign
of queen Elizabeth, and to have been thus denominated in
honour of that virgin princefs ; but we have here not only
a proof of its ufe in this kingdom before (he was queen, but
a drawing and defcription of it appeared in Lufciiuus's
Mufurgia, before flie was born. Dr Johnfon imagines that
this inftrument had its name from being chiefly cultivated
by young ladies.

ViRGlKAL-^Sooi of Queen Elizabeth. See Quees Eliza-
beth, and Bird.

ViKGlf! Ah- Book of Lady Ne-vil. See Bird.

For the firft mufic that was printed for the virginal, fee
Parthenia.

VIRGINALE Claustrum, in Anatomy, the fame as
hymen.

VIRGINES, Las, Bay of, in Geography, a bay on the
coaft of New Albion, between Cape Colne and Point Zuniga.

VIRGINEUS Morbus, the Firgin's difeafe; the grecn-
ficknefs, or chlorofis.

VIRGIN-GORDA,in Geography. See Spanish-Towb.

VIRGINIA, one of the United States of America,
fituated between 36° 30' and 40° 43' N. lat., and 1° 40' E.
and 6° 20' W. long, from Wafliington ; and bounded on
the N. by Maryland, Pennfylvania, and Ohio ; on the S.
by North Carolina and Tenneflee ; on the E. by Maryland
and the Atlantic ocean ; and on the W. by Kentucky and
Ohio. Its extent from N. to S. is 220 miles, and from E.
to W. 370 miles ; and its area about 64,000 fquare miles, or
40,960,000 acres. The number of inhabitants, deduced from
the cenfusof 18 10, and ftated by Mr. Melifli, is 974,622, as
in the following

Topographical T\>ble.

Counties.

No. of Inhabitanis.

Cl.kfToivn.'.

Aecomack

I5»743

Drummond.

Albemarle

- 18,268

Charlottefville.

Amelia

10,594

Amherft

10,548

New Glafgow.

Auguljta -

- 14,308

Staunton.

Bath

- 4>837

Warm Springs.

Bedford -

16,148

Liberty.

Berkley

- ii>479

Martinftjurg.

Botetourt -

- 13,301

Fincaftle

Brooke

5.843

Charleftown.

Brunfwick

15,411

Buckingham

20,059

New Canton.

Campbell

11,001

Lynchburg.

Caroline

- 17.544

Port Royal

Charles City

5.J86

700

1500

Coui.tits. No,

. of JiihuUitaiits.

Cliief Towns.

Charlotte -

13,161

Maryfville.

Chefterfield

9.979

Manchefter.

Cumberland

9,992

Carterfville.

Culpeper -

18,967

Fairfax.

Cabell - -

2,717

Dinwiddle

12,524

Peterfburgh

5668

Elizabeth City -

3,608

Hampton.

Efl"ex - -

9 = 376

Tappahannock

600

Faquier

22,689

Warrentown.

Fairfax

13,111

Centreville.

Fluvanna -

4.775

Columbia.

Frederick

22,574

Winchefter

2500

Franklin

10,724

Rocky Mount.

Gloucefter

10,427

Goochland

10,203

Grayfon

4.941

Greenfville.

Greenbriar

5.914

Lewifljurg.

Greenfville

6,858

Hicksford.

Giles

3.745

Halifax - -

22,133

South Bofton.

Hampftiire

9.784

Romney.

Hanover -

15,082

Hanover.

Hardy ' - -

5.525

Moorfields.

Harriloii

9.958

Clarkeftjurg.

Henrico

9.945

Richmond

9735

Henry

5,611

Martinfville.

I(le of Wight -

9,186

Smithfield.

.Tames City

9,094

Wilhamfburg -

1500

Jefferfon

11,851

Charles Town.

Kanhaway

3,866

Charles Town.

King and Queen

10,988

Dunkirk.

King George -

6,454

King William -

9,285

Delaware.

Lancafter

5.592

Kilmarnock.

Lee - - -

4,694

JonefviUc.

Loudon

21,338

Lcefljurgh

400

Louifa

I 1 ,900

Lunenburg

12,265

Hungary.

Madifon

8,381

Madilon.

Matthews -

4,227

Mecklinburg

18,453

St. Tammany.

Middlefex - -

4.414

Urbaiina.

Monongalia

12,793

Morgan Town.

Monroe

5 '-144

Union Town.

Montgomery

8,409

Chriftianlburg.

Mafon ,

1,991

Point Pleafant.

Nanfemond

10,324

Suffolk - -

350

New Kent

6,478

Cumberland.

Norfolk County

13,679

Norfolk - -

9193

Northampton -

7.474

North umberlan d

8,308

Bridge Town.

Nottaway

9.278

Nelfon - -

9,684

Ohio - - -

8,175

Wheeling.

Orange

12,323

Stannardfville.

Patrick

4.695

Pendleton -

4.239

Franklin.

Pittfylvania

17,172

Danville.

Powhatan

8,073

Prince Edward

12,409

James Town.

Princefs Anne -

9.498

Kempfville.

Prince William

11,311

Haymarket.

Prince George -

8,050

Randolph

2,854

Beverley.

Richmond

6,214

Rockbridge

10,318

Lexington

400

Rocking-

VIRGINIA.

Cv'umiei.

No,

. of IiihabluiUfl.

Chief Towns.

Rockingham

.

«z,753

RuffcU

-

6,316

Franklin.

Sliciiaiidoah

.

13,646

Woodftock.

Southampton

-

13.497

Jerufalem.

Spotfylvania

-

13,296

Frederickfbiirg

Stafford -

.

9,830

Falmouth.

Surr)'

-

6,855

Cobham.

Suffex

-

11,362

TazeweU -

-

3.007

Jefferfonville.

Tyler*

Warwick -

-

1.835

Wafhington

-

12,136

Abingdon.

Weftmoreland

-

8,102

Leeds.

Wood

r

3.036

Newport.

Wythe -

-

8,356

Evaiifham.

York

-

5.'87

York - •

City of Richmond

9.735

Norfolk Boroi

igh

9.«93

Peterfburgh

5,668

* Laid out

fince laft cenfus.

1500

700

The afpeft of the country is diiferent in various parts of
it. On the eaftern ftiore it is level, interfperfed with
fwamps and meadows. In the middle it is mountainous,
with many rich valleys, and on the weft fide hilly. With
regard to the mountains, it is obfervcd, that they are not
folitary, and fcattercd confufedly over the face of the coun-
try ; but they commence at about 1 50 miles from the fea-
coaft, and are diipofcd in ridges one behind another, run-
ning nearly parallel to the fea-coaft, but rather approach-
ing as they advance towards the N.E. To the S.W. the
mountains converge into a fingle ridge, which as it ap-
proaches the gulf of Mexico lubfides into plain country,
and gives rife to fonie of tlie waters of that gulf, and par-
ticularly to a river called Apalachicoia. Hence the moun-
tains were denominated the Apalachian mountains, being in
reality the termination only of the great ridges pafling
through the continent. The name, however, has been
extended by European geographers ; fome giving it, after
their feparation into different ridges, to the Blue Ridge,
others to the North mountains, others to the Alleghany, and
others to the Laurel Ridge. The veins of hme-ftone, coal,
and other mineral, lie generally in the fame direftion. But
the courfes of the great rivers are at right angles with
tliefe. James and Potomac penetrate through all the ridges
of mountains E. of the ylllfghany (which fee), which is
broken by no water-courfc, but is in reahty the fpine of the
country, between the Atlantic on one fide, and the Miffi-
fippi and St. Laurence on the other. The paffage of the
Potomac through the Blue Ridge exhibits one of the moft
flupendous fcenes in nature. The only remarkable cafcade
in this country, is that of the Falling Spring in the county
of Augufla, formed by a water of James river, here called-
Jackfon's river ; but it bears no comparifon with that of
Niagara. In the lime-ftone country, there are fevcral ex-
tenfive caverns ; the moft noted of wliich is called Madifon's
cave, on the N. fide of the Blue Ridge. It extends into
the earth about 300 feet, and branches into fubordinate ca-
verns. There are alfo fome others, fuch as that near the
North mountain, in the county of Frederick, aiui the
Blowing cave, in the ridge which divides the waters of
the Cow and Calf pafture ; befides another of the fame
kind with this laft in Cumberland mountain. But of all
nature's works, the moft fublimc is the Natural Bridge ;
lying on the afcent of a hill which ftems to have been
cloven through its whole length by fome great convulfion.

The fiffure juft at the bridge is reckoned to be 270 feet
deep, about 45 wide at tlie bottom, and 90 at the top,
which is of courfe the lengtli of the bridge, and its height
above the water. Its breadth ia the middle is about 60 feet,
and the thicknefs of the mafs at the fummit of the arch about
40 feet. This bridge is in the county of Rockbridge. The
ftream paffing under it is called Cedar creek, which is a water
of James river.

The minerals of this ftate are iron, coal, lime-ftone, and
fome copper, black-lead, and gold. The ore from which
gold was extrafted was found on the N. fide of Rappa-
hannock, about four miles below the Falls. On the Great
Kanhaway, in the county of Montgomery, are mines of
lead ; the ore containing a fmall portion of filver not worth
the pains of feparation. A valuable lead-mine is alfo faid to
have been difcovered in Cumberland, below the mouth of
Red river. A mine of copper was once opened in the
county of Amherft, but the difcovery was not profecuted.
There are feveral mines of iron, particularly two in the
valley between the Blue Ridge and the North mountain.
Confiderable quantities of black-lead are taken occafioually
for ufe from Winterham, in the county of Ameha. Mi-
neral coal of a very excellent quality is abundantly fupplied
by the country on James river, from fifteen to twenty miles
above Richmond, and for feveral miles northward and fouth-
ward ; alio by the weftcrn country in fo many places, that
the whole traft between the Laurel mountain, Miffifippi,
and the Ohio, has been fuppofcd to yield coal. On James
river, at the mouth of Rocklifh, there is great abundance
of good marble. There is known only one vein of lime-
ftone below the Blue Ridge ; from the Blue Ridge weft-
wardly, the whole country feems to be founded on a rock
of lime-ftone, which is cut into beds, and range, like the
mountains and fea-coaft, from S.W. to N.E., the lamina of
each bed declining from the horizon towards a parallelifra
with the axis of the earth. Near the weftern foot of the
North mountain are imnienfe bodies of fchift, which con-
tain impreffions of fhells in a variety of forms.

Mineral fprings are numerous; but the moft efficacious
of thefe are two in Augufta, near the firft fources of
James river, where it is called Jackfon's river. One ii
called the Warm fpring, the other the Hot fpring. The
fweet fprings are in the county of Botetourt, at the eaftern
foot of the Alleghany, about forty-two miles from the warm
fprings. On Potomac river, in Berkley county, above the
North mountain, are medicinal fprings that arc much more
frequented than thofe of Augufta. At Richmond there is
a weak chalybeate ; and it is faid that there are fulphur
fprings, one on Howard's creek of Greenbriar, and another
at Boonfborough, on Kentucky. There is alfo in die low
grounds of the Great Kanhaway, feven mileu above the
mouth of Elk river, and fixty-feven above that of the Kan-
haway itfelf, a hole in the earth, capable of holding thirty
(T forty gallons, from which iffues a gas or bituminous va-
pour in fo ftrong a current, as to caufe the fand about its
orifice to exhibit the motion which it has in a boiling fpring ;
and on prefenting a candle or lighted torch to it, it flames
up in a column of eighteen inches in diameter, and four or
five feet in height, and burns for feveral days : there is an-
other fimllar to it on Sandy river, with a cohmin of flame
twelve inches in diameter, and three feet higli. In tliis
country there are alfo feveral fyphon fountains.

The rivers of Virginia are the Potomac or Potow-
mack, Shenandoah, Rappahannock, Mattapony, Pain>niky,
York, James, Rivannah, Appomattox, Elizabeth, Notta-
vvay, Meherrm, Statmton, Ohio, Sandy, Great Kanhaway,
Little Kanhaway, Monongahcla, and Cheat. Several of
o t fiofe

VIRGINIA.

thtfe are navigable for veflels of various fizes, and to confi-
derable diftances. The principal of them are feparately
noticed under their refpeftive names.

The/o/7 in the low part of the ftate is fandy, but rich on
the banks of rivers : between the head of tide-waters and
the mountains it is pretty good. The mountains are poor,
and in various places incapable of culture, but they are in-
terfperfed with many fertile valleys. Weft of the moun-
tains the foil is generally good.

Of the produce of this ftate, wheat and tobacco are the
ftaples ; corn, rye, barley, buckwheat, hemp, flax, roots,
grafs, fruit, indigo, and fome filk, are alfo cultivated.

As to the climate, in the low country, the fummers are
hot, and winters mild ; in the upper country, and among
the mountains, the air is pure, and the weather pleafant :
towards the weft, temperate.

With refpeft to the ftate of literature in Virginia, the col-
lege of William and Mary is the only public feminary of
learning. (See College. ) Befides this, it has a number
of flouriftiing academies ; one in Prince Edward county,
one at Alexandria, one at Norfolk, one at Hanover, and
others at other places. Since the declaration of independ-
ence, the laws have been revifed, and one objeft in this
revifal was the diffufion of knowledge more generaUy
through the mafs of the people. The bill for this purpofe
propofed to lay off^ every county into fmall dittrifts of five
or fix miles fquare, called hundreds, and in each of them to
eftablifti a fchool for inftruAion in reading, writing, and
arithmetic.

As to the religion of Virginia, we may obferve, that the
firft fettlers were emigrants from England, belonging to
the Englifh church ; and though they were flying from per-
fecution, they manifefted a confiderable degree of mtoler-
ance : which was alfo the cafe witli their Preft)yterian
brethren, who had emigrated to the northern government ;
and the Quakers, who were feeking an afylum from perfe-
cution, experienced the effefts of this intolerance. At the
commencement of the late revolution, two-thirds of the
people are faid to have become diflenters of one defcription
or another. The prefent denominations of Chriftians in
Virginia are, Preftjyterians, who are the moft numerous, and
inhabit the weftern parts of the ftate ; Epifcopahans, or, as
Mr. Jefferfon calls them, " Anglicans," who are the moft
ancient fettlers, and occupy the eaftern and firft fettled parts
of the ftate ; and intermingled with thefe, Baptifts and Me-
thodifts in great numbers.

With regard to the character of the Virginians, it is ob-
ferved, that as a political and military body, they rank among
the firft in the page of hiftory ; fome of them having been moft
aftive in efFefting the revolutions in America, and influencing
the great mafs of the people, who would otherwife have in-
dulged their indolence and indifference. Valuing themfelves
on their inheriting the ancient dominion, they have thought
themfelves entitled to the firft rank in the union, and with-
out doubt they have reafon to boaft of their " Wafhington."
But Virginia, though claiming priority of the northern
ftates in point of age, is far from being equal to fome of
them as to literary, mechanical, nautical, agricultural, and
manufaftural improvements. Allowing for fome few in-
ftances, the Virginians have made very little progrefs in the
arts and fciences. Before the revolution they were repre-
fented by travellers who paffed through their country as in-
dolent and inaftive, fond of fociety, addidled to convivial
pleafures, and of courfe indilpofed for any entcrprife that
expofed them to fatigue and danger. The authority which
they exercifed over their flaves rendered them vain and im-
perious, and ftrangers to that elegance of fentiment which ia

peculiarly charafteriftic of refined and polifhed nations.
Hence they were led to extravagance, oftentation, a difre-
gard of economy, and inattention to bufinefs : they were
haughty and jealous of their liberties, impatient of reftraint,
and averfe from being controuled by any fuperior power.
They are, however, liberal and generous ; and are ready to
furnifti neceffary fupplies for the fupport of government, as
well as for the purpofes of hofpitality. Their women are,
upon the whole, handfome, though in this refpeft inferior to
thofe of England : having few advantages, their accom-
phfliments are inconfiderable, and their temper referved.
The only amufement to which they are much addifted is
dancing, and it is almoft the only one of which they parti-
cipate. The Virginians, fays a djfcerning traveller cited by
Morfc, are rich, and in general fenfiblc, polite, and hof-
pitable, and of an independent fpirit : the poor are ignorant
and abjeft : but all are of an inquifitive turn, and in many
other refpefts very much refemble the people in the eaftern
ilates. They differ from them, however, in their morals :
the former being much additted to gaming, drinking,
fwearing, horfe-racing, cock-fighting, and moft kinds of
diflipation. There is a much greater difference between the
rich and poor in Virginia than in any of the northern ftates.

As to the conjlltutlon, and judiciary admlnlftratlon of Vir-
ginia, we obferve, that the executive powers are lodged
in the hands of a governor, annually chofen, and incapable
of afting more than three years in feven. He is affifted by
a council of eight members. The judiciary powers are di-
vided among feveral courts. Legiflation is exercifed by two
houfes of aitembly ; the one called the houfe of delegates,
compofed of two members from each county, chofen an-
nually by the citizens poffeffing an eftate for life in loo
acres of uninhabited land, or 25 acres with a houfe
upon it, or in a houfe or lot in fome town : the other called
the fenate, confifting of twenty-four members, chofen qua-
driennially by the fame eleftors, who for this purpofe are
diftributed into twenty-four diftrifts. The concurrence of
both houfes is neceffary for paffuig a law. There are three
fuperior courts, to which appeals lie from the courts below ;
viz. the high court of chancery, the general court, and the
court of admiralty. There is one fupreme court, called the
court of appeals, compofed of the judges of the three fu-
perior courts, affembling twice a year, at ftated times, at
Richmond. It receives appeals in all civil cafes from each
of the fuperior courts, and finally determines them ; but has
no original jurifdiftion. In 1785, the affembly enafted that
no man ftiould be compelled to fupport any religious worftiip,
place, or minifter whatfoever, nor be enforced, reftrained,
molefted, or burdened in his body or goods, nor otherwife
fuffer on account of his religious opinions or belief ; but
that all men ftiould be free to profefs, and by argument to
maintain, their opinions in matters of rehgion ; and that the
fame ftiould in no wife diminiih, enlarge, or affeft their civil
capacities. In Oftober 1786, an ad was pafled by the
affembly, proliibiting the importation of flaves into the com-
monwealth, upon penalty of the forfeiture of the fum of
1000/. for every Have. And every flave imported contrary
to the true intent and meaning of this aft, becomes free.

Hl/lory of Virginia. — In the year 1584, two patents were
granted by queen Ehzabeth, one to Adrian Gilbert (Feb. 6),
the other to fir Walter Raleigh (March 25), for lands not
poffeffed by any Chriftian prince. Under the direftion of fir
Walter, two fliips were fent out, and in July, 1585, arrived
on the coaft, anchoring in a harbour feveu leagues W. of the
Roanoke. On the 1 5th of July they took formal poffeffion
of the country, and in honour of their virgin queen Eliza-
beth, caUed it Virginia. Before this event the country was

known

V I R

known by the general name of Florida ; afterwards Virginia
became the common name for the whole of North America.
In 1586, a colony of more than one hundred p'.'opl^; was lla-
tioned at Roanoke, under the dircftion of captain Ralph
Lane ; which colony endured extreme hardfhips, and mull
have perifhed, if fir Francis Drake had not fortunately re-
turned to Virginia, and carried them to England. In 1587,
fir Walter fent another company to Virginia, under governor
White, with a charter and twelve afliftants ; and in July this
colony arrived at Roanoke, where 1 1 5 people were left at
the old fettlement. In 1590, governor ^Vhite came over
again to Virginia, with fupplies and recruits foi his colony ;
but not a man was to be found, all having pcriftied citlier by
famine, or mafTacred by the Indians. Some further unfuc-
cefsful attempts were made for fettling tliis province. At
length, in 1606, James I., by patent, divided Virginia into
two colonies. The firft, under the name of South Virginia,
was granted to the London company ; the northern, called
the fecond colony, and known by the general name of North
Virginia, was granted to the Plymouth company ; and each
of thefe colonics had a council of thirteen men to govern
them. The Plymouth colony broke up, after enduring many
liarddiips, in 1608. In 1610, the South Virginia or Lon-
don company fealed a patent to lord De la War, or De-
laware, conilituting him governor and captain-general of
South Virginia, and he foon after embarked for America
with 150 men, in three (hips. From this time we may date
the elfeftual fettlement of Virginia. By a marriage in
April, 16 1 3, of Mr, John Rolfe, a worthy young gentle-
man, with Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, a fa-
mous Indian chief, the conneftion, equally agreeable to the
Enghfli and the Indians, laid the foundation of a friendly and
advantageous commerce between them. The defcendants of
Pocahontas became the heads of fome of the moll refpedlable
families in Virginia. Her brother-in-law, Tomocomo, ac-
companied her to England, and on his return, being aflced
by Powhatan how many people there were in England, re-
phed, " count tlie liars in the fliy, the leaves on the trees,
and the fands on the fta-fliore ; for fuch is the number of the
people in England." The government of Virginia was fet-
tled in confequence of a charter obtained in 1609, on the
24th of July, 1 62 I ; but dillcnfions afterwards occurred be-
tween the company to which the charter was granted and the
king : infomuch that, partly by law, and partly by force,
the company was oufted of all its riglits, witliout retribu-
tion, after having expended 100,000/. ineilablifhing the co-
lony. King James fnfpended their powers by proclamation,
July 15, 1624, and Charlts I. took the government into his
own hands. But this ftate of things did not continue for
ajiy long time ; for the northern parts of the country were
granted away from the original proprietors to the lords Bal-
timore and Fairfax, the full of thefe obtaining the rights of
feparate jurifdiclion and government. In 1650, the parlia-
ment, conceiving itfelf as occupying the place and powers
of the depofed King, began to alfunie and exercife a right
over the colonies, by paffmg an aft for prohibiting their
trade with foreign nations. This colony, having maintained
itsoppofition to Cromwell and the parliament, was induced,
in 1651, to lay down its arms, on condition of previoufly
fecuring their moll effential rights by a folemn convention.
This convention, as the colony imagined, enfnred the an-
cient limits of the coinitry, its free trade, its exemption
from taxation, except by its own affembly, and exclnfion
of military forces. But this convention was violated in
every particular by fubfcquent kings and parliaments, until
at la(l relillance on the jiart of this and of the other colonics
terminated in an appeal to arms ; and this appeal being

V I R

crowned with fuccefs, they ilTued a declaration of their
independence, in July 1776, and the fubfequent ellablilh-
ment of their " federal conllitution," to which Virginia ac-
ce(!ed after confiderable oppofition. See Ameuua and
U.VITED States.

Virginia, a pod-town of the county of Cavan, Ireland,
fittiated on Lough Ramor ; 40^ miles N.W. from Dublin.

VIRGINIAN Acacia, in Botany. See Robinia.

Virginian Creeper. See Clematis.

Vi\xc\mAS Guelthr-Rofe. See SpiRa:A Opulifolia.

Virginian Pole. See Phytolacca Decandra.

Virginian Silk. See Periploca.

VIRGINIANA Bolus, is a pure earth, of a ccmipaft
texture, hard and heavy, of a pale red or rofe colour, va-
riegated with veins of deep red, and often with large fpots
and veins of bright yellow : it is of a glolTy furface, does
not colour the hands, adheres firmly to the tongue, melts
«nth difficulty in the mouth, is of a rough aftringent tafte,
leaves no grittinefs in the teeth, and is diffufiblc with diffi-
culty in water. It burns in the fire to an almoll llony
liardnefs, without any change of colour. It is the produft
of Pennfylvania, and moll p.irts of America. This kind of
bole has not yet been ufed iu mt-dicine.

VIRGINIS, Spica. See Spica.

VIRGINITY, ViRGiNiTAS, the tell or criterion of a
virgin ; or that which entitles her to the denomination.

In the firll ages of th; Chrillian church, virginity grew
into great honour and elleem, infomucli that the women
were admitted to make folemn vows of it in public. Yet
was it held infamous among the Jews for a woman to die a
maid.

The vellals among the ancients, and the nuns or religious
among the moderns, found guilty of a breach of the vow
of virginity, are allotted a fevere punifhment ; the firll to
be buried ahve, the latter to he immured.

The phyficians, both ancient and modern, are exceedingly
divided upon the fubjeft of virginity, fome holding that
there are no certain marks or tuliimonies of it ; and others
that there are. Solomon fays exprefsly, tiiere are four things
too wonderful for him to know : " the way of an eagle in
the air ; of a ferpent on the rock ; of a Ihip in the midfl of
the fea ; and the way of a man in a maid ;" whicli our
tranflators have rendered, lefs jullly, the luay of a man luhh'
a maid.

Yet Mofes eftablilhed a left, which was to be conclufive
among the Jews. The nuptial Iheets, it feems, were to be
viewed by the relations on both fides : and the maid's parents
were to preferve them as a token of her virginity, to be
produced, in cafe her hufband (hould ever reproach her on
that fcore.

In cafe the token of virginity was not found on them, Ihe
was to be Honed to death at her father's door.

This tell of virginity has oecafioni-d abundance of fpecu-
lation about the parts concerned ; but the iiiceft enquiries
cannot fettle any tiling certain about them. Dr. Drake
fays exprefsly, that, whatever might be expeftc-d ainong
the Jews, there is not the fame reafon to expcft tliofe tokens
of virginity in thefe countries ; for, befides that the He-
brews married extreiriL-Iy young, as is the cuflom in all the
Eallern countries, there are fcvcral circumllances whicli may
here frii Urate fuch expeftations, even in virgins not vituted
either by any male contaft, or any wantonncfs of their
own.

In effeft, in thefe northern climates, the inclemency of the
air expofes the fex to Inch checks of perfpiration, as gives
a great turn to the courfe of the humours, .and drives fo
much humidity Uirough the parts, aa may extraordinarily

fupple

V I R

fupplc and relax thofe membranes from which the refiftance
is expefted ; and from which, in hotter countries, it might
more reafonably be depended on.

What moft commonly paffes among us for the teft of vir-
ginity is the hymen (which fee) ; and yet the moft curious
among the anatomifts are greatly divided, not only about the
figure, fubflance, place, and perforations of this famous
membrane, but even about the exiftence of it, fome pofi-
tively affirming, and others as flatly denying it. See Gene-
ration'.

As nice a point as that of virginity is among anatomifts,
the midwives and matrons treat it with lefs diffidence. In
the ftatutes of the fworn matrons, or midwives of Paris,
containing likewife divers formulas of reports and depofitions
made in court, upon their being called to vifit girls that made
their complaint of being deflowered, they laid down four-
teen marks on which to form a judgment.

Laur. Joubart, a famous phyikian of Montpelier, has
tranfcribed three of thefe reports ; one made to the provoft
of Paris, another in Languedoc, and a third in Berne.
Thefe reports are very confiftent with each other, and con-
tain foui-teen marks of virginity, exprefled in their proper
terms, fuch as were received among the women in that pro-
feflion, and authorized in court.

M. Joubart does not explain thofe terms, nor do we find
any explanation of them any where, but in another report,
of the 23d of Oftober, 1672, inferted in the Pifture of
Love of Vennette, a phyfician of Rochel.

In Peru, and feveral other provinces in South America,
we are affured by Pedro de Cieca, in the hiftory of the
Incas, &c. that the men never marry but on condition that
the next relation or friend of the maid (hall undertake to en-
joy her before him, and take away her virginity. And our
countryman, Lawfon, relates the like of fome of the Indian
nations of Carolina. So little is thej?w -vir/mis valued in
fome places.

VIRGINIUS RUFUS, L., in Biography, a diftin-
guiffied Roman citizen and commander, whofe merit raifed
him to the confulate in the reign of Nero, A.D. 63.
When the Gauls revolted under Vindex, A.D. 68, he
marched to Befangon, in order to refift his defigns. On this
occafion the legions proclain>ed him emperor, but he refufed
the title, alleging that the dlfpofal of the empire belonged
not to them, but to the fenate and people. After the death
of Nero, and the fucceffion of Galba, he was again foli-
cited by the army to become a candidate for the empire, and
he was threatened with death by one of the tribunes if he did
not comply with the wiflies of the foldiers. But he refo-
lutely refilled, and prevailed with them to acknowledge the
new emperor. When Otho acquired temporary dominion,
he endeavoured to engage the attachment of the Germanic
legion, by conferring a fecond confulate, A.D. 69, on Vir-
ginius, their old commander ; and after his death, he was a
third time urged by the foldiery to accept the empire, but
he perfifted in refufing the offer. Upon Vitellius's entrance
into Rome, Virginius was very unjuftly fufpeftedof a defign
to affaffinate him ; and though Vitellius had no doubt of his
innocence, it was not without great difficulty that he pre-
ferved his life. From this time till the reign of Nerva he
lived in retirement, calling the place of his retreat near
Alaium " the reft of his old age." To Pliny the younger
he was guardian, and was always regarded by him with filial
veneration ; and at Rome he was refpefted as one of the
moft excellent of its citizens. " He read," according to
the account given of him by Pliny, " verfes and hiftories
of which he was the fubjeft, and lived, as it were, with his
pwn pofterity ;" and Pliny relates the following inftance of

V I R

his love of hiftorical fidelity. Cluvius Rufus, an eminent
hiftorian, faid to him, " You are fenfible, Virginius, of the
fidelity required in a writer of hiftory ; if, therefore, you
meet with any thing in my work which is difpleafing to you,
I requeft that you will pardon it." He replied, " Are you
ignorant, Cluvius, that my purpofe, in doing what I have
done, was that you writers might freely fay what you fhould
think fit." In his eighty-third year Nerva honoured him
by advancing him to a ttiird confulate, as his own colleague
in that office. On this occafion he intended to deliver a dif-
courfe, and whilft he was preparing at home for the recita-
tion of it, a large book fell from his hand upon the floor ;
and, in ftooping for it, his foot flipped, and in the fall he
broke his thigh. The frafture occafioned his death,
A.D. 97. His remains were honoured with a public fune-
ral, and his eulogy was pronounced by Cornelius Tacitus.
The epitaph which he had written for himfelf was comprifed
in two lines, and merely recorded one of the principal
aftions of his life, with its motive :

" Hie fitus eft Rufus, pulfo qui Vindice quondam
Imperium afleruit, non fibi, fed patrise."

« Here Rufus lies, who, by the repulfe of Vindex, fecured
the empire, not for himfelf, but for his country." Crevier.
Plin. Epift. Gen. Biog.

VIRGO, in AJlronomy, one of the figns or conftellations
of the zodiac, into which the fun enters in the middle of
Auguft. See Constellation.

The ftars in the conftellation Virgo, in Ptolemy's cata-
logue, are 32 ; in Tycho's, 33 ; in Hevelius's, 50 ; and in
the Britannic, 1 10.

VIRGULA, in Grammar, ?i\.exm which Latin, French,
and fome other authors ufe for a point in writing, ufually
called by us, comma.

Virgulas, F. Simon obfeives, are an invention of the mo-
dern grammarians, to give the greater clearnefs Jo difcourfe.
The ufe of them was unknown to the ancient Greeks and
Romans, who wrote all without taking off the pen, fo that
their books lie all together, without any diftindion of pomts
and virgulas.

ViRGULA, or Virgola, in Mufu, the tail or ftem to a note.
The firft notes in the old time-table had no tails till the minim
was invented, which had a tail to diftingui(h it from the femi-
breve, as the crotchet had a black head to diftinguifti it
from the minim, of which the head is white, and the quaver
a hook to the tail, to diftinguifti it from the crotchet, of
which the tail was ftraight, &c.

ViRGULA D':vina, or Baculus divinatorius, ztorked branch
in form of a Y, cut off a hazle-tree, by means of which
people have pretended to difcover mines, fprings, &c. under

ground.

The method of ufing it is this : the perfon who bears it
walking very (lowly over the places where he fufpeds mines
or fprings may be,' the effluvia exhahng from the metals, or
vapour from tlie water, impregnating the wood, makes it
dip or inchne, which is a fign of a difcovery. _

We find no mention made of this virgula in any author
before the nth century ; but from that time it has been in
frequent ufe. Divers fine names have been invented for it,
fome calling it cadueeus, others Aaron's rod. Sec.

Some difoute the matter of fad, and deny it to be pof-
fible ; others, convinced by the great number of experi-
ments alleged in its behalf, look out for the natural caufes
of them. The corpufcles, fay thefe authors, rifing from
the fprings, or minerals, entering the rod, determine it to
bow down, in order to render it parallel to the vertical lines

which the effluvia defcribe in their rife.

In

V I R

In efFfCl, ths mineral or watery particles ire fuppofed to
•be emitted by means of the fubterraneous heat, or of the fer-
•mentations in the entrails of the earth : and the virgula, being
of a light porous wood, gives an eafy palTage to thofe par-
ticles, which are alfo very fine and fubtilc ; the effluvia then
driven forwards by thofe that follow them, and opprefTed, at
the fame time, by the atmofphere incumbent on them, are
forced to enter the little interlliccs at the fibres of the wood;
and, by that effort, they oblige it to incline or dip down
perpendicularly, to b'-come parallel with the little columnb
which thofe vapours form in their rife.

A late writer has recited no lefa than fix hundred experi-
■pients, made with all poffible attention and circumfpeAion,
and feveral of which are very curious and extraordinary, in
order to afcertain the fafts attributed to the divining rod ;
and he has alfo undertaken to unfold their refemblance to the
admirable and uniform phenomena of eleftricity and mag-
netifm. See M. Thouvenel's Meraoire Phyfique et Medi-
cinale Montrant des Reports evidens entre les Phenomenes
de la Baguette divinatoire, &c. i2mo. Paris, 1781.

Mr. Pryce has coliefted feveral obfervations on the nature
and ufe of the virgula divinatoria, in his Mineralo,g. Cornub.
lib. iii. cap. I.

VIP>.GULARIA, in Botany, fo called from 'i<irga, in
alluiion to its flcnder wand-hke branches, by the authors of

the Flora Peruviana Poiret in Lamarck Di£l. v. 8. 679. —

Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord.
Pcrfonattc, Linn. Scrophularitc, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, bell-lhaped, permanent,
fomewhat two-lipped, with ten angles, and five fharp fpread-
ing teeth ; the two lowermoft a little diftant. Cor. of one
petal, bell-fhaped, irregular; tube a little recurved ; mouth
■inflated, gibbous : limb in five roundilh, concave fegments ;
the two uppermofl (hortefl, afccnding ; three lowermofl
fpreading, the middle one narroweft. Siam. Filaments four,
thread-fliaped, compreffcd, hairy at their bafe, inferted into
the tube, two of them fliortcr than the reft ; anthers in-
chning, arrow-fhaped, of two cells. Pi/?. Germen fupe-
rior, obovate ; ftyle awl-fhaped, recurved, as long as the
corolla ; ftigma oblong, compreffcd, of two lobes, the
uppermofl channelled, half fhcathing the lower. Peru. Cap-
fule invefled with the calyx, oval, obtufe with a point,
with two furrows, two cloven valves, and two cells, the
partition contrary. Seeds numerous, very fmall, inferted
into a convex central receptacle, attached to each fide of
the partition.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothcd, wHth ten angles. Corolla
fomewhat bell-fhaped, irregular, recurved. Stigma with
one lobe fheathing the other. Capfule of two cells, two
valves, and a tranlverfe partitior.. Seeds numerous.

This genus appears to come near Buddlxa. It is faid to
confift of only two known fpecies, natives of Peru, of a
fhrubby habit, witli numerous llender twigs. Neither of
the fpecies has as yet been defcribed.

VIRGULTUM, in our ancient l.aiu-Boois, is ufed for
an holt, or plantation of twigs, or oficrs.

Sometimes, alfo, for a coppice of young wood. " Et
prsetcrea concedo virgultum meum, et totam conununiam
dominii mei." Mon. Angl.

In another place of the fame work, virgullum, or rather
•virgulta, may be taken for virgala ; viz. " Dcdit prsediftx
ccclcfi^e unam virgultum tern in manerio de Crumptone."
Sec Y \KT)-Laiid.

VIRIBALLUM, m ytruienl Geography, a promontory
on the weflern fide of the ifle of Corfica, between the gulf
Cafulus and the mouth of the river Cicidius : fuppofed to
be Punta di Adiazza.
Vol. XXXVII.

V i R

VIRICONIUM. See UiutoNiuM.

VIRIDARIO Eligendo, in J.a-ui, a writ that lies for
the choice of a verderor in the foreft. See Veuderou.

VIRIDE JEris, the fame as aerugo, or vcrdigreafe,
which fee.

VIRIDELLUS, a word ufed by fomc medical writers
to exprefs the epilepfy, and, by fome of the chemical ones,
at a name fur the common green vitriol.

VIRIEU, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere ; 6 miles S.S.E. of La Tour du Pin.

ViRiEU le Grand, a town of France, in the department
of the Ain ; 6 miles N. of Belley.

VIRILE, fomething tiuit belongs, or is peculiar to man,
or the male fex.

Thub, virile member, membrum virile, is frequently ufed
for the penis.

Virile jige, /Etai virilis, is the ftrcngth and vigour of a
man's age, iiiz. from thirty to forty-five year;;, which is ai»
age in which we are equally removed from the extremes of
youth and old age. See Age.

The civil lawyers only make one age of youth and virility,
and yet their different temperalarcs feem to require a diilinc-
lion, for which reafon fome compare youth to fummcr, and
virihty to autumn.

At Rome, the youth quitted the prrctexta at fourteen or
fifteen ytars of age, and took the virile gown, togii virilh.,
to fliew, it feems, that they then entered on a ferious age.

M. Dacier will have it, that children do not take the prae-
texta till thirteen years of age, nor quit it for the toga virilis
till feventecn.

VIRILIA, a man's genitals, or privy members, including
the penis and teftes. See Generation.

The cutting off the viriha, according to Brafton, was fe-
lony by common law ; and that whether the party were
confenting or not.

" Hcnricus Hall et A. uxor ejuscapti et detenli in pril^ona
de Evilchcfter, eo quod reftati fuerunt, quod ipfi abfcide-
runt virilia Johannis Monachi, quern idem Hcnricus de-
prehendit cum predifta A. uxore ejus." Rot. Clauf.
13 Hen. III.

VIRILIS Tejis Mufculus, in yinatomy, a name given by
Vefalius and others, to the mufclc generally known by the
name of the cremaller.

VIRIMGAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 55 miles AV. of Amedabad.

VI RITES, a name by which the writers of the middle
ages have called the pyrites.

VIRIVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere ; 12 miles N.N.W- of St. Mar-
ctllin.

VIRNENBURG, a tc^wn of France, in the department
of the Rhine and MofcUc, late capital of a county, to
which it gave name ; 20 milei; \V. of Coblentz. N. lat.
50° 27'. E. long. 6° 58'.

VIROLA, in Botany, the vernacular name in Guiana of
a fort of baflafd Nutmeg-tree ; Aubl. Guian. 904. t. 345.
Juff. 81. (SeeMvRIsTlCA.) AubKt calls it V.fehifcra,
and defcribcs it as a tree from thirty to fixty feet high, and
above two feet in diameter, with numerous fpreading
branches. Leaves alternate, iLilked, oblong, acute, entire,
wavy, eight inches long ; downy beneath. Flowers dioe-
cious, in compound, denfc, axillary panicles. Anthers but
three. Capfule globofe, pointed, coriaceous, of two valves,
containing a feed like a nutmeg, enveloped in a many-cleft
tunic, hke mace, and yielding a copious oily .icrid fubftance,

ufed for making candles This tree i« common in Cayenne

and Guiana. Swartz in his Fl. Ind. Occ. 1 1 29, and
I i Willd.

V 1 R

V 1 R

Willd. in Sp. PI. V. 4. 872, have retl-rred it to Myrlfiicii,
by the fpecific name oi febifera, v/here, notwithtlanding our
learned friend Mr. Brown's doubts, we ftiould think it ought
to remain.

VIROSIDUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Great
Britain, thouo-ht by Camden to be Warwick, in Cumber-
land.

VIROVESSA, a town of Hifpania Citerior, S.E. of
Julio- Brigduna, one of the ten cities of the AutrigoneS, ac-
cording to Pliny. In the Itin. Anton, it is marked on the
ronte from the Gauls to the place named Ad Legionem
Geminum, between Segafamundum and Segefamona. Pto-
lemy calls it Vireufta, and it is now named Briviefca.

VIROVIACUM, a place marked in the Itin. Anton,
between Caftellum and Turnacum, or Caffel and Tournai,
at the fame diftance from both places.

VIROUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Tinevelly ; 57 miles N.N.E. of Neermul.

VIRPRINACH, a town of Iftria; 9 miles E.N.E. of

Pedena.

VIRREIES, three fmall ifla.^ds among tlie Pliilippines.
N. lat. \f 18'. E. long. 121° 48'.

VIRSBO, a town of Sweden, in Weilmanland ; 24
miles N. of Stroem(holm.

VIRTON, a town of France, in the department of the
Foreils; 10 miles S.W. of Arlon.

VIRTSUNGIANUS Ductus, ox Duaui Virifungii, fo
called from the inventor, Virtfungius, a profeffor at Padua,
in Anatomy, a canal, more niMzAy ciM&i du8us pancreatictis.
See Pancreas and Pancreatic Juice.

VIRTU% Ital. force, talents.

VIRTUAL, Potential, fometliing that has a power,
or virtue, of afting, or doing.

The term is chiefly underftood of fcmething that afts by
a fecret invifible caafe, in oppofition to aflual :md Jinfib/e.

ViuTUAL Focus, in Optics. See Focus.

VIRTUALIT Y, Virtualitas, in the Schools, denotes
fome mode or analogy in an objeft, which, in reality, is the
fame with fome other mode, but, out of regard to contra-
diftory predicates, is confidered as if di.linft from it.

And hence arife what we call virtual diJ}in8ions, by which
one virtuality is diftinguifhed fro.ii another, not one thing
from another.

Thus it is, the divine nature is diflinguifhed from the di-
vine perfon ; and the divine underftanding from the divine
will.

VIRTUALLY, Virtualitek, is applied to a mode
of exiftence. A thing is faid to be virtually any where,
when it is deemed to be there by fome virtue, influence, or
other eifeft, produced by it. Thus the fun is virtually on
earth, i. f. by his light, heat, &c.

A thing is alfo faid to be virtually prefent, when the vir-
tues, or properties, belonging to it, and iffuing from it, fe-
main. In which fenfe, the forms of the elements are held to
be virtually in mixed bodies.

A thing is alfo faid to be a caufe virtually, or a virtual
caufe, and that two ways : the firtt, when there is no real
diftinftion between it and the effe£t attributed to it j and
yet it is conceived by us as if it were really the caufe of it.
Thus, immutability in God is the caufe of eternity.

Secondly, when any effect, is not of the fame kind with
the caufe, and yet the caufe has the power or virtue of pro •
ducing the effeft ; thus the fun is not formally, but vir-
tually^ hot ; and fire is not contamed formally, but vir-
tually, in heat.

VIRTUE, Virtus, a term ufed in various fignifica-
tions. In the general, it denotes power, or perfcSion, of

any thing, whether natural or fupematural, animate cr
inanimate, eflential or acceflary. Hence the virtues,
that is, the powers of God, angels, men, plants, ele-
ments, &c. <

Virtue, in its more proper and reftrained fenfe, is ufed
by fome writers to fignify an habit, which improves and
perfefts the poffeflbr and his aftions. Accordingly, in this
fenfe of the term, firtue is a principle of afting or doing
well and readily ; and as there are two faculties or powers in
man from which all his aftions proceed, inz.. the under-
itanding and the will, fo the virtue (as thefe authors fay),
by which he is perfe^ed, or by which he is difpofed to do
all things rightly, and to live happily, muil be two-fold ;
the one of the underftanding, the other of the will. That
which improves the underftanding, is called intelkaual, or
dianoetic ; and that, the will, moral, or ethical. For, fince there
are two things required in order to live aright, viz. to know
what ftiould be done, and, when known, readily to perform
it ; and fince man is apt to err various ways in each refpeft,
unlefs regulated by difciphne, &c. he alone can deport him-
felf rightly in his whole courfe of hfe, whofe underftanding
and will have attained their utmoft perfetlion.

Virtue, Jntelkffual, then, according to Ariftotle, is an
habit of the reafonable foul, by which it conceives or fpcaks
the truth, either in affirming or denying.

The virtues which come under this clafs are divided into
fpetulative, which are thofe converfant about neceflary
things, that can only be known or contemplated ; and prac-
tical, which are converfant about contingent things, that
may likewife be praftifed.

Ariftotle has another divifion of intelleftual virtue, derived
from the fubjeft ; as fome of them are feated in the
tTir>i//i;»»x'5, or contemplative part ; viz. thofe converfant about
neceflary things, as fcience, tvi/dom, intelligence ; and others in
the Xoyis-ixn, or praiiical part, fuch as thofe converfant about
contingent things, zs prudence, art, Sic.^

Virtue, Moral, is defined by Ariftotle to be an eleftive
habit, placed in a mediocrity, determined by reafon, and as
a prudent man would determine. See the fequel of this
article.

We ftiall here fubjoin as concife an account as poflible of
the principal fyftems of morality or ethics that have been
propofed by different writers, both ancient and modern,
who have treated of this fubjeift ; from which the reader
v/ill be able to difcover the opinions that have chiefly pre-
vailed with regard to the nature, foundation, and obligation
of virtue, referring for a more extended and elaborate ac-
count of the fubjeft to the article Moral Philosophy.

It may be proper to premife, that virtue has been diftini-
guilhed into abjlra8 or abfolute, and relative or pradical
virtue. AhJIrad virtue is, moft properly, a quality of the
external aftion or event ; and denotes what an aftion is,
confidered independently of the fenfe of the agent ; or
what, in itfelf and abfolutely, it is right fuch an agent, in
fuch circumftances, {hould do, and what, if he judged truly,
he would judge he ought to do. PraSical virtue, on the
contrary, has a neceflary relation to, and dependence upon,
the fenfe and opinion of the agent concerning his aftions :
or it fignifies what he ought to do, upon fuppofition of his
having fuch and fuch fentiments of things. Agreeably to
this diftinftion, good aftions have been by fome divided into
fuch as are materially good, and fuch as are formally fo.
The enquiry concerning the foundation of virtue refers to
abfolute virtue : and if it be aflted what the foundation of
virtue i9, we may mean cither, what is the true account or
reafon that fuch and fuch aftions are right, or apprehended
as fuch by us ; or, what are the primary principles and

heads

VIRTUE.

Leads of »irtue, /. e. the conli^erations inferring obligation
in particular cafes, and rendering particular aftions right
and fit to be done ; or, moreover, what are the motives,
caufes, and reafons, which engage or attach us to it, and
fupport the praftice of it in the world. In this lail fenfe
the term mad be ufed by thofe who reorefent the will of
God, felf-intereft, the reafons of things, and the moral
fer.fe, as all diftinA and coincident foundations of virtue.

An ingenious writer, in forming his arrangement of the
different fyftems of moral philofophy, of which we (hall
here avail ourfelves, oblerves, that in treating of tlie princi-
ples of morals, there are two queftions to be confidered :
firft, wherein does virtue confift, or what, in temper and
corduft, conftitutes the excellent and laudable charafter ?
and fecondly, by what power of the mind is this charafter,
v/hatever it be, recommended to us ? The firft quettion is
examined when we confider whether virtue confills in bene-
volence, as Dr. Hutchefon imagines ; or in afting fuitably
to the different relations of perfons and things, as Dr.
Clarke fuppofes ; or in a conformity to the will of God ;
or in the prudent purfiiit of our own true happinefs, as
others have maintained. In reference to the fecond queftion
vre confider, whether the virtuous charafter, whatever it
confuls in, be recommended to ub by felf-love, which makes
us perceive that this charafter, both in ourfelves and others,
tends raoft to promote our own private intereft ; or by
reafonj which points out to us the difference between one
charafter and another, in the fame manner as it does tiiat
between truth and falfehood ; or by a peculiar power of
perception, called a moral fenfe, which this virtuous ciia-
rafter gratifies and pleafes, as the contrary difgufts and dif-
pleafes it ; or laftly, by fome other principle in human
nature, fuch as the modification of fympathy, or the like.

The different accounts which have been given of the
nature of virtue, may be reduced to three different clafTes.
According to fome, virtue, or the virtuous temper of
mind, does not confift in any one fpecies of affeftions, but
in the proper government and direftion of all our affeftions,
which may be either virtuous or vicious, according to the
objefta which they purfue, the principles and motives that
direft the purfuit of them, and the degree of vehemence
with which they purfue them. According to thefe authors,
therefore, virtue confifts in propriety.

According to others, virtue confifts in the judicious pur-
fuit of our own private intereft and happinefs, or in the
proper government and direftion of thofe felfifh affeftions
which aim folely at this end. In the opinion of thefe
authors, virtue confifts in prudence.

Others again make virtue confift in thofe affeftions only
which aim at the happinefs of others, not in thofe which
aim at our own. According to them, therefore, difin-
terefted benevolence is the only motive which can ftamp
upon any aftion the charafter of virtue.

According to Plato, Ariftotle, and Zeno, virtue confifts
in propriety of conduft, or in the fuitablenefs of the af-
feftion from which we aft to the objeft which excites it.
In the fyftem of Plato, reafon is the judging and ruling
faculty ; and virtue, according to him, confifts in that ftate
of mind in which every faculty confines itfelf within its
proper fphere, without encroaching on that of any other,
and performs its proper office with that precife degree of
vigour which belongs to it : or, in other words, virtue con-
fifts in propriety of conduft.

Virtue, according to .\riftotle, (as we have already
ftatcd,) confifts in the habit of mediocrity, according to
right reafon ; every particular virtue lying in a kind of
medium between two oppofitc vices ; and ttius, by making

virtue to confift in praftical habits, he probably had in view
to oppofe the doftrinf of Plato, who feems to have thought
that juft fentiments concerning what was fit to be done or
avoided were of themfelves fufficient to conftitute the moft
perfeft virtue. Ariftotle, on the contrary, was of opinion,
that no conviftion of the underftanding was capable- of
getting the better of inveterate habits, and that good morals
arofe not from knowledge but from aftion.

Others dilallow the Peripatetic notion of virtue, as
placed in a habit : for a habit, or habihty, fay they, in-
cludes two things ; a cuftom, and facility ; the firft: as a
caufe, and the fecond as an effeft : fo that a habit is
nothing but a facility acquired by cuftom. They, there-
fore, who make virtue a habit of doing well, muft, of ne-
oeffity, afcribe it to a frequent exercife of good aftions.
But this cannot be ; for the virtue muft be before the
good aftions ; and the habit, after them. Indeed, whence
(hould the aftions proceed, but from virtue ? Virtue,
therefore, is before the good aftions, and, certainly, before
a habit, refulting from a frequency of good aftions. Hence,
they define virtue to be a firm purpofe, or refolution, of
doing whatever right reafon demands to be done. For,
though a cuftom of doing well be required to make a
perfon efteemed good among men ; yet it does not follow
that that cuftom, or habit, is the formal caufe of that de-
nomination, or the goodnefs itfelf.

Befides, from the definition of Ariftotle, none can know
what virtue is ; for what mediocrity is, or what an extreme,
in which he fuppofes vice to confift, can never be deter-
mined, till we know what is agreeable to the nature of
things ; and, moreover, the definition is faulty, becaufe
there are fome branches of virtue which cannot be carried
to an extreme.

In thisconneftion we may obferve, that as on various oc-
cafions mankind aft more from habit tlian refleftion, and
that they are in a great degree paflive under their habits,
the exercife of virtue, the guilt of vice, or the ufe of moral
and rehgious knowledge, confift in forming and contraftin^
thefe habits. Hence it appears, that it is in many cafes a
very important and ufeful principle of virtue (fee Habit) ;
and we ftiall thus be able to explain the nature of halitual
virtue. Whatever definition of virtue we may adopt, a
man may, in faft, perform many afts that juftly merit the
denomination of virtuous, without thinking at the time of
the principle from which he afts ; whether it be reftitnde,
benevolence, a regard to the will of God, or a view to his
own happinefs.

According to Zeno and the Stoics, virtue confifted in
choofing and rejefting all different objefts and circum-
ftances according as they were by nature rendered more or
lefs the objefts of choice or rejeftion ; in felefting thofe
which were moft to be chofen, when all could not be ob-
tained ; and in felefting thofe which were Icaft to be
avoided, when all could not be avoided. This conftituted
the effunce of virtue, and was what the Stoics called to live
confiftently, to live according to nature, and to obey thofe
laws which nature, or the Author of nature, prefcribcd for
our conduft : and in this courfe, they required the nofl
perfeft apathy, and confidered every emotion which might
in the fmallgft degree difturb the tranquillity of the mind, as
the effeft of levity and folly.

Befides thefe ancient there are fome modern fyftems, ac-
cording to which virtue confifts in propriety ; or in the
fuitablenefs of the affcftion from which we aft, to the
caufe or objeft v^hich excites it. The fyftem of Dr.
Clarke, Mr. Balguy, and other writern, which placrs
virtue in afting according to tht relations of perform and
I i : tlinigfl,

VIRTUE.

things, fn regulating our conduft according to the fitnefs
or incongruity which there may be in tlie apphcation of
certain aftions to certain things, or to certain relations ;
tliat of Mr. Grove and others, who explain virtue by
faying, that it is the conformity of our aftions to rea-
fon or wifdom ; that of many others, who reprefent it as
originating in a regard to the will of God ; that of Mr.
Wollafton, which places it in afting according to the truth
of things, aitlons as well as words having a language, fo
that when this aftion is agreeable to the nature of things,
the aftion is virtuous, and when it implies a falfe alfertion,
vicious : that of lord Shaftefbury, which places it in main-
taining a proper balance of the affeftions, and allowing no
pjJTion to go beyond its proper fphere, or in a certain juft
difpofition of a rational creature towards the moral objedls
of right and wrong : are all of them reducible to the fame
fundamental idea of propriety, as it has been explained.

The moft ancient of thofe fyftems, which make virtue
confift in prudence, is that of Epicurus, who maintained that
bodily pleafure and pain were the fole ultimate objefts of
natural defire and averfion, and were the fources of thofe of
the mind ; and who placed the moft perfeft happinefs which
man was capable of enjoying in eafe of body, and in traji-
quillity of mind. According to him, virtue did not deferve
to be purfued for its own fake, nor was itfelf one of the
ultimate objefts of natural appetite, but was eligible on
account of its tendency to prevent pain, and to procure
eafe and pleafure. Among our modern writer;, on the fub-
jeft of morahty, there have been fome who have placed all
virtue in a %vife regard to our own intereft : this feems to
have been the opinion of Dr. Waterland, Dr. Rutherford,
&c.

The fyftem which makes virtue confift in benevolence,
feems to have been the doftrine of moft of thofe philofo-
phers who, about and after the age of Auguftus, called
themfelves Ecleftics, who pretended to follow chiefly the
opinions of Plato and Pythagoras, and who are commonly
known by the name of the later Platonifts. In the divine
riatui-e, according to them, benevolence was the fole princi-
ple of aftion, and directed the exertion of all the other at-
tributes. The wifdom of the Deity was employed in finding
out the means for bringing about thofe ends which his good-
nefs fuggefted, as his infinite power was exerted to execute
them. Benevolence, however, was a fupreme and governing
attribute, to which the others were fubfervieiit, and from
which the whole excellency of the divine operations was
ultimately derived. The whole perfeftion and virtue of the
lium?n mind confifted in fome refemblance and participation
of the divine perfeftions, and, confequently, in being filled
with the fame principle of benevolence, which influenced
all the aftions of the Deity. This fyft«m, as it was much
efteemed by many of the ancient fathers of the church, was,
after the Reformation, adopted by feveral divines of the moft
eminent piety and learning, and of the moft amiable manners ;
particularly by Dr. Ralph Cudworth, Dr. Henry More,
and Mr. John Smith, of Cambridge. Mr. Bayes has alfo
more lately confidered benevolence as the fpring of the
divine aftions ; whilft Mr. Balguy referred them all to rec-
titude, and Mr. Grove to wifdom. The fubjeft was ably
canvafTed by thefe writers, and feveral excellent pamphlets
publiftied on the occafion. But of all the patrons of the
fyftem of benevolence^ the late Dr. Hutchefon purfued it to
the greateft extent, and with diftinguifhed acutenefs and ac-
curacy. Accordingly, he defines moral goodnefs to be a
quality apprehended in fome aftions, which produces appro-
bation and love towards the after, from thofe who receive
BO benefit from the aftion ; and he obferves, that the mix-

ture of any felfifti motive diminifhes or altogether deftfoyj
the merit which would otherwife have belonged to any ac-
tion, and, therefore, that virtue mull confift in pure and dif-
interefted benevolence aloije. Others, and particularly Dr-
Cumberland, in his Law of Nature, have placed the whole
of virtue in the love of God and our fellow-creatures : to
this purpofe he obferves (De Legat. Nat. cap. i. feft. 4.),
the foundation of all natural law is this, that the greateft.
benevolence of every rational agent towards all forms the
happieft ftate of every and of all the benevolent, as far as is in
their power, t.ad is neceffarily requifite to the happieft ftate
which they can attain ; and, therefore, the common good i«
the fupreme law. Archdeacon Paley, defervedly efteemed
as one of our moft popular modern writers, defines virtue to
be " the doing good to mankind, in obedience to the will of
God, and for th? ake of everlafting happinefs." Accord-
ing to this definitivvn, in our judgment partly juft and partly
erroneous ( fee Moral Philosophv ), but comprehending the
fentiments of thofe who refer virtue to benevolence, to the
will of God, and to a regard to their own happinefs, the
good of mankind is the fubjeft, the will of God the rule,
and everlafting happinefs the motive of human virtue.

The three fyftems above recited comprehend the principal.
accounts which have been given of the nature of virtue. To
one or other of tiiefe, all the other definitions or defcriptions.
of virtue, how different foever they may appear, are eafily,
reducible. That fyftem which places virtue in obedience
to the will of the Deity, may be counted among thofe
which makes it confift in prudence, or among thofe which,
make it confift in propriety. When it is afked, why wt
ought to obey the will of the Deity, the queftion can admit
but of two different anfwers. It muft either be faid, that
we ought to obey the will of the Deity becaufe he is a beings
of infinite power, who will recompence or punifti : or it
muft be faid, that, independent of any regard to our own.
happinefs, or to rewards and punifhments of any kind, there
is a congruity and fitnefs that a creature fhould obey ita
Creator, and a hmited imperfeft being fubmit to one of in-
finite perfeftion. In the firft cafe, virtue confifts in pru-
denc J or in the proper purfuit of our own final and fu-
preme intereft ; fince it is upon this account that we are
obliged to obey the will of the Deity : and in the latter cafe»
virtue muft confift in propriety ; fince the ground of our
obligation to obedience is the fuitablenefs or congruity of the
fentiments of humility and fubmifllon to the fuperiority o£
the objeft which excites them. That fyftem which places
virtue in utility, coincides too with that which makes it con-
fift in propriety.

All the fyftems above recited fuppofe, that there is a real
and effential diftinftion between virtue and vice, whatever
thefe qualities may confift in. There is a real and effential
difference between the propriety and impropriety of any
affeftion ; between benevolence and any other principle of
aftion ; between real prudence and fhort-Cghted folly or
precipitate raftinefs. And the general tendency of all thefe
fyftems is to encourage the beft and moft laudable difpo-
fitions and habits.

There are, however, fome other fyftems, which feem alto-
gether t« annihilate the diftinftion between vice and virtue,
and the tendency of which is, therefore, wholly pernicious :
fuch are the fyftems of Rochefoucault, and Mandeville, who
afcribes aftions commonly accounted virtuous to the fri-
volous motive of vanity : treating every thing as vanity that
has any reference to what are, or ought to be the fentiments
of others ; and by means of fuch fophiftry he eftabhfties his
favourite conclufion, that private vices are public benefits.
After tlie enquiry concerning the nature of virtue, the.

next

VIRTUE.

nest queftion of importance in moral pliilofophy concerns
the principle of approbation (which fee), or that faculty of
the mind which renders certain charafters agreeable or dif-
agreeable to us, makes us prefer one tenor of conduft to
another, denominate the one right and the other wrong, and
confider the one as the objedl of approbation, honour, and
reverence, and the other as that of blame, cenfure, and pu-
nifhmeiit. Three different accounts have been given of this
principle of approbation. According to fome, we approve
and difapprove both of our own aftions and of thofe of
others, from felf-love only, or from fome view of their ten-
dency to our own happinefs or difadvantage. ( See Uti-
lity.) According to others, reafon, the fame faculty by
which we diftinguilh between truth and falfehood, enables
us to diftinguilh between what is fit and unfit both in aftions
and afre(Sion8 ; according to others, this diftinftion is alto-
gether the effeft of immediate fentiraent and feeling, and
arifes from the fatisfaition or difgull with which the view of
certain aftions or affeftion infpires us.

Thofe who account for the principle of approbation from
felf-love, differ in their reprefentation of its influence. Ac-
cording to Mr. Hobbes, and many of his followers, man is
driven to take refuge in fociety, not by any natural love
which he bears to his own kind, but becaufe without the
afliftance of others, he is incapable of fubfifling with eafe
or fafety : virtue being the great fupport, and vice the great
difturber of human fociety, whence the former neceflarily
pleafes, and the latter is as naturally offenfive. Moreover,
a ftate of nature, according to Mr. Hobbes, being a ftate
of war, fo that antecedent to the conftitution of civil go-
varnment, there could be no fafe and peaceable fociety
among men ; to preferve fociety was to fupport civil govern-
ment, and the fupport of civil government depends upon the
obedience that is paid to the fiipreme magi (Irate ; hence it
was inferred, that the laws of the civil magiftrate ought to
be regarded as the fole ultimate ftandard of what was jull
and unjuft, right and wrong. See Hobbism.

In order to confute fo odious a doftrine, it was neceflary
to prove, that antecedent to all law or pofitive inftitution,
the mind was naturally endowed with a faculty, by which it
diftingui(hed in certain aftions and affoftions the qualities of
right, laudable, and virtuous, and in others, thofe of wrong,
blameable, and vicious. This faculty was reafon, which
pointed out the difference between right and wrong, in the
fame manner in which it did between truth and falfehood.
Right and wrong, it is argued, denote fimple ideas, and are,
therefore, to be afcribed to fome immediate power of per-
ception in the human mind, which power is the undcrftand-
ing. Befides, all aftions have a nature ; fome charaftcr be-
longs to them, and there is fomething that may be affirmed
of them, i. e. fome are right and others wrong. But if our
aftions are, in themfelves, either right or wrong, or any thing
of a moral and obhgatory nature, which can be an objeft to
the underftanding, it mud follow tliat in themfelves they are
all indifferent. From fuch reafoning it follows, that morahty
is eternal and immutable : becaufe right and wrong denote
what aftions are ; and whatever any thing is, that it is not
by will, or decree, or power, but by nature and neccflity.
No will can render any thing good and obligatory, which
was not fo antecedently and from eternity ; or any aftion
right, that is not fo in itfelf. In this view of it, morality
appears not to be, in any fenfe, faftitious, or the arbitrary
produftion of any power, human or divine ; but equally
cvcrlafting and neceffary with all truth and reafon. Some
luve fuppofed, however, that, in men, the rational principle,
or the intellcftual difcernmcnt of right and wrong, fliould be
aided by fomcwbat in&iD^ve. Of this number it Dr. Price,

who, in his reafoning concerning the original of our ideas of
the beauty and deformity of aftions, obferves, that in contem-
plating the aftions and affeftions of moral agents, we have
both a perception of the underftanding, and a feeling of the
heart ; and that the latter, or the elFefts in us accompanying
our moral perceptions, are deducible from two fprings ; they
partly depend on the pofitive conftitution of our natures,
but the moft fteady and univerfal ground of them is the
eflential congruity or incongruity between the objeft and
faculty ; in other words, placet fuaptt valura — virtus: Sen.
or, Etiamji a nulla laudetur, natura ejl laudabile. Tally. See
Common Sense.

This leads us to mention thofe fyftems which make fen-
timent the principle of approbation ; thefe may be dillri-
buted into two different clafTes.

According to fome, the principle of approbation i«
founded upon a fentiment of a peculiar nature, upon a par-
ticular power of perception exerted by the mind at the view
of certain aftions and affeftions ; fome of which affefting
this faculty in an agreeable, and others in a difagreeable
manner, the former are ftamped with the charaftcrs of right,
laudable, and virtuous ; the latter witli thofe of wrong,
blameable, and vicious.

This fentiment being of a peculiar nature, diftinft from
every other, and the effeft of a particular power of percep-
tion, they give it a particular name, and call it a moral
fenfe.

Dr. Hutchefon, having taken great pains to prove that
the principle of approbation was not founded on felf-love^
and that it could not arife from any operation of reafon,
fuppofed it to be a faculty of a peculiar kind, with which
nature had endowed the human mind, in order to produce
this particular and important effeft. This power, which he
called a moral fenfe, he fuppofed to be fomewhat analogous
to the external fenfes.

According to his fyftem, the various fenfes or powers of
perception, from which the human mind derives all its fimple
ideas, were of two different kinds, of which one were called
the direft or antecedent, the other the reflex or confequcnt
fenfes. The direft fenfes were thofe faculties from which
the mind derived the perception of fuch fpccics of things,
e. gr. founds and colours, as did not pre-fuppofe the ante-
cedent perception of any other quality or objeft. Tfie re-
flex or confequcnt fenfes, were thofe faculties from which
the mind derived the perception of fuch fpecies of things as
pre-fuppofed the antecedent perception of fome other ; fuch
as harmony and beauty.

The moral fenfe was confidered as a faculty of this kind.
That faculty, which Mr. Locke calls reflcftion, and from
which he derived the fimple ideas of the different paffions
and emotions of the human mind, v.'as according to Dr.
Hutchefon a direft internal fenfe. That faculty again, by
which we perceived the beauty or deformity, the virtue or
vice of thofe different paffions and emotions, was a reflex
internal fenfe.

Dr. Hutchefon endeavoured ftill farther to fupport this
doftrine, by fhewing that it was agreeable to the analogy of
nature, and that the mind was endowed with a variety of
other reflex fenfes exactly fimilar to the moral fenfe ; fuch
as a fenfe of beauty and deformity in external ohjefts ; a
public fciife, by which we fympathi/o willi the happinefs or
mifery of our fellow-creatures ; a lenfe of fhame and ho-
nelly, and a fenfe of ridicule.

To this fyft-em it has been objcfted, that it makes virtue
an arbitrary thing, depending on the pofitive conftitution of
our minds ; that r-glit and wrong are only qualities of our
minda and fcnfations, depending on the particular frame and

ttrufture

VIRTUE.

ftniAure of our natures, which have no otlier' meafure or
ftandard befides every one's private ftrufture of mind and
fenfations ; that it imphes, that a creature vnth. intelligence,
reafon, and liberty, could not have performed one good ac-
tion, without that inftinftive affeftion to which Dr. Hutche-
fon afcribes every good aftion ; that it makes brutes capa-
ble of virtue, becaufe they are capable of aifeftions ; that
it eftimates the excellency of charafters by the ftrength of
paflions, by no means in our power ; and that, upon the
whole, it gives us a much lefs honourable idea of virtue than
other fyftems, which make it to confift in the agreement of
the aftions of an intelligent being, with the nature, circum-
ftances, and relations of things, and of which reafon is the
judge.

We fhall only add, that the opinion of thofe who maintain
our ideas of morality to be derived from fenfe, is far from
being entirely modern. There were, among the ancients,
philofophers, particularly Protagoras and his followers, who
entertained a hke opinion, but extended it much farther, that
is, to all fcience, denying all abfolute and immutable truth,
and afferting every thing to be relative to perception.

According to others, who afcribe the principle of appro-
bation to fentiment, there is no occafion for fuppofing any
new power of perception ; nature afting in this, as in all
other cafes, with the ftrifteft economy, and producing a mul-
titude of effefts from one and the fame caufe ; and there-
fore, fympathy, they fay, a power which has always been
taken notice of, and with which the mind is manifeftly en-
dowed, is fufficient to account for all the effefts afcribed to
this peculiai- faculty. Of this number is Dr. Adam Smith.
( See Symp.athy. ) See alfo Smith's Theory of Moral Sen-
timents, pafGm ; and particularly part i. feft. i, 2, 3.

The term obligation of virtue, or moral obLgation, fre-
quently occurs among moral writers ; and it is very difiFer-
ently defined and explained. Mr. Balguy defines obligation
to be a ftate of the mind into which it is brought by per-
ceiving a reafon for aftion ; but an excellent writer obferves,
that this is the effeft of obligation perceived, rather than
obhgation itfelf.

Other writers, with Dr. Cumberland, have defined obliga-
tion the necefiity of doing a thing in order to be happy : but
if this be the only fenfe of obhgation, what is meant when
we fay, a man is obliged to ftudy his own happinefs ? In this
cafe we can only mean, that it is right to ftudy our own
happinefs, and wrong to negleft it.

Dr. Warburton maintains, that moral obligation always
denotes fome objeft of will or law, or implies fome obliger ;
and accordingly, the word obligation Cgnifies only the par-
ticular fitnefs of obeying the divine will, and cannot pro-
perly be applied to any other fitnefs, which is reftraining the
fenfe of the word in a manner unwarranted by the common
ufe of it.

Moral obligation, fays Dr. Paley, is like all other obliga-
tions ; and all obligation is nothing more than an inducement
of fufficient ftrength, and refulting, in fome way, from the
command of another. As the will of God is our rule, to
inquire what is our duty, or what we are obliged to do, in
any 'inftance, is, in effeft, to inquire, what is the will of
God in that inftance ? This n to be determined either by his
exprefs declarations, which muft be fought for in fcripture,
or by the light of nature, i. e. what we can difcover of his
defigns and difpofition from his works ; and therefore it is
abfurd to feparate natural and revealed rehgion from one
another.

Mr. Hume, in his fourth Appendix to his Principles of
Morals, has been pleafed to complain of the modern fcheme
of uniting ethics with the Chriftian theology. They who

find themfelves difpofed to join in this complaint will do
well to obferve v/hat Mr. Hume himfelf has been able to
make of morahty ^-nthout this union. And for that pur-
pofe, let them read the fecond part of the ninth feftion of
the above effay ; which part contains the praftical applica-
tion of the whole treatife, — a treatife, which Mr. Hume
declares to be " incomparably the beft he ever wrote."
V/hen they have read it over, let them confider, whether
any motives there propofed are likely to be found fufficient
to withhold men from the gratification of luft, revenge,
envy, ambition, avarice, or to prevent the exiftence of thefe
paffions. Unlefs tliey rife up from this celebrated effay,
fays archdeacon Paley, with ftronger impreffions upon their
minds, than it ever left upon mine, they will acknowledge
the neceffity of additional fanftions. But the neceffity of
thefe fanftions is not now the queftion. If they be in fall
ejlalli/hed, if the rewards and punilliments held forth in the
gofpel will aftually come to pafs, they mujl be confidered.
Such as rejeft the Chriftian rehgion are to make the beft
(liift they can to build up a fyftem, and lay the founda-
tions of morality without it. But it appears to be a great
inconfiftency in thofe who receive Chriftianity, and expeft
fomething to come of it, to endeavour to keep all fuch ex-
peftations out of fight in their reafonings concerning human
duty.

Dr. Hutchefon fays, a perfon is obhged to an aftion,
when every fpedlator, or he himfelf, upon refleftion, muft
approve his aftion, and difapprove omitting it. Obhgation
to aft, however, and reflex approbation or dilapprobation, do,
in one fenfe, always accompany and imply one another ; yet
they feem as different as an aft and an objeft of the mind, or
as perception and the truth perceived. After all it may be
obferved, that however varioufly and loofely this word may
be ufed, its primary and original fignification coincides with
reftitude : right imphes duty in its idea, fo that to perceive
an aftion to be right, is to fee a reafon for the doing it in
the aftion itfelf, abftrafted from all other confiderations
whatever ; and this perception, this acknowledged reftitude
in the aftion, is the very effence of this obligation, or that
which commands the approbation and choice, or binds the
confcience of every rational being. See Price's Review of
the Principal Queftions, &c. in Morals, chap. vt. ; Adams's
Sermon on the Nature and Obligation of Virtue ; and Paley's
Principles of Moral and Pohtical Philofophy, vol. i.

Morahfts ufually diftinguifti four principal, or, as they are
vulgarly called, cardinal virtues ; "jiz . prudence, juJlice,forlitudt,
and temperance : the reafon of which divifion is founded in
this : that, for a man to live virtuoufly and honeftly, it is
nccefTary he know what is fit to be done ; which is the bufi-
nefs of prudence. That he have a conftant and firm will to
do what he judges beft ; which wiU perfeft the man, either
as it reftrains too violent perturbations, the office of temper-
i!n:<: : or as it fpurs and urges on thofe that are too flow
and languid, which is the bufinefs of fortitude : or, laftly,
comparatively, and mth regard to human fociety ; which
is the objeft of jujlice.

To thefe four all the other wrtues are referred, either as
parts, or as concomitants.

Some ethical writers divide virtue into betuvolence, pru-
dence, fortitude, and temperance; by others it is diflinguifhed
into two branches only, prudence and benevolence ; the former
attentive to our own intereft, and the latter to that of our
fellow-creatures, both direfled to the increafe of happinefs,
and taking equal concern in the future as in the prefent : but
the divifion that is now moft common, is into duties towards
God, as piety, reverence, refignation, gratituJe, &c. ; to-
wards other men (relative duties), as juftice, ch;u-ity, fidelity,

leyalty,

7

V I R

loyalty, Sec. ; towards our/elves, as chadity, fobriety, Iciu-
P'.'iatice, prefeivation of life, of healtli, &c.

VlUTUivS, in ihe Ci:leJ}'ial Hierarchy, the third rank, or
choir, of angels, being that in order between dominations
and powers.

To thefe is attributed the power of working miraclts, and
of ilrengtlipniiig and reinforcing the inferior angels in the
ejcrcife of their lunftions.

Virtues of Plants, in the hiftory of Botany, are generally
uiiderftood to he certain qualities, appropriated to every
plant, and inherent in its conftitution, by which it is rendered
effcftual in the cure of particular difeafes. ..-The difcovery
of fuch qualities was, doubtlefs, at firtt, in every country,
cafual, or empirical ; and the hiftory or knowledge of them
traditionary. Such knowledge, acquired to any coniider-
able extent, rendered its poflclfor an important perfonage in
human fociety ; and when combined with drill in the difcri-
mination of difeafes themfelves, completed the charaftcr of a
phyfician. Such was the fcience of Hippocrates and Diof-
corides ; the former having been bell verfed in the know-
ledge of difeafes ; the latter in a praftical acquaintance with
their reputed remedies. This kind of praftical knowledge
makes up the v/hole hiftory of ancient medicine. How foon
hypothetical enquiries, or opinions, may have arifen, it is
fcarcely poffible to learn, or even to conjecture. Among
thefe, the fuppofed influence of the heavenly bodies upon
the properties of plants, particularly with refpeft to the
time when they ought to be gathered in order to be the
moll effeftual, feems one of the moft ancient hypothefes.
When the imagination was once let loofe, and theory took
place of experience, mankind were difpofed to run headlong
into this, like every other fuperftition or folly. The com-
plete hiftory of fuch, is buried in the darknefs of antiquity ;
but its traces are abundantly vifible in the medical records of
every ancient nation, efpecially of China, Hindooftan, Ara-
bia, and Greece, nor are they quite L-ffaced among the moil
enlightened people. Into thefe it is by no means our prefent
purpofe to enter.

At that memorable era in the hiftory of roankiud, em-
phatically termed the revival of learning, tlic firft objeft of
learned phyficians was to inform themfelves of tlic opinions
of the ancients, on every fnbjeft connefted witli their fci-
ence, and above all, on the Medical Virtues of Plants. No
one prefumed to have an opinion which was not authorized
by a Greek or Latin, or perhaps an Arabian, writer. So
that here the fcience of medicine, philofophically confidered,
made a complete ftand, and became once more traditional
and empirical.

We have, under the article Odontites, fpoken of one
method, which was fyftematically ufed, to inveftigate the
qualities of plants ; a comparifon of their outward form
with certain parts of the human body, on which they were
fuppofed fpecifically to aft. Some traces of this notion
may be found in Diofcorides ; in his account of the Orchis,
for inftance ; which plant is indeed fo remarkable for the
figure of its root, that one cannot wonder at any fancies it
may have excited, nor that fuppofed qualities, founded
thereon, ftiould have been handed down to our times. The
celebrated reftorative properties of Salep reft, we believe, on
no firmer foundation, whatever may be the cfFeft of the
wine, fugar, or aromatics added to make that mucilaginous
fubftance palatable, or whatever nutriment it may, as a mu-
cilage, contain. If however there be, in this inllance, fomc
cafual coincidence between the ftiapc and the fpecific virtue
of the plant, the fame will fcarcely be beUeved to e xift be-
tween heart-fhaped leaves, or roots, and the human hesrt ;
or between herbs with capillary llalks, like ferns or moflV?,

V I R

and the hair of our heads. A perfon raging with the tooth-
ache would not twice recur for a cure, to the various kinds
ot Toothwort, becaufe of their notched roots, though one
of them, Lathrta Squamaria, be ever fo good an imitation
of the fore teeth. Yet thefe, and many otiier vain ima-
ginations, are found in the elaborate book of Baptifla
Porta. So far we might take him for an honeft enthufiaft.
But when he purpofcly delineates the ruots of Doronicum
or Arnica, with the precifc (hapc of a fcorpion, to prove
the plants a cure for its fting ; we can fcarcely beheve he
intended to deceive himfelf, and therefore he muft have had
fome other aim, not worth inquiring into. Few perfons
will be led by this author, to believe in any conncftion be-
tween the hooked prickles of a Bramble, and the teeth of
a Viper, or the fcales of a Lily-root, and thofe of a Fifh.
We fhall detain the reader no longer on this part of our
fubjeft.

Chemical analyfis has proved abfolutely ufelefs to de-
teft the properties of plants. The world is obhged to
GeofFroT, Chomel, and their pupils, who with this aim have
analyfed nearly two thoufand different fpccies ; becaufe their
labours, having led to no difcovery whatever, except of their
own futility, no man in future will have any inducement to
wafte his time in this purfuit.

Linnrcus was, if we miftake not, the firft perfon who fug-
gefted an enquiry into the qualities of plants, on the prin-
ciple of botanical affinity, or technical charaftcrs. That
vegetables of one great obvious natural clafs, fuch as Grali'es,
Leguminous or Umbelliferous plants, ihould have a gene-
ral agreement with each other, is probable at firft light.
Each clafs may be expefted to be throughout falutary or
dangerous, and they generally prove fo, with certain limit-
ations. The Darnel is almoft a fohtary inftance of any
thing pernicious among Graffes ; Umbellate plants in a dry
foil are aromatic and wholefome ; in a wet one, acrid and
highly dangerous. The Convolvulus genus affords feteral
eminently purgative roots, nor would any rational botanitt
venture to ufe them without caution ; though the opera-
tions of cookery render one of this genus, C. Batatas, whole-
fome and dehcious. The acrid qualities of one fpecies of
Euphorbia, as being a moft decidedly marked, and very pe-
cuHar, genus, are found in more or Icfs aftivity, in all.
Agreement in the parts of fruftification is therefore, with
great reafon, fet forth by the learned author of the fexual
lyftem, as the index to a fimilarity of properties. Thus the
Stellate are diuretic, the Afpenjolu emollient, the Luridtt
narcotic and dangerous, the Bicornes allringent, the Verticil-
lata: fragrant and harmlefs, the Compofitt bitter, greatly
mclior.ited by culture and cookery. All thefe, though
named from various charafters, are diftinguiftied by their
fruftification. The difterent infertion of parts fonietimes
indicates a difference of quality, of which the clafs Icnfandria
is a memorable and often repeated example. The infertion
ot ilijlamcns into the calyx, is attended with a wholefome
fruit, and the fame infertion in other claffes, may be lately
trulled in that rcfpcft. Plants wiiich have a ne8ary dillinft
from l\\ii petals, are always to be miftrufted. So are milky
plants in general, yet not without exception. A dry foil
ufu.illy renders plants aromatic and wholefome, aud abounds
moll with fuch ; moifture, or much wet, nourifties viroft,
acrid, poifonous tribes, of various dcfcriptions. Sweel-
fmelling and agreeably-flavoured vegetables are, for the
moft part, wholefome, for it were a fort of treachery in Na-
ture to have made tliem otherwife. Fetid herbs and nau-
feous fruits are revolting to our fenfes, and warn us of danger.
Linnxus obforvcs that a pale colour indicates infipidity, at
Icaft in the hcrbajje ; yellow u a figu of biUerncfs or acri-
mony ;

V I R

V I R

mony ; red, of acidity or aftringency ; black, of a noxious
quality. Even this lalt however is overruled by the infertion
of the ftamens into the calyx ; witnefs Prunas and Rites.

Such are a f:w of the hints given by Linnseue. They are
well worthy of confideration, and may be extended or modi-
fied by praftical obfervation. Exceptions, of courfe, will
prefent themfelves, but fcarcely more than occur in any
other department of natural fcience.

It is hardly necelTary to fay that the above rules relate
■exclufively to the human conftitution. Some animals feed
on what are fatal poifons to others. The Goat and Deer
browze on the Clematis, which would blifter our throat, or
even our (Icin ; and dehght in the naufeous virulent feed ?f
the Horfe Chefnut. Infedls thrive on the moft bitter or
burning milky herbs or (hrubs, which no quadruped could
tafte with impunity. Nature teaches every animal what is
falutary to itfelf, and what is dangerous ; but man is capable
■of reafon and fcience, to make experiments and obfervations,
and to enlarge the fphere of his knowledge by drawing
general conclufions.

VIRTUOSO, A man pofleffed of talents in any of the
fine arts is called a virtuofo, but particularly in mufic, where
it ufually imphes a profefTor of talents.

Among us, the term feems appropriated to thofe who
apply themfelves to fome curious and quaint, rather than
immediately ufeful art or ftudy : as antiquaries, colleftors
of rarities of any kind, microfcopical obfervers, &c.

VIRTZ, in Geography, a lake of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Riga, about forty miles in circumference ; 96 miles
N.N.E. of Riga.

VIRUCINATES, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Vindelicia, denominated Rucinates by Hardouin, who is juf-
tified in this reading by Ptolemy.

VIRUELA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon ;
6 miles from Tarracona.

VIRVESCA. See BiRViESCA.

VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields a
virus, that is, a contagious or malignant pus.

The gonorrhoea virulenta is what we popularly call a clap.

VIRUNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Germany,
placed by Ptolemy with the Teutonari, between the country
of the Saxons and that of the Siievi.

VIRUNUM, a town fituated in the northern part of
Germany, probably belonging to the Viruni, and fuppofed
by Cluvier to be the prefent Waren, in Mecklenburg. —
Alfo, a town of Norica, or ifle of Norica, in the middle of
the Danube, upon the route from Aquileia to Lauriacum,
between Santicum and Candalica, according to Anton. Itin.
In the table of Peutinger it is named Varenum. It is thought
that the emperor Claudius eftablifhed a colony in this place.
Cellarius fuppofes that this is the prefent Volckmarck, m
Carinthia.

yiRUPAKSHA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo
<leity Siva ; which fee. It is faid to mean with three eyes,
fimilar to Trilokan ; vi'hich fee. The epithet Sri, or divine,
is commonly prefixed to this name. See Sri and Ski-

VIRUPAKSHA.

VIS, or ViSAY, in Commerce, a weight in the Eaft Indies,
which is the eighth part of the maund. See Maund.

Vis, in Phyjiotogy, a term employed to denote the vital
powers : th'is, vis itijita is the contraftile power of a mufcle,
10 named becaufe it is inherent in the organization of the
part, and not dependent on any other influence : it is equi-
valent to vis irritabd'is. Vis nervea is that power of contrac-
tion which depends on the nerves. Vis vita is a general
<Kpreffion for the vital power altogether. See Life, Mus-
ctE, and Nervous S^/lem.

Vis, a Latin word, fignifying force or power ; adopted by
phyfical writers, to exprefs divers kinds of natural power*
or faculties. See Force.

This is aftive and paffive ; the vis aHiva is the power of
producing motion ; the vis pajjiva, that of receiving or
lofing it. The vis aSiva is again fubdivided into vit viva
and vis mortua.

Vis Abfoluta, or ahfohti force, is that kind of centripetal
force which is meafured by the motion that would be gener-
ated by it in a given body, at a given diftance, and depends
on the efficacy of the cajfe producing it.

Vis Accel^ratrix, or accelerating force, is that centri-
petal force which produces an accelerated motion, and is
proportional to the velocity which it generates in a given
time.

This is different at different diftancea from the fame cen-
tral body ; and depends not on the quantity of matter that
gravitates, being equal in all forts of bodies at equal diftances
from the centre. See Acceleration.

Vis Imprejfa is defined by fir Ifaac Newton to be the
aftion exercifed on any body to change its ftate, either of
reft or movi;;g uniformly in a right line.

This force confifls altogether in the aftion ; and has no
place in the body after the aftion has ceafed. For the body
perfeveres in every new ftate by the vis inertia alone.

The vis imprejfa may arife from divers caufes ; as from
p^rcuffion, prefiion, and centripetal force.

Vis Inertia, power of inaSivity, is defined by fir Ifaac
Nev?ton to be a power implanted in all matter, by which it
refifts any change endeavoured to be made in its ftate, «'. e.
whereby it becomes difficult to alter its ftate, either of reft
or motion.

This power, then, coincides with the vis rejijlendi, power
of refifting, by which every body endeavours, as much as
it can, to perfeverc; in its own ftate, whether of reft or uni-
form reftilinear motion ; which power is ftill proportional
to the body, and only differi from the vis inertia of the mafs,
in the manner of conceiving it.

Bodies only exert this power in changes brought on their
ftate by fome ^i;r imprejfa, force impreffed on them. And
the exercife of this power is, in different refpefts, both re-
fiftance and impetus ; refiftance, as the body oppofes a force
impreffed on it to change its ftate ; and impetus, as the fame
body endeavours to change the ftate of the refifting obftacle.
Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. lib. i.

The vis inertia, the fame great author elfewhere obfe/ves,
is a paffive principle, by which bodies perfift in their motion,
or reft, receive motion, in proportion to the force impreffuig
it, and refift as much as they are refifted.

For the efFetl of the vis inertia, in refifting and retarding
the motion of bodies, &c. fee Resistance.

Vis Infta, or innate force of matter, is a power of refifting,
by which every body, as much as in it lies, endeavours to
perfevere in its prefent ftate, whether of reft or of moving
uniformly forward in a right line.

This force is ever proportional to that body whofe force
it is, and differs nothing from the vis inertia but in our man-
ner of conceiving it.

Vis Centnpeta. See Centripetal Force.

Vis Centrifuga. See Centrifugal Force.

Vis Mo'.rix, or rioving force, of a centripetal body, is the
tendency of the whole body towards the centre, refulting
from the tendency of all the parts, and is proportional to
the motion which it generates in a given time, fo that the
vis motrix is to the vis acceleratrix, as the motion to the cele-
rity : and as the quantity of motion in a body is eftimated
by the produft of the celerity into the quantity of matter,

the

VIS

the vis matrix arifes from the vis acceleratrix, multiplied by
the quartity of matter.

The followers of Leibnitz ufe the term vis molrix for the
force of a body in motion, in the fame fenfe as tlie Newto-
nians ufe the term vis Inertiic ; this latter they allow to be
inherent in a body at reft ; but the former, or vis molrix, is
a force inherent in the fame body whilll in motion, which
aftually carries it from place to place, by aftiiig upon it
always with the fame intenfity in every phyfical part of the
line whicii it defcribes. See FoiiCE and Motion.

Vis Fiva, in Mechanics, a term ufed by Leibnitz and his
difciples for force, (which fee,) which they dillinguifh into
two kinds, vis mortua, and vis viva-; underftaiiding by the
former any kind of prelfure, or an endeavour to move, inluffi-
cient to produce aftual motion, unlefs its aftion on a body
be continued for fome time, and by the latter, that force or
power of afting which refides in a body in motion.

VISAKNA, or SalzBurg, in Geography, a town of
Tranfylvania, famous for its fait -works ; 4 miles N. of
Hermanftadt.

VISANDONE, a town of Italy, in Friuli ; 5 miles
S.W. of Udina.

VISBECK, or FiscHBECK, a town of Weftphalia, in
the county of Schauenburg, with an imperial free Lutheran
abbey for ladies, on the Wefer ; 8 miles E. of Rinteln.

VISBURGII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger-
many, N. of the Hercynian foreit. Ptol. According to
Cluvier, they are the fame people with thofe placed by
Ptolemy in Sarmatia, and named Burgiones. He thinks
they inhabited the mountains of Sarmatia and the Viftula,
and that from the name of this river they were called Thi-
Wiffelburges, which the Latins corrupted into Vilburgi,
and others into Burgiones.

VISCAGO, in Botany, from vifcum, bird-lime, and ago,
to produce or bear, a name borrowed by Dillenius, in Hort.
Elth. 416, from Cxfalpinus and Camerarius, and applied to
fuch fpecies of the old genus of Lychnis, as have feveral
cells in the capfule. Thefe come chiefly under Silene; fee
that article. The above name alludes to the vifcidity of
thefe plants, and is fynonimous with their Englifh appella-
tion, Catchfly.

ViscAGO is alfo ufed by fome pharmaceutic writers to
exprefs a mucilage.

VISCARDO, in Geography, a fea-port town on the N.
ccaft. of Cephalonia, oppofite to the ifland of Teaki, which
gives name to a narrow Itrait that feparates the two iflands.
VISCARIA, in Botany, a word of the fame import as
VisCAGo; fee that article. It was originally applied by
Taberngemontanus to the common Lobcl's Catchfly, Silene
ylrmeria ; and has been retained by Linnius, as the fpecific
name of the German Catchfly, Lychnis Vifcaria. He always
wrote it with a capital letter, as if it had previoully been
ufed for a generic or proper name, which not being the
cafe, it had better have been confidered as an adjeftive, and
made vifcata.

VISCERA, in Anatomy, a term originally applied to
the bowels or inteftines, but now ufed indifcriminately for
the organs contained in any cavity of the body. Tims, the
heart, lungs, &c. arc called the thoracic vifcera ; the liver,
fplecn, pancreas, (lomach, and inteftines, the abdominal
vifcera, &c.

The term is formed of vefci, to feed ; by reafon eatables,
called in Latin vefca, undergo divers preparations in the
vifcera.

The word is alfo frequently ufed fingularly, vifcus, to
exprefs fome particular part of the entrails, becaufe the
word entrails has no fingular.
Vol. XXXVII.

V IS

The different internal organs, comprifed under the general

dcfignation of vifcera, are defcribed under their refpeftive
heads : fee Heart, Lijngs, Thymus, Sto.mach, Intes-
tines, Liver, Spleen, Pancreas, Epiploon, and Ge-
neration.

We have only to add, in the prefent article, an explana-
tion of the references in the plates rcprefcnting the anatomy
of the vifcera.

Anatomy ( Vifcera). Plate I.

Fig. I. is a front view of the cheft and abdomen in a
newly born child; the fternum and neighbouring part of
the ribs, with the correfponding pleurae, the front of the
abdominal parietes and diapliragm, having been cut through
and removed.

I. Os hyoides.

2. 2. Portion of the fterno-hyoideus and omo-hyoideus

mufcles.

3. 3. Portion of the fterno-diyroideus turned back.
4. Thyroid cartilage. '

5. 5. Hyo-thyroideus.

6. 6. Thyroid gland.
7. Trachea.

8. 8. Portion of the fterno-cleido-maftoideus.

g. 9. Clavicle.

10. 10. Firft rib.

11. II. Ninth rib.
12. Thymus.

13— 15. Right lung: 13. Its fuperior lobe ; 14. Middle

lobe; 15. Inferior lobe.
16. 17. Left lung: 16. The fuperiqrlobe; 17. The inferior

lobe.
18. Pericardium.

19. 19. Diaphragm.

20. 21. Liver : 20. The right lobe ; 21. The left lobe.

22. Sufpenfory ligament of the liver.

23. The umbilical vein turned back.

24. The fpleen.

25. 26. Great omentum : 25. Its portion lying on the

mcfocolon ; 26. Loofe portion.
27. 27. Arch of the colon.

28. Left portion of the colon.

29. The right portion.

30. 30. 30. The jejunum, filled partly with meconium,

partly with air.

31. 31. 31. The ileum.

32. 'Urinary bladder, with its fundus turned forwards.
33. 33, Umbilical artery.

34. Urachus.

35. Internal furface of the peritoneum.

36. 36. Internal jugular vein.

37. 37. Thyroid vein.

38. 38. Subclavian vein.
39.39. Common carotid artery.
40. 40. Subclavian artery.

41. Qifophagus.

Fig. 2. exhibits the fame view as the laft, except that
the thymus and pericardium have been removed, and the
liver turned up towards the right, fo as to expofe the
ftomacli.
1—4. The heart: i. Appendix of the right auricle ;
2. Pulmonary ventricle ; 3. Appendix of the left
auricle; 4. Aortic ventricle. (The outUnc of
the heart is marked by a dotted line on the fur-
face of tlie liver. )
c. Piilmooary artery.
^ K. k 6. Aorta.

VISCERA.

Aorta.

Left fubclavian artery.
Left carotid.
Arteria innominata.

Right carotid.

13. 14,

18.
19—22

24.
25.

29.
3°'
31'
32.
33'
34
35

9-
10.

1 1 . Right fubclavian artery.

12. Superior vena cava.
Right internal jugular vein: 13. Portion in the

cheft ; 14. Portion in the neck.
15. Right fubclavian vein.
16. £7. Left internal jugular vein : 16. Thoracic portion ;
17. Cervical portion.
Left fubclavian vein.

Concave or under furface of the liver : 19. Right
lobe; 20. Square portion; 21. Left lobe;
22. Lobulus Spigelii, feen through the fmall
omentum.

23. Part of the fuperior or convex furface.

24. 24. Thin edge.

25. Thick edge.

26. Umbilical vein cut through and turned back.

27. The pons covering the notch of the umbilical vein.

28. Gall-bladder.
Part of the diaphragm.
Spleen.

CEfophagus entering the ftomach.
(Efophagus in the neck.
Stomach.
Pylorus.
Duodenum.

36. 36. 36. Tranfverfe portion of the colon.

37. Right portion of the colon. The other parts are
the fame as in the preceding figure.

AnATOUY (Fi/cera). Plate II.

Two views from a fubjeft of the fame age, as that from
which the figures of Plate I. are taken, to fliew the more
deeply feated parts.

Fig. I . The heart and large veffels only are feen in the
cheft, the other parts having been removed. The fmall
inteftine is removed from the abdomen, and the arch of the
colon is turned upwards.

1. Right or pulmonary ventricle of the heart.

2. Aortic or left ventricle.

3. Appendix of the right auricle.

4. Appendix of the left aiu-icle.

5. Pulmonary artery.

6. Aorta.

7. Arteria innominata.

8. Right carotid.

9. Right fubclavian.

10. Left carotid.

1 1 . Left fubclavian.

12. Inferi-;'.' vena cava covered by the pericardium.

13. Superior vena cava.

14. Right internal jugular vein.

15. Left internal jugular vein.

16. Trachea.

17. Thyroid gland.

18. Thyroid cartilage.

19. Thyro-hyoideus.

20. 20. Sterno-thyroideus detached and turned back. (The

fterno-hyoideus is removed. )

21. 21. Part of the fterno-cleido-maftoideus.
22'. 22. Clavicle.

23. 23. Firft rib.

24. 24. Second rib.

17

19

Cut edge of the diaphragm.

Arch of the colon.

Right portion of the colon.

Part of the left colon.

Tranfverfe mefocolon.

Stomsch feen obfcurely through the mefocolon.

L"ft or great extremity of the floraach.

Spleen.

Right kidney.

Right portion of the colon.

Caecum and appendix virmitormis.

End of the ileum.

Commencement of the jejunum.

Mcfenter)'.

Sigmoid flexure of the colon.

Its mefocolon.

Reftum.

Urinary bladder turned forwards and downwards.

Umbilical arteries.

Urachus.

25. 25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30-

31-

32-

33-

34-

35-

36.

37-

38-
39- 39-

40.

41.

42.

43- 43-
44.

Fig. 2. All the thoracic vifcera are removed ; 'alfo the

diaphragm., and the fmall inteftine, excepting the duodenum.
The peritoneum is cleared from the kidney and larger
veiTeU.

1. Thyroid gland.

2. Portion of the fterno-cleido-maftoideus.

3. Sterno-thyroideus detached and turned back.
{ The fterr.o-hyoideus is removed. )

4. Thyro-hyoideus.

5. Thyroid cartilage.

6. Clavicle.

7. Trachea.

8. CEfophagus ; its longitudinal mufcular fibres are
expofed.

Stomach moderately diftended.

The cardia.

The blind pouch.

Pylorus.

Duodenum: 12. The firft curvature; 13. The

fecond ; 14. The third.
Pancreas.
Spleen.
Right kidney.
Left kidney.
Right renal capfule.
Portion of diaphragm.
Arch of the aorta with its three great branches.

See Jig. I. N°7. 10. II.
Canalis arteriofus.
Defcending thoracic aorta.
24. Defcending abdominal aorta.
Right iliac artery.
Left iliac artery.
Spermatic artery and vein.
Ureter.

The cut orifice of the reftum.
Urinary bladder turned down.
Umbilical artery.
Urachus.
Firft rib.

Am ATOMY (Fi/cera). Plaielll.

Views of the thoracic and abdominal vifcera from be-
hind.

Fig. I. The mufcles of the neck and back, the ba-.k

of

9-

-11.

9-

10.

11.

12-

-14.

15-
16.

17-
18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23-

24.

25-
26.

30-

30-

3'-

31-

32-

m-

34-

34-

36.

35-
36-

VISCERA.

of the libs, and the fpinous procefles of the vertebrje, are
tcmoved.

I.I. Firll lib.

2. 2. Eicv.-nth rib.

3. 3. Twelfth rib, with the diaphragm and abdominal

mufcles ftill attached. The ribs are gently drawn
alido, to expofe the lungs

4. 4. Sixtii cervical vertebra.

5. 5. Sacrum.

6. 6. Gluteus maximus.

7. 7. Gluteus medius.

8. 8. 8. The vertebral theca of the dura mater.
9. The fame, covering the cauda equina.
10. 10. The fcapulas a little drawn afide.
u. 12. The left lung: 11. Superior lobe ; 12. Inferior

lobe.
I3_I5. Right lung: 13. Superior lobe; 14. Middle

lobe; 15. Inferior lobe.
1(5 — 18. Diaphragm: 1 6. Covering the left lobe of the liver,

ttomach, and fpleen ; 17. Covering the right lobe;

18. 18. Attached to the twelfth rib.

19. Right renal capfulc.

20. Left kidney.

21. Right kidney.

22. Inferior furface of the right lobe of the liver.

23. Left part of the colon.

24. Sigmoid flexure of the colon.

25. Portion of the ileum.

Fig. 2. The vertebral column, together with part of the
OS innominatum, is removed.

1. I. Firft rib.

2. 2. Eleventh rib.

3. 3. Scapula drawn afide.

4. 4. Internal jugular vein.

5. 5. Common carotid artery.

6. 6. Subclavian artery.

7. 7. Inferior thyroid artery.
8. Part of the aortic arch.

9. 10. Defcending aorta : 9. Thoracic ; to. Abdominal.

1 1. Divifion of the a:)rta into the common ili.ics.

12. Middle facral artery. The intercoftal, renal, and

lumbar arteries are not numbered.

13. Vena azygos cut off.

14. Inferior vena cava.

15. Left renal vein.

16. Right renal vein, double in this fubjoft.

17. Union of the iliac veins to form the inferior cava.
i8. r8. Par vagum.

19. 19. Thyroid gland; the blood- veflTels are drawn afide
by a hook on the left fide.
20. I^ower part of the pharynx.
21. 21. Thyroid cartilage.

22. CEfophagua.

23. Qifophagus entering the ftomach.

24. Part of the Itomach.

26. 27. Superior and inferior lobes of the left lung.
28. 29. 30. Superior, middle, and inferior lobes of the right
lung.

31. 31. 31. Diaphragm.

32. 32. Abdominal mufcles.

33. Spleen.

34. Part of the pancreas.

35—37. Left and right lobes, and proccfFus caudatus of
the liver.
. 38. Left renal capfule.
39. Right renal capfulc.

40. Left kidney.
4:. Ricrht kidney.

42. Left ureter.

43. Right ureter.
44. 44. Spermatic vefTels.

45. Left portion of the colon.

46. Sigmoid flexure.

47. Part of the jejunum feen through the peritoneum.

48. Reftum.

49. Portion of the ileum.

Anatomy [Vifccra). Plate IV.

Four views of tlie heart, two of which reprefent its exter-
nal appearance ; the other two, its cavities laid open.

Fig. I. The convex or fuperior furface.

1. Right auricle.

2. Its appendix.

3. Left auricle. .

4. Its appendix.

5. 6. Left pulmonary veins.

7. Superior vena cava.

8. Place from which the pulmonary artery has been

cut oft.

9. Aorta.

10. Arteria innominata.

1 1 . Left carotid artery.

12. Left fubclavian artery.

13. Right or infirior coronary artery.

14. Left or fuperior ctironary artery.

16. Anterior braich of the great coronary vein.

17. A fmall vein of the heart opening into the right

auricle.

Fig. 3. The heart and its blood-veffcls feen on the in-
ferior or flat furface.

1. Right auricle.

2. Inferior vena cava cut off and tied.

3. Superior vena cava.

4. Left auricle.

5. Its appendix.

6. 7. Right pulmonary veins.

8. One of the left pulmonary veins.

9. Right coronary artery.

10. Circumflex branch of the left coronary artery.
12. Great poflerior branch of the great coronary vein.

13. 14, Smaller pofterior branches.

ij. Small branch from the right auricle.
16. Trunk of the great coronary vein ending in the
right auricle.
Fig. 3. The left fide of the heart cxpofed.

I — 5. Left auricle.

4. The appendix.

5. Septum auricularum.
6 — 12. Left ventricle.

6. 6. Auriculo-ventricular opening.
7. 8. 8. Mitral valve.

7. Superior or larger portion.
8. 8. Inferior or fmaller portion cut through.

9. 9. 9. Flefliy column, connefted to the valve.

10. 10. Reticulated mufcular columns.

11. Ventricular feptum.

I 2. Tube placed in the mouth of the aorta.
Fig. 4. The left ventricle and beginning of the aorta laid
open.

1. I. Part of the right ventricle cxpofed.

K k 2 2. 2- 1 nc

V I s

VIS

2. 2. The feptum ventriculorum divided to expofe the
left ventricle.

3. Cavity of the left ventricle.

4. Part of the mitral valve.

5. 6. 7. Sigmoid or femi-lunar valves.
8. 8. 8. Corpora fefamoidea Arantii.
9. 10. Orifices of the coronary arteries.

II. Cavity of the aorta.
12. 13. 14. Orifices of its three great fuperior branches.

Viscera, JVounfIs of the. See Wounds.

VISCERALIA, a term ufed by phyficians to denote
fuch medicines as impart ftrength and firmnefs to the fan-
guineous vifcera, fuch as the liver, fpleen, &c.

VISCERATIONES, among the Romans, a feaft con-
fiding of the entrails of animals, given to the people at the
burial of great men in Rome.

VISCHAR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Hamadan.

VISCHER's Island, a fmaU ifland in the Pacific
ocean, near the E. coaft of Morly. N. lat. 2" 2i'. E.
long. 128° 39'.

VISCHERA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Kama, 16 miles N. of Solikamflc, in the government of
Perm. — Alfo, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Vit-
chegda, 20 miles E. of Nebdanfk'oi, in the provmce of
Uftiug.

VISCHMA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobolfk ; 268 miles S.W. of Tobolflc. N. lat. 62° 36'.
E. lon^r. 60^ 14'.

VISCHNEIVOLOGOK, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tver, on a canal, which forms a communi-
cation between the Mfta and the Tvertza ; 60 miles N.W.
of Tver. This place is remarkable for the extenfive canals
on which the great inland navigation of Ruffia is carried on.
The communication jull mentioned is by a navigable canal of
»t lead 500 verfls, uniting the Cafpian with the Baltic. N.
lat. 57° 8'. E< long. 34° 54'.

VISCIDITY, or Viscosity, the quality of fomething
that is vifcld, or •vifcous, i. e. glutinous and dicky, like bird-
lime ; wliich the Latins call by the name vifcus.

Vifcid bodies are thofe which confift of parts fo impli-
cated within each other, that they refid, a long time, a com-
plete reparation, and rather give way to the violence done
them by dretching, or extending each way.

The too great vifcidity of foods has very ill effeAs ; thus
meals, or farinae not fermented, jellies, &c. of animals, tough
cheefe, or curd too much preffed, produce a weight, or op- •
preffion in the ftomach ; wind, yawnings, crudities, obdruc-
tions of the minuter vefiels in the intedines, &c. Hence an
inaftivity of the intedines themfelves, a fwelling of the ab-
domen ; and hence a vifcidity of the blood, from the re-
union of the vifcid particles ; obftruiElions of the glands,
palencfs, coldnefs, tremors, &c.

VISCO, in Geography, a village of Italy, in Friuli ;
2 miles E. of Palma Nuova.

VISCONTI, Catekina, of Milan, in Biography, an
opera finger of great reputation in her day, arrived here
in 3742, at the beginning of lord Middlefex's regency, and
performed with Monticelli in the operas of Galuppi and
Lampugnani, &c. till the year 1745, "'^'^n the breaking
out of the rebellion occafioned an interdi£l againft the whole
opera band, vocal and inftrumental.

The Vilconti had a dirill flexible voice, and could run di-
vifions fader than the violins of thofe times could follow her.
And bravura or execution was then fo new, that die pleafed
more in rapid fongs than die could have done in thofe that
required high colouring and pathos, if <he had been poffeffed

of either. She was fo fat, that her age being the fubjeft
of converfation in a company where lord Chederfield was
prefent ; when a gentleman, who fuppofed her to be much
younger than the red, faid die was but two-and-twenty ;
his lordlhip, interrupting him, faid, " you me-^n Jlone, fir, not
years." She was engaged a fecond time in the Haymarket
for the feafon of 1753 and 1754; but having been heard in
her better day, her talents were pronounced on the decline,
which occafioned a declenfion in the public favour. And at
the end of a heavy feafon die gave way to Mingotti, who,
in the autumn of 1754, revived the favour of our lyTic
theatre, and for two or three feafons gave it a confiderable
degree of fplendour.

VISCOUNT. See Vicount.

VISCUM, in Botany, fo called by Pliny, and by fome
Latin writers Vifcus, derives its name from the Greek i|c!-:,
altered by the .^olians into /Sio-y.oj. The tranfition is eafy
enough to the Latin, though fcarcely to the Englidi appel-
lation of this plant, Mifletoe, fo famous in the hiilory of our
fuperditious and barbarous ancedors. We have hinted, under
the biographical article Sibthorp, that this learned traveller
and botanid, though he reckoned our V. album, dill called
i-ii, to be the i|o; of Diofcoridcs, neverthelefs fufpefted lat-
terly that the Loranthus europxus might have been confidered
by the ancients as a more genuine or perfeft kind. The latter
grows in Arcadia on the Oak ; our Vifcum album on the Silver
Fir only. Hence perhaps the Druids, not knowing the Lo-
ranthus, or true Mifletoe of the Oak, attached fuch importance
to the particular plants of the Vifcum found on this tree ;
in which over-curious perfons, who fee with the eyes of tra-
dition and prejudice, rather than with their own natural
organs, dill affeft to perceive fomething peculiar. We
fubmit this point to the confideration of the learned, not
being aware of its having ever been fuggeded by any one
before. — Linn. Gen. 517. Schreb. 680. Willd. Sp. PI.
v. 4. 737. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1074.
Prodr. Fl. Grasc. Sibth. v. 2. 256. Ail. Hort. Kew. v. 5.
371. Swartz Ind. Occ. 266. Purfli 114. Juff. 212.
Tourn. t. 380. Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 55. lUudr. t. 807.
Gaertn. t. 27. — Clafs and order, Dioecia Tetrandria, Nat.
Ord. Aggregate, Linn. CaprlfoUa, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. none. Cor. Petals four, calyx -
like, ovate, equal, dilated and connefted at the bafe. Stam.
Filaments none ; anthers four, oblong, pointed, dotted, each
attached to the diflc of one of the petals.

Female, Cal. a flight four-cleft border. Cor. Petals
four, fuperior, fmall, ovate, feffile, calyx-hke, deciduous.
Pijl. Germen inferior, oblong, three-fided, crowned with
the obfolete calyx ; dyle none ; ftigma obtufe, fcarcely
notched. Perk. Berry globofe, fmooth, of one cell. Seed
folitary, heart-ftiaped, compreffed, obtufe, flediy, lodged in
vifcid pulp.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx none. Petals four, calyx-like,
dilated and cohering at their bafe. Anthers feffile upon the
petals.

Female, Calyx a flight border. Petals four, calyx-hke,
dilated at the bafe. Style none. Berry inferior, with one
feed.

Obf. The analogy, or natural affinity, of this genus
has always induced us to follow Juffieu, rather than Lin-
nxus, in denominating the principal, or only, integument
of its flowers a corolla, rather than a calyx. All the known
fpecies are parafitical, and though probably to be cultivated,
if fown on the branches or dems of particular trees, like
our only Enghdi one, provided we could have their berries
fredi, none of them has yet been introduced into any garden,
except that fpecies. Their habit is rigid and eoriaceous ;

leaves ,

VISCUM.

leaves, if prefent, Cmple, undivided, entire, on (liort (talks,
oppofite as well as the branche-i. Floivcrs in nxillai-y heads
or fpikes, feffile or italkcd, generally greenifli and incoii-
fpicuous. The fpecics are by no means well underflood.
We follow Willdenow, who has given the bell account of
them.

T. V. album. Common Midctoe. Linn. Sp. PI. 145 >•
Willd. D. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 1470. Mill.
Illuftr. t. 87. Woodv. Siippl. t. 270. (Vifcum; Matth.
Valgr. V. 2. 161. Camer. Epit. 555. Ger. Em. 1350.) —
Leaves lanceolate, obtufe, riblcfs. Stem forked. Flowers
five together, in terminal, feflile heads. — Found throughout
Europe, on the branches of old apple-trees, hawthorns,
lime-trees, oaks, Scotch fir, or the filver fir, as above men-
tioned, flowering in the fpring, and ripening its large white
berries late in autumn. The plant forms large, fmooth,
perennial, bufhy tufts, of a pale green, becoming yellowifh,
and therefore mofl; confpicuous, in winter. The Jlem: are
round, repeatedly forked. Leaves about an inch, or inch
and half, long, thick and leathery, fmooth, tapering down
into fliort thick, fooljlalis. Flowers crowded, yellowilh. An-
thers Angularly and beautifully dotted, almofl. as large as
the petals on which they lie. The fwectifh vifcid pulp of
the pearly berries makes an indirtcrent fort of bird-lime.
This Mifletoe, the golden bough of Virgil, which was
TEneas's pafTport to the infernal regions, and the facred
plant of the Druids, ftill retains fome rcfpeft in our churches
and kitchens at Chrillmas, intermixed with HoUy, which
laft, if we miftake not, is Virgil's Acanthus.

2. V. macroflachyon. Long-fpiked Mifletoc. .lacq. Coll.
V. 2. 109. t. y. f. 3. Willd. n. 2. — Leaves linear-lanceolate,
obtufe, riblefs. Spikes axillary, (lender, many times longer
than the leaves. Flowers remote. — Gathered by Jacquin
on trees in Martinico. Branches and haves fmooth, not
unlike the foregoing, but the long, (lender, articulated

fpikes abundantly diftinguiih this fpecies. The Jlowers are
either oppofite, or folitary, having but three petals, at lead
the female ones, according to Jacquin.

3. V. orientate. Eaft Indian Mifletoe. Willd. n. 3. —
Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtufe, three-ribbed ; tapering at
the bafe. Stalks axillary, aggregate, about three-flowered.
— Native of the Eaft Indies. We have fpecimens from the
author, as well as from the Rev. Dr. Rottler. The branches
are angular when dry. Leaves an inch or more in length,
and full half as broad, on (hort ftalks. Flomrrs either
folitary or three together, on very fliort ftalks, as well as
crowded into a fort of axillary whorls. Berries red. IVill-
denniu.

4. V. paucijlcrum. Hoary Cape Mifletoe. Linn. Suppl.
426. Thunb. Prodr. 31. Willd. n. 4. — " Leaves oblong,
obtufe, three -ribbed, hoary, fmooth ; tapering at the bale.
Flowers axillary, iohtary." — Gathered by Thunberg, at
the Cape of Good Hope. The plant is defcribcd as hoary,
though not downy. The ribs do not extend beyond the
middle of the leaf, and efcapcd tlie obfervation of the
younger Linnxus. We have fecn no fpecimcn.

5. V. ruhrum. Red Mifletoe. Linn. Sp. PI. 145 1.
Willd. n. 5. (" V. foliis longioribus, baccis rubris ; Catc(b,
Car. V. 2. t. 81.") — " Leaves obovato-lanccolate, obtufe.
Spikes axillary, whorled." — Found upon trees in Carolina.
Catelby alone appears to have fccii this fpecies.

6. \. purpureum. Purple Mifletoe. Linn. Sp. Pi. 145 1.
Willd. II. 6. (" V. folii:. latioribus, baccis purpureis, pedi-
culisinfidentibus ; Cate(b. Car. v. 2. t. 95.") — Leaves obo-
vate, obtufe, obfcurely three-ribbed. .Spikcn axillary,
Ihorter than the leaves. Flowers oppofite. — Native of Ca-
iolina. Berrits purple.

7. V. buxifolium. Box-leaved White Mifletoe. Willd.
n. 7. (V. purpureum 5 ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1451. V. baccis
niveis raccmofis, fohis buxi luteis ; Plum. Ic. 256. t. 258.
f. 3.) — Leaves obovate, obtufe, finglc-ribbed. Spikes axil-
lary, nearly the length of the leaves. Flowtrs oppo/ite. —
Native of trees in the Weft Indies. Berries white. We
fufpeft this may be the firft Fifcuni in Browne's Jamaica,
p. 356, which he millook for the verticillatum of Linnscus,
a widely different plant. But Browne's fpecimen has occa-
fionally traces of tlirce ribs in the leaves, and he has con-
founded with it iheflavens of Swartz.

8. V. myrlilloitles. Bilberry Mifletoe. Willd. n. 8. —
Leaves obovate, obtufe, five-ribbed. Spikes folitary, axil-
lary. Flowers whorled. — Native of trees in Martinico.
Leaves an inch long, coriaceous, with five ribs, the lateral
ones leaft confpicuous. Spiies oppofite, rather longer than
the footftalks. Willdenow. We have Weft Indian fpeci-
mens anfwering to thcfe charaftcrs, except that the leaves
are three inches long, and rather elhptic -lanceolate than
obovate.

9. V. rotundifolium. Round-leaved Cape Mifletoe. Linn.
Suppl. 426. Thunb. Prodr. 31. Willd. n. 9. — Leaves
nearly orbicular, acute, riblefs. Flowers fomewhat whorled.
— Found by Thunberg on trees at the Cape of Good Hope.
Willdenow fays the flowers are either folitary, on fimplo,
aggregate, axillary (talks ; or many together, on folitary
ftalks.

10. V. antarSicum. AntarAic Mifletoe. Forft. Prodr.
70. Willd. n. 10- — " Leaves oblong, tapering at each end,
obtufe, riblefs. Clu'fters terminal, of about five fiawers."
— Native of trees in New ZeeLind.

1 1 . V. capenfe. Naked Cape Mifletoe. Linn. Suppl. 426,
excluding the fynonym. Willd. n. 11. Thunb. Prodr. 31.
— Stem leaflefs, obfcurely quadrangular, roughifh, rugofe.

Flowers whorled, feflile Gathered at the Cape of Good

Hope by Dr. Sparrmann. The flem is much branched,
jointed, roughilh to the touch, each joint crowned with two
fcales, like a Salicornia. Leaves none. Anthers two or
four, dotted with minute excavations. Berries oppofite,
fometimes three together, felTile, crowiKd with a fmall, an-
gular, hardly four-cleft, calyx.

12. V.vaginatuni. Sheathed Mifletoe. Willd. 11. 12. —
" Stem leaflefs, quadrangular. Branches comprelfed, femi-
cylindric.il. Joints flieathing." — Gathered by Hamboldt
and Bonpland, on trees ou the mountains of Mexico. Stem
round below, angular upwards. Joints each crowned with
a tubular permanent (heath. Leaves none. Berries in the
bofom of the flieaths, oppofite, folitary. Willdenow.

13. V. opunlioides. Wedge-jointed Mifletoe. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1452. Willd. n. 13 ; excluding Plumicr's fynonym.
(V. opuntioides, ramulis comprelfis ; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 93.
t. 201. f. I.) — Stem proliferous, much branched, leaflels.
Joints wcdge-(haped, furrowed, compreflld. — Native of trees
in Jamaica, and the ifle of Bourbon. The flat joittts at once
diftinguifli this fpecies. Eachjo/n/ is an inch or inch and half
long, of a ycUowifli-grcen. " Flowers fmall, terminating
each joint, in pairs. Berries white, refembling our Englidi
Mifletoe." Sloane. Plumicr's t. 258. f. 1, muft furcly be
Cactus pendulus. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 178, vMich is Caf-

fylha baccifera of Solander, in Mill. Illuftr. t. 29.

14. V. obfcurum. Elliptical Cape Mifletoc. Thunb.

Prodr. 31. Willd. 11. 14 ." Leaves elliptical, fmooth.

Stem fltrubby." — Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope,
on trees, by Thunberg. Nobody die appears to have
feen it.

i$.V. JIavcns. Yellowifli Mifletoc. Swirtz Ind. Occ.
266. Willd. n. 15. Purflt a. i ? (V, aliud raccmofuni,

foliis

V I s

V 1 s

foliis latiffimis ; Plum. Ic. 256. t. 258. f. 4. V. racemo-
lum ; Aubi. Guian. v. 2.895. ) — Leaves ovate, five-ribbed,
veiny. Spikes axillary, from one to four at each fide.

Flowers whorled Found on trees in the Weft Indies,

cfpcciaily near the fea. Two feet high, with round, livid,
loughiih branches. Leaves two inches or more in length,
bluntiih, of a livid hue. Spikes ttalked, fometimes folitary.

16. v. latifolium. Broad-kavcd Mifletoe. Swartz I::d.
Occ. 268. Willd. n. 16. — Leaves roundifh-ovate, acute,
flat, obfcurely veined. Spikes axillary, ftalked, folitary

or in pairs On trees in Jamaica. Two feet high, fmooLh.

Leaves contrafted at each end, browniih-green, on very lliort
ftalks. Flowers minute. Berries oblong.

17. V. •verticillatum. Whorled Mifletoe. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1452. Willd. n. 17 ; excluding the fynonyms of Browne
and Plumier. ( V. ramulis et foliis longis, denfiflimis, ftri-
atis et radiatis ; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 93. t. 201. f. 2.) — Ulti-
mate branches aggregate, imperfeftly whorled, toothed at

the end Native of Jamaica, where it hangs from the

branches of trees. The main Jlem is divided, angular, ftri-
ated, fmooth, befet here and there with whorls of fimple
fpreading branches, an inch and half or two inches long, def-
titute of leaves, tipped with a few fcales. Nothing is known
of the frudlification, fo the genus is very doubtful. It may
turn out a CaSus, or at leall of the fame genus as C. pen-
dulus above-mentioned under n. 13. What we here defcribe
is, however, the plant intended by Linnaus, though he has
confounded with it one altogether different, and has thence
perverted the fpecitic character.

18. V. capitellatum. Capitate Mifletoe. — Leaves wedge-
fhaped, concave, obtufe. Berries capitate, on axillary

ilalks Gathered in Ceylon by Koenig, \vho fent fpecimens

to Linnaeus, but the pkmt has remained hitherto undefcribed,
though certainly very diftinft. . The Jlems are three inches
high, branchL-d, roughllli to the touch. Leaves an inch
long at moft, fmooth, flefliy. Flo-wer-Jalis rather fliorter,
crowned with two thick bra8eas under the little head of four
or (nejlowers. Berries oval, crowned with a blunt calyx.

Willdenoi,v rightly obferves th.it V. terrejlre, Linn. Sp. '
Fl. 1452, is no other than Lvfimachia Jlricla, Willd. Sp.
PI. 818. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 314.. (L. bulbifera ;
Curt. Mag. t. 104.) — Kalm gathered it in Philadelphia, and
whether the miltake were his own, or his great preceptor's,
it is one of the moft reprehenflble that ever was made.

Several fpecics of Vifcum probably are ftill undefcribed
among the botanical treafures of the Weft, and perhaps Eaft,
Indies.

VISCUM, in Gardening, furnilhes a plant of the under-
ftirub, evergreen, curious, parafitic kind, of which the fort
m.ide ufe of is, the white -berried or common mifletoe (V.
album).

It has a woody branchy growth and yellov/ifli-green ap-
pearance, producing white tranfparent berries 01 a conli-
derable fize, which ripen themfelves in the winter.

It is a remarkable plant, as not growing in the earth or
foil, but upon the trunks or branches of other plants, moftly
on thofe of the foft-wooded tree forts, being often found in
woods and orchards, on the alh, the hazel, the maple, the
crab, and the apple-tree.

Method of Culture. — It is for the moft part increafed by
the feeds which are accidentally dilpcrfed and depofited
upon fome parts of the trees by means of birds, commonly
taking root and fixing themfelves on the under fides of the
boughs or branches, to which parts they have been waihed
by the rains or in other ways, being kept in fuch fituations
until they flrike root, or plant their radical fibres in the bark
between it and the wood, by their foft glutinous quality ;
6

the yoimg plants growing downwards in a pendulous maniicr .
The plants may alfo be propagated in garden or orchard
plantations, by procuring fome fully ripened berries or feeds
m the winter, and flicking or rubbing them on the fmooth
parts of the under fides of the brandies of fome of the
above kinds of trees, where they will grow as already
noticed. The outer bark,^ in fome caies, is cut or rubbed
off in the part before this is done, in order to make it more
certain.

The want of fuccefs, in particular inttances, is to be
afcribed to the defeftive fecundation of the plants from
which th.e berries or feeds were taken whicli are employed.
They Should of courfe always be gathered from plants where
different forts grow together.

They are chiefly grown for curiofity ; but fometimes for
medicinal purpofes. ■

ViscuM is alfo ufed for bird-lime. This was efteemed a
poifon among the ancient Greeks, and is feldom omitted
under the clafs of deleterious things enumerated in their
writings.

It is called By thefe authors ixias ; but this word has oc-
cafioned great errors in late writers, the word ixias having
been apphed to the white chamaeleon thiftle, not becaufe of
any poifonous quahty it had, for they all declare it to be
innocent, but becaufe of its yielding a vifcous or clammy
juice. The black chamseleon thiftle was always efteemed
poifonous among them ; and hence fome have fuppofed the
word ixias to be applied to that, and the poifon ixias, men-
tioned by the Greeks, to be the root of th.it plant. Paulus
jEgineta, indeed, feems to have underftood it fo, the poifon
ixias being by him placed among the roots ; but Galen, who
calls it a flow poifon, and fays that it kills by flopping up
and gluing together the inteftines, plainly enough means
bird-lime, not the root of any plant.

ViSCUM Caryophylloides, a name given by fir Hans Slpane,
and many other authors, to a genus of plants of a very pe-
culiar kind.

They are called vifcum, from their growing upon other
trees, in the manner that the mifletoe does with us ; and
caryophylloides, from their leaves, in fome degree, refembhng
thofe of our pinks or carnations ; but the plant itfelf, in all
its fpecies, is wholly different, both from the mifletoe and
pink, in all other refpefts.

The feveral fpecies of thefe plants differ greatly alfo
from one another ; the moft fragrant fpecies in Jamaica is
a very large one, called by the common people the wild
pine. See the defcription of it in Phil. Tranf. N° 252.
p. 114.

VISCUS, and Viscosity. See Viscera and Viscidity.

VISEGLIA, m Geography. See Biseglia.

VISENTIUM, or Visentum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Italy, in Etruria, upon the wcftern bank of the
lake Thrafimene. Pliny fiiggefts that this town belonged
to the Vifentini who inhabited the vicinity of the Vulcinian
lake : it is the prefent Bifentio.

VISET, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ourthe, fituated on the E. fide of the Meufe.
It was furrounded with walls in the year 1338, by Adolphiis
de la Mark, bifliop of Liege. John de Heinft)erg, the
fifty-fecond bifliop, granted it many privileges, in the year
1429 ; among others, the liberty of choofing their own ma-
giftrates ; 6 miles S. of Maeftricht.

VISEU, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira.
This town was founded by the Romans, and by them caUed
" Vifontium." It is the fee of a bifliop, contains three
parifli churches, an hofpital, and three convents. In 1027,
Alphonfo V. king of Leon, was killed by an arrow before

this

V I s

V 1 s

tills town, as he attempted to take it from the Moors ; 27
nnlos S. of Lamcpjo. N. lat. 40° 45'. W. long. 7^ 46'.

VISHIANARY, a town of Hindoollan, in Tinevelly ;
18 miles S.S.E. of Palamcotta.

VISHNU, in Mythology, is one of the chief deities of
the Hindoo trimurti or triad. He is reckoned the fecond
pcrfon of this myfterioiis unity, being a perfonificntion of
the preferring power of tiie deity. On the whole, Vifhnu
may be called tlie chief of the Hindoo gods ; as cither
ui himfelf, or through his confort, or adlivc energy, Lakfhmi,
or in his various incarnations, he is, perhaps, the god moil
extenfively worfhlpped : if the numerous fefts that indi-
reflly adcro him be included, he certainly, is. Like the
gods and goddefles of other polytli(>illic people, all the
deities of tlie Hindoo Pantheon are refolvable ultimately
into one ; that one is the fun, and he, the Hindoo theolo-
gians affirm, is merely a fymbol of that '■ infinitely greater
light which alone can irradiate our intellefts." This efoteric
doftrine is of courfe unknown to the multitude who addrefs
and adore Vifluiu, as well as the other deities, in the grolT-
neis of idolatrous fuperftition.

Under the article Siva it is (hewn that Vifhnu, in a
ilnftly mythological view, is the preferring attribute : he
rcprefents alfo the nvifdom of the deity, as Brahm does his
power, and Siva his jujllce. Extending our view, we find
that Viihnu metaphyfically is a perfonilication of fpace ;
malter and time being affigr.able to his coeternal aflbciates in
the Hindoo triad. In phyfics, Viihnu is ".cater, or the
humid principle generally : thus he is the air; and in a degree
of relationfhip lefs intimate, he is Xhc earth. He is alfo time;
and, as before faid, the fun. See Lakshmi, the name of
the fekti, or confort of Viihnu ; Saraswati, the confort
of the creative Brahma ; and Par\'ati, the aftlve energy of
the (leflroying Siva, for farther particulars of x\\\% preferring
attribute of the inCeparable Hindoo tiiad. Thefe female
divinities, which wc indifcrimin;;telv call the aftive energy,
or power, or confort of their refpettive lords, are generally
termed their Sakti ; which fee. See alfo Matri.

As well as wives, or aftive helpmates, the Hindoo gods
have feverally vehicles afiigned them. Thefe are termed
Vahan; which fee. Viihnu, the Jove of India, has his eagle,
like his brother of Greece and Rome. The Hindoo bird is
named Garuda and Superna. Under the latter word an ac-
count of him will be found.

The whole race of Hindoos may be theologically compre-
hended under thetwo denominatlonsof .SflTOaj and Vaijhnavas,
or worlhippers of Siva and Viihnu ; either direftly of the
god himfelf, or of hi% faktl ; or indireftly of a fymbol, or
through the intervention of an incarnation. This, how-
ever, opens a door to diverfity and fchifm. Under the
article Sects of Hindoos, we have endeavoured to clafs them
in a triple arratigemcnt, of theological, civil, and philofophical
feftarifts. To that article, to Saiva, Vaish.nava, and
Philosophy of the Hindoos, with others therein referred to,
connefted with and farther explaining them, we beg to refer
the reader inqulfitive on points relating to tliis branch of the
mythology of the Hindoos. See alfo the Hindoo Pantheon.

Reprcfentatlons of Viihnu are very common in all parts
of India ; in metallic cads, in carvings in wood, ftone, or
ivory, and in pidures. See the plates of the work juft
named. Wlicn in his own perfon, he is depifted young and
handfome ; fometimcs two, but commonly four-handed. In
\\\i hands are ufually fecn a club or mace, called gada, a
(hell or (hank, a lotos or padma, and a difcus or quoit, called
chakra or vajra.

The chakra is a difcus or cjuoit, with a hole In its centre,
on which Vifhnu is fabled to turn it round his fore-finger fo

vehemently, that irrefiflible fire flames from its periphery.
It is faid to be a mifDle ftill ufed ; but whatever mythologi-
cal niifchief may have enfued from its effects, it does not
feem capable of producing much fent from a mortal finger.
With the Hindoos now, as with the Egyptians of old, tliis
is a very myfterious fymbol ; the word in Sanfcrit means a
•wheel, or fomething rotatory ; and has a like meaning in
feveral Ipoken dialefts of India. Chakra-varti, or the
Chakra-whirler, is a name of Vifhnu, and is fometimes given
to other deities and mythological heroes.

The notion of incarnations of their deities is very common
among the Hindoos. This terreftrial manifeltation they
call avatara, meaning a defcent. The avataras of Vifhna
have- been very numerous ; but ten of them are of great
celebrity ; and the hiftories of them form the principal fub-
jecl of feveral of the facred poems called Purana (which
fee), and of a great many books in all the languages of the
Eaft. We fubjoin the names of thefe ten defcents, or dafa-
vatara, as they arc called in Sanfcrit ; with fome incidental
remarks in addition to what we have offered under feveral of
their names, i. Matfyavatara. This, as the name implies,
was a defcent in the form of 3.JiJh ; and is repreXented by a
figure of Vifhnu, half man half fifh ; reminding us ftrongly
of the pifciform god of the AfTyrians ; " fea-moiiller, Dagon
named, upwards man and downwards fifh," as well deferibed
by Milton. This incarnation and the next are fuppcfed to
have allufion to the flood, and reprefentations of half man
half fifh to Noah. 2. Kurmavatara, or the defcent in the
form of a tortoife. 3. Varahavatara, in the form of a boar.
4. Narafingha, or man-lion. 5. Vamana, or the dwarf.
6. Parafu Rama, a hero fo named. 7. Rama, furnamcd
Chandra. 8. Krilhna. 9. Boodh or Budha, or Sakya.
10. Kalki is the laft, and is yet to come, when Vifhnu will
appear mounted on a white horfe ; and, as mentioned under
the article Kalki, end the prefent iron or kali age, and
renovate the creation with an era of purity, called Satya or
Sati. See Kali and Suttee.

Thefe are the chief of the defcents of Vifhnu, called pre-
eminently dafavatara. The reader will fee them very iu-
genioufly difcufTcd in Maurice's Indian Antiquities and An-
cient Hiflory of India.

Befides thefe grand incarnations, Viflinu has defcended in
various places and times, ufually accompanied by his fakli
or confort Lakilimi, alfo incarnated for iliat purpofe ; fome-
times retaining her own name and fometimcs taking another.

In the fpirit of Grecian mythology, thefe avataras, as the
Hindoos more decoroufiy dofcribe tliem, would appear as
the yonx of Jove. But wc have not convenience to purfue, in
this place, thefe analogies of eaftern and wellern fable.

Vifhnu, like Siva, and others of the Hindoo deities, has
many names. He is faid to have a thoufand ; but this may
mean merely a great many. They are iirung together in a
fort of metrical arrangement, and are mentally recited in
fome fpecies of worfhlp ; the votary fometimcs holding in his
hand a rofary, and dropping a bead as each name and the
excited idea occur : to aid abftraftion, the hand and rofary
are put into a bag. This filent adoration is called j'a/> ; whicli
fee. Among tlie names of Vifhnu are tlie following :
Janardana, faid to mean the devourer or abforber of fouls.
Vifhnu being the fun, this may have fome folar allufion:
otherwlfe we do not fee its applicability to the preferring
energy. Heri, a name alfo of Krifhna, who is, indeed, by
feftarics, identified with Vifhnu. Htrlprya, meaning be-
loved of Hcri, is a name of Lakfhmi. In other avataras, a
portion only of his cflencc is faid to have been incvnated ;
but in that of Krifhna the whole deity, 111 .ill Ins pk-nitudo of
potentiality. Bhagavan, alluding to the lord of nature:

Bhaga

VIS

VIS

Bhaga and Bharga are names of Siva, of like allufion. Pad-
manabha, meaning lord of Padma ; the latter being a name
of Lakfhmi, and of the lotos, the appropriate fymbol of a
deity who is a perfonification of the humid principle.
Lakfhmi is the queen of beauty, and the lotos is the pro-
verbial type of female lovelinefs. (See Lotos and Padma. )
Prabhu : this name may aUude to Vilhnu's folar godhead ;
for a word ,of the fame root, Prabha, implies brightnefs,
fplendour, effulgence ; and is a name of the confort of the fun.
See Prabha and Surya ; in which lall article, being the
name of the Hindoo Phoebus, are many particulars expla-
natory of the folar Vilhnu. Narayana, meaning moving on
or abiding in the waters, is a name applied to Vi(hnu by his
feftaries, and to other deities by theirs. (See Sects of
Hindoos.) Although Vifhnu hath t\{\?, aqueous name and cha-
raAer, he does not agree with the Neptune of the Weft fo
intimately as Siva. (See Siva, Trisula, and Varuna.)
Sri is a name or epithet meaning holy or divine, given to
gods, goddeffes, and men ; among them to Vifhnu ; but it
is not difcriminative. Kejava is a name of Krifhna and
Vifhnu, faid to allude to the finenefs of the hair of the in-
carnated deity. Madhava is derived from a giant named
Madhu, deilroyed by Vilhnu : it is a name alfo of
Krifhna, as is Murari of both. Trivikera, or Tri-vi-
hiama, alluding to three Jleps, taken by Vifhnu in the Vama-
navatara, is a defignation by which he is not unfrequently
called. Pitamba, or Pifamber. defcriptive of a yellow co-
loured garment worn by Krifhna, is fometimes given as a
name to him and to Vifhnu. See Prithu, for fome ac-
count of that name and form of the deity now under our
confideration, and Wjttoba for another. Shyamula, mean-
ing black-faced, is a name applied to Parvati as well as to
Vifhnu, in his form of Krifhna, who is ufually black or
blue-faced. Syama has the like derivation. Vinkatyeifh,
Vinkatramna, Viratarupa, and Yadava, are other names of
Vifhnu. Tama, the judge of departed fouls, is fometimes
called an emanation of him. The name Vifhnu is faid to
come from the root vis, which means to penetrate or pervade ;
and may allude to him more particularly in his form of
Surya, or the fun. (See Surya.) All thefe names of
Vifhnu, and a great many others, are difcufTed, as to their
derivation and myftical properties, in a Sanfcrit poem called
" Sahafra Nama."

The name of this important mythological perfonage is
varioufly pronounced in different parts of India, and va-
rioufly written by Europeans : Bifhen, Vifnu, Viflinoo, &c.

Thefe may fufBce of the names of Vifhnu. Like other
Hindoo gods, he has a particular abode afTigned him : his
is called Vatkontha ; which fee.

VISHWARUPA, is the father of the two wives of
Ganefa, the god of prudence and policy ; called alfo Pollear,
which fee. The names of thefe wives were Sidi and Budhi.
(See SiDi.) Vifhwarupa, or Vifwarupa, is faid to be the
ion of Twafhta, or Vifiuakarma. See thofe articles.

VISIAPOUR, in Geography. See Bejapour.

VisiAPOUR, Vfapour, or Bejapour, a country, and at a
former period a confiderable kingdom, of Hindooftan,
bounded on the N. by Dowlatabad, on the E. by Golconda,
on the S. by Myfore, and on the W. by tlie Gauts, or
mountains which feparate it from Concan : formerly governed
by kings of the Patau race ; afterwards conquered by Au-
rungzebe, and now in poffeffion of the Mahrattas.

VISIBLE, VisiBlLE, fomething that is an objedl of
fight, or vition ; or fomething by which the eye is affefted,
lo as to produce a fenfation. See Sight and Vision.

The fchool pliilofophqrs make two kinds of vifibles, or
vifible objetts ; the one proper, or adequate, which are fuch

JO

as are no other way perceivable but by fight alone ; the
other common, which are fubjeft to divers ienles, as the light,
hearing, feeling, &c.

Again, the firlt, or proper objeH of •u'tfion, is of two
kinds, viz. light and colour ; for thefe two are only fenfible
by fight. The firft, and primary, viz. light, they make the
formal, and colour, the material objeft.

The Cartefians think they philofophize better, when they
fay that light alone is the proper objeft of vifion ; whether
it flow from a luminous body through a tranfparent medium,
and retains its firft name, light, or whether it be refjefted
from opaque bodies, under a certain new modification, or ha-
bitude, and exhibit their images ; or, lafUy, whether in
being refiefted, it is likewife refrafted, after this or that
manner, and affefts the eye with the appearance of colour.

But, agreeable to fir Ifaac Newton's fentiments, colour
alone is the proper objeft of fight ; colour being that pro-
perty of light by which the light itfelf is vifible, and by
which the images of opaque bodies are painted on the retina.

Ariftotle (De Anima, lib. ii) enumerates five kinds of
common vifibles, which are ufually received for fuch in the
fchools, ixs. motion, rcjl, number, figure, and magnitude.

Others maintain nine, as in the verfes :

" Sunt objefta novem vifus communia : quantum,
Inde figura, locus, fequitur diftantia, fitus,
Continuumque et difcretum, motufque, quiefque."

Authors reafon very varioufly as to thefe common objeiSs
of vifion ; there are two principal opinions among the
fchoolmen.

The adherents to the firft hold, that the common vifibles
produce proper reprefentations of themfelves, by fome pe-
cuhar fpecies, or image, by which they are formally per-
ceived, independently of the proper vifibles.

But the fecond opinion prevails moft, which imports,
that the common vifibles have not any fuch formal peculiar
fpecies to become vifible by ; but that the proper objefts are
fufficient to throw themfelves in this or that place or fitua-
tion, and in this or that diftance, figure, magnitude, &c. by
the circumftances of their conveyance to the fenfory.

In effeft, fince thefe comm.on vifibles cannot be repre-
fented alone (for whoever faw place, diftance, figure, fitua-
tion, &c. of itfelf?), but are always conveyed along with the
images of light and colour to the organ ; what neceflity is
there to conceive any fuch proper images by which the com-
mon vifibles fhould be formally perceived by the foul ? It is
much more probable, that from the pecuhar manner in
which the fenlitive faculty perceives a proper objeft, it is
apprized of its being in this or that fituation or place ; in
this or that figure, magnitude, &c. How this is effefted
may be conceived from what follows :

I. The fituation and place of vifible objefts are perceived
without any intentional fpecies of them, merely by the impulfe
being made from a certain place and fituation, either above
or below, on the right or left, before or behind, by which
the rays of the proper vifibles are thrown upon the retina,
and their impreffion is conveyed to the fenfory.

For, fince an object is feen by thofe rays which carry its
image to the retina, and in that place to which the vifible
power is direfted by the rays it receives, as it perceives the
impulfe of the rays to come from any place, &c. it is
abundantly admonifhed of the objefts being in that place and
fituation. See Apparent Place.

Philofophers, in general, had formerly taken for granted,
that the place to which the eye refers any vifible objetl, feen
by refleftion or refraftion, is that in which the vifual ray
meets a perpendicular from the object upon the reflefting or

the

VISIBLE.

the refrafting plane. That this is the cafe whli rcfpeft to
plane mirrors is uiiiverfally acknowledged ; and foine expe-
riments with mirrors of other forms feem to favour the fame
conclufion, and thereby afford peafon for extending the ana-
logy to all cafes of vifion. If a right line be held perpendi-
cularly over a convex or concave mirror, its image feems to
make one line with it. The fame is the cafe with a right line
held perpendicularly within water ; for the part which is
within the water feems to be a continuation of tliat wliich is
without, at leaft when it is viewed with no more than com-
mon attention, and in fome pofitions. But Dr. Barrow
called in queftion this method of judging of the place of
an objeft, and thereby opened a new field of enquiry and
debate in tliis branch of fcience. This, with other optical
inveftigations, he publirtied in his Optical Leftures, firft.
printed in 1674. Having, as he imagined, refuted the com-
mon hypothefis concerning the place of vifible objefts, he
fubftitutcs another rule, by which, he fays, our judgments
are aftually directed in this cafe. According to him, we
refer every point of an objeft to tlie place from which the
pencils of light, tliat give us the image of it, iflae, or from
which they would have iffued, if no refledting or refrafting
fubftance intervened. Purfuing this principle, Dr. Barrow
proceeded to inveftigate the place, in which the rays, iffuing
from each of the points of an objcft, and which reach the
eye after one refledlion or refraftion, meet ; and he found,
that if the refrafting fiirface was plane, and the refraftion
was made from a denfer medium into a rarer, thofe rays
■would always meet in a place between the eye and a per-
pendicular to the point of incidence.

If a convex mirror be ufed, the cafe will be the fame ;
but if the mirror be plane, the rays will meet in tlie perpen-
dicular, and beyond it if it be concave. He alfo determined,
according to thefe principles, what [form the image of a
right hne will take when it is prcfented in different manners
to a fpherical mirror, or when it is feen through a refrafting
medium.

Dr. Barrow, however, mentions an objeftion againft the
maxim which lie endeavoured to eftablifli, concerning the
fuppofed place of vifible objefts, and candidly owns that he
■was not able to give a fatisfaftory folution of it. The ob-
jeAion i o this ; let an objeiS be placed beyond the focus of a
convex lens, and if the eye be clofe to the lens, it will ap-
pear confufed, but very near to its true place. If the eye
he a little withdrawn, the confufion will increafe, and the
objeft will feem to come nearer ; and when the eye is very
near the focus, the confufion will be exceedingly great, and
the objeft will feem to be clofe to the eye. But in this ex-
periment the eye receives no rays but thofe that are con-
verging ; and the point from which they iffue is fo far from
being nearer than the objeft, that it is beyond it ; notwith-
ftanding which, the objett is conceived to be much ncai-er
than it is, though no very difiinft idea can be formed of its
precife diftance.

The firft perfon who took much notice of Dr. Barrow's
hypothefis, and the difficulty attending it, was Dr. Berke-
ley, who, in his Effay on a New Theory of Vifion, p. 50,
obferves, that the circle formed upon the retina by the rays
which do not come to a focus, produces the fame confufion in
the eye, whether they crofs one another before they reach
the retina, or tend to it afterwards : and therefore, that the
judgment concerning diflanccs will be the fame in bath the
cafcs^ without any regard to the place from which the rays
origihally iffued ; fo that in this cafe, as, by receding from
the lens, the confufion, which always accompanies the near-
nefs of an objeft, increafes, the mind will judge that the
object comes nearer. See j4pparent Distance.

Vol. XXXVII.

M. Bouguer, an iugenious writer on Optics, in his
Traite d'Optique, p. 104, adopts the general maxim of
Dr. Barrow, in fuppofing that we refer objefts to the place
from wliich the pencils of rays feemingly converge at their
entrance into the pupil. But when rays iffue fuom below
the furface of a veffel of water, or any other refrafting me-
dium, he finds that there are always two different places
of this feeming convergence : one of them of the rays that
iffue from it in the fame vertical circle, and, therefore, fall
with different degrees of obliquity upon the furface of the
refrafting medium, and another of thofe that fall upon the
furface with the fame degree of obhquity, entering the eye
laterally with refpeft to one another. Sometimes, he fays,
one of thefe images is attended to by the mind, and fome-
times the other ; and different images may be obferved by dif-
ferent perfons. An objeft, plunged into water, affords an
example, he fays, of this duplicity of images.

G. W. Krafft has ably fupported the opinion of Dr. Bar-
row, that the place of any point feen by reficftion from
the furface of any medium, is that in which rays ifluing
from it, infinitely near to one another, would meet ; and
confidering the cafe of a diftant objeft, viewed in a concave
mirror by an eye very near to it, when the image, according
to Euchd and other writers, would be between the eye and
the objeft, and the rule of Dr. Barrow cannot be applied ;
he fays, that in this cafe, the fpeculum may be confidered as
a plane, the elfeft being the fame, only that the image it
more obfcure. Com. Petropol. vol. xii. p. 252. 256. See
Piiedley's Hift. of Light, &c. p. 89. 688, &c.

From the principle above illullrated, feveral remarkable
phenomena of vifion are accounted for : as,

1. That if the diftance between two vifible objefts be an
angle that is infenfible, the diftant bodies will .appear as if
contiguous : whence a continuous body being the refult of
feveral contiguous ones ; if the dift.ances between feveral
vifibles fubtend infenfible angles, they will appear one con-
tinuous body ; which gives a pretty iUuftration of the notion
of a continuum.

Hence parallel lines, and long villas, confifting of paral-
lel rows of trees, feem to converge more and more, the
farther they are extended from the eye ; becaufe the apparent
magnitudes of their perpendicular intervals are perpetually
diminifhing, while, at the fame time, we miftake their dif-
tance. When two parallel rows of trees ftand upon an afcent,
the more remote parts appear farther off than they really
are, becaufe the line that meafures the length of the viftas
now appears under a greater angle than when it was hori-
zontal ; the trees, in fucii a cafe, feeming to converge lefs,
and fometimes, inftead of converging, feeming to diverge.
See Par.^llellism of Rows of Trees.

The proper method of drawing the appearance of two
rows of trees that fhall appear parallel to the eye, is a
problem that has cxercifed the ingenuity of feveral philo-
lophers and mathematicians. That the apparent magni-
tude of objefts decreafes with the angle under ■which
they are feen, has always been acknowledged : and it is
alfo acknowledged, that wc learn to form a judgment both
of magnitudes and diftances only by cuilom and experience ;
but in the application of lliefe maxims to the above men-
tioned problem, all perfons, before M. Bouguer, made life
of the real diftance inllead of the apparent one, by which
only the mind can form its judgment. And it is maniftll,
that if any circumftances contribute to make the diflaiicc
appear otherwife than it is in reality, the apparent magni-
tude of the objeft will he affefted by it, for the fame reafon,
that if the magnitude be mifapprthendcd, the idea of the
diftance will vary. For want of atlcndiog to 'his dif-
L 1 tinftion,

VISIBLE.

tinftion, Tacquet pretended to demonftratc, that nothing
can give the idea of two parallel lines to an eye fituated at
one of their extremities, but two hyperbolical curves,
turned the contrary way ; and M. Varignon maintained,
that, in order to make a vifta appear of the fame width,
it muft be made narrower, inftead of wider, as it recedes
from the eye. M. Bouguer obferves, that very great dif-
tances, and thofe that are confiderably lefs, make nearly the
fame impreffion upon the eye. We, therefore, imagine
great diftances to be lefs than they are, and on this account
the ground plan of a vifta always appears to rife. The
vifual rays come in a determinate direftion, but as we
imagine they terminate fooner than they do, we neceffarily
conceive that the place from which they ifTued is elevated.

Every large plane, therefore, as A B [Plate XX. Optics,
fig. J. ) viewed by an eye at O, will feem to he in fuch direc-
tion as A ^ ; and confequently lines, in order to appear truly
parallel, on the plane A B, muft be drawn fo as that they
would appear parallel on the plar.e A b, and be from thence
projeded to the plane A B. To determine the incHnation
of the apparent ground plane A i to the true ground plane
A B, M. Bouguer direfts us to draw upon a piece of level
ground two ftraight lines of a fufRcient length, maktng an
angle of three or four degrees with one another. Then a
perfon placing hinifelf within the angle, with his back
towards the angular point, muft walk backwards and for-
wards till he can fancy the lines to be parallel. In this
fituation, a line, drawn from the point of the angle through
the place of his eye, will contain the fame angle with the
true ground plane which this does with the apparent
one.

M. Bouguer alfo (hews other more geometrical methods
of determining this inclination, and fays, that by thefe
means, he has often found it to be four or five degrees,
though foraetimes only two, or two and a half degrees ;
the determination of this angle being variable, and depend-
ing upon the manner in which the ground is illuminated,
and the intenfity of the light, the colour of the foil, the
conformation of the eye, and the part of the eye on which
the objeft is painted.

In looking towards a rifing ground, the difference be-
tween the apparent ground plane and the true one, he fays,
will be much more confiderable, fo that they will forae-
times make an angle of 25 or 30 degrees. Ac. Par. :755.
M. 156.

2. If the eye be placed above an horizontal plane,
objeAs, the more remote they are, the higher will they ap-
pear, till the laft be feen in a level with the eye. Whence
it is that the fea, to perfons ftanding alhore, feems to rife
higher and higher the farther they look.

3. If any number of objefts ho placed below the eye,
the moft remote will appear the higheft ; if they be above
the eye, the moft remote will appear the loweft.

Thus the remoter parts of a horizontal walk, or long
floor, will appear to afcend gradually ; whereas, the ciehng
of a long gallery appears to defcend.

M. Bouguer obferves, that when a man ftands upon a
level plane, it does not feem to rife fenlibly, but at fome
diftance from him : the apparent plane, therefore, has a
curvature in it, the form of which is not very eafy to de-
termine ; fo that a man ftanding upon a level plane of in-
finite extent, will imagine that he ftands in the centre of a
bafon. The cafe is the fame with a perfon ftanding upon
the level of the fea.

4. The upper parts of high objefts appear to ftoop, or
incline forwards ; as the front of churcne?, towers, &c.
And ftatuee at the tops of buildings, to appear upright,

9

muft incline, or bend backwards. See farther under the
articles of Refraction and Horizon.

II. The mind perceives the diftance of vifible objefts,
from the different configurations of the eye, and the man-
ner in which the rays ftrike the eye, and in which the image
is impreffed on it. For the eye difpofes itfelf differently,
according to the different diftances it is to fee ; i!;z. for
remote objefts the pupil is dilated, and the cryftalline
brought nearer the retina, and the whole eye is made more
globular ; on the contrary, for near objefts, the pupil is
contrafted, the cryftalline thruft forwards, and the eye
lengthened.

Philofophers are agreed, that we have a power of altering
the form of our eyes, fo as to make the rays of any pencil
to converge at different diftances from the pupil : and
hence we are capable of viewing objefts with almoft equal
diftinftnefs, though they are placed at confiderably dif-
ferent diftances ; but with regard to the alteration that
takes place in the eye, and the mechanifm by which it is
produced, different accounts have been given.

It was the opinion of Kepler, that the contraftion of
the proceffus ciliares changes the form of the eye, and by
the elongation of it, places the cryftalline at a greater dif-
tance from the retina ; whereas Des Cartes imagined, that
the curvature of the cryftalline itfelf fuffers an alteration by
the contraftion of thofe ligaments.

M. de la Hire maintained that, in order to view objefts
at different diftances, there is no alteration but in the lize
of the pupil, or the aperture of the eye ; and he made
a curious experiment, which, he thought, proved his
affertion.

M. Le Roi, a member of the Royal Academy at Mont-
pelier, has lately attempted to defend the opinion of M. de
la Hire, which had long been exploded by all philofophers ;
and he fays, that the accommodation of the eye to the
view of objefts, placed at different diftances, by the con-
traftion or dilatation of the pupil only, does not conlift
in the change of the place of the cryftalline, by means
of the ligamenta ciliaria, the ftrength of which is inade-
quate to the purpofe. Befides, he obferves, that they
are not attached to the edge of the capfula, as has been
fuppofed, but that they extend a confiderable way along
the interior furface of it, without any clofe adherence
to it. He is alfo of opinion that thefe fibres are not
mufcular, but are only ramified veffels, which, according
to all appearance, he fays, anfwer no other purpofe than
that of fecreting an aqueous humour, to lubricate the fur-
face of the cryftalline.

That nothing is requifite but the contraftion of the
pupil in order to view the neareft objefts with diftinftnefs,
. is evident, he fays, from experiment. For when an
objeft is placed fo near, that the eye cannot bear as great
a degree of contraftion as is necelfary for viewing it dif-
tinftly, the fame end is obtained by an artificial pupil.
For if a fmall hole be made in a card, the neareft objeft
may be viewed through it with the greateil eafe and
diftinftnefs.

That the variation of the pupil is fufficient for the
purpofe of viewing objefts at all diftances, he alfo thought
he could demonftrate by experiment with an artificial
eye ; for when, with a large aperture, the images of
near objefts were confufed, and ill defined upon the re-
tina of this inttrument, they became very diftinft, and
well defined, by contrafting the aperture. Ac. Paris,
1755. M. p. 920.

But the moft fatisfaftory difcuffion of this fubjcft we
owe to Dr..Po/terfield, who proved, by a feries of experi-
ments,

VISIBLE.

mcnts, in which an objetl was viewed through fmall flits
in a thin plate of iron, at a lefs diitance than the diameter
of the papil (which, therefore, was of no ufc in this cafe),
tJiat we are poffefTed of a power of changirj^ the conform-
ation of our eyes, and of adapting them to various dif-
tauces ; and that this change always follows a fimilar
motion in the axes of vifion, with which it has been con-
netted by ufe and cuitom. Porteriield on the Eye, vol. i.
p. 411. 415. 421.

However, among thofe who fuppofc a conformation of
the eye for tiiis purpofe, independent of a variation in the
aperture, it is by no means agreed in what it confills.
Some have faid, that the cryftalline becomes more or lefs
convex for this purpofe, by the adlion of certain mufcular
fibres which enter into its compofition. But Dr. Porter-
field (ubi fupra, p. 442.) obferves that, though the cryf-
talline, when dry, appears to confift of many thin concen-
tric laminae, or fcales, their difpofition is but ill qualified for
changing the figure of the cryftaUine ; or if they were fo,
it is not eafy, he fays, to prove that thefe fibres are mufcu-
lar, and capable of contraftion.

His own opinion is, that the cryftalline has a motion by
means of the ligamentum ciliare, by which the diitance
between it and the retina is increafed or diminiflied, ac-
cording to the different diftances of objefts. The ftruc-
ture and difpofition of the ligamentum ciliare, he fays, ex-
cellently qualify it for changing the fituation of the cryf-
talline, and removing it to a greater diftance from the
retina, when objefts are too near for us ; becaufe, when it
contrafts, it will not only draw the cryftalline forward, but
alfo comprefs the vitreous humour lying behind it, fo that
it muft prefs upon the cryftalline, and pu(h it towards the
retina.

He adds, that the cryftalline, being moved forwards,
muft, at the fame time, prefs the aqueous humour againft
the cornea ; by which means that membrane, which is
flexible, will be rendered more convex, and enable us ftill
better to fee near objefts diftinftly.

That the fituation of the cryftalhne is made ufe of in
conforming the eye to the diftinft view of objefts placed
at different diftances. Dr. Porterfield thinks, is very evident
from what is obferved concerning perfons who have ca-
taraifts couched ; for the fame lens is not ufeful to them for
feeing all objefts diftinftly, but they are obliged to make
ufe of glaftt's of different degrees of convexity, in propor-
tion to the nearnefs of the objeft.

To the objeftion of M. de la Hire, and others, among
whom are the celebrated anatomifts Hallcr and Zinn,
that the ciliary ligament is not mufcular, and confequently
has no power of contraftion, he obferves, that they have
been led into tliis miftake by apprehending that the colour
of mufcles is always red ; whereas this is not the cafe uni-
verfally, for the mufcular fibres of the intellines and ftomach
have hardly any rednefs in their colour. It is alfo cer-
tain, he fays, that the pupil contrafts and dilates itfelf ac-
cording as objefts are more or lefs luminous, and yet none
of the fibres which perform thafc aftion are in the Icaft red.
Ubi fupra, vol. ii. p. 434. 447. 450.

Dr. .Turin (Etf. on diftinft, &c. Vifion, p. 143.) fup-
pofcs, tliat when the eye is to be fuitcd to greater dif-
tances than fifteen or fixteen inches, the ligamentum ciliare
contrafts, fo as to draw part of the anterior furface of the
capfula of the cryftalline, into which the fibres of it are
inferted, a little forwards and outwards, on which the water
within the capfula muft flow from under the middle towards
the elevated part of it ; and the aqueous humour muft flow
from above the elevated part of the cnjfula to the middle.

In confequence of this, the vrhol* anterior furface, within
the infertion of the ciliary ligament, will be reduced to a
lefs convexity. When this contraftion ceafes, the capfula
will return to its former fituation, by its own elafticity.
To this hypothefis it has been objcfted, that unlefs the
water within the capfula has a greater refraftive power
than the aqueous humour, the retiring of it from one place
to another to make room for that humour, will have no
effeft upon the pencils of rays.

Dr. Jurin, however, not attending to this circumftance,
and feeming to confider the water within the capfula as
having the fame refractive power with the cryftalline itfelf,
attempts to fhew by calculation, that this change in the
convexity of it is quite fufficient to extend the natural
diftance of diftinft vifion from fifteen inches to fourteen
feet five inches, without the leaft motion of the cryftalline
itfelf, and a very fmall one of the anterior furface of the
capfula.

M. Mufchenbroeck, or rather Albinus { whofe Anatomical
Obfervations on the Eye he has publifiied in Iiis Introd. ad
Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 759.), fuppofes, that the change of con-
formation in the eye is performed by means of the zona cili-
aris, in the following manner. In viewing a very near ob-
jeft, in confequence of which the pencils of rays tend to a
focus beyond the retina, the zona ciliaris, and the anterior
membrane of the capfula, as alfo the vitreous humour, being
driven forward by the comprellion of the coats of the eye,
pufh the cryftaUine, and make it recede from the retina. At
the fame time the cryftalline, pufhing the aqueous humour
into the cornea, makes it more prominent. Perhaps, alfo,
he fays, the cryftalline may be made rounder, fo that, on
thefe accounts, the pencils vHU come to their foci fooner
than otherwife. On the other hand, when the objeft is too
remote for diftinft vifion, fo that the pencils come to their
foci too foon, the zona ciliaris becomes tenfe, and, with the
anterior membrane of the capfula, pufhes the cryftalline far-
ther within the vitreous humour. By this prefTure the cryf-
talline becomes flatter, fo that, on thefe feveral accounts,
the foci of the pencils are carried farther. The zona cili-
aris, and the anterior membrane of the capfula, can only
pufh the cryftalline into the vitreous humour one half of its
own thicknefs, which he fhews is not fufiicient to make vifion
diftinft at a competent diftance, and therefore concludes,
that fome change mufl take place in the form of the cryf-
talline, as, he fays, Dr. Pemberton has well demonftrated.
He fuppofes, that the provifion for fuiting the eye to dif-
ferent diftances is the fame in all animals, and does not de-
pend on the change of the fclerotica in any of them, which is
hard, and incapable of being comprefTed. Prieftley's Hift.
of Light, &c. p. 638 — 652. See y^yY"""'"' Distance. See
alfo Eve.

It feems to be now pretty generally allowed, that the
change, by which the eye accommodates itfelf to different
diftances, is produced by an increafe of the convexity of the
cryftalline lens, arifing from an internal caufe. The argu-
ments in favour of this conclufion are of two kinds ; fome
of them are negative, derived from the inipolTibility of ima-
gining any other mode of performing the accommodation,
without cxceediing the hmits of the aftual dimenfions of
the eye, and from the examination of the eye in its dif-
ferent ftates by feveral tefts, capable of dclefting any
other changes if they had exifted : for example, by the
application of water to the cornea, which completely re-
moves the effeft of its convexity, without impairing the
power of altering the focus, and by holding the whole eye,
when turned inwards, in fuch a manner as to render any ma-
terial alteration of its length utterly injpofTible. Other ar-

L 1 i gumcnts

VISIBLE.

guments are deduced from pofitive evidence of the change
of form of the cryllalline, furnilhed by the particular ef-
fefts of refraftion and aberration which are obfervable in
the different ftates of the eye ; effefts which furnifh a direcl
proof that the figure of the lens muft vary ; its furfaces,
which are nearly fpherical m the quiefcent form of the lens,
affuraing a different determinable curvature when it is called
into exertion. The objeftions which have been made to this
cooclufion are founded only on the appearance of a flight
alteration of focal length in an eye from which the cryftal-
linc had been extrafted ; but the h£t is neither fufficiently
afcertained, nor was the apparent change at all confiderable :
and even if it were proved that an eye without the lens is
capable of a certain fmall alteration, it would by no means
follow that it could undergo a change five times or ten times
as great.

The motion of the optical axes ferves likewife, as we
have already obferved, to afTiil us in judging of the diftance
of objedts. Thefe axes, or the direftions of the rayi falling
on the points of moft perfeft vifion, naturally meet at a great
diftance ; that is, they are nearly parallel to each other ; and
in looking at a nearer objeft, we make them converge to-
wards it, wherever it may be fituated, by means of the external
mufcles of the eye ; while in perfeft eyes the refraftive powers
are altered, at the fame time, by an involuntary fympathy, fo
as to form a diftina image of an objeA at a given diftance.
This correfpondence of the fituation of the axes with the
focal length is in moft cafes unalterable ; but fome have
perhaps a power of deranging it in a flight degree, and in
others the adjuftment is imperfe£l : but the eyes feem to
be in moft perfons infeparably connefted together with re-
fpeft to the changes that their refraftive powers undergo,
altliough it fometimes happens that thofe powers are ori-
ginally very diff'erent in tlie oppofite eyes.

Thefe motions enable us to judge pretty accurately,
within certain limits, of the diftance of an objeft ; and be-
yond thefe Lmlts, the degree of diftinftnefs or confuCon of
the image ftill continues to aflift the judgment. We efti-
niatc diftances much lefs accurately with one eye than with
both, fince we are deprived of the aflillance ufually afforded
by the relative fituation of the optical axes ; thus we feldom
fucceed at once in attempting to pafs a finger or a hooked
rod fideways through a ring, with one eye fliut. Our idea
of diftance is ufually regulated by a knowledge of the real
magnitude of an objett, while we obferve its angular magni-
tude ; and on the other hand, a knowledge of the real or
imaginary diftance of the objeft often diredls inir judgment
of its atlual magnitude. Tlie quantity of light intercepted
by the air interpofed, and the inteniity of the blue tint which
it occafions, are alfo elements of our involuntary calculation :
hence, in a mift, the obfcurity increafes the apparent dif-
tance, and confequently the fuppofed magnitude of an un-
known obje6\. We naturally obferve, in eftimating a dif-
tance, the number and extent of the intervening objedts ; fo
that a diftant church in a woody and hilly country ap-
pears more remote than if it were fituated in a plain ; and
for 3 fimilar reafon, the apparent diftance of an objeil feen
at fea, is fmaller than its true diftance. Young's Courfe of
Leftures on Natural Philofophy, &c. vol. i.

Accordingly, in judging of tlie diftance of a vifible objeft,
we muft take into our account the angle which the objeft
makes, with the diftincl or confjfed reprefentation of the
objeft ; and the brilknefs or feeblenefs, or the rarity or
fpiflitude of the rays.

To this it IS owing, I. That objefts which appear ob-
fcure, or confufed, are judged to be more rcniote ; a princi-
ple which the painters ak to make fome of their figurts

4

appear farther diftant than others on the fame plane. Thu«,
fuppofmg the eye to be accommodated to a given diftance,
objefts at all other diftances may be reprefented with a cer-
tain indiilinftnefs of outline, which would accompany the
images of the objefts themfelves on the retina : and this
indiftindnefs is fo generally neceffary, that its abfence
has the difagreeable effeift called hardr.efs. The apparent
magnitude of the fubjefts of our defign, and the relative
fituations of the intervening objedfs, may be fo imitated
by the rules of geometrical perfpeftive as to agree per-
feftly with nature, and we may ftill further improve the re-
prefentation of diftance by attending to the art of aerial
perfpeClive, which confifts in a due obfervation of the lofs
of light, and the blucifh tinge, occafloned by the interpofi-
tion of a greater or lefs depth of air between us and the
different parts of, the fcenery.

We cannot indeed fo arrange the pifture, that either the
focal length of the eye, or the pofition of the optical axes,
may be fuch as would be required by the aftual objefts :
but we may place the pifture at fuch a diftance, that neither
of thefe cntcrions can have much power in detefting the
fallacy ; or, by the interpofition of a large lens, we may
produce nearly the fame effefts iu the rays of light, as if
t-hey proceeded from a pifture at any required diftance. la
the panorama, which has lately been exJiibited in many parts
of Europe, the effefts of natural fcenery are very clofely
imitated : the deception is favoured by the abfence of all
other vifible objefts, and by the faintnefs of the light, which
affifts in concealing the defefts of the reprefentation, and for
which the eye is ufually prepared, by being long detained in
the dark winding paflages which lead to the place of exhibi-
tion. Young, ub'ifupra. Si;e Apparent Magnitude.

2. To this it is likewife owing, that rooms, whofe wallc
are whitened, appear the fmaller ; that fields covered with
fnow, or white flowers, fhew lefs than when clothed with grafs ;
that mountains covered with fnow, in the night-lime, appear
the nearer ; and that opaque bodies appear the more remote
in the twilight.

III. The magnitude or quantity of vifible objefts is
known chiefly by the angle comprehended between two
rays drawn from the two extremes of the objeft to the cen-
tre of the eye. An objeft appears to be as large as the
angle it fubtends ; or bodies feen under a greater angle ap-
pear greater ; and thofe under a lefs, lefs, &c. Hence the
fame thing appears now bigger, and now lefs, as it is lefs or
more diftant from the eye. This we call the Apparent Mag-
NITUDK ; which fee.

Now, to judge of the real magnitude of an objeft, we
confider the diftance ; for, fince a near and remote objeft
may appear under equal angles, the diftance muft neceffarily
be eftimated ; that if it be great, and the optic angle fmall,
the remote objeft may be judged great ; and vice -verfa.

The magnitude of vifible objefts is brought under certain
laws, demontlrated by the mathematicians ; as,

1. That the apparent magnitudes of a remote objeft are
as the diftances reciprocally ; or rather, in a fomewhat lefs
ratio.

2. That the co-tangents of half the apparent magnitudes
of the fame objedts, are as the diftances j hence the apparent
magnitude and diilance being given, we have a method of
determining the true magnitude ; the canon is this. As the
whole fine is to the tangent of half the apparent magnitude,
fo is the given diftance to half the real magnitude. The
fame canon, inverted, will, from the diftance and magnitude
given, determine the apparent one.

3. Objefts feen under the fame angle, have their mag-
nitudes proportional to their diftances.

4. The

VISIBLE.

4. The fubleiife A B [Plait XX. Optus, fg.6.) of any
art of a circle appears of equal magnitude in all the points
D C E G, though one point be vallly nearer than another ;
and the diameter D G appears of the fame magnitude in
all the points of the periphery of the circle. Hence fome
have derived a hint for the moft commodious form of
theatres.

5. If the eye be fixed in A [Jig. 7.), and the right line
B C be moved in fuch manner, as that the extremes of it
always fall on the periphery, it will always appear of the
fame magnitude. Hence the eye, being placed in any angle
of a regular polygon, the fides will appear equal.

6. If the magnitude of an objeft direftly oppofite to the
eye be equal to its diftance from the eye, the whole ob^eft
will be taken in by the eye, but nothing more. Whence
tie nearer you approach an objeft, the lefo part you fee
of it.

IV. The figure of vifible objefts is eftimated, chiefly,
from our opinion of the fituation of the feveral parts of it.

This opmion of the fituation, &c. enables the mind to
apprehend an external objeft under this or that figure,
more juftly than any fimilitude of the images in the retina,
with the objedt, can ; the images being frequently elliptical,
oblong, &c. when the objects they exhibit to the mind are
circles, fquares, &c.

The laws of vifion, with regard to the figures of vifible
objcfts, are :

1 . Tliat if the centre of the pupil be exaftly againft, or
in the direction of a rigiit line, the line will appear as one
point.

2. If tlic eye be placed in a direftion of a furface, fo that
only one line of the perimeter can radiate on it, it will appear
as a line.

3. If a body be oppofed direftly towards the eye, fo as
only one plane of the furface can radiate on it, it will appear
as a furface.

4. A remote arc, viewed by an eye in the fame plane,
will appear as a rigiit line.

5. A fphere, viewed at a diitancf, appears a circle.

6. Angular figures, at a dillance, appear round.

7. If the eye look obliquely on the centre of a regular
figure, or a circle, the true figure will not be feen ; but the
circle will appear oval, &c. See Apparent Figure.

V. The number of vifible objecls is perceived, not only
by one or more images formed in the fund of the eye ; but
alfo by fuch a pofition of thofe parts of the brain whence
the optic nerves fprlng, as the mind has been ufed to, in
attending to a certain place ; and that either Cngle or
manifold.

Accordingly, when either of the eyes, with the contiguous
part of the brain, arc forced out of their juft parallelifm,
with the other, v.gr. by prefTing it with the finger, &c. all
tilings appear double ; but when they are in the requiCte
parallehfm, though there be two images in the fund of the
two eyes, yet tlie objeft will appear fiiigle. Again, one
thing may appear double, c." even manifold, not only with
both eyes, but even with only one of them open ; by reafon
the common concourfe of the cones of rays relleiled from
the objeft to the eye, citiier falls fhort of the retina, or goes
much beyond it.

VI. Motion and reft are feen when the images of objedls
rcprcfented in the eye, and propagated to the brain, are
eiliier moved, or a» reft ; and the mind perceives thefu images
cither moving or at reft, by comparing the moved image to
another, with refpcu^ to which it chaugea place ; or by the
fituation of the eye to the objcA being continually changed.
So that motioa is only perceivcdj by perceiving the im.iges

to be in dififerent places and fituations ; nor are thefe

changes perceived unlefs effefted in time. So that to per-
ceive motion, a fenJible time is required. But relt is per-
ceived by the vifual faculty, from the reception of the image
in the fiime place of the retina, and the faqie fituation for
fome feiifible time.

Hence the reafon, why bodies moving exceedingly fall
appear at reft ; thus, a live coal, fwung briflcly round, ap-
pears a continual circle of fire ; the motion not being cotn-
menfurate with vifible time, but much fwifter than the fame ;
fo that, in the time the foul requires to judge of any chaiig*
of fituation of the image on the retina, or that it is moved
from this place to that, the thing itfelf performs its whole
circuit, and is in its own place again.

Laws of vifion, with regard to the motion of vifibles, are :

1. That if two objefts unequally diftant from the eye
move from it with equal velocity, the more remote one will
appear the flower ; or, if their celerities are proportionable
to their diflances, they will appear to move equally fwift.

2. If two objefts, unequally diftant from the eye, move
with unequal velocities in the fame direftion, their apparent
velocities arc in a ratio compounded of llie direA ratio of
their true velocities, and the reciprocal one of their diftances
from the eye.

3. A vifible objeft, moving with any velocity, appears
to be at reft, if the fpace deferibed in the interval of one
fecond be imperceptible at the diftance of the eye. Hence
it is, that a near objeft, moving very flowly, as the index of
a clock ; or a remote one very fwiftly, as a planet ; feem at
reft.

4. An objeft moving with any degree of velocity, will
appear to reft, if the fpace it runs over in a fecond of time
be to its diftance from the eye, as i to 1400 : nay, in faft,
if it be as I to 1 300.

5. The eye proceeding ftratght from one place to another,
a lateral objeft, not too far off, either on the right or
left, will feem to move the contrary way : the eye, in this
cafe, being fenfible of its motion, diftant objefts will feem
to move the fame way, and with the fame velocity.

6. If the eye and the objeA move both the lame way,
only the eye much fwifter than the objeft, that laft will
appear to go backwards.

7. If two or more objefts move with the fame velocity,
and a third remain at reft, the moveables will appear fixed,
and the quiefcent in motion the contrary way. Thus,
clouds moving very fvvdftly, their parts feem to prefcrve
their fituation, and the moon to move the contrary way.

8. If the eye be moved with a great velocity, lateral
objefts at reft appear to move the contrary way. Thus,
to a perfon fitting in a coach, riding briikly througli a
wood, the trees feem to retire the contrary way ; and to
people in a ftiip, &c. the ftiorts feem to recede.

9. An objeft moving very iwiftly is not feen, unlefs it
be very luminous. Thus, a cannon-ball is not feen, if it is
viewed tranlverfely ; but if it be viewed according to the
line it defcribcs, it may be feen, becaufe its pidure con-
tinues long on the fame place of the retina, which, therefore,
receives a more fenfible inipreflioii from the objetl.

10. A live coal fwung briikly round in a circle, appears
a continued circle of fire, becauie the impreflions made on
the retina of light being of a vibratory, and conicquently of
a lafting nature, do not prefently perifh, but continue till
the coal performs its whole circuit, and returns again to its
former place.

u. If a perfon turns fwiftly round, without changing
his place, all ubjeds about him will ieem to move round in
a circle the contrary way ; aad this deception coiitiuuti not

only

V I s

V 1 s

only while the perfon himfelf moves round, but, which is
more furprifing, it alfo continues for fome time after he
ceafes to move, when the eye, as well as the objeft, is at
abfolute reft.

The reafon why objefts appear to move round the con-
trary way, when the eye turns round, is not fo difficult to
explain : for though, properly fpeaking, motion is not feen,
as not being itfelf the immediate objeft of fight, yet by the
fight we eafily know when the image changes its place on
the retina, and thence conclude that either the objeft, or
the eye, or both, are moved. But by the fight alone we
can never determine how far this motion belongs to the
objeft, hov/ far to the eye, or how far to both.

If we imagine the eye at reft, we afcribe the whole motion
to the objeft, though it be truly at reft. If we imagine
the objeft at reft, we afcribe the whole motion to the eye,
though it belongs entirely to the objeft : and when the eye
is in motion, though we are fenfible of its motion, yet if we
do not imagine that it moves fo fwiftly as it really does, we
afcribe only a part of the motion to the eye, and the reft of
it we afcribe to the objedt, though it be truly at reft.

This laft, fays Dr. Porterfield, is what happens in the
prefent cafe, when the eye turns round ; for though wc are
fenfible of the motion of the eye, yet we do not apprehend
that it moves fo faft as it really does ; and, therefore, the
bodies about appear to move the contrary way, as is agree-
able to experience.

But the great difficulty ftiU remains, -viz. why, after
the eye ceafes to move, objefls ftiould, for fome time, ftill
appear to continue ia motion, though their piftures on
the retina be truly at reft, and do not at all change their
place.

This, Dr. Porterfield imagined, proceeds from a miftake
with refpeft to the eye, which, though it be abfolutely at
reft, we nevrthelefs conceive it as moving the contrary way
to that in which it moved before ; from which miftake, with
refpeft to the motion of the eye, the objefts at reft will
appear to move the fame way which the eye is imagined to
move ; and confequently will feem to continue their motion
for fome time after the eve is at reft. Porterfield on the
Eye, vol. ii. p. 422. 424.

Visible Horizon, Place, and Species. See the fubftantives.

VISIER, Vizier, or f^ijir, an officer or dignitary in
the Ottoman empire, of which there are two kinds ; the
firft called by the Turks -vijir azem, that is, grand -vifr,
firft created in 1370, by Amurath I., in order to eafe him-
felf of the chief and weighter affairs of the government.

The grand, or prime "vifir, is the prime minifter of ftate
of the whole empire, and prefides at the divan, or great
council. Being the lieutenant of the fultan, in whofe name
he governs, and from whom he holds the feal, invefted with
the grcateft authority, and entrufted with all the power of
execution, the vifir may ftrike off the heads of perfons re-
ceiving falaries who oppofe the progrefs of the government,
who throw obftacles in the way of its adminiftration, who
do not obey its orders, or do not execute them according
to its pleafure ; he commands the armies in perfon ; he dif-
pofes of the finances ; he names, or caufes perfons to be
named, to all the adminiftrative and military employments.
Nothing, in a word, is foreign to his powers, but the inter-
pretation of the law entrufted to the ulemas.

But the greater the power of the grand vifir, the greater
is his refponfibility. He is accountable, both to the fove-
reign and to the people, for the afts of injuftice which he
commits, for the unfortunate refult of his adminiftration,
for the extortions which he does not reprefs ; he is account-
able, above all, for the unexpefted dearnefs of provifions, for

too frequent fires, and for the defeats of the armies ! all the
misfortunes of the ftate are attributed to him. The fnrord,
always fufpended over his head, ftrikes him equally whether
he difpleafe the people, or difobhge the fultan.

In the frequent cxcurfions which he makes incog, in the
city, for the purpofe of having an eye to good order, of
informing himfelf of the ftate of the articles of food,
examining the weights and meafures, and infpefting the
conduft of agents appointed for the diftribution of provi-
fions, the vifir, accompanied by a public executioner, and
fome officers difguifed like himfelf, orders delinquents to
be apprehended and puniftied on the Ipot : he calls out, if
neceflary, the guard of the quarter ; he direfts the baftinado
to be given to the ftiop-keepers who vend aliments of bad
quality ; he caufes him who is found with falfe weights to
be nailed by the ear againft the door of the ftiop ; he even
punifties with death relapfes or malverfations of too ferious
a nature. During fires, he orders to be ftruck off the head
of the thief caught in the very faft ; but, in thofe cafes,
the law has pronounced before-hand the penalty of death.
Charged to liften to the complaints of individuals, to caufe
juftice to be done to all, the vifir cannot, under any pre-
text, difpofe legally of the life and fortune of citizens. It
is not that he does not too frequently abufe his authority ;
it is not that he does not fometlmes yield to perfidious
advice, that he docs not fuffer himfelf to be led away by
motives of hatred and revenge, that the thirft of gold does
not impel him to arbitrary afts ; but woe be to him if his in-
juftice be too revolting ! When he too frequently puts
himfelf above the laws, the people, in their turn, trample
him under foot, unlefs the fultan be expeditious in adminif-
tering juftice. Thus circumftanced, it is extremely rare for
a vifir to grow old in the poft which he occupies.

The title of vifir is giveji to all the pachas with three tails.
Six of thefe ordinary vifirs, whofe reputation for wifdom
and intelUgence was univerfally allowed, formerly compofed
the divan or council of the grand vifir. The vifir a(ked
their opinion when he thought it neceffary. Soon after the
acceffion of Selim to the throne, he compofed this council
of twelve perfons the moil diftinguiftied by their office.
The vifir and the mufti are prefidents of it ; the one in his
quality of lieutenant-general of the empire for tem.poral
affairs ; the other as vicar of the fultan for the interpretation
and depofitory of the laws. The other ten members are
the kiaya-bey, the reis-effendi, the tefterdar-effendi, the
tchelebi-effendi, the terfana-emini, the tchiaoux-bachi, two
ex -reis-effendi, and two ex-tefterdars-effendi. See Bashaw,
Bey, Kiaya-bey, &c.

The firft of thoie above enumerated is the lieutenant of
the vifir ; the fecond is fecretary of ftate, or high chancellor
of the empire ; the third is the minifter of the finances ; the
fourth is the receiver-general of the tax on wine, eatables,
and moft articles of merchandize, and the adminiftrator of
thefe funds, &c. ; the fifth is the minifter of marine ; the
fixth fecretary of ftate.

Renegado Chriftians have been fometimes raifed to the
vifirate; fuch were Khairedain, furnamed Barbaroffa ; Ulug
All, Cuproli, &c.

VISIGAPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the circar of Cicacole, on the coaft. Near the
town is a pagoda, dedicated to monkeys, which abound in
the neighbourhood : they are fed by the priefts, and regu-
larly affemble at certain hours ; 50 miles S.W. of Cicacole.
N. lat. 17° 40'. E. long. 83° 30'.

VISIGNANO, a town of Iftria; 11 miles N. of
Rovigno.

VISINA, a town of Iftria ; 42 miles S.E. of Umago.

VISION,

VISION.

VISION, Visio, the aft of feeing, or perceiving exter-
nal objeAs by the organ of fight.

Vifioi) is well defined to be a fenfation, by which, from a
certain motion of the optic nerve, made in the bottom of
the eye by the rays of light emitted or reflefted from
objefts, and hence conveyed to the common fenfory in the
brain, the mind perceives the luminous objeft, its quantity,
quality, figure, &c.

The phenomena of vifion, the caufes of it, and the
manner in which it is effefted, make one of the greateft
and mod important articles in the whole fyllcm of natural
knowledge. Indeed, a great part of the phyfical, mathe-
matical, and anatomical difcoveries and improvements of the
moderns, terminate here, and only tend to fet the bufincfs
of vifion in a clearer light.

Hitherto refer what fir Ifaac Newton and others have
difcovered of the nature of light and colours ; the laws of
infleftion, refleftion, and refradtion of the rays, the ftrutlure
of the eye, particularly the retina and optic nerves, &c.

It is not necetfary we fiiould here give a minute detail of
the procefs of vifion from its firft principles ; the greateft
part is already delivered under the refpeftive articles. The
eye, the organ of vifion, we have defcribed under the article
Eye ; and its feveral parts, tunics, humours, &c. under
their proper heads, Cornea, Crystalline, &c.

The immediate and principal organ of vifion, viz. the
retina, according to fome, and the choroides, according to
others, are alfo diftinftly confidered ; as alfo the ftrufture
of the optic nerve, which conveys the impreffion to the
brain ; and the texture and difpofition of the brain itfelf,
which receives them, and reprefents them to the foul. See
Retina, Choroides, Oi'tic Nerves, Brain, Sensory, &c.

By means of this arrangement of the various refradling
fubftances, many peculiar advantages are procured. The
furface of the cornea only, if it had been more convex,
could not liave collefted the lateral rays of a direft pencil
to a perfeft focus, without a different curvature near its
edges ; and then the oblique pencils would have been fub-
jefked to greater aberration, nor could they have been made
to converge to any focus on the retina. A fecond refrac-
tion performs both thcfe offices much more completely, and
has alfo the advantage of admitting a greater quantity of
liglit. If alfo the furfaces of the cryftalline lens, thus
intcrpofed, had been abrupt, there would have been a re-
fleftion at each, and an apparent hazinefs would have inter-
fered with the diftinft view of every luminous objeft ; but
this inconvenience is avoided by the gradual incrcafe of den-
fity m approaching the centre, which alfo makes the cryftal-
line equivalent to a much more refraftive fubftance of equal
magnitude ; while, at the fame time, the fmaller denfity of
the lateral parts prevents the ufual aberration of fpherical
furfaces, occafioned by the too great rcfrattion of the
lateral rays of dircft pencils, and caufes alfo the focus of
each oblique pencil to fall either accurately, or very nearly,
on the concave iurface of the retina, throughout its extent.

Again, the nature of light, which is the medium or
vehicle by which objefts are carried to tlie eye, is laid down
at large under the articles Light and Colours ; and the
chief properties thereof concerned in vifion, under Reflec-
tion, Refraction, &c. ; and alfo many of its circum-
ftances under Ray, Medium, &c. What remains for this
article, therefore, is only to give a general idea of the whole
procefs, in which all tlio ieveral parts are concerned.

Vision, iJiJcnnt Opinions or Sterns of. The Platonifts
and Stoics held vifion to be cffecled by the emilTion of rays
out of the eyes ; conceiving that there was a fort of light
thus darted out ; wliicb, with the light of the cxtcrn^J air,

taking, as it were, hold of the objeds, rendered tiiem
vifible ; and thas returning back again to the eye, altered
and new modified by the contaft of the objeft, made an
imprefiion on the pupil, which gav^ the fenfation of the
objeft.

The reafons by which they maintain their opinions are
derived, i. From the brightnefs and luftre of the eye.
2. From our feeing a remote cloud, without feeing one with
which we are encompafied (the rays being fuppofed too
briflc and penetrating to be flopped by the near cloud, but
growing languid at a greater dittance, are returned to the
eye). 3. From our not feeing an objeft laid on the pupil.
4. From the eye's being weary with feeing; i.e. by emit-
ting great quantities of rays. And laftly, from animals
which fee in the night, as cats, lions, moles, owls, and forae
men.

Our own countryman, Roger Bacon, diftinguifhed as he
was in a variety of refpedls, does not hciitate to aflent to
the opinion that vifual rays proceed from the eye ; giving
this reafon for it, that every thing in nature is qualified to
difcharge its proper funftions by its own powers, in the
fame manner as the fun, and other celefl ial bodies. Opus
Majus, p. 289.

The Epicureans held vifion to be performed by the ema-
nation of corporeal fpecies, or images from objefts ; or a
fort of atomical efiluvia continually flying off from the inti-
mate parts of objefts to the eye.

Their chief reafons are, i. That the objefts muft necef-
farily be united to the vifive faculty ; and fince it is not
united by itfelf, it muft be fo by fome fpecies that reprefents
it, and that is continually flowing from bodies. 2. That
it frequently happens, that old men fee remote objefts better
than near ones ; the diftancc making the fpecies thinner, and
more commenfurate to the debility of their organ.

The Peripatetics hold, with Epicurus, that vifion is per-
formed by the reception of fpecies ; but they differ from
him in the circumftances : for they will have the fpecies
(which they call intcntionales) to be incorporeal.

It is true, Ariflotle's dodlrine of vifion, delivered in liis
chapter " De Afpeflu," amounts to no more than this ;
that objefls muft move fome intermediate body, that by this
they may move the organ of fight. To which he adds, in
another place, that when we perceive bodies, it is their
fpecies, not their matter, that we perceive ; as a feal makes
an impreffion on wax, without the wax's retaining any thing
of the feal.

But this vague and obfcure account the Peripatetics have
thought fit to improve. Accordingly, what their mafter
called fpecies, the difciples undcrllanding of real proper
fpecies, afl'ert, that every vifible objeft cxpreffes a perfeft
image of itfelf, in the air contiguous to it ; and this image
another, fomewhat lefs in the next air ; and the third, an-
other, &c. till the laft image arrives at the cryftaUine,
which they hold for the chief organ of fight, or that which
immediately moves the foul. Thefe images they call inten-
tional fpecies.

The modern philofophers, as the Cartcfians and New-
tonians, give a better account of vifion. They all agree,
tliat it is performed by rays of light reflefted from the fe-
veral points of olijefts received in at the pupil, refrafted
and colleded in their paffage, through the coats and hu-
mours, to the retina ; and thus ftriking, or making an im-
preffion, on fo many points thereof; which nnprclTion is
conveyed, by the corrcfpondent capillaments of the optic
nerve, to the brain, &c.

Baptilla Porta's experiments with the camera obfcura,
abwit the middle of llit i6lh century, convinced htm, that

rifion

VISION.

vifion is performed by the intermiflion of fomething- into the
eye, and not by vifual rays, proceeding from the eye, 'i
had been the general opinion before his time ; and he was
the firft who fully fatisfied himfeif and others upon this fiib-
jeA, though feveral philofophers ftill adhered to the old
opinion.

As for the Peripatetic feries or chain of images, it is a
mere chimsra ; and Ariftotle's meaning is better underftood
without than with them. In effeft, fetting thefe afide, the
Ariftotelian, Cartelian, and Newtonian doftrines of vifion
are very confiftent ; for fir Ifaac Newton imagines, that
vifion is performed chiefly by the vibrations of a fine me-
dium, wliich penetrates all bodies excited in the bottom of
the eye by'the rays of light, and propagated through the
capillaments of the optic nerves, to the fenforiura. And
Defcartes maintains, that the fun preffing the materia fub-
tilis, with which the world is filled every way, the vibrations
aud pulfes of this matter refiefted from objefts are communi-
cated to the eye, and thence to the feiifory ; fo that the
action or vibration of a medium is equally fuppofed in all.

Vision, Modern Theory of. In order to vifion, we are
certain, it is required, that the rays of light be thrown from
tlie vifible objefts to the eye. What befalls them in the eye
will be conceived from what follows.

Suppofe, e. gr. Z the eye, and ABC the object
(P/a^i'XX. Optics, Jig. 8.); now, though every point of
an objeft be a r.idiant point, that is, though there be rays
re.lefted from every point of the objeft to every point of the
circumambient fpace, each carrying with it its refpeftive
colour, (which wc falfely imagine to be thofe of the objeft,)
yet, as only thofe rays which pafs through the pupil of the
eye affeft the fenfe, we fhaU here confider none elfe but
thefe.

And again, though there be a great number of rays
paffing from one radiant point, as B, through the pupil ;
yet we (hall only confider the aftion of a few of them, as
BD, BE, BF.

Now, then, the ray B D, falling perpendicularly on the
furface E D P', will pafs out of the air into the aqueous
humour, without any refraftion, and proceed right to H,
where, falling perpendicularly on the furface of the cryftal-
line humour, it will go on, without any refraftion, to M ;
where, again falhng perpendicularly on the furface of tke
vitreous humour, it will proceed ftraight to the point O, in
the fund or bottom of the eye.

Again, the ray B E, pafling obhquely out of the air
upon the furface of the watery humour E D F, will be re-
frafted, and approach towards the perpendicular E P ; and
thus, proceeding to the point G, in tlie furface of the cryf-
talline, it will be there refrafted ftill nearer to the perpendi-
cular. So alfo E G, falling obliquely out of air into an
harder body, will be refrafted towards the perpendicular
G R, and, falling on the point L of the furface of the
vitreous humour, it will IHU be brought nearer to M.

Laftly, G L, falling obliquely out of a denfer, upon the
furface of a rarer body L M N, will be refrafted, and re-
cede from the perpendicular L T ; in receding from which,
it is evident, it approaches towards the ray B D O, and
may be fo refrafted, as to meet the other in O. In hke
manner, the ray B F, being refrafted in B, will turn to I,
and thence to N, and thence to the others in O. But the
rays between B E and B F, being fomewhat lefs refrafted,
will not meet precifely in the fame point O.

Thus will the radiant point B affeft the fund of the eye,
in the fame manner as if the pupil had no breadth, or as if
the radiant itfelf had only emitted one fingle ray, fuch as
yere equal in power to all thofe between B E and B F.

In hke manner, the raye proceeding from the point A,
will be fo refrafted in paffing through the humours of the
eye, as to meet near the point X ; and the rays from airy-
intermediate point between A and B, will nearly meet in
fome other point in the fund of the eye between X and O.

Upon the whole, it may be afierted univerfally, that
every point of an objeft affefts one point in the fund of thr-
eye ; and, on the contrary, that every point in the fund of
the eye only receives rays from one point of the objeft.
Though this is not to be underftood with the utmoft rigour.

Now, if the objeft recede from the eye, in fuch manner
as that the radiant point B does not dechne from the hne
B D ; the rays which would proceed from B, not enough
divaricated, would be fo refrafted in pafling the three fur-
faces, as that they would meet before they reached the
point O ; on the contrary, if the objeft Ihould be brought
nearer the eye, the rays paffing from the point to the pupil,
being too much divaricated, would be refrafted fo, as not
to meet till beyond the point O : nay, the objeft may be fo
near, that the rays proceeding Irom any point may be fo
divaricated, as that they fliall never meet at all. In all
which cafes, there would be no point of the objeft but would
move a pretty large portion of the fund of the eye ; and
thus the aftion of each point would be confounded with that
of thL^ contiguous one. %

And this would commonly be the cafe, but that nature
has provided againft it ; either by contriving the eye fo that
its bulk may be lengthened, or (hortened, as objefts may be
more or lefs diftant ; or, as others will have it, fo as that the
cryftalline may be made more convex, or more flat ; or, ac-
cording to others, fo as that the diftance between the cryf-
talline and the retina may be lengthened or fliortened.

The firft expedient has been thought by fome to be the
moft probable ; on the footing of which, when we direft
our eyes to an objeft fo remote, as that it cannot be dif-
tinftly viewed by the eye in its accuftomed figure, the eye
is drawn back into a flatter figure, by the contraftion of
four mufcles ; by which means the retina, becoming nearer
the cryftalline humour, receives the rays fooner ; and, on the
other hand, when we view an objeft too near, the eye,
being comprefled by the two oblique mufcles, is rendered
more globular ; by which means the retina, being fet farther
off from the cryftaUine, does not receive the rays of any
point before they meet. See Visible.

Thofe who maintain the opinion now ftated farther allege,
that this accefs and recefs of the cryftalUne is fo neceflary to
vifion, that whereas, in fome birds, the coats of the eye are
of fuch a bony confiftence, that mufcles would not have
been able to contraft and diftend them ; nature has taken
other means, by binding the cryftalline down to the retina,
with a kind of blackilh threads not found in the eyes of
other animals. Nor mU)ft it be omitted, that of the three
refraftions above-mentioned, the firft is wanting in fifties ;
and that, to remedy this, their cryftalline is not lenticular,
as in other animals, but globular. Laftly, fince the eyes of
old people are generally worn flatter than thofe of young
ones, fo that the rays from any point fall on the retina be-
fore they become collefted into one, they muft exhibit the
objeft fomewhat confufedly ; nor can fuch eyes fee any but
remote objefts diftinftly. In others, whofe eyes are too
globular, the cafe is juft the reverfe. See Presbyta and
Myops.

From what has been ftiewn, that every point of an obje6k
moves only one point of the bottom of the eye ; and, on the
contrary, that every point in the fund of the eye only re-
ceives ray* from one point of the objeft, it is eafy to coa-
ceive, that the whole objeft movea a certain part of the

redna;

VISION.

retina ; that in this pr.rt there is a dillinft and vivid collec-
tion of all the rays received in at the pupil ; and tliat as each
ray carries its proper colour along with it, there are as many
points painted in the fund of the eye as there were points
vifible in the objeft. Thus is tliere a fpecies, or pifture,
on the retina, exaftly like the object : all the difference be-
tween them is, that a body is here rcprefented by a furface,
a furface frequently by a line, and a line by a point ; that
the image is inverted, the rigbt-iiand anfwering to the left of
the objeft, &c. and that it is exceedingly fmall ; and ftill
the more fo, as the objeft is more remote.

What we have fhewn, under other articles, of the nature
of light and colours, readily accounts for this painting of
the objeft on the retina. The matter of faft is proved by
an eafy experiment, long iince tried by Des Cartes, thus :
the windows of a chamber being (liut, and light only ad-
mitted at one little aperture ; to that aperture apply the eye
of fome animal newly killed, having firll dexteroufly pulled
off the membranes that cover the bottom of the vitreous
humour, viz. the hind part of the fclerotica, choroides, and
even part of the retina ; then will the images of all the
objects, without doors, be feen diftinftly painted on any
white body, as on an egg-(hell, that the eye is laid upon.
And the fame thing is better fhewn by an artificial eye, or
a camera obfcura.

The images of objefts, then, are reprefented on the retina;
which is only an expanfion of the fine capillaments of the
optic nerve, and from which the optic nerve is continued
into the brain. Now, any motion or vibration, impreffed on
one extreme of the nerve, will be propagated to the other :
hence the impulfe of the feveral rays, fent from the fevcral
points of the objeft, will be propagated as they are on tlie
retina, [i.e. in their proper colours, &c. or in particular
vibrations, or manners of preflurc, corrcfponding thereto, )
to the place where thofe capillaments arc interwoven into
tlie fubftance of the brain. And thus is vifion brought to
the common cafe of fer.fation.

For fucli, we know, is the law of the union between the
foul and body, that certain perceptions of the firfl do
necelTarily follow certain motions of the laft ; but the
different parts of the objeA do feparately move different
parts of the fund of the eye ; and thofe motions are pro-
pagated to the fenfory : it follows, therefore, that there
muft arife fo many diftinft fenfations at the fame time. See
Sensation.

Hence, I. We eafily conceive, that the perception, or
image, in the mind, muft be tlie clearer, and more vivid, the
more rays the eye receives from the objtel ; and confe-
quemily, the largenefs of the pupil will have fome fhare in
the clearnefs of vifion.

2. Confidering only one radiant point of an objeft, we
may fay, tliat that point would move the fenfe more weakly,
or be feen moreobfcurely, as it is more remote ; becaufe the
rays coming from any point, like all qualities propagated in
orbem, are always diverging ;, and therefore the more remote,
the fewer of them will be received in at the pupil. But the
pupil dilating itfelf more, as the objeft is more remote, takes
in more rays tlian it would otherwife do.

3. The diftindtnefb of vifion is fomcwhat concerned in the
fize of the image exhibited in the fund of the eye. For
there Ihould be, at leall, as many extremes of capillaments,
or fibres of the optic nerve, in the fpacc that image poflcfTes,
as there ar" particles in the objcft that fend rays into the
pupil ; otherwife every particle will not move its feparatc
capillami-iit ; and if the rays from two points fall on the
fame capillament, it will be the fame as if only one point had
fallen there ; fince the fame capillament cannot be differently

Vol. XXXVII.

moved at tlic fame time. And hence it is, tliat the images
of very remote objedls being very fraall, they appear con-
fufcd, feveral points of the image affefting each capillament;
and hence, alfo, if tlic objeft be of different colours, feveral
particles affcdling tlie fame capillament at the fame time,
«mly the brightelt and moit lucid will be perceived. Thus,
a field, furnifhed with a good number of white flowers,
among a much greater quantity of green grafs, &c. at a
dift.ince, appears all white. See DifiinlH Vision, infra.

Our feeing of objefts y^nf /;, though with two eyes, in
each of wliich is a feparate image, or picture ; and our
feeing of them ered, whereas the picture is really inverted,
are two great plienomena in vifion ; which we have con-
fidered under the article Seeing.

For the manner of feeing and judging of the diftance and
magnitude of objedls, fee Visible, Magnitude, &c.

Vision, in Optics. The laws of vifion, brought iinder
mathematical demonftrations, make the fubjedl of Optics,
( which fee, ) taken in the greateil latitude of that word :
for, among the writers of mathematics, optics is generally
taken, in a more reflrained figniticatioii, for the doftrine of
ilireEt vifion ; catoptrics, for the doctrine of refleHed vifion ;
and dioptrics, for that of refraded vifion.

Vision, Direft or Simple, is that performed by m.eans of
direct rays ; that is, of rays paiTing dircftly, or in right
lines, from the radiant point of the eye. Such is that
explained in the preceding article. Vision.

Vision, Reflelled, is that performed by rays reflected from
fpecula, or mirrors. The laws of this kind of vifion, fee
under Rei'lection, and Mirror.

Vision, Refrathd, is that performed by means of rays
refracted, or turned out of their way, by pafling through
mediums of difTcrent dcnfity : as air and water, and chiefly
through <;Iafl"cs and Iciifcs. The laws of this, fee under the
article Refraciion.

Visioti, ^rch of. See Arch.

Vision, DijTina, denotes that by which an objeA is feen
diftinftly. An objeCt is faid to be feen dillinCtly, when
its outlines appear clear and well defined, and the feveral
parts of it, if not too fmall. are plainly dillingi>ifhable, fo
that we can eafily compare them one with another, in refpeft
to their figure, fize, and colour.

In order to fuch diftindt vifion, it has hitherto been com-
monly thought, that all the rays of a pencil, flowing from a
phyficnl point of an objcft, muft be exactly united in a
phyfical, or, at leaft, in a fenfible point of the retina. But
it feems certain, from the experiments mentioned by Dr.
Jurin, that fuch an exadt union of rays is not always necef-
fary to diftinct vifion.

Hence the dodtor divides diftinft vifion into two fpeciet,
viz. into vifion p/rfeSly diJlinS, or perfeH vifion, and vifion
imperfellly diJlinS ; wliicli he calls fimply by the name of
dijlina vifion. The former is lliat in which the rays of each
pencil are colleded into a fingle phyfical, or fenfible point
of tiie retina ; the other fpecies is that in which thofe rays
occupy feme larger fpace upon the retina, yet fo as the
object is diftinftly perceived.

PcrfcH vifion in a given eye, and a given difpofition of
that eye, depends only upon the diftance of the objcd; it
has no dependence upon the magnitude of the object ; b»t
dijlintl vifion, in a given eye, and a given difpofition of th*
eye, depends upon the diflancu and magnitude of the objeft
jointly. There appearing, therefore, a real difference be-
tween ptrJcH vifion, and what wc call dijUnii vifion, the
learned doaor has enquired very particularly into the
reafbn why an object may be feen diftindly without pcrfort
vifion,

M m He

V 1 s

V L S

He {hews that objefts may be feen with fufficient diilind-
nefs, thoucrh the pencils of rays ifTuing from the points of
them do not unite precifely in the fame point on the retina ;
bnt that fince, in this cafe, pencils from every point, either
meet before they reach the retina, or tend to meet beyond
it, the light that comes from them muft cover a circular
fpot upon it, and will, therefore, paint the image larger
than perfeft vifion would reprefent it. Whence it follows,
that every objeft, placed either too near, or too remote for
perfeft xnVionJ will appear larger than it is by a penumbra of
light, caufed by the circular fpaccs, which are illuminated
by pencils of rays proceeding from the extremities of the
objeft. All the varieties occafioned by this circumftance
he traces with great accuracy, and he applies his obfervations
\ipon it to the explanation of many phenomena in vifion.
See C/ir/f ff/" Dissipation.

Dr. Jurin obferves, that when objefts are large, they
will appear tolerably diftincl at a much lefs diftance than
fmall objects, becaufe the penumbrx will not interfere fo
much ; and on this account, a large print may be read much
nearer to the eye than a fmaU one. In this cafe the former
will appear only ill defined, but fufficiently dilUnft, when
the latter is quite indiftinft, the penumbra of one letter
interfering with that of another, and thereby making maiks
altogether unhke any that are in the book. The difperfed
Lght of thefe penumbra?, he fays, is of different denilties ;
and Mr. Robins, in his Remarks on Dr. Jurin, p. 279, ob-
ferves, that the whole circle made by the confufed image of
any print, will be proportioned to the diameter of the pupil
of the eye, which limits the whole pencil.

The fmalleil diltance of perfeft vifion, or that in which
the rays of a fingle pencil are coUeAed into a phyfical point
on the retina in the generality of eyes, Dr. Jurin, from a
number of obfervations, ftates at five, fix, or feven inches.
The greateft diftance of diftinft and perfecl; vifion he found
to be more difficult to determine ; but by confidering the
proportion of all the parts of the eye, and the refraftive
power of each, together with the interval that may be dif-
cerned between two ftars, the diftance of which is known,
he fixes it, in fome cafes, at fourteen feet five inches, though
Dr. Porterfield had confined it to twenty-feven inches only,
with refpeA to his own eye.

When vifion is indiftinft, Dr. Jurin thinks that there are
two methods of rendering it diilinft. One is for the eye to
apply the fame power, by which it conforms itfelf to the
view of objects placed at different diftances, fo a? to obtain
perfeft vifion ; and the other is the contraction of the pupil
by the leffer mulcular ring of the uvea, which is chiefly
made ufe of in a ftrong light, and which will fometimes
render the other means altogether unnecefTary. In a weak
light, he fays, the pupil is fo far fi'om contrafting, that
there is rather a neceffity for dilating it, to take in more
light. But upon this Dr. Whytt (Eff. on vital and in-
voluntary Motions, p. 133.) obferves, that in the fame, or a
lefs degree of light, the pupil will be contrafted, in order to
view a nearer or a fmaller objeft. For other obfervations
on this fubjeft, fee Jurin's Eff. on d'ftinct and indiftinft
Vifion, at the end of Dr. Smith's Optics ; and Robins's
Remarks on Dr. Jurin, in his Math. Trafts, vol. ii,
p. 278, &c.

Vision, FielJ of. See Field.

Vision, among Dl-v'tnes, is ufed for an appearance, which
God occafionally fent to his prophets and faints ; eitiijer by
way of dream, or in reality.

Such were the vifions of Ezekiel, Amos, &c. ; the vifion
of St. Paul, lifted up to the third heaven, &c. ; of Jofeph, by
v.'hich he was affured of the purity of the Virgin, S:c.

Some have reprefented our blcffed Lord's temptation 'm
the wilderncfs, Matt. v. i, &c. as a vifion. Mr. Farmer, in
particular, confiders it as a divine vifion, reprefenting the
trials he was to endure, and defigned to prepare him for
encountering and vanquifhing them. See Temptation.

Many among the Romifh faints have pretended to
vifions : as St. Therefa, St. Bridget, St. Catharine de
Sienna, &c.

Hence the word has come into difrepute, and become a
common name for all chimeras, or fpeftres, which either
our folly or fear pofTefies us wvh : and hence, a pcrfon tlial
frames to himfelf wild romantic notion?, is called a v'lfionary.
Quevedo's Vifions are defcriptions of what pafled in the
imagination of that author.

Vision, Beatific, denotes the aft by which the angels and
blefled fpirits fee God in Paradife.

VISIR, VisTEK, or Vizier. See Visier.

VISITATION, VisiTATio, an aft of jurifdiftion, by
which a fuperior or proper officer vifits fomc corporation,
college, church, or other public or private lioufe, to fee that
their rcfpeftive laws and regulations be duly obferved.

Among us, the bilhop of each diocefe is obhgcd to hold
a vifitation every third year, and the archdeacon the other
two years ; to fee that the difciplinc be well obferved, the
people well inftrufted, and to take care that neither the
church, nor the paftors of it, receive any detriment. For
the firft 600 years atter Chrift, the bilhops in their own
perfons vifited all the parifhes within their reiptftive diocefes
every year ; but fince the law and praftice of triennial
vifitations have been eftabliflied, the bilhop is not only not
obliged by law to vifit annually, but he is reilrained from it.

The bufinefs of parochial vilitation, in order to infpeft
and take account of the fabrics and manfions, ornaments
and utenflls, vcftments and books of the church, peculiarly
belongs to the archdeacon. In all vifitations of parochial
churches made by bifhops and archdeacons, the law hath
provided, that the charge of them fhall be defrayed by the
procurations then due, and payable by the inferior clergy ;
'in which cuftom, as to the quantum, fhall prevail. Thefe
procurations are due to the perfon vifiting of common
right ; and although originally due by reafon of vifitation
only, yet the fame may be due without aftual vifitation.
They are fuable only in the fpiritual court, and are merely
an ecclefiaftical duty ; and they may be levied by feq«eftra-
tion, or other ecclefiaftical procels. Free chapels and
donatives (unlefs fuch donative hath received the augmenta-
tion of queen Anne's bounty) are exempt from the vifitation
of the ordinary, and of courfe pay no procurations ; the
firft being vifitable only by commiffion from the king, and
the fecond by commifliion from the donor. And there are
alfo other churches and chapels exempted, which belonged
to the monafteries ; which by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21. were
made vifitable by the king, or bv commiffion under the great
feal.

Anciently the regarder's office was exprefled to be the
•vifitation of manners. See Regarder.

The lawyers hold it a branch of the king's prerogative,
to vifit the univerfities ; to enquire into the ftatutes, and
the obfervation of them ; to expel delinquents, &c. But
fome of the colleges difallow this privilege, and plead them-
felves, by royal chai-tcrs, exempt from all civil and royal
vifitations.

With regard to all ecclefiaftical corporations, the ordinary
is their vifitor, fo conltituted by the canon law, and thence
derived to us. The pope formerly, and now the king, as fu-
preme ordinary, is the vifitor of the archbifhop or metro-
politan : the metropolitan has the charge and coercion of all
8 his

V I s

V I s

his fuffragan bidiops ; and the billiops in tlieir feveral dio-
cefcs are in eccleliailicdl matters the villtors of all deans and
chapters, of all parfons and vicars, and of ail other fpiritual
corponitions. With refpetl to all lay corporations, the
founder, his heirs or affigns, are the vifitors, whether the
foundation be civil or eleemofynary ; for in a lay corpora-
tion the ordinary neither can nor ought to vifit. In general,
the king being the fole founder of all civil corporations, and
the endowcr the perficient founder of all eleemofynary ones,
the right of vifitation of the former refults to the king,
and of the latter to the patron or endower. The king being
conftituted by law tlie vifitor of all civil corporations, the
law has alio appointed the place in which he fliall exercife
this jurifdiftion ; which is thecourt of king's bench, where,
and where ojily, all miibehaviours of this kind of corpora-
tions are enquired into and redrcdod, and all their contro-
verfies decided. Accordingly this is the meaning of lawyers,
when they fay tliat thefe civil corporations arc liable to no
vifitation ; viz- that the law having by immemorial ufage
appointed them to be vifited and infpefted by the king their
founder, in his majefty's court of king's bench ; according
to the rules of common law they ought not to be vihted elfe-
where, or by any other authority.

As to eleemofynary corporations, by the dotation the
founder and hii heirs are of common right the legal vifitors,
to fee that property is rightly employed, which might other-
wife have defcended to the viiitor himfelf : but if the founder
has appointed and affigned any other pcrfon to be vifitor, then
his aflignee fo appointed is inverted with all the founder's
power, inexclufion of his heir. Eleemofynary corporations
are chiefly hofpitals, or colleges in the univerfity. With re-
gard to hofpitals, it has long been held, that if the hofpital
be fpiritual, the bilhop (hall vifit ; but if lay, the patron.
This right of lay patrons was indeed abridged by 2 Hen. V.
cap. I. which ordained, that the ordinary fhould vifit a// hof-
pitals founded by fubjefts : though the king's right was re-
ferved, to vifit by his commiflioners fuch as were of royal
foundation. But the fubjeft's right was in part reflored by
flat. 14 Ehz. cap. 5. which direfts the bifhop to vifit fuch
hofpitals only, when no vifitor is appointed by the founders
<if them ; and all the hofpitals founded by virtue of the
Hat. 39 Eliz. c. 5. are to be vifited by fuch perfons as (hall
be nominated by the refpeftive founders. But ftill, if the
founder appoints nobody, the bifhop of the dioccfe muft
vifit. Colleges in the univerfities were formerly confidered
by the popifh clergy, under whofe direftion they were, as
ecclcfiailical, or at leafl as clerical, corporations; and there-
fore the right of vifitation was claimed by the ordinary of
the diocefe. In fome of our colleges, where no fpecial vifi-
tor is appointed, the bifhop of that diocefe, in which Oxford
was formerly coniprifed, has immcmorially exercifed vifitorial
authority ; wiiich can be afcribed to nothing elfe but his
fiippofed title as ordinary to vifit this, among other cccle-
fiallical foundations. And it is not impofiible, that the num-
ber of colleges in Cambridge which are vifited by the bifhop
of Ely, may in part be derived from the fame original.
But whatever might be formerly the opinion of the clergy,
it is now held as cft?bli(hed common law, that colleges are
lay corporations, though fomctimcs totally compofed of ec-
clefiaftical perfons ; and that the right of vifitation does not
arife from any principles of the canon law, but of neccffity
was created by the common law. In a difputcd cafe it was
held by lord chief jullice Holt, that by the common law the
office of the vifitor is to judge according to the ftatutes of
the college, and to expel and deprive upon juft occafions,
and to hear all appeals of courfe ; and that from him, and
him only, \he party grieved or.ght to have rcdrefs ; the

founder having repofcd in him fo entire a confidence, that he
will adminifter juftice impartially, tliat iiis determinations are
fixed, and examinable in no other court whatfoever.

To this leading cafe all fubfequent determinations have
been conformable. But where the vifitor is under a tempo-
rary difabilily, then the court of king's bench will interpofe,
to prevent a defedt of juftice. Alfo it is faid, that if a
founder of an eleemofyBary foundation appoints a vifitor, and
Hmits his jurifdiftion by rules and ftatutes, if the vifitor in
his fentence exceeds tliofe rules, an adtion lies againft him ;
but otherwife, where he miftakes in a thing within his
power. Blackft. Comm. book i.

Among the Romanifts, the general of each religious order
is obUged to vifit the feveral monafteries of his order.

In abbeys, that are chiefs of their orders, there are parti-
cular officers, called vifitors ; who :(re difpatched into all the
houfes and congregations depending on them, to fee that the
regular difcipline is obferved.

In Spain there is a vifitor, and inquifitor-general. The
vifitation of the cloifter belongs to the ordinary.

Visitation, in a moral and religious fenfe, is alfo ap-
plied to the a/Hiftions that befall mankind ; as coming from
the hand of God, to try or prove them. In which fenfe,
the plague, among us, is frequently tailed the ■vifitation.

Visitation of the Virgin Mary, is a feaft inllituted in
memory of the vifit paid by the Virgin to Elizabeth, firll
eflablifhed by Bonaventure, general of the order of St.
Francis, by a decree of the general chapter, comprehending
the churches of his own order, held at Pifa in 1 263 ;
and afterwards extended to the whole church, by pope
Urban IV. in the year 1379, and ordained te be kept on the
2d of .July.

Visitation is likewife an order of monks founded by
Francis de Sales and his mother Chantalia.

VISITORS. See Visitation, fupra.

Visitors of the Inquifttion. See Inquisition.

VISITZ, in Geography, a town of Aullria ; 4 miles
S.E. of Bavarian Waidhoven.

VISIVE, Visivus, in the School Philofophy, a term ap-
plied to the power of feeing. See Vision.

Authors are exceedingly divided about the place where
the vifive faculty reiides : fome will have it in the retina ;
others, in the choroides ; others, in the optic nerve ; others,
as fir Ifaac Newton, in the place where the optic nerves
meet, before they come to the brain ; and others, in the brain
itfelf.

VISKAIA, in Geography, a fort of RufTia, in the go-
vernment of Upha ; 64 miles W.S.W. of Tcheliabinfk.

Viskaia, UJI, a fort of Ruffia, in the government of
Upha, near the Tobol ; 88 miles S.E. of Tcheliabinlk.

VISMEA,in i9o/(jnj', received its name from the younger
Linna;us, who erroneoufly called it Vifnea, in honour of
Mr. De Vifmc, a merchant at Lifbon. Willdenow retains
the latter orthography ; Schrcber, better inftruAed, ufes
the former. This name, though not rumbling with confo-
nants, like fome with which our fcience is encumbered, is
nevcrthclcfs moft irreconcilcable to Latin pronunciation ; nor
ought fuch to be admitted, but when fupported by the
highell poffible pretenfions, which in this cafe are not con-
fpicuous. The worthy MafTon, perfonally informed on the
fubjcft, ufed vehemently to exclaim againll the above name,
and the French botanifts have preferred its barbarous fyno-
nym Mocancra, by which the flirub in queftion is known in
the Canary iflauds. Mr. De Vifm.e, it feems, was a mere
amateur ; but as he endeavoured to diffiife a tafte for plants
:imong I he Portugucfe, who were prtvioufly little difpofcd to
any fuch elegancies, or to ;niy thing ufeful or praifcvrorlhy
M m 2 in

V I s

in their ftead, we cannot but think him full as deferving of
commemoration as many of our own horticulturifts, who do
but follow a fafhion, and therefore are not entitled to literary-
honours, in a fcience which they perhaps " ignorantly wor-
(hip." If they ftudy its principles, they rank as botanifts,
and render eminent fervices to thofe who have not the means
of promoting the fame purfuit in the fame way. — Linn.
Suppl. 36. Schreb. Gen. 327. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 926.
Mart. Mill. Did. V. 4. Lamarck Dift. v. 4. 208. (Mo-
canera ; Juff. 318.) — Clafs and order, DodecnnJriaTrigynia.
Nat. Ord. Calycanthaiiie, Linn. Onagra, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cnl. Perianth half fuperior, of five lanceolate,
recurved, permanent leaves, the three outermoft hairy. Cor.
Petals five, equal, elliptical, undivided, fpreading, longer than
the calyx. Stam. Filaments twelve, inferted into the recep-
tacle of the flower, erect," thread-fhaped, fhorter than the pe-
tals ; anthers erett, quadrangular, each tipped with a brittle.
Ptjl. Germen half inferior, hairy, taper-pointed ; Ityles three,
thread-fhaped, fmooth ; iligmas fimple. Perk. Nut ovate,
pointed, fmooth, of two or three cells, half inferior, coated,
or covered, above half way up, with what might be called
the tube of a monophyllous calyx, and furrounded with its
converging fegments. Seeds foUtary.

Efl". Ch. Calyx half inferior, of five leaves. Petals five.
Stigmas fimple. Nut of two_ or three cells, coated
below. Seeds folitary.

I. V. Mocanera. Linn. Suppi. 251. Willd. n. I —
Gathered by Mr. Mafibn, in the mountainous woods of
the Canary iHands. A fmall (lirub, with a round, rugged,
or fomewhat warty, Jlem. Leaves alternate, ereft, on (hort
ftalks, coriaceous, elliptical, veiny, ferrated, very Imooth.
Fhiver-Jlalhs axillary, folitary, drooping, fcarcely longer
than the footilalks, naked, each bearing one fmall yellow
jlower. After impregnation the Jlalhs become ereft, the
calyx clofes and thickens, its three outer fegments turning
brown and hairy. This, the only known fpecies, is a ftranger
to our gardens.

VISNAGA, Matth. Valgr. v. i. 477. t. 479. Rivin.
Pentap. Irr. t. 84, an herbaceous plant of the fouth of Eu-
rope, is the Daucus Vifrtaga of Linn. Sp. PI. 348. Gaert-
ner, t. 21, eftablifhes it as a genus by itfelf. Desfontaines,
and the author of this article, in Prodr. Fl. Grsec. Sibth.
V. I. 186, have referred the plant to Ammi. There is fome
reafon to believe it the y.-yyioio-i of Diofcorides. See Gm-

GIDIUM.

VISNAVITRA, in Biography. See ViswAMiTRA.

VISNE, ViSNETUM, in Laiu, a neighbouring place, or
a place near at hand. See Venue.

VISNEA, in Botany, Linn. Suppl. 36. See Vismea.

VISNIZA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Moldavia ; 30 miles N. of Suczava.

VISO, El, a town of Spain, in Nev.' Caftile ; 25 miles
S.S.E. of Civdad Real.

Viso, a mountain of France, in the department of the
Stura, fuppofed to be one of the higheft parts of the Alps.

Viso Marfo, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ; 13
miles W.N.W. of Scalea.

VISOKICH, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkutfl<, on the Lena ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Orlenga.

VI SON, a town of France, in the department of the
Tanaro ; 3 miles E.S.E. of Acqui.

VISONTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, belonging to the Pelendones. Ptol. — Alfo, a town
of Higher Pannonia, of the number of thofe which were
remote from the Danube.

VISP, in Geography, a town of the Vallais, and chief
place of a dixain, ortytliing ; 22 miles E. of Sion.

U I s

VISPE, or UsPE, in Ancient Geography, a town belong-
ing to the Saracens, in the vicinity of the Bofphorus of
Thrace ; and not far from the river Pania. Tacitus fays
that it was ilronglv fortified. The Romans befieged it and
were repulfed. When they afterwards attacked the place
by cfcalade, the inhabitants fent a deputation to petition
for the life of free perfons, with an offer of 10,000 flaves.
The befiegers rejedled thefe conditions, and revolting at the
cruelty of maffacring perfons who voluntarily furrendered
themfelves, and imprifoning fo great a number of perfons,
they recurred to the right of war, which exhibits a hon-ible
example of the ferocity of the Romans. They gave the
fignal for efcalade, but afterwards entered into treaty. In
confequence of this event, which was attended with the de-
ftruftion of Vifpe, no record of it remains.

VISPELLIONES, among the Romans, were flaves
who could not be manumitted.

VISRAVA, in Alythol'jgy, a name of the Hindoo
Plutus, who is more commonly called Kwvera ; which fee.
See alfo Vaisrava, another mode of pronouncing this name,
which is likewife given to the father of Kuvera and of his half-
brother Rave:;a. (See Ravena.) Thefe two laft named
half-brothers are alfo called Paulaftya, or Pulaftya. Vifrava,
or Vaifrava, is fometimes named Vifwafrava and Vifravana.

VISRUTI, one of the three daughters of Swayam-
bhuva, a perfonage of importance in their fabulous legends.
Some notice of him occurs under his name in this work.

VISSE, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the
marquifate of Ancona ; 15 miles S. of Camerino.

VISSEGRAD, a town of Bof.iia ; 40 miles S.E. of
Bofnaferai.

ViSSEGRAD. See ViCEGKAD.

VISSEHOVEDE, a town of Germany, in the county
of Verden ; 19 miles E. of Verden.

UIST, North, one of the iflands of the Hebrides, in
the fhire of Invernefs, Scotland, is of a very irregular fhape,
and extends in length about twenty miles, and from twelve
to eighteen in breadth. The word Uijl is faid to be taken
from the Scandinavian word vifl, which fignifies luefi, and
was given by the Danes, when in pofTeffion of thele coun-
tries, on account of its wefterly fituation. The weftern
part of the coaft, which is wadied by the Atlantic, is
inaccefTible to vefTels, or even to fifhing-boats, except
in tiie calmeft weather, on account of rocks and fhoals.
On the eaftern coaft are feveral inlets of the fea, which
form fafe and commodious harbours. Of thefe, the befl
is loch Maddie, which affords good anchorage for vefTels
of any burden. Along the coaft round thefe harbours
the ground is barren, hilly, and almoft uninhabited. The
weftern and northern parts of the ifland, almoft the only
cultivated parts, are low and level for about a mile and
a half from the fea, when the furface becomes moory,
with hills of fmall height covered with black heath. It has
moftly a fandy foil, which, as it approaches the moorlands,
is a thin black loam, on a gravelly, or on a free-ftone bottom.
In favourable fummers, the cultivated parts yield luxuriant
crops of oats and barley ; but as there are no trees to afford
fhelter during the inclemency of winter, the appearance is
then greatly changed, and verdure is fcarcely to be feen ; fo
that the cattle, in thefe feafons, are fed partly on ftraw, and
partly on fea-weed thrown up by ftorms. The number of
cows kept on the ifla:id is about 2000, of which 300 are
annually exported ; the number of horfes is about 1600.
Agriculture is in a low flate ; and the implements of huf-
bandry, with a few exceptions, are the fame kind that were
ufed a century paft. Here are numerous freih-water lakes,
abounding with excellent trout, and frequented by innuraer-
10 able

VIS

V 1 s

able flocks of aquatic fowls. Kelp is maiiufaftured to acoii-
fiderable ext'^iit, the annual produce being about 1200
tons ; of wl.ich the greater part belongs to lord Macdonalci,
the fole proprietor of the ifland, from which he derives a
yearly rent of 2100/. fterling, befides the profits of the
kelp. A parochial fchool is ellabliflied here, from which
one fcholar is annually fent to the univerfity. The parifh of
North Uiit comprehends feveral adjacent ifles. In the year
i8ii, the population was eftimated at 3773. Here are the
remains of feveral Dani(h forts : and alfo of fomeDruidical
temples,' which arc defcribed by Dr. Smith, in his Hiftory
of the Druids — Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Invernefs-
ihire, i8o8. Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806. Carlifle's To-
pografffiical Diftionary of Scotland, 18 13.

UisT, South, another of the Hebrides iflands, alfo in-
cluded in the (hire of Invernefs, is in length about thirty
miles, and the grcateft: breadth may be eftimated from feven
to nine miles ; affording an area of about 40,000 acres, ca-
pable of cultivation. Towards the weft and north-weft,
where it is bounded by the ocean, the foil is light and fandy,
and moft part rendered ufelefs by the feverity of the ftorms :
further inland is a feries of lakes, which abound with a variety
of tifh ; and to the caft are high and rugged mountains, co-
vered with heath and a partial degree of verdure, which
afford pafturage in the fummer and autumn months for black
cattle, horfes, fhecp, and goats ; but the grain produced on
the ifland does not ferve the inhabitants more than nine
months in the year. About 7000 flieep are generally kept
here, and about 3000 cows ; but the greateft fource of
emolument (as well as in North IJift) is the manufafture of
kelp, to the amount of 1 100 tons annually : its firft intro-
duAion into thefe iflands was in the year 1750, by a Mr.
Macleod, who brought it from Ireland, where it had been
carried on for feveral years. The parifh of South Uift,
■which includes fome fmall contiguous iflcs, contained, in
the year 181 1, a population of 4825; being more than
doubled fince the year 1755, nolwithftanding numerous emi-
grations.— Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Invernefsfhire,
1808. Carlifle's Topographical Dictionary of Scotland,
18 1 3. Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806.

VISTAMENTE, in th- Ilalhm Mufic, is ufcd to give
notice to play or fiiig quick, brifldy, &c.

VISTE, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the
comnaon wliite mountain coralloides : it is the Lapland name
for the fame plant ; the rein-deer and many other creatures
feeding on it, when all other vegetables are deilroyed.

VISTER, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Bulgaria; 44 miles S.W. of Ifmail.

VISTNOU, ViSTNUMjOr Vijhnu, in the Modern Hiflory
of Mythology, a name given in the theology of the Brahmins,
to one of the three great gods of the iirft clafs, which are the
objefts of worlhip to the inhabitants of Hindooftan : the other
two are Brahma and Ruddircn.

According to the Vedam, thefe three gods were created
by the Supreme Being, to be his minifters in nature. Brahma
is reprefented as the creator, Viftnou as the preferver,
and Ruddiren as the deftroyer of beings. However, there
are fome fefts which maintain, that Viilnou is fuperior to
Brahma, and that he gave himexiflence. Viftnou, it is faid,
diftributed mankind into three claffes, the rich, the poor,
and thofe of middle ftato ; and created many worlds, inha-
bited by fpirits deftincd for the prefervation of other beings.
Viftnou is moft refpefted in the kingdom of Carnata, Bralima
in the Mogul empire, and Ruddiren in Malabar. Uu. Hift.
vol. vi. 8vo. Sec Vishnu.

VISTRITZA, in Geography, a river of European

Turkey, which runs into the Viftriza, 16 miles E.S.E. o*
EdefTa, in Macedonia.

VISTRIZA, a river of European Turkey, in Mace-
donia, which runs into the Varder, 25 miles N.W. of
Saloniki.

VISTl'L A, a river which rifes in the fouth-eaft part of
Silefia, on the borders of Poland, pafles by Cracow, San-
domirz, Zawichoft, V^arfaw, Wladillaw, Thorn, Culm,
&c. and runs into the Baltic, at Dantzic.

VISUAL, fomething belonging to the light, or feeing.

Visual Angle. See Angle.

Visual Line. See Line.

Visual Point, in PerfpeHive, is a point, in the horizontal
line, in which all the ocular rays unite. See Point.

Thus, a perfon ftanding in a ftraight long gallery, and
looking forwards ; the fides, floor, and cieling, feem to
meet, and touch one another in a point, or common centre.

Visual Rays, are lines of light, imagined to come from
the objeft to the eye. See Ray.

All the obfervations of aftronomers and geometers are per-
formed by means of the vifual rays, received in at the fights,
or pinnulx, or alhidades.

VISUM. See HABERE/ja'jj vifum.

VTSURGIS, the Wefer, in Ancient Geography, a very
confiderable river of Germany ; it made a feparation be-
tween the Romans and Cherufci, according to Phny, and
became celebrated by the defeat of the Roman army on its
banks, according to Velleius Paterculus.

VISWADEVA, a facrifice or oblation offered by pious
Hindoos to all their gods collectively. Tlie word means all
the gods. " One oblation to the affembleJ gods, thence
named Vifwadeva, is ordained both for evening and morn-
ing." Inft. of Menu, lii. 121. (See Menu.) Of other
fttcrifices of the Hindoos, fee Skadha.

VISWAJENNI, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo
goddcfs Par-vali; which fee. it means all-prolifc, and is
applied to her in her charadter of Prakriti, or nature. See
Pkakiuti.

VISWAKARMA, is a perfonage of confiderable im-
portance, and his name frequently occurs in Hindoo books.
Sir W. Jones (Af. Ref. vol. i. ) thinks Vifwakarma to be
the Vulcan of the Greeks and Romans ; being, like Vulcan,
tlie forger of arms for the gods ; and inventor of the Ag-
niaftra, or fiery fliaft, ufed in the wars between them and
the Daityas, or Titans. He is deemed the architeft of the
univerfc, and cliief engineer of the gods. He revealed the
fourth Upaveda in various treatifes on fixty-four mechanical
arts, for the improvement of fuch as exercife them ; and he
is the infpeftor of all manual labours and mechanical arts.
See Veda. '

It is fabled that Vifwakarma was employed by Krilhna to
build for him the city of Dwarka, in Guzer.it ; and it is
not unufual for any very m.-ignificcnt or ftupendous work of
antiquity to be attributed to liim : the excavations at EUora,
forinftancc. (See Elloha. ) Between Vifwakarma and the
Pandus, the labour and honour of the excavations at Ellora,
Elephanta, Karly, &c. are lliarcd. See Elki'HANTA,
Kahly, and Paniju.

Vifwakarma is the reputed fon of Bliuvana, and a daugh-
ter of liis is fometimes mentioned, named Barhilmati ; but
their names feldom occur. A fon of the divine artilt is
named Vifb'warupa (which fee), father of the wives of
Ganefa, or Pollear. Under our article Taiia is a ridiculous,
but charafteriftic legend of Vilwak:irma having, like moft
of the oilier Hindoo deities, begotten an ape ! Twaflita is

another

V I T

V I T

another name of this divine architeft, and alfo of the fun.

See TWASHTA.

VISWAMITRA, in Biography, is the name of a very
celebrated and fanttified perfonage in the theological legends
of the Hindoos. His age is anterior to authentic refearch,
fince his name occurs frequently in the Veda, the Hindoo
fcriptures, which is profefTed to have been written thou-
fands of years ago. (See Veda.) He was the Rilhi,
(fee RisHr,) or faint, to and by whom was revealed the
hymn in which is contained the holiefl verfe of the Veda,
called the adorable, the ineffable, Gayatri. (Of this fee
under O'm.) His grandfon, named Yajnyawalcya, is the
reputed author of a code or inftitutes of law that is Hill in
ufe. It is arranged in three chapters, containing 1023
couplets. The commentaries on it are very voluminous. The
name of Vifwamitra, which means univerfal friend, or friend
to all, occurs very frequently in Sanfcrit writings ; and in-
deed not unfrequently in this dictionary. His felf-inflifted
aufterities, and perfevering devotions, are the theme of
frequent praife. Under the article Menaka, the Upfara,
" of fafcinating fymmetry of form," as fhe is defcribed in
the Ramayana, it is noticed how the rigid mortifications of
the afcetic were interrupted ; and their reward averted by
the wles of that damfel employed by Indra. Under
Ramayana and Upsara will be found fome account of
the work, and of the femi-divine, faint-feducing beauties,
feverally fo called. See alfo Indra and Rhemba, the
name of the Venus Marina of the Hindoos, and queen of
beauty and of beauties. Vifwamitra, though not of Brahma,
was the guru, or fpiritual preceptor of the great Rama ;
and is the author of much of the moral precept fcattered
through that curious work tlie Ramayana ; which details
the exploits, among much other matter, of its divine hero.
(See Rama.) In the Ramayana, Vifwamitra is often called
" fon of Kafheka ;" and occafionally a perfon named
Gadhi, is called his father. The interefting Sakoontala, in-
troduced to the Englifh reader by fir W. Jones's tranflation
of the Hindoo drama of that title, is fpoken of as his
daughter. Though not a Brahman by birth, he is faid to
have become one through his devotion.

Under our article Surabhi an anecdote is given of Vifwa-
mitra, which, with that alluded to above, tends to ihew that
he was tainted with the vice of avarice as well as luft. In
our article Tareka he appears as the tutor of his obedient
pupil Rama.

VISWASWARA, a name of the Hindoo god Sha ;
which fee. It means lord of all ; and is probably given to
him by the fefts who exclufively, or efpecially worfhip him,
of whom fee under Sects of Hindoos. The name does not
often occur. In one of the Puranas is this verfe. " The
Vedas and Saitras all teftify that Vifvvafwara is the firft of
Devas (or gods), Kafhi (Benares) the firil of cities, Ganga
(the Ganges) the firil of rivers, and Charity the firft of
virtues."

VITA, Life. See Life.
,YnA, Cui in. See Cui.

VlTiE, ylgua. See Aqua.

VlT.B Arbor, in Anatomy, the appearance produced by ?.
particular feftion of the cerebellum. See Brain.

ViTjE, Arbor. See TuEE of Life.

V1T.1:, Lignum. See Guaiacum.

Vita Longa, a name given by fome botanical authors to
the piper jEthiopicum, or ^Ethiopian pepper.

VITACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Mauritania Cxfarienfis. Ptol.

VITAL, VlTALls, in Anatomy, fomething that minif-

ters principally to the conftituting or maintaining of life in
the bodies of animak.

Thus, the heart, lungs, and brain, are called vital parts.
See Vis.

Vital Air, in Agriculture, Vegetable Economy, &c. pure
air or oxygen, which is one of the conftitiicnt parts of at-
mofpherical air, and of great ufe in the germination of grain
and feeds, and the vegetation and growth of plants, as well
as the refpiration of animals. But though it is neceffary to
thefe and fome other funftions of vegetables, it is remarked
by the writer of a late vpork on agricultural chemiftry, that
its great importance in nature is in its relation to the laft, or
the economy of animals.

It is ftated that atmofpheric air taken into the Rings of
animals, or pafTed in folution in water tiirough the gills
of fiflies, lofi s vital r.ir or oxygen ; and that for the vital
air or oxygen that is loft, about an equal volume of car-
bonic acid appears. That the aftion of the atmofphere
on plants differs at different periods of their growth,
and varies with the various ftages of the developement
and decay of their organs, as is evident in the progrefs
of their vegetation and dechne. As if a healthy feed be
moiftened and expofed to the air at a temperature not below
45°, it foon germinates or fprouts ; and (hoots or fends
forth a plume which rifes upwards, and a radicle that de-
fcends. If the air be confined, it is found that in tliis pro-
cefs the vital air or oxygen of it, or a part of it, is abforbed.
As to the other parts, the azote remains unaltered, and no
carbonic acid is taken away from it ; on the contrary, fome
is added. Grain and feeds are incapable of germinating or
fprouting, except when vital air or oxygen is prefent. In
the exhaufted receiver of the air-pump, in pure azote, and
in pure carbonic acid, when moiftened they fvvell, but do
not vegetate ; and if kept in thefe gafes, lofe their living
powers, and undergo putrefaftion. If a grain or feed be
examined before germination, it will be found more or lefs
infipid, or at leaft not fweet ; but after germination, or the
aA of fprouting, it is always fweet. Its coagulated muci-
lage, or ftarch, is converted into fugar in that procefs ; a
fubftance difficult of folution is thus changed into one eafily
foluble ; and the fugar carried through the cells or vefTels of
the cotyledons of the grain or feeds, is the nourifhment of
the infant plant.

It is noticed that the abforption of vital air or oxygen
by the grain or feed in germination, or the operation of
fprouting, has been compared to its abforption in producing
the evolution of foetal life in the egg ; but that this analogy
is only remote. All animals, from the moft complete to the
leaft perfeft claffes, require, it is faid, a fupply of vital air
or oxygen for their produdlion and evolution. From the
moment the heart begins to pulfate until it ceafes to beat,
the aeration of the blood, or the fupply of this fort of air,
is conftant, and the funftion of refpiration invariable ; car-
bonic acid is given off in the procefs, but the chemical
change produced in the blood is unknown ; nor is there any
reafon to fuppofe the formation of any fubftance fimilar to
fugar. In the produftion of a plant from a grain or feed,
fome refervoir of nourifhment is needed before the root can
fupply fap for it ; and this refervoir is the cotyledon, in
which it is ftored up in an infoluble form, and protected if
neceffary during the winter, and rendered foluble by agents
which are conftantly prefent on the furface. The change
of ftarch into fugar, conne6ked with the abforption of vital
air or oxygen, may rather, it is fuppofed, be compared to
a procefs of fermentation than to that of refpiration ; it is
a change effefted upon an organized matter, and can be ar-
tificially

V i T

tilicially imitated ; and in moit of the chemical changes that
take place when vegetable compounds arc expofed to air,
oxygen or vital air is abforbed, and carbonic acid formed or
evolved. Much advantage may be taken of this in the fow-
ing of different kinds of grain and feeds, and in the tillage
cultivation of different forts of land, as well as in different
other practices and proceffes ; the former not being done
too deeply in any cafe, nor the latter too lightly in ftiff
tenacious foils. See Tillage.

When the roots and leaves of the infant plant are formed,
the cells and tubes throughout its ftruflure become, it is
faid, filled with fluid, which is ufually fupplied from the
foil of the land, and the fuuftion of nourifhment is per-
formed by the adlion of its organs upon the external ele-
ments. The conftituent parts of the air are fubfervient to
this procefs ; but, as might be expefted, they aft differently
under different circumftances, it is thought. When a grow-
ing plant, the roots of which are fupplied with a proper
nourifhment, is expofed in the prefence of folar light to a
given quantity of atmofpherical air, containing its due pro-
portion of carbonic acid, the carbonic acid after a certain
time is deftroyed, and a certain quantity ot vital air or
oxygen is found in its place. If new quantities of car-
bonic acid gas be fupplied, the fame refult occurs ; fo
that cai-bon.is added to plants from the air by the pro-
cefs of vegetation in fun-fliine ; and vital air or oxygen is
added to the atmofphere, as proved by the experiments
of Prieftley, Ingenhoufz, and many others more lately.
The abforption of carbonic acid gas, and the produftion
of vital air or oxygen, are performed by the leaf; and
leaves recently feparated from the tree or plaiit ctfeft the
change, when confined in portions of air containing car-
bonic acid ; and abforb the fame acid, and produce vital air
or oxygen, even when immerfcd in water liolding carbonic
acid in folulion. It is fuppofed that this acid is probably
abforbed by the fluids in the cells of the green or parenchy-
matous part of the leaf ; and that it is from this part that
vital air or oxygen gas is produced during the prefence of
light. M. Sennebier, it is faid, found that the leaf, from
wiich the epidermis was flripped off, continued to produce
vital air or oxygen when placed in water containing car-
bonic acid gas, and tliat the globules of air rofe from the
denuded parenchyma ; and it is fliewn, by the experiments of
the fame writer as well as thofc of Woodhoufe, that tlie
leaves moll abundant in parenchymatous parts produced
mofl vital air or oxygen in water impregnated with carbonic
acid. Some few plants, it is faid, will vegetate in an arti-
ficial atmofphere, conlilting principally of carbonic acid ;
and many will grow for fome time in air containing from
one-half to one-third ; but they arc not fo healthy as
when fupplied with fmaller quantities of this elallic fub-
ftance. Plants expofed to light have been found to produce
vital air or oxygen gas in an elaflic medium, and in water
containing no carbonic acid gas ; but in quantities much
fmaller than when that acid gas wa^ prefent. In the dark,
no vital air or oxygen gas is produced by plants, whatever
be the eladic medium to which they are expofed ; and no
carbonic Jcid abforbed. In mod cafes, on the contrary,
vital air or oxygen gas, if it be prefent, is abforbed, and
carbonic acid gas is produced. In the changes that take
place in the compolition of the organized parts, it is fup-
pofed probable that faccharine compounds are principally
formed during the abfence of light ; gum, woody fibre,
oils, and refins during its prefence ; and that the evolution
of carbonic acid gas, or its formation during the night, may
be neceffary to give greater folubility to certain compounds
io the plant. It was once fufpocted t!wt all the carbonic

V I T

acid gas produced by plants in the night, or in fhade, might
be owing to the decay of fome part of the leaf, or epi-
dermis ; but the late experiments of Mr. D. EUis are op-
pofed to this notion ; and it was found that a perfeftly
healthy plant of celery, placed in a given portion of air for
a few hours only, occafioned a produftion of carbonic acid
gas, and an abforption of vital air or oxygen.

It has been fuppofed by fome, it is faid, that plants ex-
pofed in the free atmofpliere to the vicifTitudes of fun-fliinc
and fhade, light and darknefs, confume more vital air or
oxygen than they produce, and that their permanent agency
upon air is fimilar to that of animals ; and this opinion is
countenanced by the inquiries on vegetation of the writer
jufl noticed. But the whole of the experiments brought
forward in favour of this notion, and particularly thofe of
this writer, have, it is faid, been made under unfavourable
circuruflances to the accuracy of refult. The plants have
been confined and fupplied with food in an unnatural man-
ner ; and the influence of light upon them has been very
much diminiflied by the nature of the media through which
it paffed. Plants confined in limited portions of atmo-
fpheric air foon become difeafed ; their leaves decay, and
by their decompofition they rapidly deflroy the vital air or
oxygen of the air. In fome of the early experiments of
Priellley, before he was acquainted with the agency of light
upon leaves, air, it is faid, that had fupported combuflion
and refpiration, was found purified by the growth of plants
when they were expofed in it for fucceffive days and nights;
and his trials are the more unexceptionable, it is thought,
as the plants, in many of them, grew in their natural flates ;
and fhoots, or branches from them, only were introduced
through water into the confined atmofphere. And fome
further refearches on this fubjeft made by the able writer of
the work on agricultural chcmiilry noticed above, furniili
fafts which confirm the popular opinion, that when the
leaves of vegetables perform their healthy funftions, they
tend to purify the atmofphere in the common variations of
weather, and changes from light to darknefs.

In germination, and at the time of the decay of the leaf,
vital air or oxygen mutl, it is faid, be abforbed ; but when
it is confidered how large a part of the furface of the earth
is clothed with perennial graffes, and that half of the globe
is always expofed to the folar liglit, it appears by far the
moll probable opinion, that more vital air or oxygen is pro-
duced than confumed during the procefs of vegetation ;
and that it is this circumflance which is the principal caufc
of the uniformity of the conflitution of the atmofphere.
Animals produce no vital air or oxygen gas during the ex-
ercife of any of their tiinftions, and they are conflaiitly con-
fuming it ; but tlie extent of the animal, compared to that
of the vegetable kingdom, is, it it faid, very fmall ; and
the quantity of carbonic acid gas produced in refpiration,
and in various proceffes of combullion and fermentalioa,
bears a proportion extremely minute to the whole volume of
the atmofphere : if every plant during the progrefs of its
life makes a very fmall addition of vital air or oxygen to
the common air, and occafions a very fmall conlumption of
carbonic acid, tlie elfcft may, it is fuppofed, be conceived
adequate to the wants of nature.

It is fuppofed that it may occur as an objeftion to thcfe
views, that if the leaves of plants purify tlie atmofpjicre,
towards the end of autumn, and through the winter and
early tpring, the air in our climates mull become iaipure,
the vital air or oxygen in it diminilh, and the carbonic acid
gas increafe, which is not the cafe : but there is a very
latisfaftory anfwer, it is faid, to thia objeftion ; the dilTercnt
parts of the atmofphere are conlUuitly mixed together by

winds,

V I T

wind!), which, when they are ftrong, move al die rate of
from fixty to a hundred miles in an hour. In our winter,
the fouth-weft gales convey air, which has been purified by
the vaft forefts and favannas of South America,^ and which,
paffing over the ocean, arrives in an uncontaminated ftate.
The ftorms and tempefts which often occur at the beginning
and towards the middle of our winter, and which generally
blow from the fame quarter of the globe, have a falutary
influence. By conftant agitation and motion, the equili-
brium of the conftituent parts of the atmofphere is pre-
ferved ; it is fitted for the purpofes of Hfe : and thofe
events, which the fuperftltious formerly referred to the
wrath of heaven, or the agency of evil fpirits, and in which
they faw OFily diforder and confufion, are, it is faid, demon-
ftrated by fcience, to be miniftrations of divine intelligence,
and conncfted with the order and harmony of our fyftem.

The clofe analogy which fome have fuppofed to exift be-
tween the abl'orption of vital air or oxygen, and the forma-
tion of carbonic acid gas in germination, and in the refpira-
tion of the fcetus, has been already contended againft ; and
ftmilar arguments will, it is faid, apply againft the purfuit
of this analogy, between the funftions of the leaves of the
adult plant, and thofe of the lungs of the adult animal ;
feveral of which are ingenioufly ftated : and it is concluded,
that the funftions of the leaf mud vary according to the
compofition of the fap paffing through it ; and according
to the nature of the produAs which are formed from it.
AVhen fugar is to be produced, as in early fpring at the
time of the developement of the buds and flowers, it is
probable that lefs vital air or oxygen will be given off, than
at the time of the ripening of the feed, when (larch, or
gums, or oils, are formed ; and the procefs of ripening the
feed ufually takes place when the agency of the folar light
is moft intenfe. When the acid juices of fruits become fac-
charine in the natural procefs of vegetation, more vital air
or oxygen, there is every reafon to beheve, it is faid, muft
be given off, or newly combined, than at other times ; for
all tlie vegetable acids contain more vital air or oxygen than
fugar. It appears probable, it is faid, that in fonie cafes,
in which oily and refinous bodies are formed in vegetation,
water may be decompofed, its vital air or oxygen fet free,
and its hydrogen abforbed. When the leaves of fome
plants, and particularly fuch as produce volatile oils, are
expofed in water faturated with vital air or oxygen gas,
this air or oxygen is given off in the folar light ; but the
quantity is very fmall, and always hmited ; and the ViTiter
has not been able to afcertain with certainty, whether the
Vegetative powers of the leaf were concerned in the opera-
tion, though it feems probable. In all cafes in vvliich buds
are formed, or {lioots thrown forth from roots, vital air or
oxygen appears to be uniformly abforbed, as in the germina-
tion or fpvouting of grain and feeds. This was fatisfattorily
(hewn by trial with the potatoe, which, when placed in
proper circumflances, foon threw forth a fhoot, which,
when half an inch long, had nearly abforbed a cubical inch
of vital air or oxygen, and formed about three-fourths of a
cubical inch of carbonic acid. There was a fvveet tafte in
the juices of the (hoot, when feparated from the root ; and
the abforption of vital air or oxygen, and the produftion of
carbonic acid, were probably, it is thought, connefted with
the converfion of a portion of ftarch into fugar. As frozen
roots of this kind become fweet when thawed, vital air or
oxygen may probably, it is fuppofed, be abiorbed in this
operation, and if fo, the change may be prevented by thaw-
iog them out of the contaft of air ; as under water lately
in the boiling ftate. See Air, &c.

Thcfc and different other ftatcmrnts that ma\- be feen in

V I T

the work noticed above, (hew the great importance of vital
air or oxygen in the ways that have been mentioned in the
beginning of this article, as well as in the economy of vege-
tables, and for other purpofes.

Vital FunSions. or Anions, are thofe operations of the
vital parts by which life is affefted ; fo as that it cannot
fubfift without them.

Such are the mufculous aftion of the heart, the fecretory
aftion in the cerebellum, the refpiratory aAion of the lungs ;
and the circulation of the blood and fpirits through the ar-
teries, veins, and nerves. See Function and Action.

Vital Principle, or Subftance, denotes a kind of agent or
inftrument, fuppofed by Dr. Grew to be employed under
the dircftion and in fubordination to the will of the Creator,
in the produftion of plants, animals, &c.

This principle correfponds to the plaftic nature of Dr.
Cudworth. The fuppofed exillence of thefe principles pro-
duced a difpute between M. Baj-le and M. Le Clerc, which
the former conceived to favour atheifm, though he allows
that neither Dr. Cudworth nor Dr. Grew were aware of the
confequence ; but the latter maintains, that the plaftic or
vital natures, admitted by thefe writers, cannot in the leaft
favour the athcifts, becaufe they are only inftruments in the
hand of God, and have no efficacy but what they receive
from him, who direfts and rules all their aftions. Of this
difpute Dr. Warburton obferves, that Cudworth's plaftic
life of nature is fully overthrown by Bayle, whofe fuperiority
in the coiitroverfy with Le Clerc is clear and indifputable.
See Grew's Cofmologia Sacra, fol. 1701. p. 31, &c. ; and
Cudworth's Life, prefixed to Birch's edition of the Intel-
ledlual Syftem, vol. i. p. 15, &c.

Vital Spirits are the fineft and moft volatile parts of the
blood. See Spirits.

VITALBA, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the viorna, or traveller's joy. See Viorna.

VITALI A, a name given by fome autliors to the cardiac
medicines.

VITALIANUS, in Biography, pope, was born at
Segnia, in Campania, and elevated to the pontificate A.D.
657, on the death of Eugenius. When, according to cuf-
tora, he fent legates to Conftantinople, with his confefllon
of faith, to be prefented to the emperor Conftans and hii
fon Conftantine, the Monothelite doctrine was fa(hionable
at the imperial court, and, therefore, the pope was very
guarded in his communication. In 663 Conltans entered
Italy, and advanced towards Rome ; and though he was
treated with great refpedl by Vitalian and his clergy, he
was not thus prevented from robbii'.g the churches of all
the treafure to which he could have accefs. In 667,
Wighard, archbi(hopeleft of Canterbury, was fent to Rome
to receive ordination from the pope ; but as Wighard died
of the plague in that capital, the pope, notwithftanding the
compliment that was paid him by the Briti(h kings, took
this opportunity of extending the prerogative of the papacy,
and of nominating one Theodore, a monk, to fnpply the
place of the deceafed prelate. Vitalian, in fome other in-
ftances, manifelled his zeal for the intereil and influence of
the Romifli church, and the authority of its vifible head ;
but after a pontificate of 14^ years, he died in 672. His
zeal procured for him a place among the canonized pontiffs.
Some letters written by him on ecclefiaftical affairs are ftill
extant. Dupin. Bower.

VITALIS, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to
the common tclephium, called the Englifn orpine, and live-
long, from its quality of living and flounfhmg a long time
afcer it is taken from the root.

VITCHEGDA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which

rifes

V I T

rifes in the province of Ulliug, and runs into the Dwina,
near Sol Vitchegociflc.

VITE, TiMOTEO DELLA, DA Urbino, in Biography,
was born at Urbino in 1470. After having fome time
fludied the art of painting at Bologna, under Francefco
Francia, lie returned, when about 26 years old, to his native
country ; and thence went to Rome, to his countryman and
relation Raffaelle. He there engaged himfelf to affift that
renowned artift, and prepared for him the Sibyls in the
church of La Pace, and was permitted by his mafter to
retain the cartoons. He did not remain long at Rome, but
returned to Urbino ; and there, in conjunftion with Giro-
lamo Genga, executed feveral large works for the cathedral,
and other public places.

He. brought to Rome a ftyle which was dry and laboured,
as of the preceding century, as may be feen in his Madonnas
at the palace Bonavcntura, in the Capitol at Urbino, and
at Pefaro in the Difcovery of the Crofs. Under Raffaelle
he improved his ftyle, and acquired much of his grace, at-
titudes, and colour ; though he always remained a timid in-
ventor, and had a certain weaknefs of pencil, and was more
exaft tlian grand. The Conception at the OiTervanti in
Urbino, and the Noh me Tangere in the church of S. An-
gelo at Cagli, arc perhaps the bell remains of Timoteo.
He died in 1524, aged 54.

VITEGRA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs
into lake Onezdvoi, near the town of Vitegra. — Alfo, a
town of Ruffia, in the government of Olonetz, at the fouth
end of lake Onezflcoi ; 88 miles E. of Olonetz. N. lat.
60° 55'. E. long. 35=44'. •

VITELLIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Latium, in the country of the .ffiqui ; it took its name from
the family of Vitellius.

ViTELLiA Fia, one of the roads of Italy, which led from
the Janiculum to the fea.

VITELLIANI, ill ylmiguiiy, a kind of tablet or pocket-
book, in which people anciently ufed to write down their
ingenious, humorous, and even wanton fancies and imper-
tinences ; the fame with what, in Englifli, we may call a
triflc-bool. See Martial, lib. xiv. cpig. 8.

Some will have them to take their name from ■vittlliis, a
yolk of an egg ; becaufe the leaves were rubbed with it.
Others derive the name from one Vitellius, their inventor.

VITELLIO, or ViTEi.LO, in Biography, a Polidi
mathematician, flouriflied about the end of the r3th cen-
tury, as we may infer from the dedication of his work on
Optics to the pope's penitentiary, William de Morbeta,
who lived about the year 1296. His work, though now of
little value, was probably in ellimation at the early period
in which it was written, as it contained a colleftion of ma-
terials fnrniflied by Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, and
Alhazen. It was publiHied together with that of Alhazen
under the following title : " Optica: Thefaurus, Alhayc iii
Arabis LibriVII. nunc primumediti. Item Vitellonis, Tlui-
ringo-poloiii, Libri X. omnes inftaurati, Figuris illuilrati
et aufti, adj^Ais etiam in Alhazenum Commentariis, A.
Frcderico Rifnero," Bafilix, 1572. fol. Monlucla Hid.
Math.

VITELLIUS, AuLUs, Roman emperor, was born
A.D. 16, and refidcd in his youth at Capresp, the infamous
abode of Tiberius. To Caligula he recommended himfelf
by his fl<ill as a charioteer; and by his pafTion for play, to
Clnudius, who made him conful A.D. 48. He likewife
prcfided at the games, in which Nero expofed himfelf as a
mulician. At this time Vitellius difgraced iiimfelf by his
jcrvility and meanncfs ; but in the port of governor of
Africa, he obtained fome credit. At length, however, he was

Vol. XXXVII.

V I T

reduced to indigence by his licentioufnef?, and was thus led
to praftife fraud, with regard to the offerings and ornamenU
of the temples, by fubftituting bafe metal for real filver and
gold. On the acceffion of Galba to the empire, A.D. 6d,
Vitellius was appointed to the command of the legions in
Lower Germany ; Galba affigning as a reafon for this pre-
ferment, that a man addifted to gluttony was not R> be
feared. The German legions were much difaffcclcd to
Galba ; but Vitellius had contrived to recommend himfelf
to favour. When the day (wz. January itt) arrived, on
which the troops were required to renew their oath of
fidelity to their emperors, thofe commanded by Vitellius
performed the ceremony reludtantly, and with ill will ; but
m the army of Upper Germany, two legions openly re-
nounced allegiance to Galba. When this event was com-
municated to the Lower army, Valens, one of the general
officers, came to Cologne, and faluted Vitellius as emperor,
who was alfo recognized under this appellation in other pro-
vinces of the empire. At Rome, however, Otho was in-
veflcd with the imperial dignity, on the murder of Galba ;
and the two competitors began with negociation, and pro-
ceeded to attempts againll each other's life. When Otho
put an end to his own life, after the defeat of liis troops,
Vitellius was recognized without oppofition at Rome, in
April, A.D. 69. One of the firft afts, after receiving the
news of Ihs acceffion, was that of conferring knighthood on
a vile freedman, named Afiaticus. Although he treated
the general officers of Otho's party with a clemency that
did him honour, he incurred reproach by the execution of
feveral of the inferior officers, and by ordering the death of
Dolabella, on a falfe accufation. However, Ihipid infenfl-
bility was his predominant foible, rather than a revengeful
fpirit ; and this was the cfFeft of his infatiable and fhameful
gluttony. His extravagance in indulging his appetite for
coftly diflies, covered with all the varieties which he could
procure, had no bounds. He is faid to have confecrated a
filver difh, which on account of its fize he called the buckler
of Minerva, and to have filled it folely with the livers of a
fmall and delicate filh, the brains of peacocks and pheafants,
the tongues of flamingoes, and the roes of lampreys. The
expellees of his table, during eight months of his reign,
have been eflimated at five millions flerling ; but Tacitus
ilates this fum as ttic coll of all his profufions.

Oil his way to Rome, he vifited the field of battle on
which Otho had been defeated ; and when he faw it ftrewed
with dead and mangled bodies, he did not manifell the leaft
emotion ; and when fome of his attendants complained of
the lleiich arifing from the uniiiterred carcafes, he had the
fool-liardinefs to utter this obfervation, " A dead enemy
fmells well, cfpccially a dead citizen." He entered Rome
with great pomp, at the head of troops that maffacred a
number of the populace who went out to meet him, and
pronounced a panegyric on himfelf, which was applauded
by the fervilc crowd. He afterwards affefted popularity,
but his charaftcr was fo devoid of every virtue, that no .lil
he performi'd could be thought of any value. " Every evil
which Rome had fufTcred under the worll emperors fivmed
to be its dediny in the reign of Vitellius." 'Uit a dt-
iiverance was preparing for the feemingly devoted city.
Tiie Eaflern army was approaching, and Vefpafian was
proclaimed emperor. Vitellius was roufed from iiis le-
thargy, but it was too late ; and after the Jefedlion of fome
of Ins troops, and the defeat of others, lie .v^ain funk into
his ftupefying luxury. Defpairing of redrels, 'le deter-
mined to abdicate ; and with this view iiegociiilf! with
Flavins Sabinus, brother of Vefpafian, who was prcf;ft of
Rome. The populace, however, whofe cprapaifion waa
M u excited

V I T

excited by the mournful habit and diftreffing circumilances
in which lie left the palace, obliged him to return. Upon
this the city-guards attacked Sabinus, who had fought re-
fuge for himfelf and his adherents in the Capitol. The
partjfaiis of Vitellius, yielding to the impulfe that had been
excited, ftormed this facred place, and in the tumult the
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was confumed by fire. Sa-
binus wa;? feized, and carried before Vitellius, who wanted
to fave him ; but he was mafiacred in the mod ignominious
manner. Thefe outrages were in a httle while dreadfully
revenged. The viftorious army approached the city; and
the Vitelliaa foldiers, well apprized that no mercy awaited
them, made a defperate refillance ; fo that Rome, in the
midft of the licentious feftivities of the Saturnaha celebrated
at this time, was a fceue of flaughter and blood. ViteUius
took no part in this bufmefs, but withdrew to the houfe of
his wife on mount Aventine ; from hence he removed again
to the palace, and was at length found in the porter's
lodge, intreating in the moft abjedl manner that his life
might be fpared. But all his intreaties were inefFeftual.
With his hands tied behind him, and a cord about his neck,
he vn& dragged liis.e a common criminal in the midll of in-
fults of every kind. Having cfcaped the murderous aim of
a German foldier, he was at length taken to the Gemonian
ilairs, down which the body of Sabinus had been thrown,
and being difpatclied in a barbarous manner, his head was
cut off, and iluck upon a fpear, to be carried through the
city, and his trunk was linown into the Tiber. Thus he
clofed a ftiort and ignominious reign in the 55th year of
his age, A.D. 69. Suetonius. Tacitus. Crevier. Gen.
Biog.

VITEPSK, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Polotdi, on the Duna, taken from Poland in
the year 1654; 56 miles E.S.E. of Polotlk. N. lat. 55°
15'. E. long. 30° 50'.

VITERBO, a town of the Popedom, and capital of tlie
Patrimonio, given by the emprefs Matilda to the pope ; in
memory of which donation, an infcription, on ilone, is put
up on the town-houfe. This city lies in a beautiful and fer-
tile valley, is large, the ftreets, for the greater part, broad
and well paved, the lioufes good, but thinly peopled, the
number of the inhabitants being fcarcely 15,000, though
that of the churches, convents, and hofpitals, is not lefs
than 69. The bidiop is immediately under the pope. Four
popes lie interred in the catliedral. Not far from the city
is a warm mineral fpring ; 34 miles N.N.W. of Rome. N.
lat. 42^25'. E.long. 12° 6'.

VITES, in Botany, the leventy-fecond natural order in
Juffieu's fyftem, the twelfth of his thirteenth clafs, is fo
called from Vit'u, one of its genera. For the charafters of
this clafs, fee Gerania. The order, which confifts of
Cijfus and Vhis only, is thus defined.

Calyx of one leaf, (fuperior, ) fhort, nearly entire. Petals
definite, four, five, or fix, broad at the bafe. Stamens equal
in number to the petals, and oppofite thereto, with diftinft
filaments, mferted into the di(k, or receptacle of the flower.
Germen fimple ; ilyle one, or none ; Jligma fimple. Berry
of one or many cells, witli one feed, or feveral, in a deter-
minate number, whofe furface is unequal, and which are in-
ferted into the bottom of the cells. Corculum defcending,
its lobes ftraight, dellitute of albumen. Stem Ihrubby, or
rarely arBoreous, trailing, knotty. Lea-ves alternate, with
fiipulas. The tendrils, or fioiver-Jlalks, are oppofite to the
leaves. Thefe plants are akin to Aquiluia ( Leea ) and Melia
in the broad bafe of their petals, fometimes in- their leaves
and inflorefcence. On the other hand, fome of the fhrubby
Gerania [Pclargonia) betray an affinity in habit to the Files,

V i T

and hke them are occafionally acid in the lalle of their
herbage.

VITESSA, or Vittessa, in Mythology, a name of the
Hindoo Kuvera, regent of wealth. See Kuvera.

VITETZ, in Geography, a town of Bofnia ; 14 miles S.
of Serajo.

VITEX, in Botany, an old Latin name, of whofe origin
Linnceus profelTed ignorance, but which evidently comes from
vieo, to bind, and alludes to the flexible nature of the twigs
of the original fpecies of this genus, the ayio; of the

Greeks Linn. Gen. 326. Schreb. 427. Willd. Sp. PI.

v. 3. 390. Mart. Mill. Di£l. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 4. 66. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. v. i. 441. Brown
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 511. Jufl". 107. Tourn. t. 373.
Lamarck Dift. v. 2. 611. Illuftr. t. 541. Gsertn. t. 56.
— Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofperma. Nat. Ord.
Perfonatce, Linn. Vittces, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
cylindrical, fhort, with five broad {hallow teeth. Cor. of
one petal, ringent ; tube cylindrical, flender, curved : limb
fiat, two-lipped ; the upper lip in two fegments ; lower in
three, the middle one largeft. Stam. Filaments four, capil-
lary, rather longer than the tube, two of them Ihorter than
the reft ; anthers verfatile. Pijl. Germen roundifii, in the
bottom of the calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the
ftamen.i ; (ligrnas two, a\vl-fliaped, fpreading. Peric.
Drupa globole. Seed. Nut fohtarj-, bony, of four cells,
with a folitary kernel in each.

Eff. Ch. Calyx with five teeth. Limb of the corolla
two-hpped ; middle fegmcnfof the lower lip largeft. Drupa
with a nut of four cells.

Obf. Linnseus^ and even .Tufiieu, mifled perhaps by
Tournefort's figure, defcribe the corolla as having fix feg-
ments. We have never feen more than five in any fpecies,
though, if Tournefort be correft, fix or feven may acci-
dentally occur. — The fpecies are Ihrubby or arborefcent,
with oppofite, ftalked, almoft always digitate, leaves,
without Jlipulas. Flowers aggregate, numerous, panicled,
fometimes v;horled, moftly blueifti. Juffieu, with great
reafon, doubts th? genus of V. pinnata, becaufe of its alter-
nate pinnrate leaves.

1. V. ovata. Ovate-leaved Chafte-tree. Thunb. Jap.
257. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. (V. rotundifolia ; Linn.
Suppl. 294.) — Leaves fimple, ovate. — Native of Japan,
near the fea-ftiore. Stem fhrubby, traihng, with quadrangu-
lar branches, downy when young. Leaves on fliort ftalks,
elliptical, or roundifli, entrte, with one rib, and feveral
tranfverfe veins ; green and fmooth above ; white and finely
downy beneath. Panicle terminal, oblong, filvery, with
three-forked branches. Calyx hoary. Corolla purplifh ;
downy and white on the outfide. Fruit globular, the fize
of a pepper-corn, greeniih, half covered by the permanent
calyx.

2. V. triflora. Three-flowered Chafte-tree. Vahl Eclog.
fafc. 2. 49. — Leaves ternate, entire, fmooth on both fides.
Stalks axillary and terminal, three-flowered. — Gathered by
Von Rohr, in Cayenne. Branches purpli/h ; downy and
rufty when young. Leajlets elliptic-lanceolate, or obovate,
quite entire, from tv/o to five inches long ; their com-
mon ftalks an inch and half. Calyx near an inch in length.
Corolla twice as much, clothed externally with tawny pu-
befcence. J^ahl.

3. V. divaricata. Spreading Chafte-tree. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 1078. Willd. n. 3. Vahl Symb. v. 2. 76. — Leaves
ternate, entire, fmooth on both fides ; the middle one very
large. Panicle forked, divaricated. — Native of the Vv'ell
Indies. Gathered by Maffon in St. Luci* ; by Ryan in ^

Martinico ^

VITEX.

Martiiiico aiiJ Santa Cruz. A tree, with fquare, fmooth
branches, alh-coloured when young, moll I'afy at the ex-
tremity. Leaflets ovato-lanccolate ; the lateral ones an
inch long ; the odd one three or four times as much.
Floivrrs whitifh, five-cleft. Drupa half an incli long.

4. V. pubefcens. Downy Chafte-tree. Vahl Symb.
V. 3. 85. Willd. n. 4. ( Piftacio-vitex ; Linn. Zeylon. 195,
according to Vahl, from the infpeftion of Her.Tiann's Her-
barium.)— Leaves ternate, downy. Panicles three-forked.
Brafteas a? long as the calyx. — Native of the Eall Indies.
Leajicts near two inches long, ovate, thin, entire ; nearly
fmooth above ; ribbed, veiny, and downy, not hoary, be-
neath. Panicles large, terminal, their lowermofl bi'anches
aKiUary. BraScas oblong, obtufe, hoary. Floivers fix or
fcven on the ultimate branches of the panicle, felfile, alter-
nate, externally downy. Fruit the fize of pepper.

y. V. allijfima. Tall Ceylon Chafte-tree. Linn. Suppl. 294.
Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 2. (Mail-Elou ; Rheede Hort.
Malab. V. 5. I. t. I.) — Leaves ternate, pointed, nearly
entire ; downy beneath. Panicle with racemofe whorled

branches Found in the extenfive forelis of Ceylon by

Koenig, who in his MSS. has indicated the indubitable
fynonym of Rheede, which the younger Linnajus ne-
glefted to quote, and which is likewife omitted in Hort.
Kew. and Wilidenow. Rheede fpeaks of this as a tree
fifty feet high, found in many parts of Malabar,
with a heavy reddilh wood, fit for many ufes. The
footjlalks are downy, fometimes winged, from one to
three inches long. Leaflets elliptical, contrafted at each
end, from two to four inches in length ; nearly fmooth
above ; very downy and foft, not hoary, beneath ; their
margin ufually entire ; fometimes ferrated. Floivers fmall,
fweet-fcented, bluei(h, numerous. The lower branches of
the panicle are fome of them four together. Each branch
bears numerous, denfe, partly ftalked, many-flowered nvhorls,
with downy lanceolate iraiieas. Linnasus, after Koenig,
defcribes but three fctds in each drupa, but Rheede fays
thsre are three or four.

6. V. lalifolia. Broad-leaved Chafte-tree. Lamarck n. 5.
( Katou-Mail Elou ; Rheede Hort- Malab. v. 5. 3. t. 2.) —
Leaves ternate, ovate, pointed, entire, minutely downy on
both fides. Panicle much branched, forked, downy. Brac-
teas ovate. — Sent by Dr. Roxburgh from Calcutta. The
leaflets are from two and a half to five inches long, and two
or two and a half broad, finely veined ; the younger ones
foft to the touch. Panicle terminal, with large, oppofite,
ilaUced Iracleas, downy on both fides. Calyx, and unex-
panded corolla, very downy.

7. V. j-lgnus-cci/his. Common Chafte-tree. Linn. Sp. PI.
890. Willd. n. 6. Alt. n. 3. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 222.
Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 609, unpubhihed. (Vitex; Camer.
Epit. 105. Matlh. Valgr. v. i. 177. Ger. Em. 1387.
f. I, 2.) — Leaves digitate, with five or feven lanceolate
nearly entire leaflets ; hoary beneath. Clullers panicled.
Flowers whorled. — Native of low marihy places, about the
banks of rivers, in Italy, Sicily and the Levant. Very
common throughout Greece, in fuch fituations, flowering
in autumn. A low fpreading Jhrub, with long, trailing,
tough and pliant branches. Lcajlets long and narrow, taper-
ing at each end, with partial footllalks, ufually quite entire,
but fometimes broader and ferrated, as in Gerarde's fig. 2.
Their upper fide is of a groyifli-green, with a peculiarly
fine velvet-like foftnefs ; the under white, and denfely
downy. Common footjlalks downy, about half the length
of the leaflets. Clujlers terminal, long and cylindrical, di-
vided into many denfe whorls of numerous, light bhie, or

white, jlaiuirs. BraBeas lanceolate, folitary under each
Jloiuer, the length of the calyx. The feeds have been cele-
brated for a marvellous power of promoting chaftity. The
fcent of the recent plant is, to us, peculiarly unpleafant,
caufing a degree of naufea or faintnefs, which may perhaps
account for its reputed virtues. The prieftefies of Cere*
are reported to have made their beds of the boughs of this
tree, but whither this arofe from the name in Greek being
fynonimous with chaftity, or whether the name was given in
allufion to the quality of the plant, no author has recorded,
though Diofcorides feems to imply the latter.

8- V. incifa. Cut-leaved Chafte-tree. Lamarck n. 2.
Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 4. (V. Negundo ; Curt. Mag.
t. 364. V. Mill. Ic. 183. t. 17J. f. I, 2.) — Leaves digi-
tate, with three or five pinnatifid leaflets ; hoary beneath.
Clufter3 panicled. Flowers whorled. — Native of Ciiina.
Long known in our gardens, as a greenhoufe flirub, by the
name of V. Negundo. Lamarck, who fpeaks of this plant
as nearly hardy in the open ground at Paris, firft diftin-
guiflied it as a fpecies. It is fmaller in every part than the
preceding, and differs in having fewer, fliorter, broader,
deeply cut or pinnatifid leaflets. The Jionuers are purphfh,
with rounder fegments ; the lower one concave and fome-
what heart-fliaped.

9. V. Negundo. Indian Chafte-tree. Linn. Sp. PI.
ed. I. 638. ed. 2. 890. Willd. n. 12. (Negundo arbor
mas; Bauh. Hift. v. 2. 189. Bem-nofi ; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 2. 15. t. 12.) — Leaves digitate, with three or
five elliptic-lanceolate, fomewhat ferrated, leaflets ; hoary
beneath. Clufters panicled. Flowers loofely whorled. —
Native of the Eaft Indies. This appears to be a Jhrub
nearly related to tlj^wo laft, but rather larger than either,
with more decidedly quadrangular branches. The leaflets,
more generally three than five, are broader than the laft,
yet not pinnatifid, but only bluntly, and rather fparingly,
ferrated. Partial floiver-ftalks more lax and corymbofe.
Yet this plant certai-.ily difters from the ferrated variety of
V. Agmis-cajlus, havijig fewer, as well as broader, leajlets,
and looler nvhorls. The Jloivers feem to be fmaller than in
that fpecies. The fynonym of Rumphius, cited by Lin-
nasus, evidently belongs to ^. Leucoxylon. Wilidenow and
Curtis copy without examination Linmus's citation of
Bauhin, which ought to be v. 2, not v. i. The infloref-
cence in Bauhin's ligure is very badly reprefented, nor are
the leaves at all correfl ; yet there is enough to ftiew that
it may be taken from our plant, though certainly nothing
capable of giving a juft idea of the fpecies.

10. V. trijolia. White-leaved Panicled Chafte-tree.
Linn. Sp. PI. 890. Willd. n. 9. (Cara-nofi; Rheede
Hort. Malab. v. 2. 13. t. it. Lagondium vuTgarc ;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 4. 48. t. 18.) — Leaves ternate, fome-
times quinate ; leaflets ovate, acute, entire ; hoary beneath.
Clufter compound, with forked, elongated, zigzag branches.
— Native of the Eaft Indies. The pcrfeftly entire leaflets,
and their ovate or elliptical form, clearly mark this fpecies,
which is ilill more certainly diftinguilhed by the long,
fpreading, doubly forked branches of iis clujlcr, which
affumes the afpeit of a panicle, whofe common ilalk is
ftraight. The calyx is angular. As to the other fynonyms
quoted by Linnaeus, Plukenet's t. 2c6. f- 5. may be any
thing; and Burm. Zeyl. t. 109. is a Rhus, with a pro-
digious confufion of fynonyms not worth unravelling.

1 1. V. Leucoxylon. Green-leaved Corymbofe Chafte-
tree. Linn. Suppl. 293. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 5. (V.
paniculata ; Lamarck n. 3, excluding Plukenet's fynonym.
Lagondium litti)rcum ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 4. 50. t. 19.)

N n 2 — Leaves

V I T

Leaves tei-nate or quinate ; leaflets elliptical, entire ;

(litrhtly downy beneath. Panicles repeatedly forked, co-

rymbofe Native of the forefts of Ceylon. Kotnig. Sent

to Kew, by Dr. Roxburgh, in 1793, through the hands
of fir Jofeph Banks. The leaves fomewhat refemble thofe
of V. trifolia in fhape and fize, but they are not at all hoary,
though paler, at the back, with much longer partial llalks
to the kafets. The panichs are totally different, being cy-
mofc, or level-topped, dowTiy, but not hoary. As to the
«' berry," as Koenig and Linnaeus term it, " with a fingle
feed," there is no reafoa to think it different from the reft
of the genus.

12. V. umbrofa. Umbrageous Chafte-tree. bwartz
Ind. Occ. 1076. Willd. n. 10. — Leaves quinate; leaflets
elliptical, pointed, entire, nearly fmooth on both fides.
Clutters compound, axillary. — Native of mountainous fitua-
tions in Jamaica. A large and fpreading tree, with nearly
cylindrical branches, leafy at the fummit. Common foel-

fialhs two or three inches long, flattened, two-edged.
Leaflets coriaceous, from three to five inches long and two
broad, veiny ; paler beneath, but not hoary ; m ither are
they, a. Dr. Swartz fays, perfedly fmooth; but rather
roughifh to the touch, from very minute hairs fcattered
over both their furfaces. Clujltrs from the bofoms of two
or three of the uppermoft leaves, and about the fame length,
rather downy, oblong, with fimply forked branches.
Flo-wers fmall. Drupa yellow, the fize of a cherry, de-
prefTed at the fummit.

13. V. capttata. Capitate Chafte-tree. Vahl Eclog.
fafc. 2. 50. t. 18. Willd. n. 11. — Leaves quinate; leaf-
lets lanceolate, entire, fmooth. Flowers in capitate um-
bels, on axillary ftalks.— Native of the ifland of Trinidad.
Ryan. A tree of a moderate fize, with roundifh branches,
fomewhat angular when young. Leapts four inches long,
on partial llzJks, the outer pair feffile, and fmallcr, as in the
other fpecies. Flotoer-Jlalks axillary, folitary, the length
of the footftalks, fmooth and flender, each bearing from fix
to twelve foiuers, at firft fefiile, but fubfequently elevated
on ftiort partial ftalks, forming a kind of umbel. Drupa
twice the fize of a pea. Vahl.

14. V. pinnata. Pinnate Chafte-tree. Linn. Sp. PI.
890. Willd. n. 13. Burm. Ind. 138. t. 43. f- 2.—
Leaves pinnate, entire. Panicles triply forked. — Native of
Ceylon. A very doubtful fpecies. The Linnsan fpeci-
men is certainly only F. trifolia ; but in fir Jofeph Banks's
herbarium is one fuppofed to be the true pinnata.! Whether
Vahl's pubefcens, n. 4, be fpecifically diftinft from this laft,
we are not informed.

14. V. acuminata. Pointed Chafte-tree. Brown n. 3. —
Leaves ternate or quinate ; leaflets ovate-oblong, pointed,
fmooth, entire. Clufter with forked branches. Calyx
nearly without teeth. Stamens ftiorter than the corolla.
Found by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New Hol-
land.

15- V ? glabrata. Smooth Chafte-tree. Brown n. 4. —
Leaves ternate or quinate ; leaflets ovate, fmooth, entire.
Flower-ftalks axillary and tenninal, forked. Calyx with-
out teeth Gathered by Mr. Brown in the tropical part of

New Holland, but the jlo-wers were over. Corolla in fir
Jofeph Banks's plate four-cleft, above an inch long.

16. \ i tnacrophylla. Great Simple-leaved Chafte-tree.

Brown n. 5 Leaves fimple, ovate -oblong, entire, fmooth,

with tranfverfe ribs ; and two glands at the bafe. Stem

arboreous Gathered in the tropical part of New Holland,

by fir Jofeph Banks, who fent a plate of this, and the pre-
c«ding, to Linnseus. The leaves are fix or eight inches
12

V I T

long, and four broad. Panicle terminal, large, with zig-
zag, racemofe, ftout, many-flowered branches. Calyx
fomewhat two-lipped. Corolla five-cleft, an inch long, ap-
parently white, with a dark purple lip.

VlTEX, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy and
under-fhrubby kinds ; among which the fpecies cultivated,
are, the officinal chafte-tree (V. agnus-caftus) ; the cut-
leaved chafte-tree (V. incifa); the three-leaved chafte-tree
(V. trifoha) ; and the five -leaved chafte-tree (V. neguodo.)

The firft is a high fhrubby plant of the late flowering
kind, of which there are varieties with narrow leaves, with
broad leaves, with blue flowers, and with white flowers.

The fccond fort is a low fhrubby plant, with bright red
flowers.

The third is of a fhrubby grovirth, with violet flowers.

And the laft has a fmall tree-like ftem, with purplifh
flowers.

Method «/ Culture. — The firft fort may be increafed by
cuttings and layers : the cuttings fhould be planted in the
early f[u-ing, in a frefh light foil, being often refrefiied with
water till they have taken root ; afterwards the plants muft
be kept clear from weeds, and be protefted during the fol-
lowing winter with mulch or mats ; and about the middle of
the following March, when the feafon is fine, be removed
into the places where they are to grow, or into the nurfery
for two or three years, to become ilrong ; being pruned up
to form regular ftems.

The layers of the branches may be laid down in the
fpring, being careful not to fpht them, watering them ia
dry weather ; when in about a year they may be taken off,
and planted out in the fame manner as the cuttings.

The fecond fort may likewife be increafed by cuttings,
which fhould be planted in pots, plunged in a moderate
hot-bed, covering them with glaffes : when well rooted, they
may be taken up, and be planted in feparate fmall pots,
filled with fight earth, putting them in the fhade till frefh
rooted ; afterwards placing them in a fheltered fituation,
with other greenhoufe plants, until the autumn, when they
muft have proteftion from froft, and have very httle water.
They are late in putting out leaves in the fpring, fo as
almoft to appear dead.

The third fort is raifed from cuttings, which fliould be-
planted in pots in the early fpring, as April, plunging
them in a moderate hot-bed, covering them' with hand-
glaffes, being flightly watered : when they have taken root,
they fhould have free air admitted in a gradual manner ; then
they may be taken up, and planted out in feparate pots
filled with light earth, replunging them in the bed, and
giving due fhadc. They fhould afterwards have plenty of
free air, when the weather is fuitable ; being treated as-
tender plants. It muft be conftantly kept in the ftove,
having free air in the furamer feafon. It retains its leaves
all the yeai-. This may alio be raifed from layers.

The fourth fort may alfo be raifed from cuttings, in the
fame manner as the fecond.

The firft two forts may be introduced in the fhrubberies,
clumps, &c. fuGceeding well in any common foil and fitua-
tion ; and the latter kinds afford variety in ftove and green-
houfe colleftions, among other fimilar forts.

VITI Chobea, in Medicine. Sec Chorea.

VITIA, in Jncicnt Geography, a country of ACa, in the
vicinity of Armenia and of the Cafpian fea. Strabo. —
Alfo, a country of Afia, in the environs of Media, founded
by the jEnianes of Theflaly, according to Strabo, and
named ./Eneiana ; which was aUb the name of the principal
city.

VITICES,

V I T

V I T

VITICES, in Botany, one of Juffieu's natural orders,
named from Vitex, which belongs to it. This order is the
thirty-eighth in his fyftcm, the fifth of his eighth clafs,
ftanding between the jASMiNEiT, and Lap.iat.'E. (See
thofe articlen, undar tlie laft of wliich the charafter of this
eighth clafs is indicated. ) This fame order is now, it feems,
called Verbenacie by its author, in Ann. du Mufeum,
V. 7. 63, which name is adopted in Brown's Prodr. Nov.
Hell. V. I. 510. The genera which compofe it are chiefly
found in the latter part of the Personat.e of Linnxus.
( See that article. ) Mr. Brown's definition, as follows, is
the lateft and bcft, refpefting this order.

Calyx tubular, permanent. Ctrolla inferior, of one petal,
tubular, deciduous ; the limb moftly irregular. Stamens
generally four, two long and two fhort ; rarely all of equal
length ; fometimes only two. Germcn of two or four cells,
the rudiments of feeds ereft, fohtary or in pairs. Style one,
either cloven or undivided. Pericarp a drupa, or a berry.
jilbumen none, or veiy fniall. Embryo ereA.

The plants of this order are trees or (hrjibs, rarely herba-
ceous. Leaves without ftipulas, ufually oppofite ; either
Cmple or compound. Flo-aiers either oppofilely corymbofe,
or alternately fpiked ; fometimes crowded into a fort of
head ; rarely axillary and folitarj-.

Juflieu notes that the Jiamens are fometimes fix, of which
we find no inftance, except cafually in Ttftuna, whofe fta-
luens are properly five, all nearly equal. The Jligmas are
fometimes unequal. This author makes three feAions.
Se£l. I. Flowers oppofitely corymbofe.
Clerodendrum, Volkamer'ia, Mgiphila, Vitex, Callicarpa,
all Linnxan genera ; Manabea of Aublet, allied to JEgi-
phila ; Premna of Linnseus ; Petitia of Jacquin ; Cornutia,
Gmetina, TeBona (called Theka by Juffieu), and jivicennia
of all authors. To thefe are to be added Pityrodia of
Brown ; and alfo his Chhanthes, notwithftanding its folitary
flowers.

Seft. 2. Flotuers fpiked ; alternate.

Petrta, Citharexylum, Duranta, Lippia, Lantana, of
Linnseus ; Spielmannia of Medicus and Jufiieu ; Taligaka
of Aublet, which is Amafonia of Linnxus ; Tamonea of
Aublet, of which Verbena lappulacea is an example. See
Verbena n. 13 ; and Perama of Aublet, Schreber's Mat-
tufchixa.

Se6t. -5. Genera alin to Vilices (or Verbenaeeit) .
Eranthcmum, Selago, and Nebenjlretia of Linnxus. The
firft. of thele Mr. Brown has indicated, in his Prodr. v. I.
477, to be very confufed in its hiftory, the original type of
the genus being next akin to ./uflicia, only having a nearly
regular, and falver-fhaped, corolla, with two of the Jiamens
imperfefl. What Jufueu intends under the name of Eran-
thcmum TIT" probably certain Cape fpecics of Selago, with
only two Jlamtns, crroneoufly referred hither by Linnxus.

The order in queftion certainly forms a very natural link
between the Jafmincit and the Labiala, being mod akin to
the. former in habit, fcent of the flowers, and other qualities,
as well as in the nature of the pericarp; while ha Jiamens,
feeds, and quadrangular branches, more obfcurely conneA it
with the latter ; to fome genera of which, as Ballottt, its
often foetid herbage, not to mention colour, pubefcence,
and inflorefccnce, betray an unexpeftcd relationfliip.

VITIFERA, in Ornithology, a name by which many
have called the couunon ccnanthe, a bird well known in
England by the name of the wheat-car.

VITIGUDINO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Leon ; 31 miles W.S.W. of Salamanca.

VITILIGO, a difeafe frequent among the Arabians :
it is the fame with what is othcrwife called alphos.

ViriLiGO, in Botany, fo named from its leprous or
fcurfy appearance. See Sni.OMA.

VITIMSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutdv, on the Lena. N. lat. ^g' c'. E.
long. 112^ 34'.

VlTIS, or Utens, in jincient Geography, a river of
Italy, in Cifpadana, in the neighbourhood of Ravenna, be-
tween Sapis and Anemo.

ViTis, in Botany, ufually derived from vieo, in allufion
to the flexibility of its branches, is traced by De Thcis to
the Celtic Gwid, a tree, or flirub, as being the chief, or
beft, of trees. This would hardly fatisfy us, were not
Gwin the name of wine in the fame language, from whence
comes evidently enough, the Greek t»»,,, Latin -uinum,
Anglo-Saxon .ind French vin, Englifh wine, &c. — Linn.
Gen. 112. Schreb. 156. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i, 1180.
Mart. Mill. Dift. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 51. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. v. i. 161. Purfh 169. Jufl". 267.
Tourn. t. 384. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 145. Did. by Poiret,
v. 8. 594. Gxrtn. t. 106. — Clafs and order, Pentandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Hederacee, or perhaps Cucurbitacetty
Linn. Vitcs, .luff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, minute,
five-toothed. Cor. Petals five, fmall, rude, cohering by
their fummits, deciduous before they fade. Stam. Fila-
ments five, awl-fliaped, fpreading, a little afcending, de-
ciduous ; anthers fimple, incumbent. Pijl. Germen fupe-
rior, ovate ; ftyle very (hort ; ftigma capitate, obtufe.
Peric. Berry large, roundifli, of one cell. Seeds five, ereft,
obovate, bony, contrafted at the bafe, deeply furrowed on
one fide.

Eff. Ch. Petals cohering at the fummit, unfading.
Berry fuperior, with five ereft obovate feeds.

Obf. The feeds are naturally five, though two or three
are generally abortive in our northern climes, which ha»
puzzled fome writers. They are defcribed by Linnxus as
half bilocular, becaufe the lateral fuiTOws are fo deep, as
to encroach half way on the cavity of their (helly covering.
The North American fpecies arc faid to be all dioecious,
which however is not the cafe with /''. quinqucfolia, nor
V.arborca, both improperly removed to Cijfus by Perfoon and
Purfh, and referred by Michaux to his new genus Ampelopjis,
whofe charaftcrs are not fuificient to feparate it from Cijfus
or Vitis. Cjffus is properly dillingui(l\ed from Vitis, not
fo much by having four-cleft tetrandrous Jlo-wers, which
circumftance is variable or inconllant, but by the reflexed
petals, and the prcfence of a cup-like nedary, furrounding
the germen.

I. V. vinifera. Common Vine. Linn. Sp. PI. 293.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. I. Schmidellc. 32. t. 7. Jacq.lc.
Rar. t. 50. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. t. 242, unpublifhcd.
Inf. of Georgia, v. i. 87. t. 44 .' Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 655.

Camer. Epit. 1003. Ger. Em. 875 Leaves heart-fliaped,

five-lobed, finuatcd, n;.ked. — Found, naturaUzed at lealt, in
moll parts of the more temperate climates of the globe ; yet
it is not fuppofed to be a native of America. Mr. Haw-
kins judged It to be truly wild on the banks of rivers in
Greece. The cultivated Vine, fporling in endlefs varieties
of the fhape, colour, and flavour of its fruit, and diflcring
much with refpeiil to hardinefs of conilitntion, is well known
as an important and interefling objed of horticidturc. (Sec
ViNr, and Wine.) Our bufinefs here is with the lame
plant ill its native ftate, as found in Greece, flowering in
May or June. The Jlem is woody, tough, fending out
long, traihng, fubdivided, furrowed, leafy branches, which
cbmb by means of tendrils to a great extent, and when
young arc clothed witii loofc (baggy down. Leaves ;Jtcr-

uate.

VITIS.

nate, on longifh flalks, fimple, roundidi-heartihaped, notched,
coarfely ferrated, veiny, divided about half way into five,
more or lefs diftinft, lobes ; when young they are downy
Lke the branches, efpccially beneath ; but otherwife naked
and fmooth ; deciduous. Tendrils oppofite to each foot-
ftalk, folitary, fplral, divided, about tlie length of the
leaves. Clujters here and there in the place of a tendril,
drooping, panicled, much branched, the ultimate ftalks fome-
what umbellate, or corymbofe. Flowers very numerous,
fmall, green, fragrant like Mignonette. Peiah forced from
their bafe by the ftamens, which elevate them in the form
of an umbrella, downy at the top. Berry fmall, black.
Every part of the plant is acid, with fome aftringency. —
One variety only is particularly noticed by Linnxus, the
V. corinthiaca, f.ve apyrena, Bauh. Hift. v. 2. 72, of which
a fpecimen from Madeira is preferved in the Linnsan her-
barium. The fruit is faid to be very fmall, without [tech.
The bte Dr. Sibthorp brought a living plant, fuppofcd to
be of this kind, from the ruins of Corinth, with no fmall
trouble and care ; but his ignorant gardener threw it away.
Whether the Zante Currant be precifely the fame is doubt-
ful. This is cultivated at Kew, and in fome other curious
gardens.

2. V. palmata. Palmate Vine. Vahl Symb. v. 3. 42.
Willd. n. 2. Pur(h n. 6. — " Leaves palmate, fmooth ; their
fegments deeply ferrated. Umbels racemofe." — Said to be
a native of Virginia, but Mr. Puv(h met with nothing in
North America anfwering to this defcription. Vahl had his
fpecimen from the Paris garden. The branches are purplifli,
fmooth. Lea'ves as broad as long, fmooth ; heart-lhaped at
the bafe; their fegments lanceolate, tapering; the lateral
ones having lanceolate teeth at their outer margins ; the cen-
tral one deeply ferrated at each fide. Stipulas lanceolate.
Clufters an inch long, compofed of fmall crowded umbels.
Vahl. We prefume this to be a mere variety of V. -cinifera,
as well as the two following, which therefore we here place
near it.

3. V. lacin'wfa. Parfley Vine. Linn. Sp. PI. 293.
Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 5. (V. folio apii ; Bauh. Hift.
V. 2. 73.)

B. V. laciniatis foliis ; Cornut. Canad. 182. t. 183.
Schmidel. Ic. 34. t. S.

Leaves of five many-cleft leaflets, or deep pinnatifid
lobes. — Long known in gardens, but no botanift has difco-
vered its native country. The leaves are quite fmooth. We
know no difference between this and V. •vtmfera, except, which
indeed is very remarkable, the leaves being either compofed
of five deeply cut, partial-ftalked leajlets, as in the Linnsean
original fpecimen, and Bauhin's figure ; or only very deeply
five-lobed and jagged, like the plates of Cornuti and Schmi-
del. We readily allow them to conftitute one and the fame
fpecies with the Common Vine, and probably die following.

4. V. pinnata. Pinnate Vine. Vahl Symb. v. 3. 43.
Willd. n. II. — " Leaves pinnate, fmooth, with tooth-like
ferratures." — Given to profeflbr Vahl by Mi. Schumacher.
Its native country is unknown. The branches are purphfh,
fmooth and round. Leajlets five ; the middle ones nearly
feffile ; the reft ftalked ; the two lowermoft often furniihed
with an acceffory lobe at the outer margin, ovate, pointed,
with three or four large ferratures at each fide ; pale green
beneath, two inches long. Flo-jier-Jlalhs oppofite to the
leaves, twice compound ; partial ones umbellate. Floivers
fmall. This feems an intermediate variety between the
a and p of V. laciaiofa, probably obtained from fome
garden.

5. V. indica. Indian Vine. Linn. Sp. PI. 293. Willd.
n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Swaits Obf. 95. (V. fruftu minore

rubro acerbo, folio fubrotundo, minils laciniato, fubtfls albs
lanugine tefto ; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 104. t. 210. f. 4. Schem-
bra-vaUi ; Rhecde Hort. Malab. v. 7. u. t. 6. ) — Leaves
heart-fliaped, toothed ; downy beneath. Tendrils bearing
the clufters. — Native of the Eaft and Weft Indies. Swartz
fays the twigs, when cut, diftil a cool refrediing watery
juice, highly grateful to the natives of the torrid zone.
The leaves are fliarply toothed, not lobed ; very white at
the back, according to Sloane ; but this is wanting in the
Linnxan Eaft Indian fpecimen, which we fufpeft rather to
belong to Cijfus. This however is not an original fpecimen.
The fruit is red, or deep purple, the fize of currants, and
agreeably acid as well as aftringent. Sloane.

6. V . Jlsxuofa. Zigzao; Japan Vine. Thunb. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 2. 332. Willd. n. 4. (V. indica ; Thunb.
Jap. 103.) — Leaves heart -fhaped, toothed; villous beneath.
Stem zigzag. Panicles elongated. — Nativeof Japan, where
it is called Itadori. The leaves are chieSy villous at the ribs
underneatli. Footjla^ks llender, as long as the nail. Pani-
cles unattended by tendrils. Thunb.

7. V. Labrufca. Downy-leaved Vine, or Fox-grape.
Linn. Sp. PI. 293. Vi'^il'd. n. 5. Ait. n. 3. Purfli n. i.
" Jacq. Hort. Schoefibr. t. 426." Sm. Inf. of Georgia,
V. 1.55. t. 28.) — Leaves broadly-heartfhaped, angular or
(lightly lobed, toothed ; white and cottony beneath. Ber-
ries few, fomewhat depreffed Nativeof (hadv woods, frcm

Canada to Florida, flowering in June and July. Berries
black, large, of a difagreeable foxy fmell, whence they are
commonly called Fox-grapes. A variety with white berries
is called Bland's Grape. Purjb. The leaves appear to be
fometimes but flightly toothed. Each bunch confifts of
about fix grapes, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, red
before they are ripe. We have not feen the fourth volume
of Jacquin's Hortus Schoenbrunenfis, and are therefore
obliged to take our references from Purfti, under this and
a few other fpecies.

8. V. ajiivalis. Summer Grape. Michaux Boreal. -
Amer. v. 2. 230. Purfh n. 2. " Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
t. 42J," according to Mr. Purfh. (V. Labrufca; Walt.
Carol. 242.) — Leaves broadly-heartfliaped, with thj-ee or
five lobes, finely toothed ; downy and rufty when young.
Clufters of fruit oblong In fields and woods, from Vir-
ginia to Carolina, flowering in May and June. Berries
fmall, dark blue, very agreeable to eat, and frequently con-
verted into very good home-made wine. It is known by
the name of Summer Grape. Purjh. This author men-
tions, by the name oi f.nuata, a variety which he thinka
may be a diftinft fpecies, and which is thus defined.
" Leaves finuato-palmate, coarfely toothed ; each finus
rhomboid." Can tb.is be the plant figured in Sm. Inf. of
Georgia, t. 44. as V. vini/era? (See the firft fpecies.)
We have from the late Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg a fpecimen
anfwering cxaftly to the above fpecific charafter of Michaux
and Purfti, but without any information annexed. Whether
it be labnifcoides, Muhlenb. Cat. 27, as we fhould guefs by
that name, or intermedia of that work, as indicated by the.
fynonym, there is no poiTibihty of knowing. The leaves in
our fpecimen are glaucous beneath, and clothed with loofe,
partly rufty, cobweb pubefcence, not with denfe white
cottony down like F. Labrufca. The veins terminate in
fmall, acute, marginal teeth. Clujlers downy and rufty, as
well as tlie footjlalks.

9. V. vulpina. Winter Grape, or Chicken Grape..
Linn. Sp. PI. 293. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 4. (V. cordi-
foHa; Michaux Boreal. -Amer. v. 2. 23h. Purfii n. 3.
"V. incifa; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. t. 427.") — Leaves
heart-fliaped, pointed, fharply ferrated, fmooth on both

fides,

VITI.S.

ftdcs, with .ixillary ghiuiular tiifta to the veins beneath.
Cluftcro lax, nearly fmootli. — On the margins of rivers, and
in vFoods, from Canada to Florida, flowcrin;^ in June and
July. Berries preen or ambcr-coloiired, fmall, npcning
extremely late, of a very tart tafte. PurJIj. This is cer-
tainly tlie 'Dulpina of Linn;tus, and confequently of Willric-
now, thoujjh Piirfh cites the latter author under the fore-
going fpocies. The haves of the prefent have but a flight
indication of a lobe at each fide, and are more oblong and
pointed than either of the two laft ; being moreover quite
fmooth, from the earlicll period, except the little axillary
tufts of hair on the under fide. The footjlalks and branches
are fmooth.

10. V.rlparia. Swcet-fcented Vine. Michaux Boreal. -
Amer. v. 2. 231. Purdi n. 4. (V. odoratiffima ; Doiin
Cant. ed. 5. 53. ) — " Leaves unequally and deeply toothed,
flightly three-lobed ; their margins, ribs, and footftalks,
do\vny." — On the gravelly Ihores and iflands of the rivers,
from Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering from May to July.
Female plants are very feldom found north of the Potowmac
river, though the male extend very far beyond it. The

jlonuers have an exquifitely fine fmell, fomcwhat refembhng
Refeda odorata. Purjlj. We have fecn the male plant in
bloffom in fome gardens, though not noticed by Mr. Aiton.
The fcent is not fuperior to th:;t of the common V^. vtnrfcra,
which likewife exaftly refcmbbs Mignonette.

1 1 . V. rotundifoUa. Bull or Bullet Grape ; fometimes
called Mufcadine Grape. Michaux Boreal. -Amer. v. 2.

231. l-'urlh n. 5. (V. vulpina; Sni. Inf. of Georg. v. i.
81. t. 41.) — "Leaves kidney-heartfliaped, fmooth and
(hiniiig, nearly equally toothed. Flowers in numerous little
heads." — On river fides, and iflands, from Virginia to
Florida, flowering in June and July. Berries very large,
dark blue, agreeable, commonly called Bull or Bullet-
grapes. Purjh. We have feen no fpccimen. Mr. Abbot,
in his drawing for the Infefts of Georgia, reprefents the
fruit full three-quarters of an inch in diameter, dark purple,
dotted, few in each cluilcr. Leaves fmaller, ihorter, more
ftrongly toothed than in the laft ; apparently quite fmooth.

12. V . helerophylla. Various-leaved Vine. Thunb. Jap.
103. Willd. n. 7. — " Leaves Ample, naked, with three
or five deep ferrated lobes." — Found near Nagafaki, and on
Papci.bcrg, in Japan, flowering in July and Auguil. It is
there called Inu Ganclu, or Wild Vine. The y?fm is climb-
ing, fmooth, branched and knotty. Lowell leaves five-
lobcd ; uppcrmoft undivided ; all pale beneath, with rough
veins. Panicles forked. By the defcription of an annular
ntltary, this fecms to be a Cifus.

13. W . hederacea. Five-ler.v?d Vine, or Virginian Creeper.
Ehrh. Beitr. v. 6. 85. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 6. (V.
quinquefolia ; Sm. Inf. of Georg. v. i. 59. t. 30, reverfed.
Hedera quinquefolia ; Linn. Sp. PI. 292. Edera quinque-
folia canadenCs ; Cornut. Caiiad. 99. t. lOO. Ampelopfis
quinquefolia; Michaux Boresl.-Amer. v. i. 160. Cifl'us
hederacca; Purlh 170.) — Leaflets five, ovate, pointed, fer-
rated, fmooth. Cluftcrs zigzag, corymbofe On the Al-
legany mountains ; from Pennfylvania to Virginia, flowering
in June and July. Well known in England, where it has
long been cultivated, as an ornamental climber, for covering
lofty buildings. It flouriihes even in tlif ilofe courts, and
peftifcrous cemeteries, of the city of London. In autumn,
the leaves, before they fall, affume fplendid tints of red and
orange. The tendrils attach thcmfelves to the furface of the
fmoothcft flint. The leaves are bright green, fmooth and
fhining, cf five ftalked leafets, about two inches long.
Common fonijlnlis three incites in length. Patiicles lateral
and terminr.l, many-flovvercd, divaricated, fmooth. Flowers

I

umbellate, grecii, dcllitute of a iieBary ; their pelah con-
cave, cohering at the fummit, and feparating from the bafe,
exactly as in a true Fitis, fo that wc cannot but wonder at
the confufion of recent authors rcfpetting the genus of tlii»
plant, even more than.at Linnxus for referring it to Hedera.
The berries are blueifli-black, lefs than a common pea.
Purfh mentions a variety named hirfuta, whofe leaves are
downy on both fides, which he thinks may be fpccifically
dillinft. But he had never feen the Jlowers, nor are we
further informed on the fubjcft.

14. V. arborea. Pepper Vine. Linn. Sp. PI. 294.
Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 7. ("V. carohniana, foliis apii,
uva corymbofa purpurafcentc ; Comment. Bonon. v. a.
part 2. 365-. t. 3." Ampelopfis bipinnata ; Michaux
Boreah-Amcr. v. i. 160. Cifl'us flans ; Purfli n. 3. Fru-
tex fcandens, petrofelini foliis, virginianus; Pluk. Mant. 85.
t. 412. f. 2.) — Leaves twice or thrice compound ; leaflets
ovate, partly wedge-fhaped, cut — In fliady woods, by
river fides, in Virginia and Carolina, flowering in June and
July. Stem upright. Puiji. The leeificts are about an
inch long, more or lefs acute, ftalked, fomcwhat hairy,
efpecially the veins, which are furnifhed with axillary glands
beneath. Tendrils branched. Chijlers lateral, corymbofe,
fomcwhat forked. Plukenet fays this was firft raifcd from
feed in England, by Mr. Samuel Reynardfon, an eminent
merchant of London, at his villa at HiUingdon, before the
year 1700. His houfe and garden flill remain, and we have
there often admired the largeft Cedar of Lebanon in Eng-
land, blown down about the year 1794.

V. hcptaphylla, Linn. Mant. 212, proves by the fpecimcn
to be very nearly, if not quite, the fame as Aralia Scioda-
phyllum, Willd. Sp. PI. v.'i. 1519, nor is there any ap-
pearance of its being an Eafl. Indian plant.

The late Mr. Donn has a V. lucida, Hort. Cant. ed. 5.
53, a New Holland fhrub, introduced in 1790, of which we
find no other mention.

ViTis, in Gardening, contains plants of the deciduous
climbing kind ; among which the fpecies cultivated are, the
common vine, or grape vine (V. vinifera); the Indian vine
(V. indica) ; the parfley-leaved vine (V. laciniofa) ; and tlie
tree or pepper vine (V. arborea).

The fird fort has a weak brown-coloured ftem, and is a
native of molt of the temperate parts of the world. In
very cold regions it refufes to grow ; and within 25° or
even 30° of the equinoftial line, it feldom flouriflics fo as to
produce good fruit. In the northern hemifphcrc, the
proper wine country is from 25" to 51° of latitude; and,
according to Forfyth, the following are the varieties which
are in moft cftcem in this climate for the hot-houfe, vinery,
and the natural wall.

Sorts proper for the Hot-houfe.

The white mufcat of Alexandria, or Alexandrian Fron-
tinac, in which the berries are oval, and the bunches long.
It has a rich vinous juice, and is eftecmcd an exceeding good
grape for the hot-houfe.

The red mufcat of Alexandria, which refembles the
former, only the berries arc of a red colour.

The black mufcadel, which has large oval berries of a
black colour and picafant juice.

The red mufcade), which has large red berries of an oval
fliape, and ript-ns late. The bunclics are very largo.

The black Damafcus, which has large, round, black-
coloured berries ; the flefh is rich and well-flavoured. It is
an excellent late grape.

The black grape from Tripoli, which haj large black
berries, and is an excellent gnipe.

Th«

VITIS.

TIic white Hamburgh, vfhich has large oval-fhaped
berries, and is a pretty good bearer.

The red grape from Syracufe, which is a very fine large
grape.

Le coeur grape, or Morocco grape, which has berries of
a tawny colour, and is highly cfteemed.

The golden Galician grape, which has large oval berries
of a yellow colour, and tolerable flavour.

The black raiiin grape, which has large black berries of
an oval form ; the ficin is thick, and the flefli firm.

The white raifin grape, which refembles the preceding,
only that the beiries are white.

The Malvoife, fometimcs called the blue Tokay, which
has fniall brownifh berries, powdered with a blue bloom ;
the juice is vinous.

The Syrian grape, which has large, white, oval berries,
with a thick fliin and hard flefh, and is a good bearer.

The damfon grape, which has very large berries of a
purple colour.

The Cornichon grape, which has berries of, a remarkable
{hapc, long and narrow, of a white colour, -with a firm
fweet flefh.

The red chafTelas, which is very like the chafTelas blanc
in lize and fhape, but is of a dark-red colour. It is a very
good grape, but ripens later than the white.

Sorts proper for the Vinery.

The red Frontinac, or mufcat rouge, which is a very fine
grape, and greatly efteemed. It has large brick-coloured
berries, and the juice is of a highly vinous flavour.

The large black duller, which is larger than the former,
and has a very rough harih tafte. Mr. Speechlcy fays, that
he had this grape from Lilhon, and was aifured that it is the
grape of which they make red Port wine. He has had the
fame grape eight or ten years.

The white grape from Alcobaca, which bears large
bunches of white juicy berries.

The white parfley-leaved grape, or ciotat, which has
round berries, white, juicy, and fweet. There is a fort of
the parfley-leaved grape with red fruit.

The white Corinth grape, which has a fmall round berry,
with a fine juicy flefh of an agreeable flavour.

The St. Peter's grape, which has a large oval berry, of
a deep black colour when ripe ; the bunclies are large, and
the flefh juicy. It ripens late.

Sort proper for the Wall.

The white or common mufcadine, by fome called the
chafTelas, which refembles the royal mufcadine, but the
berries are fmaller ; and although it is not fo fweet as the
royal, it is the befl grape that we have for a common wall,
and a great bearer.

Sorts proper for the Hot-houfe and Vinery.

The black mufcadine, which is a good bearer, and the
berries are beautifully powdered with a blueilh bloom.

The royal mufcadine, d'Arboyce, or chafTelas blanc,
which is an excellent grape ; the bunches are large, and
compofed of round amber-coloured berries of a rich vinous
tafte. In a fine feafon it ripens in September.

The white mufcat from Lunel, which has large oval
berries of an amber-colour, and full of a vinous juice. It is
a plentiful bearer, and highly efteemed.

The black Spanifh, or Alicant grape, which has black
berries of a pleafant flavour.

The black grape from Lilbon, which has large, round,

juicy berries, and the bunches referable the black Ham-
burgh. It is a good grape.

The black Frontinac, or mufcat noir, which has pretty-
large found berries, black when ripe, and covered with a
mealy powder.

The grifly Frontinac, which has round berries, of a
colour compofed of brown, red, and yellow. It has an ex-
cellent flavour.

The black Hamburgh, which has the bunches large,
compofed of large oval black berries, of a pleafant fweet
juice and vinous flavour. It ripens in November.

The red Hamburgh, which has thin-fl<inned berries of a
dark red. They have a rich vinous flavour, and ripen
about the fame time with the former.

The white morillon, which has an oval-fhaped juicy berry,
and the leaves are downy on the under fide.

The Aleppo grape, which has middle-fized berries, with
a juicy flefli of a very fine flavour. It is a curious grape,
frequently ftriped black and white.

The genuine Tokay, which is a white grape, vidth a thin
flcin, delicate flefh, and agreeable juice.

The Lombardy grape, which has fine, large, flame-
coloured berries, full of a fine juice ; and the bunches grow
to a great fize, frequently weighing more than fix pounds.

The Smyrna grape, which has a large red berry, of a
very fine flavour, and is efteemed a very good grape.

The brick grape, fo called from its colour, has fmall
berries, but the juice is fweet.

The claret grape, which has fmall black berries, with a
blood-red juice ; but the grape is very harfli, if not per-
feAly ripe.

The cat's grape, which has fmall berries of a pale-green
colour ; the flefh is foft and juicy, but of a very dilagreeable
tafte, unlefs quite ripe.

The Greek grape, in which the berries are of a blueifti-
white colour ; and it is efteemed a fine grape.

The black Corinth, or currant grape, which has a fmall
roundifh berry, generall)' without a ftone, of a deep black
colour. It has a fweet juice, and ripens in Oftober.

The new mufcat of Jerufalem, which has large round
berries of a red colour ; fome of which, in fine feafons, are
as large as a goofeberry ; but as it does not ripen well on the
natural wall in this country, it might be worth while to try
it in a hot-lioule or vinery.

The black Prince, which has fine large berries, and tlie
bunches grow to a large fize. Mr. Forfyth has had them,
in a favourable feafon, on the natural wall, weighing a pound
and a half: it ripens on the natural wall in Oftober. It
deferves a place in the hot-houfe and vinery.

Sorts proper for the Vinery and Wall.

The July grape, or morillon noir hatif, is a fmall round
black berry of a fugary juice, and is principally efteemed
for being early ripe, which is in September.

The Malm fey mufcadine fomewhat refembles the pre-
ceding ; the juice is very fweet, and of a high flavour.
This IS a good bearer, and a very fine grape.

The black fweet-water has a fmall roundifh berry, of a
fweet tafte ; but being apt to crack, is not in much repute.
The birds arc very fond of this grape, which ripens in Sep-
tember.

The fmall black clufter has fmall oval berries ; the leaves
are covered with a hoary down. This is a very pleafant
fruit.

The early white grape from TenerifFe ; the berries are of
a middling fize, and the flefh remarkably fweet and juicy.

The Auverpa, or true Burgundy grape, fometimes called

the

VITIS.

the black morillon, is an indifferent fruit for the table, but
i* efteemed oue of the bell for making of wine.

Sorts proper for the Hot-hotife, Vmeryt and Wall.

The white fweet-water, which has a large berry of a white
colour, and very agreeable juice ; it is eileemed an excellent
grape, and ripens in September.

The white Frontinac, or mufcat blanc, which has large
bunches compofed of round berries : the juice of this grape,
when fully ripe, is exquifite.

To this lift are added the following forts, without any
defcriptions.

Tlie black Frankindale, the black Gibraltar, the black
mufcat of Alexandria, the Miller grape, the new white fweet-
water, the pafTe mufk, the pearl mufcadine, the red Conftan-
tia, the red raifin, the fir Abraham Pitcher's fine black, the
Weft's St. Peter, the whit-e Conftantia.

And the following are the forts recommended for a fmall
garden, by the fame author.

The white mufcadine, white fweet-water, black fweet-
water, large black duller, fmall black duller, the Miller
grape : the St. Peter's and the black Hamburgh anfwer well
in favourable feafons.

The writer of the Scotch Forcing Gardener remarks, that
amongft the numerous varieties of grapes, he does not know
above eighteen or twenty kinds worth a place in the vinery,
and even that number cannot have places in an ordinary -fized
houfe ; but where there are two or three houfes, a variety to
the extent of twenty-four kinds may be encouraged, without
tranfgreffing the bounds of moderation. The following is
the lift which he advifes.

White fweet-water, white mufcadine, royal ditto, black
ditto, black Frontinac, white ditto, red ditto, Grifly ditto,
black Hamburgh, white ditto, white railin, red ditto, Syrian,
white Tokay, flame-coloured ditto, white pafle mofque,
Grecian, white mufcat of Alexandria, black ditto, large
black cluftcr, black Conftantia, white ditto, St. Peter's
grape, Lombard y.

Out of which, it is thought, the proprietors of grape-
houfes may choofe fo as to ftock any grape-houfe.

To the above forts may probably be added the verdelho,
which is pronounced ■verdeUlo, as it is faid to be the moft
prevailing grape in the vineyards, and the moft famous for
producing the beft wine of the Madeira kind ; though the
celebrated white wine obtained from that idand is moftly
underftood to be the produftion of a mixture of different
grapes.

Cuttings of this vine, procured from the above place, are
faid not only to grow remarkably well and with great vigour
in the vinery here, but to be greatly productive of fruit, fre-
quently giving three bunches on a fhoot. As it does not,
however, form a large bunch, it will probably not be thought
worthy of culture here, except by thofe who are curious in
the flavour of their grapes. The berry is fmall, of an oval
ftiape, and many very fmall berries without feeds are ufually
interfperfed : thefe being cut out with fciftbrs, will, it is
afferted, much improve the appearance of the bunch. The
fruit is faid to be very acid until it arrives at the laft ftage of
maturity, when the berries become of a fine amber colour, and
of a very rich faccharine flavour. It is fuppofed that this
vine will fucceed m favourable fituations on the open wall,
efpecially where the foil is light, dry, and fliallow ; but that
in a deep highly manured foil, it will run too much into wood
and foliage.

The leaf is very thick, of a dark green colour, and refifts
the autumnal frofts fomewhat longer than the chaftelas, and
fome other kinds ; and will therefore, it is fuppofed, in the
Vol. XXXVII.

ordinary courfe of the feafons here, afford protcftion to the
fruit tiU towards the end of the month of Oftober.

The fecond fpecies or fort has a woody branching ftem,
affording fmall round watery berries of a brownifh-green
appearance. But it is faid to produce a great quantity of
black grapes in the lower hills of .lamaica, which are of a
rough tafte, and would doubtlefs make an excellent wine, if
properly managed. It feenis to thrive beft on the Red-
hills, and is tliere known by the name of water-withe.

The third fpecies or fort hr.s the ftalks and branches like
thofe of the common grape, but has only a few plants, occa-
fionally preferved for the fake of variety.

The laft fpecies or fort has the fteni woody with flender
branches, but does not afford frait in this climate.

Method of Culture. — The vine may be increafed in different
ways : as by leeds, cuttings, layers, as well as by grafting
and inoculation ; but the cutting and layer methods are the
moft commonly employed.

In raifing vines from feeds, they ftiould be fown in rlie
early fpring, as about the beginning of March, in fmall pots
filled with mould of the light frelh kind, to the number of
three or four feeds in each, plunging the pots in a moderate
hotbed, the mould being gently fprinkled over with water,
from a fine-rofed watering-pot, every day when the weather
is hot and dry, which ftioutd be performed in the latter part
of the day as the fun difappears from the frame. But when
the feafon is fuch-as to keep the mould in the pots properly
moift, the waterings may be omitted. As foon as the wa-
terings have been performed, the frames ftiould be ftiut
down, and be kept in that ftate during the night, when the
heat is not too great.

When the heat of the bed begins to decline, a lining of
horfe-dung and frofti leaves fhould be added ; or the neat
be renewed by ftirring the old beds up and making flight
additions to them. This ihculd be continued till the plants
have acquired fufRcicut ftrength to fupport themfelves with-
out bottom heat.

It will be neceffary about the end of Auguft, Mr. Forfyth
fuggefts, to take the lights off, that tlie plants may be hir-
dencd before winter, taking care to fticlter them in frames
covered with mats, which will prevent the froft in the latter
end of Oftober and beginning of November from injuring
the tender (lioots. And when the plants are about fix inches
high, they ftiould, it is thought, be tranfplanted fingly into
deep pots, forty -eights, filled with the fame fort of vegetable
mould that is direfted to be ufed for vines ; taking great
care not to hurt the roots, nor to break the leaders ; then
plunging them again into the hot-beds : but if the heat of
the old bed be too much decayed, it will be neceffary to
liave a new one prepared before-hand, to receive the pots as
foon as the plants are tranfplanted. When they grow vigor-
oudy, it will alfo be neceffary to ftiift them into thirty-twos.
When the phnts are above fix inches high, they ftiould be
carefully tied to fmall rods, leaving only one ftem for the
firft year. The rods ftiould be as high as the frame will
permit. And when the leaves begin to drop, they ftiould
be carefully picked off the pots, to prevent the plants
from getting mouldy, which would very much injure their
growth.

It is likewife advifed, that they ftiould be kept under
frames, or put into the greenhoufe in haid winters, to flicker
them from fevere frofts. In the fpring, about March or the
beginning of April, if from feed ripened in this country, they
may be planted out ag.iinft the walls where they are to re-
main ; but if from feed imported from vine countries, it is
advifed not to plant above one or two againft the wall, or
in the hot houfe, before a fpccimeii of the fruit has been ob-
O o taiiicd,

VITIS.

tallied, and proof afforded that the vines are worth culti-
vation. It is likewife recommended, that after they are
planted, they Ihould be cut at the third eye, if ftrong ; but
at the fecond, if weakly ; at the fame time rubbing off the
lower bud wit'.i the finger and tliumb, as direfted below.

But where the method by cuttings is made ufe of, thefe
Should be chofen from the Ihoots that are beft ripened, and
have the Ihoitell joints ; always having one or two joints of
the laft year's wood, cutting it perfeftly fmooth and a little
rounding at the lower end, and as near to a joint of the old
ivood as poflible. The upper end (hould alfo be cut fmooth
and (loping towards the wall ; but if they are planted in beds
or borders, the cut ihould always face towards the north.
When cuttings are planted againft piers or walls, it rtiould
be at about afoot diftance from each other, according to the
vacant fpace, and fo deep as to have the fecond eye level
with the ground, conftantly rubbing off the lower eye ; as
by this means, where no accident happens to the top bud, there
will be a fhoot produced from each eye, with a little one under,
which ihould always be rubbed off as foon as it begins to
fwell ; as if fuffered to grow to any conliderable fize, there
will be danger of injuring the large one in rubbing the fmall
one off. All the runners and fide-flioots fhould hkewife be
picked off as direfted above, leaving only two (hoots, which
fliould be trained at their full length. About the beginning
of February they may be pruned, leaving one or two eyes
on each, according to the ftrength of the (hoot, which (liould
be managed as explained below.

It is remarked by the above writer, that for the firft year,
efpecially if the fummer be dry, and proper attention be not
paid to the watering of them, they will make but little pro-
grefs ; but in the fecond year it may be plainly difcerned
which is the ftrongeit plant, which only (hould be left to
fill up tlie vacant fpace on the wall ; the reft (hould be taken
up and planted in other fituations where they are wanted
for fruit.

However, a method is made ufe of by Mr. Speechley and
others, of propagating the vine from one eye, and a few
inches of the preceding year's wood, which they prefer to
thofe raifed by cuttings in the common way, on thefe ac-
counts : they have more abundant roots, grow fhorter
jointed, are more prolific, and will, if permitted, come into
bearing the fecond year.

In regard to the mode of management, it is advifed that
choice (hould be made of cuttings after a warm dry feafon,
when the vifood ripen.s well ; each cutting having two inches
of the old wood, with one eye of the new. When the vines
are pruned there is great choice ; they (hould therefore be
then felefted of a middling fize, the wood round and per-
feftly ripened.

After this, pots are to be filled with rich light mould,
that has been well mehorated and prepared fome time be-
fore. The cuttings being then prepared for planting, by
the bottom part being cut perfeftly fmooth ; if any of the
old dead fnags remain, they (liould be cut off clofe to the
quick wood, and the top cut (loping towards the back of
the hot-houfe or frame, when placed in them. Mr. Forfyth
recommends planting only one cutting in each pot, which
as to the fize (hould be a deep forty-eight ; by that means
he thinks the plants will grow much ftronger and quicker
than when many are crowded together, and the fun and air
will have a freer admiffion to ripen the wood ; for, when many
are plants d in one pot, they (hade one another, and in a con-
fiderable degree prevent the fun and air from paffmg freely
among them. When the plants begin to get ftrong, and
the pots full of roots, it will be nece(fary to (hift them from
the forty -eights to thirty-twos. This method is, he contends,
9

beft adapted for private gardens ; but for nurferymeii, &c.
who raife plants for fale, and cannot conveniently fpare fo
much room, it may be neceffary to plant three or more cut-
tings in each pot.

And in thefe cafes, the fame rules for watering, tranfplant-
ing, (hifting, &c. are to be attended to as was direfted for
the feedling plants.

The fame writer remarks, that it is a method very fre-
quently praftifed by nurferymen and gardeners, when they
wi(h to have their plants fit for fale the fame year, to plant
them in pots, and place them in the hot-houfe among the
tan, on the flues, or round the curbs of the pit. And he
has feen it employed with great fuccefs. In this way they
may, it is afferted, be raifed either by planting them fingly
in fmall pots, or feveral in a pot, according to its fize,
planting them out feparately when they have taken root,
having a hot-bed ready to plunge the pots in as foon as they
are tranfplanted. In this manner they become much for-
warded m their growth, and are before the autumn in a ftate
fit for fale.

In raifing vines in the layer manner, the method ufually
made ufe of is by ftools, in the open quarters of the gar-
den, in the fame manner as nurferymen propagate foreft.
trees and (hrubs : but the beft way, according to Forfyth,
is to take layers from thefe on walls or palings, training the
(hoots at full length during the fummer ; when about the
month of February fome of the fineft and ftrongeft (hoots
fhould be chofen, laying them acrofs the foot-path into
pots (twenty-fours or fixteens) filled with fre(h mould, and
plunging them in the ground about two inches below the
furface ; at the fame time making an incifion or two in the
old wood, or giving it a twift juil below a joint ; and
though they will generally take without notching or twift -
ing, it is neverthelefs advifed, as the lureft way, to have tlftt
done. The layers (hould then be cut, leaving two or three
ftrong eyes upon each. And when the (hoots begin to run,
they (hould be tied to long ftakes, to prevent their being
broken by the wind ; all the runners and fide-fhoots being
picked off, leaving only two or three fine ftrong (hoots on
each plant, which fliould be trained at full length during the
fummer feafon.

As foon as the (hoots are laid down, it will be neceffary
to mulch them with good rotten dung, or rotten leave?,
which will keep the mould moift : and in very dry fum-
mers, a good watering fhould be given once or twice a week :
this will wa(h in the dung or leaves about the roots, and
induce the layers to (hoot with more vigour. The above
writer thinks that in this method of laying, two or three
rows of layers may be had from one wall : taking care to
lay the branches alternately, and to keep the pots plunged
about two inches below the level of the ground.

The fame writer advifes in choofing vines from the nur-
fery, to felecl thofe which have the ftrongeft and longeft
(hoots. And he obferves, that where the above direftions
are properly attended to, the plants will be well rooted in
the pots before autumn, and fit for planting in vineries,
hot-lioufes, or other fituations. And when they are to be
planted out, they (hould, he thinks, be carefully cut off from
the mother vine, and carried in the pots to where they are
intended to be planted ; taking care to prelerve the balls as
much as poffible when they are turned out of them.

It is alfo added, that if the feafon be warm and fine, the
grapes of the early kinds ripen very well on tliefe layers
before they are taken up ; and, if properly managed, they
will bear fome fruit the firft year after planting. One of
the ftrongeft ftioots muft be left nearly at full length, cutting
it as high as the uppermoft full bud, leaving nothing but

round

VITIS.

round well-ripened wood. If there are three (hoots, the
remaining two (hould be cut fo as to leave only two full
eyes upon each, which (liould be trained at length, as before
direfted, to produce fine wood for the next year. The
flioot which was trained the preceding year (hould then be
cut down, leaving only two ilrong eves to produce wood
for the following year ; and fo on every year, cutting the
branches alternately : by this means the walls always may
be kept covered with fine healthy bearing wood, and a great
deal of time be faved in furnilhing hot-houfes, vineries, and
other places. It is remarked, that this method of laying is
praftifed with great fuccefs by many nurferymen in the
neighbourhood of London.

In producing of vines by grafting, choice (hould be
made of cuttings for grafts, or fcyons, from the beft-bearing
branches of the forts intended to be propagated at the feafon
of pruning. In general, the bottom part of the laft year's
(hoot is to be preferred ; but in well-ripened vigorous wood,
any part of the (hoot will anfwer, provided it be not too
long jointed. Thefe cuttings fiiould be preferved in pots
lilled with light fandy earth till the time of grafting.

The periods for performing the operation are different ac-
cording to the vines ; for thofe in the pine ftove, the begin-
ning of January may be proper, but the middle of March
for thofe growing in the open air. In general, they (hould
be gjrafted about three weeks before they begin to break
into bud. And upon fmall (locks not more than an inch in
diameter, cleft -grafting is the mod proper ; but upon larger
ftocks, whip-grafting is to be preferred. In both methods,
care fliould be taken in fitting the (lock and fcyon together,
and the operation (hould be performed with great exaftnefs ;
faftening them together with bafs matting, and covering them
with clay in the ufual way. After the operation, the fcyon
will fometimes begin to pu(h in a few weeks, but it fre-
quently remains dormant two or three months ; during tliis
period the (lock mud be dripped of all its (hoots as foon
as they appear ; and to preferve the fcyon in a vegetative
(late, the clay mud be kept moderately moid by wrapping
wet mofs round it, and by keeping the mofs condantly
fprinkled with water. And when it has made (hoots five
or fix inches long, the clay and bandage mud be carefully
taken off.

The method of grafting by approach is advifed by fomc,
however, as the beft mode of raifiiig vines. In this cafe, it
is neceffary to have the plant intended to be propagated in a
pot. Strong plants that have been two or three years in
pots are to be preferred ; but plants from the nurfery may
be potted, and grafted in the fame feafon, if brought into a
hot-houfe or vinery. It is fuggeded that fine grapes and
good wood may be obtained even the fird feafon by any of
thefe methods, but particularly by the lad ; in which it is
evident the graft has a double fupport, as from the dock
and the plant in the pot.

In this fort of grafting, the clay and bandage (hould re-
main two or three months after the graft has formed an
union ; for if it be taken off fooner, the graft will be very
liable to fpring from the (lock. The pot ftiould be plen-
tifully fupphed with water till the month of Augud, when
the graft (hould be feparated from the plant in the pot.
Two or three inches of wood below the bottom of the graft
may be left, but (liould be taken clean od at the next
pruning in winter.

Tlie Syrian vine is recommended as the mod proper for
docks, and plants of this fort raifed from feeds are greatly
preferable for this purpofe to plants cither raifed from layers
or cuttings. See Gkafting.

The principal advantages of the grafting mode of raifing
vines are ; that if a wall diould have been planted witfi bad
kinds, indead of dubbing them up, and making a new
border, by which feveral years mud elapfe before the wall
can again be completely filled ; in this way their nature
may be changed immediately, as good grapes mav be ob-
tained from the fame year's graft ; and in a hot-houfe the
grafts, if permitted, will frequently (hoot thirty or forty
feet the fird fummer ; that in fmall vineries or frames,
where great variety could not be had in the common way,
it may be procured by this means on the fame plant ; and
that of the improvement of the various kinds, particularly
the fmall ones, which generally make weak wood. The
method by inoculation may likewife have advantages in
fome cafes of a fimilar kind.

When any of the vines that have been raifed from feed
do not prove of a good flavour, they are proper for grafting
or inarching the finer forts of vines on ; for, as the coarfer
forts grow more vigoroufly than the finer, they are on that
account more fit for grafting or inarching.

Vines will grow in almod any fort of foil, but fucceed
the mod perfeftly in thofe of the good dry, loamy kind,
and where there is a mixture of calcareous materials, or in
thofe of other quahties which are dry and rich. However,
where the land is of a wet retentive nature, or of the (bong,
difF, clayey quality, it is quite improper for the growing of
thefe kinds of plants, as though they may luxuriate drongly,
they will produce an ill-flavoured four fruit ; and the notion
of many gardeners of placing a layer or bed of dones,
bricks, hme rubbi(h, or other fimilar materials, below their
roots, in the view of checking their downward diredlion,
and the over-luxuriance of the plants, thereby rendering
them more fruitful, and promoting the ripening and flavour,
though it may, in fome meafure, anfwer the purpoie in
particular indances, it is liable to dunt the growth of the
trees, and caufethe fruit to be fmall and of little value.

It is further remarked, that the bed manure for vines is
a mixture of vegetable mould, rotten fpit-dung, and fre(h
loam (turf and all) ; this (hould be thrown in a heap, and
frequently turned, for a year or two before it is made ufe of.

In regard to the proper (ituations for vines, they (hould
condantly have a fouthern cxpofure as full to the influence
of the fun as pofiible, never varying from the full fouth, or a
very little to the fouth-wed, as in this climate, this is necef-
fary in order to the ripening and flavour of the fruit. In
gardens they are ufually trained againd walls, or other
ereftions of a fimilar nature ; but in vineyards and other
open places, againd treillagcs, dakes, and other fimilar
works, formed in rows on the fouth fides of them, where
pofiible, choofing a rifing ground for the purpofe.

For final planting out in thefe fituations, ready-raifcd
plants of two, three, or more years' growth, procured in
fome of the above modes, are modly ufed, being tranfplanted
from the nurfery. But in order to form bearers as foon as
polTible, ready-raifed plants of the dillerent varieties may
be had at the public nurfery-grounds in general, of a proper
plantable fize, and for immediate bearing, either in gmid-
rooted plants in the full ground, or in pots fit for being
planted out with balls of earth about them.

l"he proper feafon for performing the work of planting
them out is the early autumn, or the very early fpring
months. The bufinefs (hould be done according to the
nature and height of the material againd which they are to
be trained, in regard to the didance, and other circiim-
ftances : thofe againd efpaliers and dakes may be planted
either together or in mixture with other kinds of fruit-trees,
Oo 2 iu

VITIS.

in rows ten or twelve feel apart, choofing warm dry fandy
fuuations : in all the cafes fettling the earth about the
roots by proper watering.

In all the different forts of vines, the fruit is produced 01
the young fhoots of the fame year, which arife direftly from
the eyes or buds of thole Ihoots which were afforded in the
former year. This is a matter of importance, and deferves
much attention in the work of pruning.

Methods of Pruning and Training Fines. — In the manage-
ment of the vines, after being thus raifed and trained, as they
rarely produce any bearing (lioots from wood that is more
than one year old, care lliould be taken to have fuch wood
in every part of the trees ; for the fruit is always produced
upon the fhoots of the fame year, which come out from buds
of the lall year's wood, as has been already feen. The
method praftifed by gardeners is to fhorten the branches
of the former year's growth down to three or four eyes at
the time of pruning ; though fome leave thefe fhoots much
longer, and think that by this practice they obtain a greater
quantity of fruit : but what is gained in quantity is pro-
bably loft in quality ; therefore the beft method is perhaps
to fliorten the bearing fhoots to <,bout fo'jr eyes in length,
as the lowermoil feldom is good, and three buds are luffi-
cient, as each will produce a ihoot, which generally has two
or three bunches of grapes ; fo that from each of thofe
(Itoots there may be expefted fix or eight bunches, which is
a fuflicient quantity. Thele fhoots rauft be laid in about
eighteen inches afunder, as where they are clofer, when the
fide-fhoots are produced, there will not be room enough to
train them againil the wall, which fhould always be provided
for ; and as their leaves are very large, the branches (hould
be left at a proportionable diftance from each other, that
they may not crowd or fhade the fruit too much.

In the winter pruning of the vines, it is advifed to make
the cut juft above the eye, Hoping it backwai-d from it,
that if it fhould bleed, the fap may not flow upon the bud ;
and where there is an opportunity of cutting down fome
young ihcots to two eyes, in order to produce vigorous
fhoots for the next year's bearing, it fhould always be done,
as in flopping cf thofe fhoots which have fruit upon them
as foon as the grapes are formed, which is frequently prac-
tifed, it often fpoils the eyes for producing bearing branches
the following year. The ufual feafon for this pruning is the
end of Oftober. But about the end of April, or the begin-
iiing of the following month, when the vines begin to fhoot,
they fhould be carefully looked over, rubbing off all fmall
buds which may come from the old wood, which only pro-
duce weak dangling branches ; as alio when two fhoots are
produced from the fame bud, the weakefl of them fhould
be difplaced, which will caufe the others to be ftronger ;
and the fooner this is done the better. And in the middle
of the laft month they fhould be gone over again, rubbing
off and difplacing all the dangling fhoots as before, and at
the fame time faltening up all the ftrong branches, fo that
they may not harg from the wall ; for if their fhoots hang
down, their leaves will be turned with their upper furfaces
the wrong way, and when the fhoots are afterwards trained
upright, ihey will have their under furface upward ; and
until the leaves are turned again, and have taken their right
polition, the fruit will not thrive ; fo that the not obferving
this management will caufe the grapes to be a fortnight or
three weeks later before they ripen : befides, by fuffering
the fruit to hang from the wall, and be ftiaded with the
clofenefs of the branches, it is generally retarded in its
growth ; therefore, during the growing feafon you fhould
coiiflantly look over the vines, difplaciHg all dangling

branches and wild wood, and fallen up t!;e other fhoots re-
gularly to the wall ; and towards the middle of June . the
bearing branches fhould be flopped, which will improve the
fruit, in doing which three eyes fhould always be left above
the bunches. But though this is praftiled on thofe flvjots
which have fruit, it is not to be performed upon tliolir
which are ii. tended for bearing the next year, as theie mult
not be flopped until the middle of July, as by flopping them
too foon, it may caufe the eyes to fhoot out flrong lateral
branches, and in that way injore them. In tlie lummer
feafon care fhould be taken to rub off all dangling branches,
and train up the fhoots regularly to the wall as before,
which greatly accelerates the growth of the fruit, and
admits the fun and air more freely to them, which is necef-
fary to ripen and give the fruit a rich flavour ; but the
branches fhould not be too much divefled of their leaves, as
is the practice with fnme.

A late writer, Mr. Forfyth, has, however, attempted an-
other mode of pruning and training vines, from trials made
on vines planted againfl the piers of a fouth wall, among
peaches, neiEtarincs, and plums, &c. in which the fruit was
fo fmall and hard as to be unfit for the table. They had
been trained upright, which induced fuch a luxuriance of
growth, as made the fap to flow into the branches in the
place of the fruit. He confequently let, it is remarked, in
1789, two ftrong branches grow to their full length without
topping them in the fummer, and in the following year trained
them in a ferpentine form, leaving about thirty eyes on each
fhoot, which produced one hundred and twenty fine bunches
of grapes, weighing from one pound to a pound and a quarter
each. Every one that faw them faid that the large ones
were as fine as forced grapes ; while the fmall ones pro-
duced from branches of the fame vine, trained and pruned
in the old way, were bad natural grapes, and not above
twice the fize of large currants. And in order more fully
to prove the fuccefs of the experiment, he next year trained
five plants in the fame way, allowing the fhoots intended for
bearing wood to run to their full length in fummer, training
them wherever there was a vacancy between the old trees ;
where there was none, he ran them along the top of the wall,
without topping them. In winter he trained them in a
ferpentine manner, fo as to fill the wall as regularly as pof-
fible ; and they were, it is afTerted, as produftive as thofe
in the former year. And after a three years' trial, he
thought he was warranted to follow the fame praftice with
the whole ; when, in the year 1793, he fent, it is remarked,
for the ufe of his majefty and the royal family, three hun-
dred and feventy-eight ba/kets of grapes, each weighing
about three pounds, without planting a fingle vine more
than there were the preceding year, in which he was able to
fend only fifty-fix bafkets of the fame weight ; and thofe
fo bad and ill-ripened, that he was afhamed of them, as they
were not fit to be fent to the table.

Th?s, he thinks, fufiiciently proves the great advantage
that the ferpentine method of training pofTefTes over the
common method. He advifes, that the fhoots fhould be
brought as near as poffible from the bottom of the vine, that
the wall may be well covered. When the walls are high,
and the fnoots from the ferpentine branches flrong, they are
fometimes let remain ; but if the walls are low, and the
ferpentine branches produce weak fhoots, they are cut out
in the autumnal pruning, and the flrongeft of the young
wood trained up in their room.

It is noticed, that as the fize and finenefs of the bunches
of grapes depend in a great meafure on the bearing wood
b?ing flrong and well ripened, great attention fhould be

paid

VITIS.

puij to thefe circumftances. Where the vines produce
imall bunches, ihey fliould be cut down to two or three
eyes, in order to have ftrong wood for the enfiiing year.
And as it has been feen that vines bear their fruit on the
wood that waj produced the preceding ycai', when there is
a great deal of old naked wood on them, as generally is
the cafe, with fome fmall weak fhoots at tbe extremities,
they fliould always be cut down as near to the ground as
pollible, in which cafe there will be no fruit for that year.
But another mode is fometimes praftifed, which is, to cut
every other (hoot, leaving the old ones to produce fome
fmall grapes ; when in the following year there will be
plenty of fine wood, provided care be taken to nail in the
ilrongeft (hoots, and pick off all the fide-flioots that are pro-
duced from the eyes, pinching them off with the finger
and thumb, or cutting them off with a (harp penknife clofe
to the bud or eye ; but never twifting them ; as by twilling
them, the bud that produces the grapes the next year is
hurt ; being always attentive to cut as near to a Ijud as
pollible, and taking care to lay in the wood very thin in the
fummer feafon, that the fun and air may be freely admitted
to ripen it well, as by thefe means it will grow very ftrong.
Great care (hould alfo be taken to keep the (hoots nailed to
tlie wall, which will prevent their being broken by high
winds ; picking off all the flide-(hoots every time they are
nailed, v.'hich (hculd be done feveral times during the fummer
months, according to the quicknefs of their growth. In
fine weather they grow fo very rapidly, that it is necelTary
to look them over once every fortnight or three weeks to
have them in good order. The vines (hould never be fuf-
fered to run together in a clufter, and mat, as it infalHbly
ruins them for bearing the fucceeding year. The (hoots
that have been trained in a ferpentine manner, are advifed
by Mr. Forfyth to be topped, as foon as the grapes come
to the fize of very fmall green peas, at a joint or two above
the fruit ; but neither the leading flioot, nor that which is
intended to bear fruit the next year, (hould ever be topped.

In the fecond year Mr. Forfyth never recommends the
pruning of vines to be performed till the beginning of Fe-
bruary, except in fuch feafons as are very forward. It is,
liowever, the common praftice with fome to begin pruning
foon after the fall of the leaf, before the wood becomes hard ;
but if a froft fots in before the wood is hard, in particular
after wet fummcrs and autumns, it is apt to be very much in-
jured ; he has frequently feen it almoft killed after autumnal
pruning. And he obfervcs, that there is often fine weather
in the months of Oftober, November, and December, with
fun and drying winds, which helps to ripen the wood after
wet autumns.

It in likewife advifed, when the vine-leaves begin to fall,
10 take a foft broom and fweep them off upwards in a gentle
manner, which will be of great fervice in alFilling to harden
the wood. In beginning to prune in February, it is recom-
mended always to make choice of the ftrongeil and longell
(hoots, leaving tliem as long as the eyes are found good and
plump, and the wood round ; but by no means to leave them
when they become flat, as in that cafe they feldom bear fruit ;
and if they do, it will be very fmall. Mr. Forfyth never
lays in any that has lefs than fifteen, and from th.it to thirty
good eyes, according to the ftrength of the flioot, which
will produce two bunches from every good eye. He Ins
had feventy bunches of grapes from one (hoot. The (hoots
that have borne fruit in the preceding year (hould be cut out
the next year, except where the wall is to be filled and the
(hoots are very (Irong. Plenty of fine healthy young wood
is eafily provided, if care be taken in the winter pruning ;
therefore, none (hould be left but the fine ftrong wood,

cutting conftantly at the fecond, iliird, or l<^u«ti) eye ; rub-
bing the lowed bud off, and that which comes out at llie
joint between the new and laft year's wood. By tlitfe
means as much fruit will, he contends, be procured from
thefe (hort (hoots, as by the common way of pruning. It is
neceflary to leave two or three of the (Irongeft (hoots for
next year's bearing wood, and never to top them. When
there is not room to train them, they may be led over tit*
tops of the other trees, if the vines ire planted ag.iinft
piers ; or be run behuid the ilandards, if there be any, which
is generally the cafe where the walls are high. In this way
aU the wall will be covered, which will have a very beautiful
appearance when the fruit is ripe, befides furnifliing a plen-
tiful fupply of fine grapes. The flioots at the bottom of
the wall may be run behind the dwarf-trees, or be tacked
down over the top of the wall on the other fide where the
walls are lovi'. Mr. Forfyth has had very fine grapes on ealt
and weft walls, in good feafons, between peaches, plums,
&c. particulaily when the trees are young. In thefe cafes
he advifes to keep cutting in the vines as the other trees
grow and fill up the walls. He alfo trains them over the
tops of trees on each fide ; which, he alTerts, liever does
any harm to the trees below, provided they are kept nailed
to the wall. He has alfo planted vines between trees on
north and eaft afpefts, and trained them over the tops of the
fouth and weft walls to fill the upper parts, till the peaches
and ncftarines cover them. He then cuts away part of the
vines, leaving only as many (hoots as he may think neceffary.
Two years ago, he ftates, he removed fome old apricots that
covered a wall about 1 65 feet long, and planted them againlt
a new wall, leaving five vines that were planted againft the
piers. Thefe five plants have, in the courfe of two years,
covered the above wall from top to bottom, and bear plenty
of fine grapes every year. He remarks that he alfo moved
an old vine on a wall near to the above, and cut it in pretty
clofe, when it has in three years fpread twenty-fix yards,
and bears very fine fruit. And againft one of the piers
had, he obferves, been planted a black Hamburgh grape,
and at the other fide of the fame pier a mufcadine, at die
diftance of about two feet from each other ; he pruned
them both according to his method, and the fecond year
alter, they prod ni.«d iioo bunches of fine grapes. It is
added, that he alfo tried an experiment by taking fome
(hoots from a fouth wall, opening the ground deep enough
to lay them in acrofa the footpath at the diftance of about
four leet from the wall, and tied them to (lakes, training
them as efpaliers, laying in the wood as direfted for walls,
and keeping them as low as polfible, that they might not
(hade the bottom of the wall ; he alfo pruned them as he
does thofe againft walls, laying the fiioots in very long, ex-
cept thofe that were intended to bear fruit next year, from
which he took oft' all the fide-fhoots and runners againft the
wall and efpaliers. In a favourable feafon llicfe bear, he
aflcrts, very fine fruit, better than what is got from the walls
by the old method of prniiing.

The ufe of the compofition prepared by him is advifed as
foon after pruning as polFiblc ; for as the vine is very porous,
it foon imbibes the wet and moifturc, which brings it quickly
to decay. He adds further, that if at .^ny time a viae fliould
be cut late in the feafon, it will be apt to bleed much; in
wliich calc the powder fliould be applied, repenting the ap-
plication till the bleeding ftops. He ftates, moreover, that
he cut two ftrong vine-branches in the month of .huir, and
three more in July, in very liot weather, on purpofe to try
the fffeft of the powder in flopping the bleeding. The lap
rofe fo ftrong, that it worked out at the top in a fiolh ; he
applied the powder, which in a Ihorl time entirely ftoppcd

it.

VITIS.

it. Thefe direftions are chiefly for vines on the natural
wall, though tlie fame method has been advifed to be prac-
tifed for forced grapes. The lituations in which they are
placed (hould be towards the fouth, and the earth quite dry
and light.

The above writer ftill further advifes, that after the grapes
are fet and begin to fwell, to water them with the barrow-
engine, fprinkling them all over the leaves and fruit, prefling
the fore-finger over the top of the pipe ; by which the
water can be thrown as fine as fmall rain, which vnll wa(h
all the duft off the vine and leaves, that are frequently co-
vered with it, efpecially where the garden is near a public
road. The infefts fhould likewife be wafhed off the trees.
In fine weather he fprinkles all the wall-trees three times a
week, which keeps them clear from infefts, and promotes
the fweUing of the fruit ; but this operation muft never, he
fays, be performed when the nights are cold and frofty.
The fprinkling of the trees fhould be begun when the fun is
in an oblique direction, or gone off the wall, which may be
about four o'clock on a fouth afpeft ; as by doing it at this
period the leaves will have time to dry before night, and fo
prevent the froll, if there fhould be any in the night, from
injuring them. In very hot and dry weather the trees fhould
have a good bottom watering once a week, which w'lU for-
ward the fwelling of the fruit. Vines require a great deal
of watering ; but when the fruit is fully fwelled, you fhould
leave it oiiF, particularly when the nights begin to get cold,
as it would hurt the flavour of the fruit.

In order to preferve the grapes, as foon as the large fly
makes its appearance, plenty of bottles a little more than
half filled with fome fweet liquor fhould be provided to en-
tice the flies to enter them, where they will be drowned.
The bottles fhould be hung on the nails at proper diftances
all over the vines, and alfo fome of them placed at the bot-
tom of the walls. The blue fly comes much earlier than the
wafp, and is no lefs deftruftive to the fruit. It is therefore
neceifary to hang up the bottles betimes, in order to deftroy
as many of them as poflible before the wafp makes its ap-
pearance, to have the bottles ready for this fecond enemy.

And when the grapes begin to ripen, the birds begin to
attack the fruit ; when it is neceflary to bag fome of your
fine handfome bunches, but to bag them all would be an
cndlefs trouble where there is a full crop and a large garden.
Of courfe where the bunches are very thick, the quickeft
way is, he thinks, to cover the trees with nets, or buntine
(a kind of fluff of which fhips' colours are made), which
will admit a free air to the grapes, and dry foon after rain.
They will alfo in the fpring, he thinks, be a good covering
for the trees in cold, wet, or fnowy weather. The bunches
of grapes fliould always be kept under the fhade of the
leaves till they begin to ripen ; when you may begin to pick
off the leaves which cover the fruit ( leaving thofe a httle
above it to be a flielter from the wet and frofl in the nights) :
this will affifl the ripening of the fruit ; and take off' only a
few leaves at a time, according to the quantity of grapes to
be gathered at once : by thefe means the fruit will continue
tliree times as long in fucceflion as it would if the leaves
were picked off^ all at one time. He has often feen all the
leaves taken off from the fruit foon after it was fet, which
prevents it from fvveUing, and it becomes hard and fmaU,
and generally cracks. When the leaves are not too thick,
they admit, he aflerts, the rays of the fun to pafs through,
and a warm glow of heat will be reflefted from the wall.

Further, it is often convenient to let the grapes hang as
long on the walls as poflible ; he has often let them hang
till the middle of November, only covering them witli nets,
or buntine. But when the froll begins to fet in fliarp,

they fhould then be gathered. Where there are feveral
bunches on one branch it may be cut off, leaving about fix
inches in length, or more, of the wood, according to the
dillance between the bunches, and a little on the outfide of
the fruit at each end ; both ends being fealed with fome
common fealing-wax, fuch as wine-merchants ufe for fealing
their bottles with, which you may buy at the wax-chan-
dler's ; then hang them acrofs a line in a dry room, taking
care to clip out with a pair of fciflbrs any of the berries
that begin to decay or become mouldy, which if left would
taint the others. In this way he has kept grapes till the
6th of February ; but if they are cut before the bunches
are too ripe, they may be kept much longer than that
period.

They may alfo be kept, he contends, by packing them in
jars, (every bunch being firft wrapped up in foft paper,)
and covering every layer with bran, which fhould be well
dried before it is ufed, laying a little in the bottom of
the jar ; then a layer of grapes alternately, till the jar is
filled, then fliaking it gently, and filling it to the top with
bran, laying fome paper over it, and co^'ering the top with
a bladder tied firmly on to exclude the air ; when the top
or cover of the jar fhould be put on, obferving that it fits as
clofe as pofTible, placing them in a room where a fire is kept
in wet or damp weather.

Methods of forcing Vines. — This is performed in different
forts of buildings contrived for the purpofe ; fuch as hot-
walls and vineries, as well as by hot-houfes or ftoves. See
Vinery.

It is fuggefted by the Scotch Forcing Gardener, that in
the former cafes, when the borders have been prepared and
made up in the manner direfted under the head Vinery ;
when proper plants of one or two years' growth in pots can-
not be procured, cuttings (hould be made ufe of. Others,
however, prefer cuttings in all cafes, plaiuing two in each
hole, to guard againft failure, the weakeft, where both grow,
being afterwards removed. Thefe fhould be planted about
the beginning of April, being chofen from good-bearing
vines, and fuch flioots as are well ripened, otherwife they
never make good plants. The diftance they fhould be al-
lowed to remain is about fix feet. In planting them out,
holes (hould be opened with a fpade, about eighteen inches
deep ; the cuttings being laid in the holes a little doping,
the earth being then filled into the holes, and gently preffed
with the foot to them, and raifed in a heap fo as juft to
cover the uppermoft eyes, afterwards applying a little mulch
on the furface of the ground about them to prevent the fun
and air from drying the earth ; and when the fpring is very
dry, a little water fhould be given once a week.

Under this management they ufually make ftrong (hoots
the firll fummer.

But the above writer, where rooted plants are employed,
advifes the pits to be half filled with vegetable mould, and
the plants to be taken carefully out of the pots with their
balls entire, and, unlefs when rooted, be placed in that man-
ner in the pits, filling them in with vegetable mould, and
fettling them with a httle water. This work, in his opinion,
may be performed any time from the beginning of Novem-
ber to the ifl: of March, with equal fuccefs. But though
the above dillance of planting may be proper when the vines
are full grown, it may be beneficial to have them put in
at half that diftance at firfl ; as a crop or two may be ob-
tained before it is neceffary to thin them out ; two of a
kind being placed together for the greater convenience of
thinning.

The management of tlie vines, for the three firfl years
after planting, is the fame as praftifed for thofe againft

common

VI lis.

coMiinDii wallb, which has been defcribed above, being,
liowever, encouraged as much as poffiblc, and the (hoots not
left too long, or too many in number on each root, that
they may be duly ripened and prepared for bearing the
fourth year, which is the foonell they fhould be forced ;
when any forts of fruit-trees are forced by fire too young,
they feldom continue long in health ; fo that what fruit they
produce is fmall, and not well-flavoured. By the middle of
June the grapes will be almoft full grown, therefore the
glaflfes may be kept off continually in the day-time, unlefs
the feafon be very cold and wet, in which cafe they muft be
kept on, and only opened when the weather is favourable ;
for as the racy vinous flavour of thefe fruits is increafed
by a free air, fo during the time of their ripening they fliould
have as large a fhare as the feafon will admit to be given
them. Mr. Nicol advifes in the firft and fecond feafons, to
keep the border in a moderately moifl ftate while the plants
are growing ; but, after their growth begins to abate, par-
ticularly the fecond feafon, to withhold the waterings by de-
grees till it is quite flopped, in order to make them harden
and ripen their fhoots for the produAion of a crop the third
year. Water frequently with the drainings of a dunghill.
And wafh with the hand-engine twice or thrice a week
in the evening, in order to refrefli and keep the plants clean.
Steaming is, he thinks, unneceflary.

And in the third feafon, keep the border alfo in a mode-
rately moift itate, till the fruit begin their lall fwelling.
Then give large quantities till they begin to colour ; after
which, entirely withhold it till the crop is gathered ; and
then give two or three hearty waterings, to recover the ftate
the border ought to remain in for the winter.

He likcwife advifes to wafli twice or thrice a week till
the flowers begin to open, then to withhold till tlie fruit
is fairly fet ; wafhing again till they begin to colour, and
then withhold entirely for the feafon. And in the interim
ot wafliing, to fteam every night when the fire is at the
ftrongeft, by pouring water on the flues till you cannot fee
an objeft at the diftance of two or three yards : and repeat
this early in the morning, if the temperature of the houfe
require the making of fires, or if there is a iufiicient heat
in the flues to produce it, even in a middling degree.

The infefts which infeft the grape-houfe are chiefly the
green fly, thrips, red fpider, and wafp. The two firll are,
Mr. Nicol conceives, eafily deftroyed by a fumigation of to-
bacco ; the third is kept under by the engine in fumnier ;
and the laft, by the dellruftioii of their iicfts, phials filled
with honey and water, or fugar and fmall beer, and bird-
lime. All thefe methods arc, however, lometimes ineffec-
tual for the deftruftion of wafps, where they abound in great
number ; and their fondnefb for grapes renders it fometimes
necelfary to inclofe the bunches in bags of gauze, or filken
paper, which is a misfortune ; as the grapes, by being fo
much excluded from the aftion of tlie fun and air, fall
off" very much in flavour. Birds muft alfo be guarded againft
by fome means or other.

All lorts of grapes fliould continue on the trees till fully
ripe. It is advifed by fome, that thefe vines fliould not be
forced every year, but under good management every other
year, or every third year. Of courfe, in order to have a
fupply of fruit ainiuaily, there fliould be a fnfficient extent
of walling to contain as many vines as are necefl"ary for two
or three years ; and by having tlie frames in front moveable,
they may be fliifted from one part of the wall to anotlier, as
the vines are alternately forced. Thefe hot-walls are com-
monly planted with early kinds of grapes, in order to have
them forward in the feafon ; though fome think it hardly
worth the trouble, in order to have a few grapes earlier by

a month or fix weeks, than thofe againft common wallt.
The forts of vines moft ufeful in this mode of culture have
been mentioned above.

After thefe vines are grown to full bearing, they muft
be pruned and managed after the iame manner as has been
directed for thofe againft common wall?, with this difference
only, that in thofe feafons when they are not forced, they
ihould be carefully managed in the fummer for a fupply of
good wood, againft the time of their being forced, divelt-
ing them of their fruit for the purpofe.

But when the vines are forced, the only care is to en-
courage the fruit, without having much regard to the wood,
fo that every flioot fliould be pruned for fruit, and none of
them fliortened for a fupply of young wood ; as they may
be fo managed by pruning in the years of their refting, as to
replenifli tiie vines with new wood. Thofe which are
defigned for forcing in the fpring, fliould be pruned early
in the autumn before, that the buds which are left on the
flioots may receive all poffible nourifliment from the root,
and at the fame time the fhoots fliould be fattened to the
treillis in the order they are to lie ; but the glaffes fliould
not be placed before the vines till about the middle or end
of January, at which time alfo the fires muft be lighted ;
for if they are forced too early in the year, they will begin
to ftioot before the weather is warm enough to admit air to
the vines, which caufes the young flioots to draw out weak,
and their joints too far afunder to afford a good and full
fupply of fruit.

When the fires are made at the above period, the vines
begin to flioot the middle or latter end of February, which
is fix weeks earlier than they ufually come out againft the
common walls ; fo that by the time that other vines are
fliooting, thefe will be in flower, which is early enough to
ripen them. The fires fliould not be made very ftrong in
thefe walls ; as, if the air is heated about ten degrees above
the temperate point of the gardener's thermometer, it will
be fufficiently warm to force out the flioots leifurely, which
is much better than to force them violently. Thefe fires
fliould not be continued all the day-time, unlefs the weather
be very cold, and the fun does not fliine to warm the air, at
which lime it will be proper to have fmall fires continued
all the day ; for where the walls are rightly contrived,
a moderate fire made every evening, and continued till ten or
eleven o'clock at night, will heat the wall, and warm the
inclofed air to a proper temperature ; and as thefe fires
need not be continued longer than about the end of April,
(unlefs the fpring fliould prove very cold,) the expence of
fuel will not be very great, becaufe they may be contrived
to burn coal, wood, turf, or almoft any other lort of fuel :
though where coal is to be had reafonable, it makes the
evened and beft fires, and will not require fo niucii attendance.
When the vines begin to flioot, they muft be frequently
looked over, to fallen the new flioots to the treillis, and rub
off all dangling flioots ; in doing of which great care muft
be taken ; for the flioots of thefe forced vines are very
tender, and very fubjeft to break when any violence is
offered. The flioots fliould alfo be trained very regular,
fo as to lie as near as poflible to the efpalicr, and at equal
diftances, that they may equally enjoy the benefit of the air
and fun, which are abfoliitely neceffary for the improve-
ment of the fruit. Wlieii the grapes are formed, the Ihoots
fliould be flopped at the fecond joint beyond the fruit, that
the nourifliment may not be drawn away from the fruit in
ufelefs flioots, which muft be avoided as much as poflible in
thefe cafes, no ufelefs wood being left to fliadc the fruit,
and exclude tlie air from it by the leaves.

In fpeaking of the temperature of the vinery, Mr.

VITIS.

Nicol i-ecommends, that fir? (hould not be lighted the firll
feafon, unlefi it proves cold or wet, and the wood is not
ripened in good time ; in which cafe, a moderate fire heat,
from the ift of September, would greatly encourage the
growth, and promote the ripening of the wood. And as
the plants will bear gentle forcing the third feafon, it will
be advifable (for that purpofe) to forward them the fecond
in a moderate degree. For this purpofe, let moderate fires
be made about the ift of April, (by which time the plants
will begin to vegetate,) fo as to raife the air of the houfe at
UK in the morning, and eight at night, to about 55° ; in the
courfc of a fortnight increafe it to 60° ; and in another
fortnight to 70° ; at which let it continue till the ill or
middle of June, and then be totally difcontinued for the
feafon. But in the third feafon, the forcing may com-
mence on the ill of March, without injuring the plants ;
and, if carefully performed, a fair crop of fruit be ob-
ciined. Begin then by making and regulating the fires,
fo that the thermometer may not ftand above 50'' at
feven in the morning, and eight or nine at night ; keeping
it fo till every eye in the houfe is broken, and then gra-
dually increafe it to 60, 6^, 70, and when the bloom begins
to open, to 75 degrees. He has already hinted, that vege-
tation in forcing ought to be brought on as it were by
ftealth ; which is the caufe of his advifing the above gra-
dual and progreffive rife in the climate of the houfe : and
where this is not particularly attended to in the firft ftage
of the operation, difappointments will follow, as the plants
will not break their eyes (and of confequence not fhew
fruit) regularly. He advifes to keep the air of the houfe
as near to 75°, till the fruit is fairly fet, as poflible,
as grapes in general are found to fet beft in a moift heat
of about 75°. But he has found by experience that all
the kinds of frontinacs require a much greater degree of
heat, not only when in flower, but from the time the clullers
are diftinguifhable ; while thofe of the white fvveet-water,
and white royal mufcadines, require a much lefs degree ;
the former being apt to curl up and become llerile for want
of heat, and the latter to produce a greater quantity of
fmall berries in confequence of too much. Therefore,
where there is any difference of climate (which is fometimes
occafioned by the placing of the fire-places) in the houfe,
this hint fhould be taken advantage of. But it may then be
let down tp 70" or 72° ; at which endeavour to keep
it till the crop is all gathered ; after which, no further at-
tention to the chmate is neceflary. It is added, that in the
following feafon, the forcing may, when requifite, be begun
a month or fix weeks fooner ; as about the middle of
January, or ill of February ; in which early feafon great
attention muft be paid to the regulation of the fire-heat.

It is further obferved, that a month may be gained every
feafon (where there are two or three grape-houfes ; audit is
required to have grapes at a very early feafon), until you
begin to force the firft fo early as the ift of Oftober ; but
where there is but one or two houfes, the ift of March in
the one cafe, and of January in the other, is, he thinks,
quite foon enough.

It is advifed in the fame work, that as the feafon ad-
vances, and the weather becomes warm, there fliould be a
proportionable fhare of free air admitted to the vines
every day, which is abfolutely neceftary to promote the
growth of the fruit ; but the glafies fliould be fliut clofe
every night, unlefs in very hot weather, othervvife the cold
dews in the night will retard it. The bunches in fome of
the forts fliould be carefully looked over, and the fmall
grapes cut out with very nanow-poirted fciflbrs, in order to
thin them. Mr. Nicol alfo recommends a due portion of

7

air to be admitted every day after planting, from fun-rife tr»
fun-fet, until the buds begin to break ; after which a more
punftual regulation fliould be obferved, being guided much
by the temper,ature of the weather, and the quantity of fun-
fliine, but admitting lefs or more every day, unlefs the
leverity of frofty winds renders it i.Tiprudent to do fo.
And as the fummer advances, to be very liberal in thi?
article in ferene weatlier ; as it greatly tends to the
firengthening of the young ftioots. It is, he thinks, a ■
praftice with many to uncover grape-houfes in winter ; this
he never did, not fo much dil approving of the praAice, as
owing to the expence attending it, not only in removing
and putting on, but in breaking the glafles, and walling the
flues by the extremes of froil and blanching rains. His
method is to admit an equal and free circulation of air, by
opening the falhes alternately at top, bottom, and middle,
to the extent of at leaft a third part of the whole covering,
and letting them remain fo day and night ; never ftiuttiug
up for any caufe but that of too much wet. In the fecond
feafon, much the fame regulation fliould be obferved as
above ; and, if fire is applied for the forwarding of the
wood, due attention fhould be paid at that time, as the
fudden breaking out of the fun in dull weather, when there
is a good deal of fire-heat in the houfe, is attended with
much danger. Suppofing the plants to have made good
wood for the produftion of a crop, and that they are to be
forced from the ift of March, let tiie houfe be fliut up at
night from the middle of February, and have the fame quan-
tity of air in the day it enjoyed all winter. From the time
the fire is lighted, give a moderate quantity every day if
poflible, till the buds have all broke, to the extent that in
fun-fliine the therm.ometer may not rife more than ten
degrees above the fire-heat medium ; but after the buds
have broke, and the temperature of the houfe is increafed,
be careful in the admiffion of frofty, or foul damp air.
The latter may be entirely excluded, except perhaps for an
hour or two in the middle of the day ; and the bad effefts
of the former, by opening the top fifties only a httle way,
to pafs off the rarefied air occafioned by the fun-heat,
which is frequently very intenfe in clear frofty weather in
the months of March and April. In clear fun-fliining
weather, his mode of pradlice is to give and take away air
by degrees ; that is, by giving half air about eight in the
morning, full air about ten or eleven, reducing to half air
about two or three, and fliutting up about four or five in
the afternoon, according to the feafon. It is neceflary from
the time the fruit begins to colour, to give large portions of
air till the crop is all gathered, the flavour being much aug-
mented by it ; and afterwards to expofe the houfe night
and day for the winter, as direfted above ; fhutting up, how-
ever, if much wet or hard froft fhould happen during the
firft ten or twelve days after the plants have been pruned for
the winter feafon.

In the latter mode of forcing, or that in hot-houfes or
piiie-ftovcs, after they have been properly prepared and
rendered dry in the bottom parts, the area fliould be filled
up with a compoft-mould compofed of one-fourth ftrong
loam ; one-fourth turf, from a pafture where the foil is a
fandy loam ; one-fourth fweepings or fcrapings of pave-
ments or hard roads ; one-eighth rotten cow and ftable-
yard dung mixed ; and one-eighth of vegetable mould
from decayed oak-leaves : the grafs muft be well rotted,
and the whole worked together till it is uniformly mixed.
Where -fandy loam cannot be had, common fand may be
ufed ; and the mould of rotten fticks or old woods, or from
hollow trees, may be fubftituted for the decayed leaves.

When the border has been prepared, if the weather per-
mit

VITIS.

init, ths vines may be planted at the end of February, or
tlie beginning of March, in the front of the hot-houfe or
ftove ; ha\-ing firft taken the precaution to put a httle mofs
round the upper part of each ftem, with two or three folds
of paper oyer it, tied with bafs matting, to prevent the eyes
from being injured in putting the plants through the holes
in the wall. A hole, two feet over, and one foot deep,
Ihould be made oppofite to each rafter, and clofe to the
front wall, making the mould taken out of the holes fine,
and adding a little of the compoft. Then turn the plant
carefully Out of its pot, and put the upper part through
the hole. If the (hoot juft reach the bottom of the rafter,
when planted, it is fufficient ; but as the earth may fettle a
little, it is better to allow two or three inches more. In
clofing the mould to the plant, care (hould be taken to pre-
ferve the roots, their fibres being exceedingly brittle. Lay
a thin coat of rotten dung over the mould, and give the
plant a gentle watering ; then take off the bandage, and
fallen the top of the (hoot to the rafter. Only one (hoot
(hould remain on each plant. Two may be left for a time ;
but when one is fccure, the other muft be taken off, but not
clofe to the old wood, as that would occafion it to bleed,
and greatly injure it.

It is obferved in addition, that from the time the vines
begin to grow, they will require conilant watering, efpe-
cially in dry weather, and before the roots have penetrated
fufficiently deep into the border or earth in which they are
planted. It is the common praftice, in thefe cafes, to train
a (hoot up to each rafter ; and if the rafters be nut a fuf-
ficient depth to keep the leaves of the vines from touching
the glafs, to have iron pins, of about nine inches in length,
fixed at proper diftances under each rafter ; which (hould
have a fmall hole or eye at the bottom, through which a
fmall iron rod or ftrong wire (liould be thrull for the
fupport of the branch, which pins or wires (hould be
painted.

Mr. Forfyth, however, remarks, that when vines are
trained ftraight up the rafters in this manner, they only
throw out a few eyes at the top, the reft of th> branch
being naked ; he therefore advifes the fcrpentine method, as
much preferable.

Tiie plants often (hew fruit at one year old, but it (hould
not be fuffered to (land, except a fmgle bunch, to afcertain
the fort. In the fummer feafon, the (hoots fhould be con-
flantly trained, keeping them regularly fadened to the
rafters ; diverting them of their wires and lateral (hoots,
and guarding them well againft the red fpider and other
ii>fcfts.

The vines may in general be fuffered to run two-thirds of
the length of the rafters before they are ftoppcd ; and thofe
which grow remarkably ftrong, the whole length. When
thefe (hoots are (lopped, which is done by pinching off
their tops, they will, in general, pu(h out laterals, at three
or four eyes on the upper part of tlie (hoot, which (liould
be allowed to grow twelve or fourteen inches before their
tops are pinched off; when thefe in their turn will pu(h
out other laterals, wliicli (hould be pinched off at the fecond
or third joint ; and thus the fap may be diverted till the
end of the feafon.

When the leaves begin to fall is the bed feafon for
pruning. In the (ir(l feafon, fuppofing the vines to have
grown v/ith equal vigour, the (hoots may be pruned al-
ternately to three, four, or five eyes, or about twenty feet ;
but when they have grown moderately ftrong, the (hoots
ftiould be pruned down to about eleven feet ; as by this al-
ternate pruning the former (hoots will make fine wood for
the fuccceding feafon, and the latter will produce a crop of

Vol. XXXVII.

fruit ; after which, U)efe fruit-bearing (hoots mutt all be
cut down nearly to the bottom of the rafters. But whea
any of the plants appear weak, and have not made (hoots
more than eight, ten, or twelve feet long, it will be proper
to prune every (hoot down to two, three, or four eyes. In
performing the work, the (hoots (hould be taken off with a
clean (loping llroke, about half an inch above the eye,
making choice of a bold eye to terminate the (hoot, and
faftening it to the rafter in a complete manner.

The vines in pine-ftoves begin to make weak (hoots early
in January ; the houfe being then kept warm on account
of early crops railed in moft hot-houfes. But when it is
kept to a proper degree of heat for pines during the winter
months, they feldom begin to pu(h till about the middle of
February. It is ufual for them to pulh only towards the
ends of the (hoots, the other eyes remaining in a dormant
ftate, and caufing a long fpace of naked wood ; but to
make them pufli nr.ore generally, as foon as the fap io in
motion, the houfe (hould be kept for a (hort time a few
degrees warmer than ufual. In the morning the ther-
mometer (hoidd be five or fix degrees above temperature, and
in the day-time the houfe be kept as warm as the weather
will permit. It will alfo be neceffary to guard the ftem of
the vine on the outfide againft froft ; for one fevere night
would greatly injure, if not totally deftroy, the hopes of a
crop. This may be done by wrapping tlie part expofed
round with mofs, faftened thick witli bafs matting ; which
covering (hould remain on till fpring frofts are over, and
then the ftem be walhed well to clean it. The vines (hould
be divefted of the leaft promifing and fupernumerary (hoots
as foon as poffible, and great care (hould be taken not to
leave too abundant a crop ; as a few bunches in a high ftate
of perfeftion are preferable to many in a poor ftate.

At the time of flowering, (liould the weather prove hot
and dry, with bride winds ; to prevent the berries of dif-
ferent forts from falling off at the time of their fetting, it
is proper to water the roots of the vines plentifully, to keep
the houfe as clofe as the weather will permit, and to water
the walks and flues in the hot-houfe conllantly, efpecially
late in the evening, when the glaffes (hould be immediately
clofcd, by which u beneficial fort of dew is produced.

In thefe fituations, when the grapes are at their laft fwcll-
ing, are becoming tranfparent, and change from green to
red or black, and till they are nearly on the point of being
ripe, plentiful fupplies of water, efpecially if the feafon
prove hot and dry, (hould be given to the vines.

After the fruit is cut, no other management is required
till the pruning feafon, but that of taking off the lateral
(hoots in the fame manner as in the preceding cafe. But in
the next winter's pruning, all the vines that produced a full
crop of fruit fliould be cut down nearly to the bottom,
that is, to the lowermoll fummer fiioot, which (hould alfo
be cut down to the firit or fecond eye ; while all thofe that
were cut down nearly in the preceding feafon, and which
will, in general, have made very ftrong wood, muft be left
to the length of twenty-one or twenty-two feet each, with
the intention of producing a full crop of fruit the follow-
ing feafon.

The management of them during the next fummer will
be nearly the fame as in the preceding ; only, as they have
incrcafed in ftrenglh :uid fi/,e, they will bo enabled to pro-
duce and fupport a larger burthen of fruit. But the crop
(hould always he proportioned to the (i/.e and vigour of the
plants } but whilll they are young, great moderation ftiould
be ufed as to the number of bunches that are allowed to
ftand and ripen. They (hoiild be well thinned when the
berries arc about tiie fi^c of a fmall (hot. And the maia
P p (houldcrj,

VITIS.

fhouldCTS, as alfo the lefs proje£ling parts of the bunch,
fhould be fufpended by fmall firings to the rafters, and
every part raifed to a horizontal pofuion. In thinning the
berries, great care (hould be taken to leave all the moll pro-
jefting ones on every fide of the bunch. In very clofe-
growing bunches, it will be neceflary to clip out more than
two-thirds of the berries ; in fome one-half ; but in the
•oofe-growing kinds, one-third is generally fufficient. By
this means the remaining berries will fwell well, grow to a
great fize, and not be fubjeA to rot ; as they are apt to do
in a hot-houfe, when they are wedged together in a clofe
manner.

It is obferved too, that not only the rafters or roof of the
hot-houfe, but the back wall alfo above the flue, may be
furniflied with fruit. For this purpofe, let every fourth or
fifth vine-plant be trained in one fhoot quite to the top of
the rafter, and then direiiled fideways ten or twelve feet
along the top of the back wall. At the winter's pruning,
bring down the part of the fnoot perpendicularly, and cut
it off at one foot above tlie top of the flue. The next
fpring encourage only two fhoots from the two extreme or
lowermoil eyes of each ftioot fo brought down, and train
them in a horizontal direftion one foot above the top of the
flue. Thefe flioots, however, will grow with greater readi-
nefs, if they are trained upwards during the fummer ; and
they may eafily be brought to the defired poCtion at the
next winter's pruning. They will then form againft the
back wall the figure of the letter T inverted. And in the
next feafon the horizontal Ihoots will produce new wood
from almoil every eye, provided all the fhoots be pinched off
from every other part as foon as they appear ; laying in the
(hoots from one to two feet apart, according to the kind of
vine. And it is advifed in thefe cafes, to train all the
fhoots in a perpendicular direttion, and, provided they are
flrong and vigorous, to fuffer them to grow to the length
of five or fix feet before they are Hopped ; but all thefe
muil be cut down to two or three eyes at -the next winter's
pruning. And only one flioot (hould be permitted to rife
from each tpur the following feafon ; and though they will
in general be fufficiently ftrong, and produce two or three
bunches a-piece, yet only one bunch ihould remain on each
fhoot : thefe will then be large and fine, and the wood will
be greatly benefited by fuch pradilice. But thefe Ihoots
mull be pruned next winter very differently. One Ihoot
mull be left four feet, that next it only a few inches long,
and fo alternately. It is added that the vines on the rafters
will require a management in future feafons nearly fimilar to
tliat delcnbed above ; and though it may not be advifable
to prune them alternately fo near to the bottom of the raf-
ters as was direfted for the two preceding feafons, it will be
frequently found neceffary to cut an old fhoot down to the
lowermoft fummer fhoot, as near to the bottom of the rafter
as can be. The fide-fhoot on the other rafters fhould not
be permitted to ramble over the adjoining lights ; but at
the end of every feafon it will be proper to cut fuch Ihoots
down to the fecond or third eye next the old wood, pro-
vided the bottom eyes are bold and ftrong : this muft be
done not only to ftrengthen the vines, but alfo to prevent
the roof of the houfe from being too much crowded with
old wood. Whilft the vines are young, one rafter will fuf-
fice for a vine-plant ; but when they become older, they will
require a larger fpace ; efpecially the ftrong-growing kinds,
which produce large leaves and bunches of fruit. It will
be proper therefore to train flioots fideways on the wall-
plate, from the flem of the plant, immediately at its en-
trance into the houfe. Thefe fhoots fhould be carried up
the adjoining rafters, and the plants growing againft fuch
4

rafters muft be taken entirely away j except it fhould hap-
pen that the plant growing againft fuch rafter is trained
forward to furnifh the back wall. And when a vine-plant
occupies two or more rafters, it will be right to prune oc-
cafionally, particularly whilft the vine is young, one or morV
of fuch fhoots down nearly to the bottom of the rafter, as
this will not only contribute to ftrengthen the plant, but
afford means to furnifh the rafters with a lucceffion of young
wood. When the fhoots are thus condufted to different
rafters, every one may be confidered as a feparate plant, and
be trained up in one (hoot ; requiring management fimilar
to that mentioned above. Mr. Nicol, however, rejetls the
method cf planting the vines on the outfide of the houfes,
and his reafons are thefe : firft, he thinks it unnatural that
one part of a plant fhould be as it were in Greenland, and
the other in the Weil Indies ; and fecondly, becaufe he is
convinced that no plant (efpecially the pine) will live and
thrive as well under the fhade of another, as when expofed
to the free fun and air. To obviate thefe objeftions, he
plants the vines in the lobbies between the ftoves and peach
and grape houfes ; introducing them through the partitions,
and training them horizontally on trelhfes fixed againft the
back walls and upright fafhes in front. By which means
he renders each of the ftoves as good as any grape-houfe,
without being in the leaft injurious to the pines.

In thefe cafes, he ftates that the front walls of the
lobbies were built on pillars ; and a border, both without
and within, prepared for the plants, in the fame manner as
for the grape-houfe. It is added, that in one trial, tlie
fecond year after introduftion into the ftove, the plants
completely filled the whole trellis ; and a fine crop, the
third year, gave a luftre and richnefs to the houfe ;in con-
juniftion with a good crop of pines ) highly gratifying.

He remarks farther, that the fame methods in regard of
watering, wafhing, and fteaming, are to be praftifed here
as in the grape-houfe. Air is admitted folely for the fake,
and to anfvver the nature, of the pines ; the temperature of
the houfe is alfo regulated for their fakes. But the mode
of training and pruning is very different from that in the
grape-houfe. Here, you have it not in your power to
bring on vegetation in that How manner as in the grape-
houfe ; and confequently, were the Ihoots to be laid in at
as great lengths, they would only break perhaps a few
eyes at the extremities, and the reft remain naked. This
he found from experience to be the cafe ; although it did
not happen for the firft three or four years, owing to the
youth and vigour of the plants : but when they had ex-
haufted themfelves a little by bearing a few crops, they
began to break their buds in the manner above ftated. He
therefore made it a praftice to train them only to five or fix
feet in fummer, and fhorten them dow-n to one or two in the
pruning feafon ; by whith they generally broke all their
eyes, and produced plenty of fruit. He further ftates, that
in one houfe he tried, for two feafons, to produce crops by
laterals ; but found that method attended with more incon-
veniency than the above, from the difficulty of procuring a
proper fucceffion of ftrong fhoots to produce the laterals,
without which they bear very infignificant clufters. He
alfo, in the other houfe, produced a ft'cond crop, for two
feafons ; but finding it to exhauft the plants very much, he
difcontinued it ; the more efpecially, as, having fo many
compartments for grapes, the praftice of it was the lefs
neceffary. The method is, he remarks, this : juft about
the time the fruit is half ripe, and when the under part of
the fhoot is alfo ripe to the length of about two or three
feet, and the extremity of it in a growing ilate, fliorten it
at about two or three feet above the ripe part. It will pufh

again,

VITIS.

a^rain, and will generally biiag two clufters. Sometimes,
alio, the fecond and third eye will pudi, and bring a clufter
or two. In winter pruning, (horten down the firft, or
fpring-made part of the fhoot, to two or three feet. This
method may be repeated, he thinks, with pretty good fuc-
cefs once in two or three years : but, if done every year, it
will (in the courfe of three or four years) occafion the cut-
ting of the plants down to the ground, in order to make
them put forth a frcfh (lock of wood. He adds, however,
that in the event of fevere froft, and the plants being in an
early ftate of vegetation, the border on the outiiJe (hould
be covered with a quantity of ftable dung, or long litter,
to prevent the roots from being injured by tlie weather.
And unlcfs the plants are wiflied to produce a fecond crop,
they mull not be pruned for good fooncr than Oftober, and
at the fame time, that operation (hou'd not be deferred longer
than the firft week of November, left, when they begin to
vegetate, they (hould bleed. He concludes by obferving,
that grape-vines will bear forcing, and laft for many years,
when under judicious management.

Some ufeful remarks have lately been oflFered, by the
writer of a paper in the fecond volume of the Tranfaftions
of the Horticultural Society of London, on the manage-
ment of the grape in forcing-houfes, in the view of improv-
ing the quality of the fruit. There are fome circumftances
attending the ftate of vegetation in forcing-houfes, it is faid,
which are not fufRciently regarded by gardeners in general,
a ftrict attention to which is, however, abfolutely indif-
penfable for obtaining good fruit of this fort. When a vine
is planted in a forcing-honfe, it receives, it is faid, an in-
creafe of warmth from the folar influence operating upon
the coniined internal air, or from artificial heat communi-
cated by the flues, or conjointly from both thefe fources.
In each fuch cafe, when the foliage is expanded, a large
portion of moid vapour is, it is maintained, given out from
the under fides of the leaves, and becomes mixed with the
air in the interior of the houfe. Plants will not only live,-
but grow with greater rapidity than ordinary, in a moift at-
mofphere, if tlie moifture do not exceed certain bounds.
Under thefe circumllances, however, the annual (hoots be-
come large, foft, and fpongy, and the fruit, notwithftand-
ing it may have a promifing appearance, will prove watery
and infipid. A dry atmofphere produces effefts, it is faid,
the reverfe of thefe ; the growth in this cafe is flower, the
wood is of a more compaft texture, and the fruit, when it
.trrives at maturity, attains a rich faccharine flavour.

The flavour of the fruit fecms, therefore, it is thought,
to depend, in a great meafure, on the quantity of water
daily evaporated from the leaves. Hence the fuperior
ftrength of the wines made in the warm dry province of La
Mancha, in Spain, when compared with thofe of Portug.il.
It is from this caufe too, it is fuppofed, that vines growing
on the fides of mountains, in the fouth of Europe, where
they experience more ventilation, yield richer grapes, and
make better wine, than when cultivated in the neighbouring
valleys ; though in the latter fituation, they experience
greater warmth, and the fruit arrives fooner at maturity.
Many forts of common fruit, capable of bearing tlic open
air, on (landard trees here too, have it of much better
flavour, though of inferior fize, than when trained to a wall,
owing to the more perfeft cxpofure of the leaves and fruit
to the effefts of light and ventilation. There is rcafon to
fuppofe, it is thought, that the injury fome varieties of
grapes, habitants of warm dry countries, fullain in the hot-
houfes here, during a contiimancc of damp and cool cloudy
weather, is owing to the accumulation of water in the veflels
of the leaves and green fruit, as the writer has frequently

remarked, that an increafe of ventilation, during fuch i
ftate of the atmofphere, will often prevent the injury, par-
ticularly if a little warmth be given at the time by the flues.
Perhaps, inftead of the deep rich compofts in wliich vines
are commonly planted, if a light foil, of from eighteen to
twenty inches in depth, mixed with ftones, or old mortar
rubbifli was ufed, the fuccefs would be better with the prin-
cipal fummcr and autumnal crops of grapes. Vines planted
in a foil of this fort will not, it is thought, grow with fuch
exuberant vigour ; and that as lefs water will pafs into the
plants through the abforbent veflels of the roots, the vines
will probably receive lefs injury in moift cloudy weather,
and the fruit will be better flavoured.

When vines arc intended to be forced in the 'winter
months, they require to be planted in a deep and rich com-
poft, which fhould be well drained, for the furface of the
foil is then fo much chilled by froft, and melting fnow, as
to prevent the vigorous aftion of the roots.

The effefts of ground heat too have been noticed in
houfes properly conftrufted for fnpplying it. In the early
part of the month of February, the natural temperature of
the foil, at the depth of thirty inches, is commonly, it is
faid, about 42° by the thermometer. If the lieat of the
ground be then railed to 45°, the vines in the courfe of two
days begin to bleed ; and when the temperature is gradually
railed to 50°, the buds open with as much vigour, as when
the forcing is commenced under ordinary circumllances at
the latter end of March, when the natural warmth of the
ground, owing to the increafed excitability of the plant, is
fully fufficient.

Forced grapes may be brought to a tolerable degree of
perfeftion, it is faid, at almoft any feafon of the year, but
in this climate they cannot attain their true flavour, unlefs
they are ripened in the fummer or autumn, when the tem-
perature of the external air is fuch, as to admit of much
ventilation, without danger of cliilHng the vines. It is faid
that experienced gardeners need not be informed of the ne-
cefTity of keeping up a regular warmth during the time the
vines are in flower, and till the fruit is fet ; it is, however,
a common error, it is believed, which many fall into in the
long days of fummer, that of clofing the hghts of the iiot-
houfes they manage too foon in tlie evening, and not open-
ing them fufficiently early in the morning. In the writer's
management, it is the praftice, in general, to leave feveral
of the upper lights open about tivo or three inches all night,
from the beginning of July until the middle of OAober,
which prevents that fuftocating degree of clofenefs and
mufty fmcll, occafioncd by the aftion of the light on the
leaves and condenfed water on the inner fide of the glafs.
The flavour of the ripening fruit is greatly improved by
allowing this ftagnant vapour to cfcape, and the grapes may
by this method be kept from rotting many weeks longer.
It is faid that in the hands of a judicious gardener, the liy-
gromcter will be found as ufcful an appendage to the liot-
houfe for grapes as the thermometer. A due degree of
moifture during the night, in the early ftagc of the growth
of the plant, accompanied at all times with dry warmth and
ventilation in the day time, is a very elTcntial matter to be
attended to ; as alfo tlie avoiding of all artificial inoillure,
by fprinkling the floor of the lioufe, either in the day or
night, in the latter llage when the fruit is ripening. See

VlNlCHV.

The fame method of management is equally applicable
and ufeful for fever;d other forts of fmit, luch as tnofe of
the peach and fig kinds, and many others.

Uefides thefe modes of cultivating vines, they are capable

of being grown with advantages luider hand-glafftJ, fo as to

P p 2 produce

V I T

V I T

produce a few bunches on each plant. This metliod is now
praAifed in many cafes, and found to be very eafy and
convenient.

The fecond fpecies requires artificial heat in this climate,
and may be increafed from feeds, obtained from abroad,
which fhould be fowii in fmall pots, and be plunged into a
hot-bed of tanner's-bark. When the plants come up and
are fit to remove, they fhould be each planted out into a
feparate fmall pot filled with light earth, and plunged into a
frelh hot-bed, (hading them from the fun till they have taken
new root ; when they muft be treated in the fame way as
other tender exotic plants, always continuing them in the
ftovc, otherwil'e they will not fucceed well.

The third {hould be planted againft a wall, and treated in
the fame way as the common vine, being raifed by cuttings
or layers in the fame manner.

The fourth fort is preferved in fome gardens for variety ;
but it rarely produces flowers in this climate, and has not
much beauty. It is increaftd by laying down the young
branches in the fpring, which moftly put out roots in one
year fit to remove, when they may be taken off and planted
out where they are to remain. Thefe require fupport ; and
as their young branches are tender, and liable to be kiUed
by froft, they fhould be planted againft a wall, or pale, ex-
pofed to the fouth. Tlie young (lioots fhould be fhortened
down to two or three buds in the fpring, which will caufe
the /hoots of the following fummer to be much llronger.

VlTis Idaa, in Botany. See VACClNfUM.

VITISALTUS, a word ufed by fome medical writers
for St. Vitus's dance.

VITMANNIA, in Botany, fo named by Vahl, in honour
of the Rev. Fulsjentius Vitman, profefTor of Botany at
Milan, author of a kind of Species Plantarum, entitled
Siimma Plantarum, in 6 vols. 8vo. — Vahl Symb. v. 3. 51.
WiUd. Sp. P). V. 2. 320. Mart. Mil!. Dia. v. 4. (Sa-
madera ; Gaertn. t. 156.) — Clafs and order, OSandria
Monogyn'ia. Nat. Ord. akin to Gutlifera of Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fhort, in
four rounded concave lobes. Cor. Petals four, oblong,
equal, obtufe, flefhy, rather concave, externally hoary,
many times longer than the calyx. Netlary a imall obovate
fcale at the bafe of each filament, two oppofite ones fkorteil.
Stam. Filaments eight, thread-fiiaped, rather fhorter than
the petals, fmooth ; anthers linear, (lightly cloven at the
bafe. Pifi. Germen fuperior, of four half-orbicular, com-
preiTed, flightly connefted, lobes, three of which appear to
be generally abortive ; ftyle central, awl-fliaped, the length
of tiie filaments ; ftigma acute. Per'ic none ? Seed. Nut
femllunar, comprefTed, of one cell, with a folitary obovate
kernel.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Petals four. Neftary a
fcale at the bafe of each filament. Nut crefcent-fhaped,
comprefTed, with one feed.

I. V.elliptka. Oval-leaved Vitmannia. Vahl as above,
t. 60. (Samandara; Herm. Zeyl. 5. Linn. Zeyl. 202.)
— Native of Ceylon. A tree, with round, fmooth, leafy
branches. Leaves alternate, on fhort ftalks, elliptical, ob-
tufe, entire, coriaceous, fmooth, with one rib, and many
fine, tranfverfe, branched veins. St'tpulas none. Flowers
in long-ftalked lateral umbels, about the ends of the
branches. Petals not an inch in length. Nut various in
fize, from two to four inches long, fliarply two-edged,
curved, at firft defcribed by Plukenet in his Mantijfa, p. 12,
as a fort of bitter almond. He has milled other authors to
cite Rheede's Nagam, Hort. Malab. v. 6. 37. t. 21, which
is Heritiera, a very different plant. See that article.

VITODURUM, in Ancient Geography ^ a town placed
I

by the Itin. of Anton, between VindomifTa or Windifcu
and Fines or Pfin, which, without doubt, was Wintertur.

VITOSCHA, in Geography, a mountain of European
Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the borders of Romania, at the
foot of which are fome warm baths.

VITRAGO, in Botany, a fpecies of plants, refembling
that of which the glafs is made. It is otherwife called
helxlne.

VITRE', in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrift, in the department of the lUe and Vilaine ;
19 miles E. of Rennes. N. lat. 48° 8'. W. long. 1° 9'.

VITREA Tabula, a name given by fome authors to
the internal table of the cranium.

VITRESCIBLE, or Vitrifiable, formed of vitrum,
glafs, is a denomination applied to all ftones which, joined
to alkaline ialts, can form glafs. In the lalt century,
thofe ftones, which had before been called vitrefcible, were
called fihceous by Mr. Pott, and after him by Mr. Cron-
ftedt. See Stone.

VITREUS Humor, or Vitreous Humour, in Anatomy.
See Eye.

For the office of the vitreous humour, fee Vision.

VITREY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Saone ; 6 miles W. of JufTey.

VITRIACO, Philippus de, in Biography, is men-
tioned with great encomiums by early writers on counter-
point. We found a traft of his writing in the Vatican
library, N° 5321, of which we obtained a copy. He ii
the reputed inventor of the minim, and a compofer of
motets, which have been very much celebrated by old
mufical writers. His name very frequently occurs in an-
cient authors, particularly in England, v here he has been
commended both in verfe and prof;. " William Cornifh,
chapelman to the moft famofe and noble kynge Henry VII.,
in a parable between Trouth and Informacion, publiflied in
Skelton's works, i2mo. 1736, names him among the
greateft muficians upon record.

" And the firfl principal, whofe name was Tuballe,
Guido, Boice, John de Muris, Vitryaco, and them al."

An anonymous Latin writer in the Cotton mufical manu-
fcript (Brit. Muf. ) fays he invented the minim, and was
a mufician univerfally approved and celebrated in his time.
The author of the manufcript in the Bodleian hbrary, attri-
buted to Thomas of Tewkefbury, fays the fame. Morley,
Ravenfcroft, and Butler, are of this opinion ; and Morley
tells us, that he ufed red notes in his motets to imply a
change of mode, time, and prolation. Vitriaco, however,
makes no mention of fuch in his traft on counterpoint ; and
his motets, if they could now be found, fuch is the tran-
fient Hale of mufic, would be utterly uninteUigible ; though
Morley tells us, that " they were for fome time of all others
befl etieemed and moft ufed in the church." See Motet.

VITRICIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the Alps, on the route from Italy into Germany, by the
Graian Alps, between Eporedia and Augufta Prxtoria,
Anton. Itin.

VITRIFICATION, or Vitrifaction, the aft of
converting a body into glafs, by means of fire.

Of all bodies, fand, flints, and pebbles, with alkali.ne
falts, vitrify the moil eafily : accordingly, it is of tiiefe that
glafs is principally made. See Glass.

Gold held, by M. Homberg, near the focus of the duke
of Orleans's large burning concave mirror, at firft fmoaked,
then changed, all of it that did not go off in fumes, into
glafs of a deep violet colour. This glafs of gold weighs lefs
than gold. Memoirs of the Royal Academy, 1702.

-\11

V I T

V I T

All mrulsi, and even almoit all natural boilics, Sufficiently
iiiatcd, vitrifv ; and this vitrification is tlie lall elTeft of the
lire : after which, tlie molt intenfe heat of the largclt burn-
ing-glafs will make no fartlicr alteration.

VITRING, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Ca-
rinthia, with an abbey of Ciilertians, on the Wordtfee ;
4 miles S.W. of Clagenfiirt.

VITRINGA, Campegius, in Biography, an eminent
Dutch divine, was born at Lecwarden in the year 1659,
and educated firft at Frankfort, and afterwards at Leyden,
where he took his doftorial degree in 1679. I" l^^O he
was admitted to the miniftry, and in the fame year became
profeffor of the Oriental languages at Franeker. In 1682
he was promoted to the chair of theology ; and in 1693, to
that of facred hiilory, in the fame univerfity. An apo-
pleftic ftroke terminated his life in 1722. He was the
author of many learned works in theology and fcriptural
hiftory ; of which one of the mod efteemed is his " Ob-
fervationes Sacras, Lib. VI." 4to. Francf. 1683, and two
vols. 4to. 17 1 2. But his moft learned work is his " Com-
mentary on I laiah," in two vols. fol. Leeward. 1714-1720.
Vitringa had two fons, Horace and Campegius, cut off at
an early age. The former, who died at 18, publifhed fome
animadverfions on the work of Vorltius on the Hebraifms
of the New Teilament. The latter, who died in 1723 at
the age of 3 1 , was profcfTor of theology at Franeker, and
publifhed leveral works, one of which was " A Summary
of Natural Theology." After his deceafe was pubhdted a
colleftion of " Several Dilfertations" on criticifm and theo-
logy. Moreri.

VITRIOL, Native, in Mineralogy, is a fubftance of
greyilh or yellowifh-white, apple or verdigris-green, or {l<y-
blue colour ; and when decompofed, covered with an ochrey
cruft. It occurs in mafs, difleminated, ilalaftical, and ca-
pillary. Externally it is rough and dull ; internally it is
more or lefs fhining, witli a vitreous or filky ftrudture. Its
fradture is generally fine and ftraight fibrous, fometimes alfo
lamellar and conchoidal. It is foft, brittle, and tranducent,
and has an acerb metallic flavour. It is more or lefs foluble
in water, and is a mixture in various proportions of the ful-
phate of iron, copper, and zinc. It is not unfrequeiitly
foimd in caverns and fliafts, in argillaceous fchiftus, and in
old mines, efpecially fuch as abound in blende and pyrites.
Aikin.

Some take the word vilriolum to be ufed qitaft vitri oleum,
becaufe of its fhining colour ; but Menage rather derives it
a vitreo colore : the Latins call it atramettium futcrium ; and
the Greeks, chakanthus.

It acquires different names, according to the different
places where it is dug ; and the vitriols of thofe alfo differ
from each other in denomination and colour ; fome being
lulite, others blue, and others green.

Roman and Cyprus vitriol, for inftance, is blue ; and
that of Sweden and Germany, commonly called Englifli
vitriol, is green ; befides which there is alfo a white kind,
called Goflar vitriol.

Vitriol is very commonly called by the manufafturcrs
copperas ; accordingly, we conflantly hear of green, blue,
and wliite copperas. The conllituent parts of the different
kinds of vitriols were not underftood by the ancients fo well
as they are at prefent : they feem to have had an idea, that
copper was tlie bafis of thera all : hence the Greek term for
vitriol, chakanthus, the cfflorefcence of copper, and the
Latin one, cuperofa or cupri rofa, the flower or elflorefceiice
of copper ; from which, fays Dr. Watfon, the French
roupernfe, and our copperas, ;irc evidently derived. See
CAllULfSI.

Some moderns lake the chahilis, or chalcanlhum of the
ancients, which they fuppofed to be a native vitriol, that
had acquired, according to their opinion, its full pcrfeftion
in the entrails of the earth, and which is a kind of mineral
Hone, of a rcddifh colour, to be the fame witli that chal-
cauthum brought from Svveden and Germany ; the beft of
which is of a brownifh-red colour, and a vitriolic talte, and
diilolvcs eafily in water ; and when broken, is of the colour
of fhining copper. See Vitriolic Minerals.

The vitriols which nature prepares are never to be met
with in commerce ; they fcrve to adorn the cabinets of the
curious, but tlicy are neither fuificiently pure for the pur-
pofes to which common vitriols are applied, nor .ve they
found in fufficicnt quantities to nnfwer the demand which is
made for them.

ViTiiioL, in Chemiftry, is a term that is now applied to
every combination of the acid of fulphur with any metallic
fubftance : three of thcle combinations, however, are more
particularly diftinguilhed, being of great ufe in various
manufactures ; viz. green vitriol or fulphate of Iron (which
fee), blue 'vitriol ox fulphale of copper (fee Copper and Cop-
peras ) , and ivhlte -vitriol or fulphate of zinc. ( See Zinc. )
The acid in all thefe vitriols is the fame ; the metallic bafis
of the green vitriol is iron, that of the blue vitriol is copper,
and that of the white vitriol, zinc.

According to the analyfis of fir Torbern Bergman,
(ElTays, by Cullen, vol. i. p. 180.) 100 parts of blue
vitriol, or vitriolated copper, cryilallized, contain 26 of
copper, 46 of vitriolic or fulphuric acid, and 28 of water.
According to Kirwan, 100 parts contain 30 of real acid,
27 of copper, and 43 of water. The talle is acefcent, xtu-
ginous, and cauHic ; it calcines in heat ; one part, in a mo-
derate heat, re(Juirc3 nearly four parts of water, but much
lefs of boiling water. Of white vitriol, or vitriolated /inc,
100 parts contain 20 of zinc, 40 of vitriolic acid, and 40 of
water. According to Kirwan, 100 parts contain 22 of
•icid, 20 of zinc, and 58 of water. In a moderate heat,
one part requires more than two of water, but much lefs of
boilnig water. Its tafte is acefcent, aflringent, and cauftic.
Of green vitriol, or vitriolat'.d iron, lOO parts contain 23 of
iron, 39 of vitriolic acid, and 38 of water. According to
Mr. Kirv/an, 100 parts of it, recently cryflallized, contain
20 of real acid, 25 of iron, and 55 of water. In moderate
heat, one p.irt requires fix of water, but three-fourths of
boiling water. In heat it fplits into a yellow powder ; in
the fire, into a ferruginous powder. The tafte is acefcent,
ftyptic, and cauftic.

Grten vitriol is often met with native in our coal-mines.
From an old canncl coal-pit, near Wigan \n Lancafhire,
Dr. Walfon procured a confiderable quantity of it, very
well cryftallized ; and Dr. Rutty has obferved, that the
vitriolic water at Haigh, in Lancafliire, is the ftrongefl in
Britain, yielding 1920 grains of vitriol from a gallon of
water. See Vitrkjlic IValcrs.

The green -vitriol, or fulphate of iron, commonly cilled
Englifh vitriol or copperas, and the Roman vitriol of the
Italian writers, is prepared at Deptford, near London, and
many other places, from m.^rtial pyrites, which is a native
fulphuret of iron, and is found in abundance on Sheppey
ifle, the ifle of Wight, and various other parts of the Elfex,
Kcntifh, Suffex, and Dorfetfhire coafts. Bv expofing this
to the air in large beds, oxygen is abforbed ; the fulphur
becomes fulphuric acid, and the new-formed fait is feparatcd
by wafliing, &c.

Much after the fame manner vitriol is made from the py-
riler. found among coal : there are manufaftories of it '^ear
Wi^an, at Wiiiichavcn, at Newcaftk-upoii-Tyue, and in

fereral

VITRIOL.

lev£i-al other parts of the khigdom. But all the vitriol
works have funk in value of late years ; the home confump-
tion of vitriol being much diminifhed, fmce the acid, which
ufed to be procured from the diftillation of vitriol, has been
obtained from the burning of fulphur. For the ancient and
modern method of obtaining this acid, we refer to the article
Sulphuric Acid.

It is not eafy to determine when this method of making
vitriol was introduced into England. In the beginning of
the reign of queen Ehzabeth, a patent was granted to Cor-
nehus Devoz for making alum and copperas ; but it was
not till towards the end of the 17th century, that this art of
making vitriol was brought to fo great a perfeAion as to
enable us to export any of it ; and indeed Dr. Campbell
( Surv. of Brit. vol. ii. p. 21.) affures us, that at tlie latter
end of the 17th century we imported annually about five
hundred tons of vitriol, and that we now export upwards of
two thoufaud tons. It appears from lir Charles Whit-
worth's Regifter of Trade, N^ i, that there were exported,
from the port of London alone, near four hundred tons of
copperas in three months, in 1776. A fmall quantity of
vitriol, perhaps to the annual amount of ii.*^ty or fixty tons,
fays Dr. Watfon, is ftill imported into England ; fome par-
ticular dyers, and other artifts, being of opinion, that the
foreign vitriol, as containing a little copper, is more ufeful
to them than the Englilh vitriol. It may be eafily known
whether green vitriol contains any copper, by only rubbing
the vitriol to be examined upon a moiftened piece of poli(hed
iron ; for if there is any copper in its compofition, the iron
will be changed into a copper colour.

Vitriol is alfo prepared from mineral waters that hold
copper in folution, which is precipitated by iron : this folu-
tion of iron is afterwards cryftallized, and always retains
fome copper. In Hungary it is prepared from pyritaceous
fchillus, and in many places from a fpecies of calamine ; the
vitriol of Collar commonly contains a portion of zinc, as
that of Hungary and Saxony does of copper ; the Englifh
and French vitriols are purer, and yet fometimes contain a
fmall proportion of alum. Turt and peat are fometimes
impregnated with vitriol ; other earths alfo often contain
vitriol and alum. This vitriol is fometimes found of a white
colour, on the borders of the mineral lakes of Tufcany.

Pure vitriol of iron is confiderably tranfparent, of a fine
bright, though not very deep, grafs-green colour ; of a
naufeous, aftringent tafte, accompanied with a kind of
fweetilhnefs. Difiblved, and fet to cryftallize, it flioots
into thick rhomboidal maffes, a part generally nfiiig at the
fame time in efBorefcences about the fides of the veffel.
Tlie folution depofits, in Handing, a confiderable quantity,
and in boiling a much larger one, of the metalhc bafis of
the vitriol, in form of a rufty calx or ochre : iron feems to
be the only metallic body that thus feparates fpontaneoufly,
in any confiderable quantity, from the vitriohc acid. On
expofing the vitriol itielf to a moift air, a fimilar refolution
happens on its furface ; which, fooner or later, according
as the acid is more or lefs faturated with the metal, changes
its green to a ruity hue. In a warm dry air, it lofes a part
of the phlegm or water, necefTary to its cryllalhne form,
and falls by degrees into a white powder. Expofed to a
gentle fire, it liquefies and boils up ; but foon changes, on
the exhalation of the watery part that rendered it fluid, to a
folid, opaque, whitifh, or grey mafs : this pulverized, and
Drged with a flronger fire, continues to emit fumes, becomes
yellow, being the •vitrwlum calcinaltim of the London and
Edinburgh Difpenfatories ; afterwards red, and at length
turns to a deep piirplilh-red calx, called colcolhar of •vitriol,
aiid the chalcitis jfaditia of the Paris Pharmacopoeia, revivable

by inflammable fubftances into iron. This colcothar was
formerly fold at Paris for ten-pence a pound, and ufed for
giving the laft polifli to plate-glafs, at the great manufaAory
in the ftreet St. Antoine. The plate of glafs, when firft
caft, is an inch thick ; its afperities are ground away with a
coarfe kind of gi-it-ftone, with fand and emery, of different
degrees of finenefs, and it is at laft poliftied by colcothar.
Dr. Watfon fuggefted to the proprietors of the plate-glafs
manufaftory, near Prefcot, in Lancaihire, and to the pa-
tentees for polifliing marble, at Aftiford, in Derbyftiire,
that colcothar, which is very cheap, might perhaps render
the ufe of putty, or calcined tin, lefs neceffary. From the
colcothar of vitriol is prepared the ens -vsneru.

From the green vitriol the vitriohc acid, now called ful-
phuric acid, has been generally extra&ed ; by diftilling the
calcined ritriol in earthen long necks, with a ftrong fire con-
tinued for two days or longer ; though it is now moftly ob-
tained by colleiting the vapour of burning fulphur.

The diftiUcd fpirit appears of a dark blackilh colour,
and contains a quantity of phlegm, greater or lefs, according
as the vitriol has been lefs or more calcined. On committing
it a fecond time to diftillation, in a glafs retort placed in a
fand-heat, the phlegmatic parts rife firit, together with a
portion of the acid, and are kept apart under the name of
fpirit, or weak fpirit of vitriol, fpiritui vilrioH tenuis of the
London Difpenfatory : at the fame time, the remaining
Jirong fpirit, or oil, as it is called, lofes its black colour,
and becomes clear ; in which ftate it is the acidum vitriolicum
of the Edinburgh Difpenfatory, and the fpiritus vitriolifortis
of that of London ; and this is the ufual maiik for difcon~
tinuing the redtification.

The College of Edinburgh now direfts a weak vitriolic
acid of more certain itrength, made by mixing one part of
the ftrong acid with feven parts of water : this is called
acidum vitriolicum tenue, vulgo fpiritus vitrioli tenuis. See
Sulphuric Acid.

Blue vitriol, or vitriol of copper, is commonly called
Roman or Cyprian vitriol, or blue-Hone. After being long
expofed to the air, it degenerates into a mixture of blue and
rufty yellow. It requires about four times its weight of
water to diflolve it in the temperature of 60^. Its fpecific
gravity is about 2.23. This fait rarely occurs cryftallized,
but is often found naturally diflblved in water, in Hungary,
Sweden, and Ireland ; from which water blue vitriol is
generally prepared, by evaporating the water to a proper
ftandard ; after which it is let out into coolers, where it
(hoots into regular and beautiful cryftals of a rhomboidal
form. See Zimext Water.

It is alfo occafionally extracted from fulphurated copper
ores after torrefaftion, by the application of water, or
waflied out by rain or fubterraneous waters. Mr. Cronftedt
fays it is feldom free from iron and zinc. If a piece of
clean polifhed iron be dipped into the folution of this fait,
it will almoft immediately be covered with a cupreous coat :
this, together with the deep blue colour arifing from mixing
it with a volatile alkah, difcovers its bafis ; as its uniform
mixture with other vitriolic falts does its acid. Hence it
alfo appears, that the acid of vitriol has a greater affinity
with iron than with copper, becaufe it quits copper to unite
itfelf with iron. This faft explains, in a very fatisfaftory
manner, the nature of that tranfmutation of iron into copper,
which was formerly confidered as a perplexing phenomenon.
Agricola fpeaks of waters in the neighbourhood of Newfol,
in Hungary, which had the property of traiiimuting the
iron which was put into them into copper. In the year
1673, °'^'" countryman. Dr. Brown, vifited a famous copper-
mine at Herrn-Grundt, near Newfol ; and he informs us,

that

VITRIOL.

tliat he there faw two fpriiigs, called tlie old and new Ziment,
which turned iron into copper. The iron in this cafe is
taken up by the water, and remains fufpendcd in it, in the
place of the copper : fo that this tranfmutation is notliing
but a change of place ; and as the copper is precipitated by
the iron, fo the iron might be precipitated by pot-afh, or
any otlier fubllance which has a greater affinity with the
acid of vitriol than iron has.

The caufe of the impregnation of tliefe copper waters
in Germany is not difficult to be explained. Moll copper-
ores contain fulphur, and when the fulphur is in any degree
decorapofed, its acid unites itfelf to the copper, and forms
blue vitriol, which is the fubllance witli which the waters
iffuing from the copper-mines are impregnated. The copper
contained in thefe waters has been for fome centuries col-
lefted in Germany, by putting old iron into pits filled with
the coppery water ; and thus the iron is diffolvcd, and the
copper is precipitated, and being raked out in the form of
mud, it is afterwards melted into very fine copper. The
quantity of copper procured by an hundred tons of iron
amounts fometimes to ninety tons, and feldom to lefs than
eighty -four. Of late years fome fuccefsful attempts ot
this kind have been made in England and Ireland. See

COPPEK.

In the Ifle of Angkfey, near Paris mountain, which
abounds in copper ore, the water in which the roailed ore
is waflied is fo llrongly impregnated with copper, that they
have found it ufeful to adopt tlie German method of pre-
cipitating it by means of old iron, and they have obtained in
one year near a hundred tons of copper, precipitated from
this water. The water, after the copper has been pre-
cipitated by means of iron, is at prefent thrown away ;
whereas, by ev.aporation, it would yield green vitriol ; and
as above a hundred tons of iron mud be employed in ob-
taining the forementioned quantity of copper, Dr. Watfon
fuggefts, whether a manufadlory of green vitriol might not
be eilabliflied at this and at all other places where copper is
obtained by precipitation. One hundred tons of iron
would yield, at the lead, two hundred tons of vitriol, which,
at the low price of 3/. per ton, would defray the expence of
extradtnig it ; more efpecially as the watery folution might
be evaporated bv a proper application of part of that heat,
which is now loll in all the great fmelting houfes.

The greatelt part of the blue vitriol, now met with in the
(hops, is prepared in England, by artificially combining
copper with its fulphur or its acid. The method ot making
the preparation by the glafs-makers is this : Take httle thin
pieces of brafs, and lay them ilratum fuper ftratum in a
crucible, with powder of brimRone. When the vefLl is
full, fet it luted and covered in an open wind-furnace, with
burning coals over it, and let it ftand two hours ; then let
the furnace cool of itfelf, and take out the crucible, the
mafs within will be of an obfcure blackifli-purple ; powder
it and fift it fine, and then- mixing with every pound of it
fix ounces of powdered brimiloiie, take a round vefFcl of
earth, that will bear the fire, place it upon iron bars fet
acrofs in an open wind-furnace, fill it with coals, and then
put in the powder ; keep it burning and ftirring about till
all the brimllone is burnt up ; then take out the pan, and
powder the calcined mals again ; fift it fine, and proceed
with it thrice as before ; tlie laft time let it Hand on the fire
till it becomes red. Put a pound of this calcined cupper
into a glafs body, with fix pints of water ; evaporate two
pints or thereabout in a fand heat ; the water is tlien of a
fine blue, and mull be poiireJ off clear ; then filtrate it.
Evaporate the water from tlie remaining ftdiment of copper
left in the glafs, and with new fulphur calcine it ag<iin and

ag.ain ; repeat this five or fix times, and extraA the blue
tinfture with water as before ; filtrate aU the waters, and
put them together. Evaporate all to a fifth part, or there-
abouts, and let it in a cool place, and fine pointed cryftals
will be formed, refembling emeralds ; feparatc thefe cry Hals
and evaporate the water again, till all the cryftals be pro-
cured. Then put a pound of them into a glafs retort, well
luted, and fitted to a capacious receiver ; let the joints be
well clofed, and make a modenite fire for four hours ; then
make it violent for twenty hours, or till no more white fumes
arife. The next day open the receiver, and leparate the
liquor into a glafs, where it muft be kept carefully fealed
up. Neri's Art of Glafs, p. 50.

Very great things are to be done in the glafs art by means
of this liquor ; the remainder in the retort expofed to the
air for a few days, will acquire a blue colour, and this,
mixed with zaff"cr, will give glafs a fine fea-green. The
vitriol of copper is of an elegant fapphire blue colour ;
hard, compaft, and femitranfparent ; when perfectly cryilal-
hzcd, of a flattidi, rhomboidal decahedral figure ; in talle
extremely nanfeous, fl;yptic, and acrid. Expofed to a
gentle heat, it firil turns white, and then of a ycllowi(h-red
or orange colour ; on increafing the fu-e, it parts, difficultly,
with its acid, and changes at length to a very dark red calx,
reducible, by fufion with inflammable fluxes, into copper.

Some writers hold vitriol to be the root or matrix of
copper ; becaufe, in the copper-mines, they never dig
deeper than the glebe, out of which the vitriol is drawn.
For the ufe of blue vitriol in medicine, &c. fee Vitriol, in
AIiYilcine.

The luhke •vilriol, or vitriol of zinc, is found native in the
mines of Godar, fometimes in tranfparent pieces, more
commonly in white efflorefcences ; which are diflolved in
water, and cryilalUzed into large irregular mafles, fome-
what refembling fine fugar ; it is alfo found dilfolvcd in
mineral waters, and generally with fome proportion to the
vitriol of iron and copper : it is in talle fweetifli, naufeous,
and ftyptic.

It has been difputed, whether white vitriol is any thing
elfe than green vitriol calcined. But it feems that white
vitriol is of a quite different fpecies from either the green or
the blue vitriols. Geoffroy, Mat. Med. torn. i. p. 124.

In the condition in which white vitriol is ufually bought,
it contains fomewhat both of copper and iron ; but being
purified by folution, filtration, and cryllallization, it is freed
from both thefe metals, and appears to be a native vitriol
fur generis. See Cramer, Elem. Art. Docim. vol. i. p. 302.
ed. 2. Med. Efl". Edinb. Abr. vol. ii. p. 472.

If tour ounces ot alum be put in concodlion with two
parts of cadmia tolfilis pulverized, the earth of the alum
precipitates, and its acid takes hold of the earth of zinc, fo
that a true white vitriol is the rtlult.

This vitriol being precipitated by an alkaline ley, and
dried, after its falts are feparated in water, and then mixed
with charcoal-dull, will give zinc.

The fame thing happens in mixing vitriol of iron with
two or three parts of lapis calaminaris ; but the operation
is eafier with alum and vitriol of copper. Marggraaf, in
Mem. de I'Acad. de B rliii, 1746.

The white vitriol requires little more than twice its wciglit
of water to didblve it in tiie temperature of 60" ; its fpecific
gravity is about 2.000. It mixes uniformly with vitriolic
neutral falts, but precipitates nitrous or marine felenites Irom
their lolutions, which afcertains its acid principle ; it is
itfelf precipitated whitilh by alkalies and earths, but not by-
iron, copper, or zinc, which fufficiently indicates its bafis :
if it contains any other metallic principle, tills may be pre-
cipitated

VITRIOL.

cipitated by aiding more zinc, esc;pt iron, which will of
itielf precipitate by expofure to the air, or feoihng in open
air. That in common ufe is moftly prepared at Goflar,
from an ore which contains zinc, copper, and lead, mine-
ralized by fulphur and a little iron : the copper ore is firfl:
feparated as much as poffible, and the refiduum, after torre-
faftion and diftillation, is thrown red-hot into water, and
lixiviated : it is never free from iron.

The common white vitriol of the (hops contains a quan-
tity of ferruginous matter ; of which, in keeping, a part is
extricated from the acid, in an ochrey form, lo as to tinge
the mafs of a yellow hue. On diffolving the whiteft pieces
in water, a confiderable portion of ochre immediately fepa-
rates : the filtered folution, tranfparent and coloarlefs,
becomes again turbid, and yellow, on being made to boil,
and depofits a frelh ochrey fediment ; and a like feparation
happens, though much more (lowly, on (landing without
heat. Hence, when the folution is evaporated to the ufual
pitch, and fet to cryftaUize, the cryftals generally prove
foul ; unlefs fome frefh acid be added (as an ounce of the
ftrong fpirit or oil of vitriol to a pound of the fait) to keep
the ferruginous matter diflTolved : this addition fecures the
vvhitenefs of the cryftals, and prevents their becoming foon
yellow in the air. White vitriol generally contains alfo a
fmall portion of copper diftingui(hable by the cupreous (tain
which it communicates to polifhed iron immerfed in folulions
of it, or rubbed with it in a moift (late. The quantity of
copper is, indeed, very fmall, and may, if it be thought
necelTary, be feparated by boiling the folution for fome
time, along with bright pieces of iron, which uiU extricate
all the copper : by continued or repeated codlion, the
greateft part of the ferruginous matter may alfo be lepa-
rated. For the ufe of white vitriol in medicine and furgery,
fee Vitriol, in Medicine, infra.

VlTKiOL, in Medicine and the y^its, has various applica-
tions and ufes. White vitriol is fometimes given, from five
or fix grains to half a drachm and more, as an emetic, and
appears to be one of the quickeft in operation of thofe that
can be employed with fafety. Its chief ufe is for external
purpofes, as a cooling rellringent and deficcative : a dilute
folution of it, as fixteen grains in eight ounces of water,
with the addition of fixteen drops of weak vitrolic acid, or
the aqua •vitrioitca of the Edinburgh Difpenfatorv, is an ex-
cellent collyrium in defluxions and (light inflammations of
the eyes ; and, after bleeding and purging, in the more vio-
lent ones. A folution of it with alum, in the proportion of
two drachms of each to a pint of water, called the aqua
aluminofa Bateana, is ufed as a repellent fomentation for
fome cutaneous eruptions, for cleanfing foul ulcers, and as
an injeftion in the fluor albus and gonorrhoea, when not ac-
companied with virulence. This vitriol is fometimes like-
wife employed as an errhine, and faid to be a very effeftual
dilTolvent of mucous matters ; in which intention it is re-
commended, in the German Ephemerides, agaiuft obilruc-
tions of the noftrils in new-born infants. See Zinc.

Blue vitriol, like the other preparations of copper, a£ls,
in dofes of a few grains, as a mod virulent emetic. Its ufe
is chiefly external, as a detergent, efcharotic, and for re-
ftraining haemorrhages ; for which la(l intention a (Irong
ftyptic hquor ufed to be prepared in the (hops, and called
aq:ja vitriolica c^rulea. Blue vitriol has of late been con-
fiderably employed as an emetic by fome praftitioners ; and
is faid to be by no means an unfafe one, as it operates the
inftant it reaches the (lomach, before it has time to injure
by its corrofive quality. The peculiar advantage in ufing
it is reprefented to be, that it has no tendency to become
alfo purgative, and that its aftringent power prevents tlie

tone of the (lomich from being impaired after vomiting with
it. It is much recommended in tiie early (late of tubercle*
in the lungs ; and the following method of exhibitioji
direfted. (See Simmons on the Treatment of Confump-
tions, p. 70. ) Let the patient firll fwallow about half a
pint of water, and immediately afterwards the vitriol, dif-
folved in a cupful of water. The dofe may be varied
according to age, conftitution, &c. from two grains to ten,
or even twenty ; always taking care to begin with fmall
ones. After the emetic is rejefted, another half pint of
water is to be drunk, which is likewife fpeedily thrown up,
and this is commonly fufficient to remove the naufea. In
ftill fmaller dofes, the blue vitriol has been much ufed by
fome as a tonic in intermittents, and other difeafes. See
Copper and Sulphate of Copper.

Pure green vitriol is in no refpedl different from the arti-
ficial Sal Mortis ; which fee. It is one of the mod certain
of the chalybeate medicines, fcarcely ever failing to take
effeft where the calces, and other indilToluble preparations,
pafs inaftive through the inteftinal tube. It may be con-
veniently given in a liquid form, largely diluted with aqueous
fluids: two or three grains, or more, dilfolved in a p'.nt or
quart of water, may be taken in a day, divided into different
dofes. This vitriol is ufed alfo, cfpecially when calcined,
as an external ftyptic : the ftyptic of Helvetius, and, as it
is faid, that of Eaton, is no other than French brandy im-
pregaated with the calcined vitriol : a drachm of the vitriol is
commonly direfted to a quart of the fpirit, but only a mi-
nute portion of the drachm difTolves in it. (See Styptic.)
As French brandy has generally an aftringent impregnation
from the oaken cades in which it has been kept, the vitriol
changes it, as it does the watery infufions of vegetable
aftringents, to a black colour ; but makes no fuch change
in fpirituous liquors that have not received fome aftringent
tinfture. See Iron, Si;lphate of Iron, and Tinxture.

The acid of vitriol, or fulphur [ fulphuric acid^, largely
diluted, is the moft falubrious of all the mineral acids. It
is mixed with watery jnfufions, fpirituous tindtures, and
other liquids, as an antiphlogiftic ; as a reftringent in hiE-
morrhages ; and as a ftomachic and corroborant in weak-
neffes, lofs of appetite, and decays of conilitutions, accom-
panied with (low febrile fymptoms, brought on by irregu-
larities, or fucceeding tlie fuppreffion of intermittents by
Peruvian bark. In feveral cafes of this kind, after bitters
and aromatics of themfelves had availed nothing, a mixture
of them with the vitriolic acid has taken effeft : the form
commonly made ufe of is that of a fpirituous tinflure ; fix
ounces of oil of vitriol are dropt by degrees into a quart of
redified fpirit of wine ; the mixture digefted for three days
in a very gentle heat, and afterwards digefted tor three days
longer with an ounce and a half of cinnamon, and an ounce
of ginger ; this is the elixir vitrioli of the Edinburgh Difpen-
fatory. Or, a pint of an aromatic tinfture, drawn with proof
fpirit, is mixed with three ounces of the ftrong acid, fo as to
form the acid elixir of vitriol of the late London Difpenfatory :
thefe liquors are given from ten to tliirty or forty drops, in
any convenient vehicle, when the (lomach is moft empty.
(See Elixir.) A mixture of oil of vitriol with fpirits of
wine alone, in the proportion of one part of the former to
three of the latter, digefted together for fome time, has
been ufed in France as a reftringent in gonorrhoeas, female
fluors, and fpittings of blood, under the denomination of
aqua RabtlUana, and eau de Rabel. The acid of vitriol, di-
luted with water, has been given internally with great fuc-
cefs in the itch. It was firft ufed for this purpofe in the
Prufllan army in 1756, and has fincebeen much employed in
feveral parts of Germany. The dofe recomrocuded is from

aA

VITRIOL.

an eighth to a fourtli of a drachm of the pure acid twice or
thrice a day. It is faid to fucceed equally in the dry and
moil! itch ; and when given to nurfcs, to cure both them-
felves and their children.

When oil of vitriol, and reftified fpirit of wine, are long
digefted together, or diltilled, a part of the acid unites with
the vinous I'pirit into a new compound, very volatile and in-
flammable, of no perceptible acidity, of a ftrong and very
fragrant fmell, and an aromatic kind of talle : this dulcified
part, more volatile than the reft, feparatcs and rifes firft in
diilillation, and may thus be collefted by itfelf. The Col-
lege of London direfted thh Jpiritus vltrioli dulcis to be made
by cautioudy and gradually mixing a pound of oil of vitriol,
and a pint of reftified fpirit of wine, and fetting them to
dillil with a very gentle heat : that of Edinburgh ordered
the fame quantity of the oil of vitriol to be dropt into four
times as much of the vinous fpirit, and the mixture to be
digefted in a clofe veflel, for eight days, previoufly to the
diftillation, with a view of promoting the coalition of the
two ingredients. The different proportions of the acid
fpirit to the vinous, in thefe prefcriptions, make no material
variation in the qualities of the produft, provided the diilil-
lation be duly conduced ; for the fmalleft of the above pro-
portions of acid is much more than the vinous fpirit can dul-
cify, and all the redundant acid remains in either cafe behind.
The true dulcified fpirit rifes in thin fubtile vapours, which
condenfe upon the fides of the recipient in ttraight ftris ;
thcfe are fucceeded by white fumes, which form either irre-
gular ftriat, or large round drops like oil ; at the firft ap-
pearance of which, the procefs is either to be ftopped, or the
receiver changed. The fpirit which thefe fumes afford, very
different from the dulcified one, has a pungent acid fmell,
like the fumes of burning fulphur : on its furface is found a
fmall quantity of oil, called thefweet oil of vitriol of Hoff-
man, of a ftrong, penetrating, and very agreeable fmell,
readily diffoluble in fpirit of wine, to a large proportion of
•which it communicates the fmell andtafte of the aromatic or
dulcified fpirit. The College of Edinburgh, in order to fe-
curc agaitdl any acidity in the dulcified fpirit, ordered it to be
reftilicd, by mixing it with an equal meafure of water, in
every pint of which a drachm of fait of tartar has been dif-
folved, and drawing off the fpirit again by a gentle heat.
This College, in their laft Pharmacopeia, have manifeftly
(hewn how little they conceive the acid to enter as a confti-
tuent part of this preparation, and at the fame time have di-
refted an effeftual method of preventing its prefence in it.
1 hey order the acidum vilriolicum •ulnofum, vulgo fpiritus vi-
Irioli dulcis, to be made by fimply mixing one part of vitriolic
ether with two of reftificd fpirit. See Sulphuric Ether,
and Spirit of Ether.

This fpirit, taken from ten to eighty or ninety drops,
ftrengthens the ftomach and digellivc powers, relieves flatu-
lencies, promotes urine, and, in many cafes, abates fpafmo-
dic ftriftures, and procures reft. It is not effentially dif-
ferent from the celebrated mineral anodyne liquor of Hoff-
man ; to which it is frequently, by the author himfclf, di-
refted as a fubftitute. Sec Liquor mineralis anodynus, Ethe-
real Sf\v.vr, and Compound Hpimr of Elher.

The dulcified fpirit is fonictimes ufed as a mwiftruum for
certain refinous and bituminous bodies, which are more diffi-
cultly and languidly afted upon by pure vinous fpirits. It
is often mixed with aromatic and ftomachic tinfturcs, in cafc»
where the ftomach is too weak to bear the acid elixirs above-
mentioned : eight ounces are commonly added to a pint of
the officinal aromatic tinfture ; or the ingredients of the
aromatic tinfture are infufed in the dulcified acid, inftcad of

Vol. XXXVII.

common rcaified fpirit, in order to form the fweet elixir of
vitriol. A medicine of this kind was formerly in great
efleem, under the name of Figoni's volatile elixir of vitriol,
prepared by macerating, in feme dulcified fpirit of vitriol,
free from acidity, a fmall quantity of mint-leaves carefully
dried, till the fpirit has acquired a fine green colour : and to
prevent the neceffity of filtration, during which the more vo-
latile parts would exhale, the mint may be fufpended in the
fpirit in a fine cloth. If tlie dulcified fpirit, redified from
a folution of fixed alkaline fait, be fhaken with equal its
quantity of a like folution, and the mixture fuffered to reft,
an ethereal fluid rifes to the furface, and great part of the
dulcified fpirit may be recovered again from the remainder
by diftillation. Dr. Hadley obtained the largeft portion
of ether, by ufing the ftrongeft vitriolic acid of the (hops
with equal its quantity, by meafure, of fpirit of wine, and
diftilling immediately by a heat fufficient to make the mixture
boil. By this management, from three pints of oil of vi-
triol, and fix pints of redified fpirit of wine, he obtained
two pints and a half of the ether.

The vitriolic acid faturates a larger quantity of fixed
alkaline falts than any of the other acids, and diflodges from
them fuch other acids as have been previoufly combined with
them. Of the ftrong fpirit, or oil of vitriol, about five
parts are fufficient for eight of the common vegetable fixed
alkalies. The neutral fait thus obtained is of a bitterifti
tafte, very difficultly foluble in water, and fcarcely fufible
in the fire : in fmall dofes, as a fcruple, or half a drachm, it
is an ufeful aperient : in larger ones, as four or five drachms, a
mild "cathartic. This fait has been commonly prepared with
the alkali obtained from tartar, and hence called vitriolated
tartar, and fometinies fal enixum, and arcanum dupltcatum.
Some dilute the oil of vitriol with fix times the quantity of
warm water, and drop into it a folution of the alkaline fait
till no effervefcence cnfues : others ufe vitriol in fubftancc,
which being diffolved in boiling water, any alkaline fait,
gradually fuperadded, till the effervefcence ceafcs, abforbs
the pure acid, and tlirows down the metallic bafis of the
vitriol : one part of the alkali is nearly fufficient for two of
the vitriol.

With the mineral fixed alkali, this acid forms compound
falts of a more bitter tafte, fomewhat lefs purgative, and much
eafier of folution, than that with vegetable alkalies: with
volatile alkalies, a very pungent ammoniacal fait, whofe me-
dicinal effefts are not well known. The ftrong acid, boiled
on argillaceous earths to drynefs, corrodes a portion of them,
and concretes with them into an auftcre ftyptic fait. Calca-
reous earths it does not diffolve into a liquid ftate, but may
be combined with them, by precipitation from other acids,
into an indiffoluble concrete, fcemingly of no medicinal
aAivity. Among metallic bodies, it diffolvcs zinc and iron
readily j copper, filver, quickfilver, lead, and tin, very dif-
ficultly : it is fitted for aAing on the two firft by dilutioa
with three or four times its quantity of water: the others
require the undiluted acid, and a heat fufficient to make it
boil ; when, the more phlegmatic parts exhaling, fo much
of the pure acid matter remains combined with the metal* as
to render them, in part at leaft, diffoluble in water.

The principal u(e of green vitriol is in dyeing, and in the
making of ink. When the vitriol is diffolved in water, tlic
iron contained in it becomes black by the addition of an in-
fufion of gall-nuts. Mr. Lemery, the younger, in order to
account for tliis blacknefs, imagines, that as the vitriol, of
which ink is made, is iron diflolved by an acid, and inti-
mately mixed wnth it, and as galU arc an alkali or abforbent,
this alkali, meeting the acids which hold the iron diffolved,
Q q unitM

V I T

unites with them, and makes them fet the iron loofe ; which
thereupon revivifies, and refumes its natural blacknefs : fo
that in ftriftnefs we write with the iron.

In the Swedifh Tranfa6tions, vitriol is recommended as a
yellow for houfe-painting : quicklime, made into a pafte
with water, is to be diluted with a folution of vitriol, more
gr lefs, according as the colour is required deeper or lighter :•
the mixture appears of a blueifh-green colour, and does not
become yellow till it is dry. One part of vitriol is faid to
go as far as two of the dearer yellow ochre. This fait is
alfo recommended for preferving wood, as particularly the
wheels of carriages, from decay : when all the pieces are fit
to be joined together, they are direfted to be boiled in a fo-
lution of vitriol for three or four hours, and then kept for
fome days in a warm place to dry. It is faid that wood by
this preparation becomes fo hard and compadt, that moifture
cannot penetrate it. For the ufe of vitriol in agriculture,
^e Sulphate of Iron. See on the fubjeft of the preceding
articles, Neumann's Chem. Works, by Lewis, p. 173, &c.
Watfon's Chem. Eff. vol. i. eff. 6. Lewis's Mat. Med.
art. Vitrwhm. Bergman's Eff. vol. i. p. 180, &c. Kir-
wan's Elem. of Mineral, p. 189, &c.

Vitriols, Metallic. All metals, it is to be obferved, may
be converted into vitriols, by diffolving them with acid
fpirits, and letting them ftand to cryilallize.

FaSitkus vitriols, being only metals diflblved and cryftal-
lized in faline menftruums, are frequently called, by way of
diftinction, metallic vitriols, znA metallic falls .

Vitriol of Ccbali is found native in fmall pieces, mixed
with a greenifh elHorefcence, in cobalt mines : it is difficultly
foluble in water ; and both it and its folution aie red, which
fufficiently diftinguifhes its bafis. Its acid is known by the
fame tafte as that of the other vitriols.

Vitriol of Iron, Vitriclum Martis, is a preparation made
by diffolving iron, or fteel, in oil or fpirit of vitriol ; then eva-
porating or drawing off the moifture, and bringing the mat-
ter to cryftallize, by fetting it in a cool place. This is alfo
called yi/ martis, or fait of fleel.

Vitriol of Lead. See Lead.

Vitriol of Luna, or the Moon, is the name g;\-en to a
fait with a metallic bafis, called alfo Vitriol of Silver ;
which fee.

Vitriol of Nickel is found native, eiBorefcing on kupfer-
nickel, and generally mixed with vitriol of iron. This is
difficultly foluble in water : both it and its folution are of a
green colour. See Nickel.

Vitriol of Quiclfilver, the name of a chemical prepara-
tion of quickfilver, with acid fpirits, the procefs of whiuh is
this : let fo rich a folution of quickfilver be made in fpirit of
nitre, or aqua fortis, that no more can be contained ; let this
folution be made by the affiftance of heat, and the liquor im-
mediately afterwards poured off into a clean and cold glafs.
There will, on this, fpontaneoudy fhoot on the bottom of
the glafs a faline, white, tranfparent matter, from which the
liquor being poured, it is found to be a (harp, moift, faline
fubftance, or true vitriol of mercury, foluble in water, and
not fafe to be touched. If the liquor, poured off from this,
be evaporated half way, and the remainder fet in a cool
place, more cryftals of the fame nature with the firft will
fhoot.

Another method of making the vitriol of mercury is this :
reduce to powder forae decrepitated fea-falt, and with two
parts of this mix one part of crude mercury ; diftil the whole
in a glafs body, with a ftrong fire continued five or fix hours ;
when the veffels are cold, break them, and there will be found
a folid dry mercury, fublimed to the top and fides of the

7

V 1 T

body, in form of vitriol. Nay, Boerhaave affirms, that the
common mercury fublimate is a true vitriol of mercury,
though femi-volatile. Boerh. Chem. part ii. p. 301.

Vitriol of quickfilver is alfo a name given to a fait of mer-
cury, mineralized by vitriolic acid, fiift difcovered by Mr.
Woulfe, together with the marine fait of mercury, at Ober-
mofchel, in the duchy of Deux-Ponts : they have a fpar-
like appearance, and are either bright and white, or yellow
or black, mixed with cinnabar in a Itcny matrix : thefe well
mixed with one-third of their weight of vegetable alkali,
afforded him cubic and oftagonal cryftals, that is, fait of
Sylvius, and tartar vitriol. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvi. part ii.
p. 618.

Vitriol of Venus is a folution of copper in fpirit of
nitre, evaporated and cryftalhzed, to gain the fait ; called
alfo vitriol of copper.

Vitriol, Liquamen, or Wqfh of, is a name given to the
ochrey matter remaining after fucceffive evaporations of the
mother of vitriol, which yields no more vitriol. Its tafte is
acrid and fiery, and the quantity left from a gallon of the
welJ-impregnated liquor from the bed is about a pound.
From this may be procured a white pungent fait, by fubfe-
quent evaporations. This is the fahne principle of vitriol,
according to the chemifts, and is contained in fo large a
quantity, that nearly thirteen ounces of it may be feparated
from a pound of the liquor ; the remaining liquor, after
this, is what is called liquamen vitrioli by fome chemifts, but
not properly. It will never coagulate into fait, but is very
fiery and acrid to the tafte, and extremely ponderous, not
lefs fo than oil of vitriol, nor lefs pungent ; and is the
ilrongeft liquor any way obtained from a natural fubftance
without diftillation. This liquor being expofed to the air
in a veffel not clofed, will in a little t'lne attraft double its
weight of water from it. All corrofive and faline hquors
have fomewhat of this property of imbibing moilture from
the air, and weakening themfelves by it ; but this liquor
attrafts it fafter and in greater quantity than any other.
This liquor receives moft moifture, and increafes moft
quickly in wet weather, lefs fo in dry ; and this may have
given occafion to that error fo common among uninformed
chemifts, that feveral preparations of vitriol derive moifture
from the moon, and have more or lefs of it, according to her
different phafes. The changes of the conttitution of
the air have effefted what, in this cafe, they fuppofed
to be done by the different phafes of the moon. Phil.
Tranf. No. 103.

Vitriol, Mother of. See Vitriol, in Chemijlry, fupra.

Vitriol, Oil of. See Vitriolic y^cij, infra, and Sul-
phuric y4cid.

Vitrioli, Ros. See Ros.

Vitriol, Saline Principle of. See Saline Principle.

Vitriol, Spirit of. See Sulphuric yicid.

VITRIOLATED, among Chemijls, turned into vitriol,
or having vitriol infufed in it.

Vitriolated Iron. See Sulphate o/"/ro«, and Iron.

ViTiuoLATED Kali. See Sulph.a.te of Pola/b.

Vitriol.\ted Magnefia. Sec Sulphate of Magnefia.

ViT.tiOLATED Natron. See Sulphate of Soda.

Vitriolated Tartar. See Tartar, Vitriolated.

Vitriolated Zinc. See Sulphate ofZisc.

VITRIOLIC, fomething that has the quality of vitriol,
or that partakes of the nature of vitriol.

Vir uoLic j^cid. (See Sulphuric ^c/V.) This acid,
when firft prepared by art, was diftilled from dried fulphate
of iron, or the common green vitriol, or copperas of com-
merce : it is ftill prepared in Saxony, and many other parts

of

VITRIOLIC ACID.

of Germany, from the fame fubftance, in the manner dc-
fcribed under Sulphuric Add. Accordinc;ly, when the
component parts neither of the fait nor of the acid were
known, it was very naturallv called " oil of vitriol ;" ac-
quiring this denomination probably from its rcfemblance to
oil in adhering to the fides of a vcfiel containing it, and
from its pafiing gently, or with little noife, from one veflel
to another. However, as the name tends to give erroneous
ideas of the nature of the acid, which is now known to be
formed only of fulpliur, oxygen, and water, it ought to be
expurged. On account of the inconvenience and expence
attending the method of procuring this acid from fulphate
of iron, and the time required for the procefs, the manu-
fafturers were led to the bafe itfelf, or the fulphur ; which,
in conjunftion with nitre, was burnt in very large globes of
glafs, and the produft was concentrated by boihng it in
Ktorts or other glafs veffels, till the fluid was of a fuf-
ficient ftrength for fale. See Sui.phukic Acid.

Mr. Parkes informs us (Chemical ElTays, vol. ii.) that
the procefs of forming fulphuric acid by the combullion of
fulphur, was firft adopted in this country by Dr. Ward,
well known by his analeptic pill, white drop, and fome
other noftrums which bore liis name. Fourcroy, however,
attributes this important difcovery to two French chemifts,
Lefcvre and Leniery. Dr. Ward obtained a patent for his
method of preparing it, and the article which he procured
was denominated, by way of diftindtion, " oil of vitriol
made by the bell." It is needlefs to defcribe his method,
though it gave him for fome time a monopoly of this Britilh
manufafture : until at length chambers of lead were em-
ployed for the combuftion of the fulphur and nitre, fo con-
trived that the floor of each might be conftantly covered
with a (heet of water, capable of abforbing the fulphuric
acid gas at the time of its formation. The introduftion of
this leaden apparatus ferved to facilitate the manufnfture of
this acid, and in a fhort time reduced the price to about
a quarter of its former rate. This important improve-
ment is afcribed by Mr. Parkes to the late Dr. Roebuck,
an eminent phyfician of Birmingham, who, in conjunftion
with his partner, the late Mr. Samuel Garbett, erefted, not-
withftanding a violent oppofition on tlie part of Dr. Ward,
the lirll leaden chamber for this purpofe at Birmingham,
about the year 1746 : and the fame works are now ( 1815),
fays Mr. Parkes, in the occupation of their fuccelTors,
Meffrs. Alflon and Armitage. The confumption, how-
ever, was at firil reftrifted, on account of local circum-
flances, to Birmingham and its vicinity. The manufac-
turers, therefore, with a view to a more extenfive demand,
and to the introduftion of the article produced for the pur-
pofe of bleaching in tlic linen manufaftorics of Scotland and
Ireland, eftablifhed, on an extenfive fcalc, in the year 1749,
works at Prcfton-Pans, on the eaftern coaft of Scotland.
It is obfervcd, however, that Dr. Roebuck was not i\\fifole
founder of the works at Preilon-Pans, or of the great iron-
works at Carron. (See Carhon.) Of Dr. Roebuck, an
account of whom has been by accident omitted under his
name, it will be fufficient to obferve, that he was a man of
very fuperior talents, very confiderable acquirements, and
very amiable manners, highly elteem.cd at Birmingham,
where he refidcd, and honoured with a peculiar intimacy
with the celebrated Dr. Black. He died, much regretted,
on the 17th of .Inly, 1794. After thia digrcfllon, we pro-
ceed to relate, that the doftor and his three brothers, to-
gether with Mr. Garbett, and Meffrs. Cadell and Sons, of
Cockenzie, near Prellon-Pans, were the original projeftors
and founders of the vaft works at Carron, to the great pre-
judice of their refpcdiivc fortunes. This circumflance,

together with an unfortunate concern in a colliery at Bor-
rovvftoncfs, brought ruin on all the dottor's fair profpefts
in life. With refpeft to the manufafture of fulphuric acid,
we obferve, that for feveral years Meffrs. Roebuck and
Garbett carried on their works in England and Scotland
fuccefsfully and unoppofed ; and, befides fupplying the
demands of Great Britain and Ireland, exported very large
quantities of fulphuric acid to the continent. At length, in
the year 1756, their profpefts were beclouded by the con-
duct of a fervant, who had the art to induce a Mr. Rhodes,
of Bridgenorth, to embark in the bufinefs. This perfon,
abandoning Mr. Rhodes, conncfted himfelf with Mi". Skey,
of Bewdley, who had commenced a manufaftory of ful-
phuric acid on a much larger fcale than that at Bridge-
north ; and this was the third manufaftory for producing
the acid by the combuftion of fulphur in leaden chambers.
In the year 1772, a manufaftory was ellabliflied at Bat-
terfea, near London ; and upon the failure of this, ano-
ther manufaftory was inftituted at Pitfworth-Moor, near
Eccles, in Lancathire. Soon afterwards another work
was eftablifhed at Leeds ; and at length fimilar works
have been founded in various parts of England, Scotland,
and Ireland : and it is faid, that there are now no fewer than
eight coiiliderable manufaftories of fulphuric acid at and
near Birmingham. When the new method of bleaching by
oxymuriatic acid was introduced, about the ye.ir 1788,
the demand for fulphuric acid was very confiderably aug-
mented, fo that chambers for the combuftion of fulphur of
much larger extent than thofe firft conftrufted became ne-
cefiary. Chaptal, in his " Chemiftry applied to the Arts,"
(vol. iii.) fays, that chambers about 20 feet broad, 25 long,
and 15 high, feem to be the moft advantageous : and it is
obferved, that the fize of the leaden chamber in modern
ufe, is from 20 feet in length and I2 feet in width, to 40 or
60 feet long and 16 or 18 feet wide. One manufac-
turer in Lancafhirc, however, fays Mr. Parkes, has a leaden
chamber of the enormous dimenfions of 120 by 40 feet, and
20 feet high, thus forming a fpace of 96,000 cubic feet.
Thefe leaden chambers are technically called " houfes," and
in fome diftrifts "leaden veffels." The fulphuric acid annually
confumed in thefe kingdoms is faid to amount to upwards
of 30CO tons, the greater part of which is ufed in a ftatc
of dilution, in which ftate it is confumed in large quan-
tities by bleachers, and by calico-printers, for making what
they call " fours ;" and alio for the purpofe of difl'olving
iron or zinc when diluted with at leall five or fix times its
weight of water.

The ufes of fulphuric acid are very numerous. It is
employed in large quantities for preparing the bleaching
fait ; by dyers for diffolving indigo, and for other pur-
pofes ; by calico-printers for preparing fours ; and by the
manufafturing and the philofophical chemift, as a tell for
lead and barytes, and for a great variety of other pur-
pofes, fome of which only can be enumerated.

'I'he makers of the nitrous and muriatic acids are large
confumcrs of fulphuric acid ; as alfo are the makers of ful-
phate of zinc, fal ammoniac, phofph.ite of foda, Glauber
and other falts ; as well as the manufafturcrs of Roman
vitriol, PrulTian blue, and fome other colours.

Sulpluiric acid is likewife employed by fome modem
farmers in the preparation of their feed-wheat, to prevent
what is called the fmut ; by the people who purify lemon-
juice, when united to lime, in order to i'eparate its acid in a
cryftalline form for the ufe of calico-printers and others ;
and by the makers of glafs to convert tiie muriate of pot-
afh, which is one of their refiduums, into fulphate of potafs,
and which has lately been ufed by them as a fubftitutc for
Q q 2 foda.

V 1 r

foda. It is alfo confumed in large quantities by the makers
of tin-plate, by brafs-founders, button-makers, japanners
and gilders ; to all of whom this acid is become abfolutely
iieceflary for the removal of the oxyd which forms on the
furface of the iron or the copper on which they work, and
which, if not removed, would prevent or impede all their
operations.

Sulphuric acid is likewife a neceffary article to lome
paper-makers, to fell-mongers, and to tanners ;— it is ufed
in confiderable quantities by the modern hatter in the oper-
ation of felting ; — and it may be remarked that refiners ufe
it in the procefs of flripping metals; — oil-merchants, in re-
lining rape-oil, which it effeAs by carbonizing the farina-
ceous matter and the mucilage ; — and brewers in fining
what is called " gray beer :" — that the profeffors of phar-
macy as well as the chemifts are conftant cutlomers for ful-
phui-ic acid ;— that it is employed in making the aftringent
and ftomatic water of Rabel, and for other purpofes of
medicine, as well as furgery ; — that dillillers and reftifiers
of ardent fpirits confume it in dill larger quantities ; — that
the makers of vinegar ufe it for the adulteration of that
acid ; that many tons are annually confumed in the pre-
paration of liquid blacking ; — and that the aeronaut, at every
^fcenfion into the atmofphere, requires many hundred
weights of fulphuric acid for the formation of the hydrogen
"as, which renders the aerial machine buoyant in that fubtile
medium.

As tlie ufes of fulphuric acid are become fo various,
cafes may occur of its being taken into the ftomach by
miftake, and without immediate relief its corrofive proper-
ties would produce fatal effefts. If magnefia fhould be at
hand, that earth mixed with water and fweetened with
fugar, would be the belt poflible antidote to the polfon ;
but in cafe this could not be immediately procured, fo.ip-
water, which can be furniflied by all families, and which
is one of the next belt remedies, fliould be drunk plenti-
fully. Parkes, ubi fupra.

For an account of the procefs of manufafturing this acid,
and its properties, fee the article Sulphuric ylc'ul. For
tables, exhibiting the temperatures produced by the mixture
of fulphuric acid and water, the fpecific gravities of the
acid, when diluted with different portions of water, taken at
the temperature of 6o° ; and of the variations in the fpe-
cific gravity of concentrated fulphuric acid, by change of
temperature, the barometer being at 29.5 inches, we refer
to Parkes's Effays, vol. ii.

Vitriolic y/tij, in Agriculture, is that which is now
termed or known by the name of the fulphuric. It is
noticed by tht writer of the work on the Conneftion of
Agriculture with Chemiftry, that all acids are at prefent
named from tlie peculiar bafes or fubHances of which they
are formed, by the combination of pure air or oxygen ; the
prefence of which is neceifary in all cafes to conftitute an
acid. This is dated to be the moft powerful of all the
acids, and that it difengages or expels other acids, when
in a date of combination with metallic, earthy, or alka-
line fubftances in the foil or otherwife. When concen-
trated, it afts in a fimilar manner to that of alkaline falts,
in the refolution or dedruftion of vegetable fubftances,
as well as thofe of the animal kind, difengaging from
them certain gafes, and forming therewith certain fapo-
naceous and Taline compounds. Tsefe folutions or ex-
trafts are of a reddiih-brown colour, fimilar to that pro-
duced by the afiion of alkaline falts on oxygenated peat
or peaty earth. The vitriolic acid may, it is faid, be
ufed beneficially to decompofe and bring into aftion the
loluble matter accumulated in foils, by the combination

V I T

of the phofphoric and forcline or oxalic acids with cal-
careous matter. In this cafe, the vitriolic acid will join
with the calcareous matter, and form gypfum or fulphate
of lime ; while the phofphoric and forcline or oxalic acids,
in confequence of their difengagement, will combine with
other matters in the foil, particularly with magnefia, if any
be prefent, forming faline matters which are very foluble,
and conducive to vegetation and the growth of plants.
The bufinefs is to be accomphlhed by the ufe of fuch fub-
ftances as contain much of this fort of acid in cafes where
the other forts of acids prevail.

It is fuggefted, however, that the endlefs feries of pro-
cefles employed by nature dcth not finifti or end here ; for,
on a fuppofition that the phofphoric and forcline or oxalic
acids had been fully difengaged from the calcareous matter
with which they had been formerly united, and that in the
ftates of phofphate and oxalate of potafh, foda, ammonia,
or magnefia, they had expended themfelves in the procefs
of vegetation ; ftill the gypfum or fulphate of lime remain-
ing in the foil would, on a renewed application of dung,
urine, animal or vegetable matter, be brought from the ttate
of gypfum or fulphate of lime, which is infoluble, to a ftate
approaching to that of a hepar of lime, which is foluble ;
and that as the vitriolic acid and calcareous matter are con-
tained in, and form a part of, the compounded refiduum
of vegetable matters, it may hence be inferred, that thefe
matters were not generated in, but were taken up, when in a
ftate of folution, by the roots of plants. Thus, it is faid,
may the good effefts of gypfum or fulphate of lime in
America be accounted for without much difficulty. And
to thefe beneficial effefts, from the combination of inftam-
mable fubftaHces with gypfum or fulphate of lime, forming
what is called a hcpii-, or liver of fulphur, may be added
the large fliare of nourilhment which trefoils, and plants of
a certain formation of Item and leaf fomevvhat of that kind,
receive by the hepatic air difengaged from the hepars, when
they, by the procefs of oxygenation, are again returned to
the ftate of neutral falts, of which fuch hepars had been
formed by the combination of inflammable or carbon?.ceous
matter. See Oxygenation and Sulphate of Lime.

Vitriolic Minerals are compound foffile fubftances,
formed of various ftony and earthy particles, mixed with
others of iron and copper, and that either feparately or con-
junftly ; fo that, in effeft, they are ores of vitriols.

The different kinds of thefe minerals are, I. The chal-
citis. 2. The mify. 3. Sory or rufma. 4. Melanteria.
5. Pyrites, or fire-ftone. 6. Marcafites: See Chalcitis,
MiSY, &c.

In Europe, the only ufe made of chalcitis is as an ingre-
dient of Venice treacle, and even here its place is generally
fupplied with common green vitriol calcined to a rednefs.
The ancient Greeks ufed it externally in hjemorrhages, and
collyriums for the eyes ; alfo for the herpes aijd eryfipelas ;
but never ventured to give it internally.

The ancients ufed mify for the fame purpofe as chalcitis,
being eileemed milder than this laft.

At prefent it is no where put to any ufe, nor indeed does
it merit it, as containing no other virtues than thofe of green
vitriol, though we are not fure what pemieious fubftance
it may be mixed with.

Vitriolic Waters. The countries which abound with
mines of copper and iron ufually afford a great many vitriohc
waters. See Blue Vitriol, under Vitriol.

One of the moft remarkable fprings of this kind, of
which we have an account, is that near Paderborn, in Ger-
many : this is a fort of treble fpring, having three openings,
and all three yielding very different waters. Two of thefe

openings

V 1 T

openings aio not more than a foot and a half diftaiit from
one another, and yet of fo different qualities, that the one is
limpid, bUioifh, milk-warm, and bubbling, and contains fal
ammoniac, oclire, iron, vitriol, alum, lulphur, nitre, and
orpiment ; all thefe fubftances having been feparated in its
analyfis. The other is cold as ice, and is turbid, whitifti,
and much heavier, and ftronger to the tafte than the other.
This holds much orpiment, with fome fait, alum, nitre, fal
ammoniac, and vitriol. The firft of thefe waters is taken
by the people in the neighbourhood, againft worms, and
difordcrs of the fpleen, as alfo againft epilepfies ; the other
is poifonous to birds, all that drink of it dying in a very
little time. The experiment has been tried on common
hens, with the water brought from the fprings into other
places, and given them to drink.

Thofe to which fait is given, after the fwallowing of this
poifonous water, ftruggle longer before they die by it ; and
vinegar is found to lave them very often from death, after
drinking largely of it ; but in this cafe they are fickly
for feven or eight days after it, and have the pip, as the
good women exprefs it.

In the diffefting of thofe birds which have died by drink-
ing this water, the Tungs are always found quite (hrivelled
up.

The people of the country have not been deterred by this
bad effeft of the water from ufmg it in medicine ; they take
fmall quantities of it diluted in water, to deftroy the worms,
and it performs this very well ; but gives them a grievous
licknefs while it operates.

The third ftream, or opening, of this remarkable fpring,
is about twenty paces diftant from the others ; the water
is here very clear, of a greenifli colour, and of a four, but
not very difagreeable talle. It is of a middle weight, and of
middle qualities between the other two, and is evidently
formed of the joining of thofe two fprings with fome other
frcfli water in the way ; for a liquor exaftly rcfembhng
this third kind may be prepared, by mixing equal quantities
of the other two with a fufficicnt quantity of common well-
water.

There is a fpring in Bafil difcharging its water through
the Tanners'-ftreet, or Gerber-gaffe, which is of a blueiHi
colour, and fomewhat turbid. This holds blue vitriol,
that is copper, in the form of a fait, and with it bitumen
and antimony ; but a much larger proportion of the firft
ingredient than of either of the others. The analyfis of it
fhews, that it contains three parts copper to one of bitumen,
and two of antimony. It ferves the tanners of the place
to good purpofes, their ikius receiving one of their prepara-
tions from this native water.

The fame town affords feveral other fprings of peculiar
qualities, all owing to the veins of nietaUine ores with
which the earth of the place abounds. The one of thefe
is called Bandulph's well, and affords a water of great ufc
in medicine, feveral being regularly and perfeftly cured of
hydropical diftcmpers by it. And another very remark-
able one contains, as is found by its analyfis, fulphur, nitre,
and fome gold. Thefe, however, are in fuch fmall quantity
in it, as not to prevent its being fit for the common ufes of
life. It is very agreeable to the talle, and is much efteemed
for drinking, and fent for all over the town.

Another vitriolic water runs out of a cavern, near Gelf-
bach, in Alface. It is a fattifh and oily liquor, and is ufcd
by the country-people for grcafing their wheels, but it is
fit for much better purpofes. If it be boiled to the evapo-
ration of a third part, there will remain very little water,
but a fatty bituminous fnbftance, like tar, will fiibfide to the
bottom; and there wiU fwim at the top a yellow, thin, and

V I T

limpid liquor, very much refembling linfecd-oil ; and this,
diftiUed 111 a fand-heat, yields an oily and watery liquor ;
the firft very good for external ufes, for burns and fcalds ;
and the other a good internal medicine in confumptions, and
other difeafes of the lungs. Phil. Tranf. N^ 8.

Some time ago there was a water difcovered in England,

that

gave, on many experiments, an appearance of con-

taining natural and perfeft vitriol. This water was found
near Eglingham, in Cumberland ; and being examined, by
adding galls to it, it became abiolute ink, much deeper than
any of the atramentous waters ever do ; when one half the
quantity was flowly evaporated, the remainder retained this
quality to a higher degree than before ; and on evaporating
It yet farther, there concreted in it fair cryftals of pure anil
genuine vitriol.

This was an appearance wholly new in England, and not
eafily accounted for, as we have no mineral, except the
common pyrites, which contains vitriol ; and it is very well
known, that there requires a fermentation in the air, before
the vitriol, contained in that ftone, will be difentangled from
its other principles, fo as to be capable of appearing in its
own form ; and as this ftone, lying under water, can never
impregnate that water with its vitriol, it did not feem eafy
to conceive in what manner a genuine vitriol fliould be com-
municated to water, where there was no other fubftance
which could give it. The fufpicions that thefe thoughts
gave the gentleman who examined this water, occafioned
his making a vifit to the place where it was produced,
when he found that the fuppofed vitriolic fpring was no
other than an old drift made for the draining of the water
from fome old wrought coal-pits ; the people who had
worked in thefe renierabcri-d to have feen great quantities
of pyrites there. This drift was fometimes dry for a con-
liderable time together, and fometimes ran in a plentiful
ftream ; and there is no doubt but that, in thefe dry feafons,
the air adted upon the pyrites, and caufed it to Ihoot its
vitriol, which the next tide of water walhed away, and it
came off dilfolved in it, and highly impregnating it.

This proved, therefore, no better a medicinal fpring than
fome of a like kind, defcrib'.d by Mr. Leigh in his " Natural
Hiftory of Lancafhire ;" and all thefe are very little better
than the difcovery of a medicated water in Old-ftrcct, from
the remains of an old colour-fhop, or Kircher's reckoning
the common ftiores of Rome among the medicated fprings
of Italy.

The vitriolic fpring which has been fo much talked of
near Haigh, in Lancalhire, is no other than an accidental
impregnation of common water, in the fame manner : it
being only the runnings of an old drift, or drain, made to
carry off the water from the pits of cannel-coal ; and this,
like the other, as it fometimes has water, and at other times
is dry, gives time for the pyrites to let go its vitriol while
dry, and then imparts it to the waters that pafs that way
afterwards. Thefe are not to be accounted medicated
fprings, fince neither natural nor continual, and fuch may
be any day made at home, by laying the common pyritx
of our clay, or coal-pits, out to moulder in the air, and tlien
pouring water upon it, and, after a fhort time Handing,
taking it off again. Phil. Tranf. N° 245. p. 3S0. Sec
ZiMENT, and Vniuoi,, in Chcmillry.

VITRUM. See Glass.

ViTUUM, in Bo/any, a name given by fome of the old
writers to the plant we now c:\\\ g/ajlum or woaJ.

Tliis plant has always been ;: native of England, and was
in ufe among the favage inhabitants of this illand, for paint-
ing their bodies. Thofe who have not underftood this to
be the name of that plant, have been ftrangely perplexed

to

V I T

V I T

to account for thofe people painting their bodies with
•uitrum, glafs, as they underftood it : but the whole meaning
of this plant obtaining the name of vitrum, feems to have
been its ftaining the flcin to a pale blue colour, or, as it was
called by many, a glafs-colour.

VlTRVuJntimonii Ceraliim, in Pharmacy. See AntIMONY.
This is an infipid, inodorous powder, of a brownifh
colour : in its operation diaphoretic and cathartic, occa-
fionally exciting naufea and vomiting.

The ordinary dofe for adults is ten or twelve grains ; but
it is fufficient to begin with fix, or even with three or four
grains. The quantity of a fcruple has been given to a
ftrong man, which wrought gently. The dofe for a child
of three or four years is two or three grains ; and for one
of ten, three or four grains.

This medicine was for fome time held a fpecific in dyfen-
teries ; but the preparation and manner of giving it had
been kept a fecret, till Dr. Young made it pubhc. Dr.
(afterwards fir John) Pringle fays, he tried it in a dyfentery
of four years ftanding with furprifing fuccefs ; and, indeed,
to him we are principally indebted for the general intro-
duftion and ufe of this medicine ; as he coUefted and pub-
lifhed feveral cafes of its efficacy.

It has been given in dyfenteries, with or without a fever,
whether epidemic or otherwife, and whether bleeding and
vomits have been premifed or not. In its operation, it
fometimes makes the patient fick, and vomits him ; it
purges almoil every perfon ; but it has been known to cure
without any evacuation or ficknefs. It is to be given with
an empty ftomach, for then it operates molt mildly. No-
thing is to be drank after it for three hours, unlefs the
patient is very fick, and difpofed to vomit ; in which cafe
warm water may be given, as in other vomits.

This medicine fhould not be given for diarrhoeas in the
end of confumptions. Other diarrhoeas have been cured
with large dofes of it ; but in fuch cafes it fails oftener than
in dyfenteries. During the ufe of this powder, fermented
liquors fhould be abftained from, and a milk diet is proper.
It may be given fafely to women with child, and to children
onthe breaft may be given half a grain. This preparation
has alfo been found fuccefsful in uterine hsemorrhages, both
in young and old.

It has alfo been tried in cohc pains, from vifcidities in
the inteftines, and found a fafe and eafy purgative, and
fometimes a gentle emetic.

The method of giving it is in a bolus, with conferve of
rofes, diafcordium, or theriaca Edinenfis. An opiate, after
the operation, is proper. (Med. Elf. Edinb. vol. v. art. ij.
p. 162, &c. ) See an account of its efficacy in bloody fluxes,
diarrhoeas, fimple loofenefTes, quartan agues, even the moft
obftinate, and in certain cafes of the fluor albus, and obfer-
vations on the mode of adminiftering it, by M. GeofFroy,
in Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. p. 273, &c.

Later experience, it is faid, has proved that it poflefles
no advantages fuperior to other antimonials, properly dofed
and combined, in the difeafes above-mentioned ; and differs
from the vitrum antimonii, or glafs of antimony, only in
its milder operation, owing to part of the oxygen being
abllrafted by the carbonaceous matter of the wax, which
appears to anfwer no other purpofe. Thomfon's Difp.

Vitrum Archimedeum, Archimedes' s Glafs, a name given
by Svvedenborg to an inftrument which he invented for the
examination of mixed metals, and by means of which he
could difcover the quantities, without the trouble of the
apparatus and calculation commonly ufed for this purpofe.

Vitrum Morrh'mum, Morrhine, or Myrrhine Glafs, a name
given by Phny, and fooie of the ancients, to a fort of

manufafture made in Egypt, which, though truly no other
than a kind of glafs divefted of its tranfparency, yet was
made fo nicely to imitate the myrra or morra of the Indies,
fo famous among the Romans, under the form of cups and
vefTels, called murrhina vafa, that it was called by fomc
murrha altera, another fort of murrha, and the cups made
of it honoured with the name of murrhim vefflls. This
ferves to fhew, that the myrrhina vafa, properly fo called,
were not of any precious itone, as vulgarly fuppofed, but
a fort of porcelain. See Murrhixe.

Vitrum Saturni. See Glass of Lead.

VITRUVIUS, M. PoLLio, iu Biography, a very diftin-
guifhed writer on architefture, is fuppofed to have flourifhed
in the times of .Julius Csfar and Auguftus : of his parentage
and place of nativity nothing certain is known. Verona
claims him ; but the pretenfions of Formia, now Mola de
Gsta, are more generally allowed. Of his liberal education,
and of his travels for information and improvement, we can
have no doubt. By the exercife of his profeffion he had
acquired fome property ; though perhaps it was not very
confiderablc, as he fays of hinifelf that he did not, like the
generahty of architefts, folicit employment. Under the
emperor Auguflus, or perhaps one of the fucceeding princes,
to whom he dedicated his work, he occupied the poil of
infpeftor of the military engir.cs. But as Pliny the Elder
mentions his name, among other authors, in his " Natural
Hiflory," compofed in the reign of V^cfpaCan, his work
muft have been publifhed before that period. Of edifices
planned or conftructed by him, one only is mentioned by
himfelf, whicli was a Bafilica at Fano. His work was dif-
covered in MS. by Poggio in the 15th century, and it has
ever fince been held in high eftimation. The ten books
into which it is diftributed, not only treat on every thing
belonging to buildings, pubhc and private, their fcite, mate-
rials, forms, ornaments, conveniences, and the hke ; but
include much of what would now be termed engineering,
civil and military, and even digrefs to g?ometrical problems
and allronomical inventions. Befides the inflruftion that
may be derived from it, it has afiorded much important
matter to the antiquary relative to the flate of art and
fcience, and the detail of private life, among the Romans.

Some of the moll efteemed editions of Vitruvius are " Dan.
Barbari," Venet. fol. 1567 ; " J. de Laet," Amft. fol.
1649 '■> " Galiani," Neap. fol. 1758 ; with an Italian tranf-
lation and notes. " Claude Perrault" has given a good
French tranflation, Paris, fol. 1684 ; and we have an Eng-
lifh one by " Mr. Newton," Lond. 1791. Gen. Biog.

A magnificent edition of the Civil Architefture of Vitru-
vius, in two parts, royal foho, has been lately prefented to
the public by W. Wilkins, jun. A.M., F.R.S., &c. &c.

During the reign of Auguflus, except Vitruvius, it does
not appear that the Romans had one architeft, fculptor,
painter, or mufician. Vitruvius has given Arifloxcnus's
fyflem in Latin ; but was obliged to retain the Greek
technica, as he was the firfl Roman writer on the fubjeft
of mufic, and ufed Greek technical terms as we do Italian.
Vitruvius has defcribed the theatrical vafes ufed by the
Greeks for the augmentation and continuation of found
( fee EcHElA ) ; and has given us a defcription of the organ of
the ancients blown by the fall of water. See Organ
and Hydraulicox.

VITRY, James de. See James de Vitry.

Vitry, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Straits of Calais; 9 miles N.E. of Arras

Alfo, a town of France, in the department of Paris ; 4
miles S.S.E. of Paris.

Vitry le Brule, a town of France, in the department or

the

V I T

the Marne. Tliis town was, in tlu' 12th century, one
of the principal places of the conntry, wlien Thibaut,
count of Chartros, who took arms againil Louis the Young,
took it by alFault, and fet it on fire, by which many perfons
were burned, and great part of the town dellroyed. It was
on tiiis account called Brule. The Englilk and Bnrgun-
dians in the war with Charles VII. fet fire to Vitry, with
fixty villages, in the year 1422. It was a third time burned
and ruined by the troops of the emperor Charles V. ; 3
miles N.E. of Vitry le Fran<;ois.

VlTKV /; Frnngols, a town of France, and principal place
of a dillrjft, in the department of the Marne, on the Marne ;
built by Francis I. after the deftruftion of Vitry le Brule
by the emperor Charles V. ; 16 miles S.E. of Chalons-fur-
Marne. N. lat. 48° 43'. E. long. 4° 38'.

Vitry aux Loges, a town of France, in the department
of the Loiret ; i 8 miles N.E. of Orleans.

VITTA, among the Romans, a fillet with which the
women in Rome bound their hair. Tlie matrons wore a
double one, to diftinguifh them from the virgins, whofe vittce
were tingle.

Vittx were alfo worn by priefts and poets, in which cafe
they were made of branches of olive or laurel : the ftatues
of the gods were likewile adorned with the vitts, as were
altars, the doors of temples, ■vidtims, and fupplicants.

VlTTA, among Anatomifis, JiUct, or head-band, is ufed for
that part of the amnios which fticks to the infant's head
when it is juft born.

ViTTA Cttrulea, in Conchology, a fpecies of dolium.
V ITT A, in /tA/Ziyo/'j^fji, a name given by Gaza and fome others,
to the fi(h called by others titn'ta, and by the Italians cepole.
VITTA RI A, in Botany, fo called by the writer of this
rlicle, from villa, a fillet, or ribband, in allufion to the Ihape

of the frond Sm. Mem. de I'Acad. de Turin, v. j. 413.

t.9. f. 5. Trads, 243. t. 1. f. 5. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 5. 404.
Swartz Syn. Fil. 109. Nov. A6t. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Berol.
V. 2. 129. Sprcngel Crypt. Engl. ed. 77, 114. Brown
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 153. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 522.
— Chk znd order, Cry ptogam'ta Filicei ; kOi. annulattc. Nat.
Ord. Filices dorjifcra.

Elf. Ch. Fruftification in longitudinal continued lines,
parallel to the midrib at each fide. Involucrum double,
uninterrupted ; one feparating towards the margin, the other
towards the rib.

This genus was at firft fuppofed by its author to confift
of a folitary fpecies, Pleris iineata of Linnxns ; but Swartz
and Willdenow have added feveral others, from their own
difcoveries or thofe of Bory de St. Vincent, fo that eight in
all are now known. Of thefe, Willdenow has given the
mod complete view. They are all of tropical origin. The
frond is uniformly fimple and entire, of a long nearly linear
form, and either ereft or pendulous ; its texture generally
coriaceous.

I. V. Iineata. Linear Tape-fern. Swartz Syn. n. i.
Willd. n. 1. Schkuhr Crypt. 93. t. loi, b. (V. angufti-
frons ; Michaux Boreal -Amer. v. 2. 261. Pteris Iineata ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 1530. Lingua cervina longifiimis et anguf-
tifliniis foliis ; Plum. Amsr. 28. t. 41. Fil. 123. t. 143;
copied in Pstiv. Fil. t. 14. f. 3.) — F'ronds linear, very long.
Lines folitary, a little within llie margin. — Native of many
parts of the Weft Indies. The perennial rout confitls of
numerous reddiih fibres, intermixed with fcalee. Fronds
feveral, about two or three feet long, and a quarter of an
inch wide, acute, coriaceous, fmooth, of a bright green.
We find no authority for Swartz'a charaAer of " pendu-
lous" in the fpecific definition, except ho alludes to tlie
reflexed pollure of the upper half of each frond in Plumier's

V 1 T

figure, wliich feems contrived merely to admit the whole
plant into the plate.

2. V. ifoetifolta. Quillwort Tape-fern. " Bory de St.
Vincent Voy. v. 2. 325." Swartz Syn. n. 2. Willd.
n. 2. — Fronds hnear-threadfhaped, acute, pendulous, very
ftraight ; channelled at the top. Lines folitary, marginal.
— Native of the ifle of Bourbon, hanging from the trunks
of aged trees. Stalks very fcaly. Fronds rigid, from ten
to eighteen inches long, hmolvcrum narrow. Capfules pale.
WilUteno'w.

3. V. fdiformis. Thread-rtiaped Tape-fern. Cavan.
Leccion. 270. Swartz Syn. n. 3. Willd. n. 3. — Fronds
thread-(haped, very long, glaucous. — Native of Peru.
Fronds numerous, two or three feet in length, and half a fine
only in breadth. Cavanilles.

4. V. elongata. Long-leaved Tape-fern. Swartz Syn.
n. 4. 302. Willd. n. 4. Brown n. i — Fronds linear, very
long, coriaceous, riblefs, pendulous. Lines marginal Na-
tive of the Eaft Indies, and the tropical part of New Hol-
land. Roots creeping, rigid, with downy rufty fibres.
Stalks covered with black, (hining, reticulated, hair-pointed
fcales. Frond three or four feet long, two lines broad, flat,
rather rigid, fmooth, minutely veined. Swartz.

5. V. ■z.oJlcriJoUa. Grafs-wrack Tape-fern. Willd. n. c.
(" V. anguftifrons ; Bory de St. Vincent Voy. v. 1.238,
and V. 2. 324.") — Fronds linear, very long, membranous,
pendulous. Lines fohtary, marginal. — Found on old trees,
in the ifle of Bourbon. Root creeping, fcaly. Fronds five
feet long, three or four lines broad, thin ; tapering much
at the bafe. Lines very narrow, clofe to the edges. The
plant much refembles a Zojlera. IVilldenow.

6. V. enfiformis. Sword-fiiaped Tape-fern. Swartz
Syn. n. 5. Nov. Ac. Berol. n. 3. t. 7. f. i. « Schukhr
Crypt. 94. t. loi, b." (V. incurvata; Cavan. Lec-
cion. 270. ) — Fronds hnear-fwordfliaped, fomewhat falcate,
ereft. Lines folitary, marginal — Native of the Philippine
ifles, the Mauritius, and the Eall Indies. The root refemble»
that of V. Iineata. Fronds numerous, fix or eight inches
high, and two lines broad, curved. Cavanilles.

7. V. plantaginea. Plantain-leaved Tape-fern. " Bory

de St. Vincent Voy. v. 2. 325." Willd. n. 7 Fronds

linear-lanceolate, ereft. Lines folitary, marginal, in the
middle part of the frond — Native of the ifle of Bourbon.
Root tufted, clothed with blackifh, tapering, mofl elegantly
reticulated fcales. Fronds from ten to eighteen inches high,
from three to five lines broad, tapering much at each ex-
tremity. Lines of frutlification thickifh, pale brown, but
four or five inches long. IVil/denoiu.

8. V. lanceolala. Lanceolate Aggregate Tape-fern.
Swartz Syn. n. 6. Nov. Aft. Berol. n. 2. t. 7. f. 2. Ind.
Occ. 1603. " Schkuhr Crypt. 94. t. 101, b." (Hemio-
nitis Iineata; Swartz Prodr. 129.) — Fronds lanceolate-
linear, creft. Lines numerous. — Found on old trce.s, on
the mountains of Jamaica. Root fibrous, tufted, rufty,
covered with fliining reticulated fcales. Fronds crowded,
a foot high, .icute, fmooth, on fliort bordered^j/i..-. Lines
two, three, or four on each fide of the rib, between it and
the margin, reaching from top to bottom, each furnifhcd with
its double involucrum, though verv narrow. Sii'arlz.

VITTEAUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the C6te d'Or ; 9 miles S.E. of Seinur en
Auxois.

VITTEFLEUR, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Seme ; 20 miles N. of Caudebec.

V ITT EL, a town of Fiance, in the departmsnt of the
Vofgcs ; 9 miles S.W. of Miretourt.

VITTORIA, LoDOVico, in Biography, author of the

moft

V I V

V 1 V

molt pompous publication of motets which we have feen.
The parts are printed fcparate on the oppofite pages, and
without bars, in fuch large charaAers, that the performers
of the feveral parts might fing out of the fame choral book.
The following ie the Latin title of this work : " Thomse Lu-
dovici Vifloria Abulenfis Motefta Feftorum totius Anni,
cum Communi Sanftorum, a 4, 5, 6, 8 Vocibus." Roma,

1585-

ViTTORiA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Alava. This town was built by Don Sancho, king
of Navarre, in memory of a viftory obtained over the Moors
on the fpot. It contains five parifhes, four convents, three
hofpitals, and a college. The inhabitants carry on a con-
fiderable traffic in wool and wine ; but the principal article
of commerce is in fword-blades, of which they manufacture
a great number ; 42 miles S.S.W. of St. Sebaftian. N. lat.
42^47'. W.long. 2°4i'.

ViTTORiA, La, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto ;
20 miles N.W. of Modica. N. lat. 36° 55'. E. long.
14° 38'.

VITTORIOSA, or Cilia Villoriofa, or // Borgo, a
fortified town of the ifland of Malta, fituated on a narrow
neck of land, to the left of Valetta ; on each fide a broad
natural canal runs up into the land, and furrounding the
town, forms a fine harbour. This canal is on one fide called
Porto della Renella, and on the other Porto delle GaUre.
The ftrong caftle of St. Angelo (lands on a high rock, and
has a communication with the town by a bridge. The num-
ber of inhabitants amounts to 3000 ; formerly the grand
mafter refided here. The palace of the inquifition and the
arfenal are reckoned among the principal buildings of this
place.

VITULI Aquatici, mtheHiJory ofInfeas,2.x\zrat given
by the German writers to the worms refembhng animated
horfe-hairs. See Amphisb-«na Aquatica.
VITULUS, Calf, in Zoology. See Calf.
ViTULUS Marinus, the Sea-calf. See SBA-Calf.
VITUS's Dance, St., in Medicine. See Chorea.
VIU, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Po, on the Stura ; 14 miles N.W. of Turin.

VIVA, or VlUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, on the route from Carthage to Sufetula, between
Carthage and Pulput. Anton. Itin.

Viva Pecunia was anciently ufed for live cattle.
Viva Voce, q.d. by word of mouth. See Oral.
VIVACE, Ital. in Mufic, implies lively, gay, animated ;
not rapid, but an execution free and firm. See Vif.

VIVACITY of Style, in Oratory, a charaAer of ftyle,
depending on the choice of words, their number, and their
arrangement.

This quality of ftyle is adapted to pleafe the imagination,
and confequently to awaken and fix the attention. With
regard to words, they may be confidered in three points of
view ; as proper terms, or rhetorical tropes, or as to the rela-
tion which the found may be made to bear to the fenfe. The
chief importance and ufe of proper terms in their reference
to the end propofed is their " fpeciality," or their being
as particular and determinate in their fignification as will
fuit the nature and fcope of the difcourfe. To this purpofe
it is obferved, that in compofition, particularly of the de-
fcriptive kind, it invariably fucceeds bell for brightening the
image, to advance from general expreffions to more fpecial,
and thence again to more particular. This, in the language
of philofophy, is called defcending ; but in the language of
oratory, it is afcending. With regard to the ufe of tropes,
we refer to that article. Words may farther be confidered
with regard to their found, and the affinity to the fubjeA

of which the found is fufceptible. When, as Pope exprefles
it, " found is made an echo to the fenfe," there is added, in
a certain degree, to the aflbciation arifing from cuftom, the
influence of refemblance between the figns and the tilings
fignified ; and this, without doubt, tends to ftrengthen the
imprefiion made by the difcourfe. In this conneftion it is
natural to enquire, what kinds of things language is capable
of imitating by its found, and in what degree ? In reply
we may obferve, that the imitative power of language muft
be greateft, when the fubjefts themfelves are things audible.
When the fubjeft is articulate found, the fpeaker or the
writer may do more than produce a refemblance ; for he
may even render the expreffion an example of that which he
affirms. Thus Pope affords an inftance.

" Thefe equal fyllables alone require.
The' oft thf irar th^ open vowels tire ;
While expletives their feeble aid </o join.
And ten low words oft creep in one dull line."

As to founds inarticulate, the fame author has tolerably
fucceeded in imitating them.

" Soft is the ftrain when Zephyr gently blows.

And the fmooth ftream in fmoother numbers flows ;

But when loud furges lafh the founding fhore.

The hoarfe rough verfe fhould like the torrent roar."

The fame conformity of the found to the fenfe is too dif-
cernible in the following lines.

" O'er all the dreary coafts !

Dreadful gleams,
Difmal fcreams.
Fires that glow.
Shrieks of woe,
Sullen moans,
Hollow groans,
And cries of injur'd ghofls."

Nor can we here overlook Milton's defcription of the
opening of hell-gates ;—

" . On a fudden open fly.

With impetuous recoil and jarring found,
Th' infernal doors, and on their mnges grate
Harfli thunder—"

The following is alfo an excellent fpecimen from the fame
author's " Lycidas:" —

*' Grate on their fcrannel pipes of wretched ftraw."

Dyer has alfo made an excellent attempt in the fame way>
in his " Ruins of Rome :"

The pilgrim oft

At dead of night mid his oraifon hears
Aghaft the voice of time, difparting towers,
Tumbling all precipitate down-dafh'd,
Ratthng around, loud thundering to the moon."

But the following lines of Pope furnifli the befl example
of this kind :

" What ! like fir Richard, rumbling, rough and fierce.
With arms, and George, and Brunfwick crowd the verfe,
Rend with tremendous founds your ears afunder.
With gun, drum, trumpet, blunderbufs, and thunder I
Then all your Mufe's fofter art difplay.
Let Carohna fmoothe the tuneful lay,
Lull with Amelia's hquid name the nine.
And fweetly flow through all the royal line."

There are other fubjeds befide found, to which language

is

V 1 V

V 1 V

is capable of bearing^ fome refc-mblance. Time and motion,
e. g. or whatever can admit the epithets of quick, and flow, may
in fome degree be imitated by fpeech. This appears with
particular advantage in verfe, when, without any violation
of the rules of profody, a greater or a lefs number of fyllables
is made to fuit the time. Thus Milton : —

" When the merry bells ring round,
And the jocund rebecs found,
To many il youth Snd many 3 maid
Dancing in the chequer'd (hade."

The Greek and Latin have here an advantage, at leaft in
their heroic meafure, fuperior to all modern tongues ; ac-
cordingly Homer and Virgil furniih excellent fpecimens in
this way. Our own tongue and metre, however, afford in-
ftances not unworthy of notice. We fhall feleCt the tranf-
lation by our Englilh bard of the following much admired
paffage from Homer :

Abli; Effeija liTEjovi; KvKi^ldo Xa«j avai3>ij." Od.

" Up the high hill he heaves a huge round {lone ; .
The huge round flone refulting with a bound.
Thunders impetuous down, and fmokes along the
ground."

Vida, in his " Art of Poetry," has well exemplified this
beauty from his great mailer, Virgil :

" lUe autem membris, ac mole i^^
Incedit tardo moliminc fubfidendo."

Slownefs of motion is admirably cxemphfied by Pope, in
the following line3 :

" A needlefs Alexandrine ends the fong,

That, like a wounded fnake,drag5 its flow length along."

In reprefenting uncommon fpeed, he thus expreiles him-
felf:

" Not fo when fwift Camilla fcours the plain,

Flies o'er th' unbending corn, and llcims along the
main."

Thus Dryden :

" Which urg'd, and labour'd, and forc'd up with pain,
Recoils, and rolls impetuous down, and fmokes along
the plain."

There are alfo other affeftions of motion befides fwiftnefs
and flowncfs, which may, to a certain degree, be imitated in
the found of the dcfcriptioo : but our limits will not allow
us to introduce examples. Size or magnitude, difficulty
and eafe, arc fubjefts of imitation in language. For an in-
flance of difficulty, we produce the following couplet from
Pope :

" When Ajax drives fome rock's vail weight to throw.
The line too labours, and the words move flow."

,, Moreover, the agreeable in things may be adumbrated
to U3 by fmooth and pie afant founds, and the difagrccable by
fuch as arc harfli and grating.

With regard to the fpccies of beauty which we have
been defcribing and exemplifying, we may obfervc, that it
ie, in many cafes, more the creature of the reader's fancy
than the ctfert of the writer's ingenuity ; and as it occu-
pies the lowell rank in the fcale of rhetorical excellence, it
ought always to give place to the other virtues and orna-
Tients of elocution, and not viu <vcrfd. The cafe? is. wliich
>.t ought to be aimed at are comparatively few .

Vui. XXXVII.

Compofitions in profe, thofe excepted which are in-
tended to perfunde, and which aim at a certain vehemence
of llyle and fentiment, fliould hardly ever be allowed to
exemphfy the refemblance above-mentioned ; and even in
poetry, this beauty feems naturally adapted only to the
moll pathetic paflTagcs, and mofl defcriptive parts. la
poems in which it is moft fuitable, it fliould be admitted only
in a few paflages, when it is the author's intention to de-
fcribe fomething that is peculiarly ilriking.

In the inquiry how far vivacity may be affeded by the
number of words that are ufed, our author concurs with
others in laying it down as a maxim, that the fewer the
words are, provided neither propriety nor perfpicuity be
violated, the expreffion is always the more vivid. " Bre-
vity," fays Shakfpeare (Hamlet;, " is the foul of wit."
Of whatever kind the fentiment be, witty, humorous,
grave, animated, or fublime, it is certain that the more
briefly it is cxpreffed, the energy is the greater, or the fenti-
ment is the more enhvencd, and the particular quality for
which it is eminent the more difplayed.

Among the Lacedimonians, who were remarkable for
concifeneis, to ufe few words, to fpeak energetically, and to
be laconic, were almoft fynonimous. Pope has in a pe-
culiar degree ftudied concifenefs, and rendered it conducive
to vivacity. The following example wiU be fufficient :

" See how the world its veterans rewards !
A youth of frolics, an old age of cards ;
Fair to no purpofe, artful to no end ;
Young without lovers, old without a friend :
A fop their paffion, but their prize a fot ;
Alive ridiculous, and dead forgot."

The principa offences againft brevity of diftion are, lau-
iology, pleunafm, and •uerbofity ; which fee refpeftively.

Another ciicumflance upon which vivacity of elocution
depends is the arrangement of words : and this might be
couiidered as it refpefts fimple and compound fentcnces.
(See Sentence and Period.) We fliall here obferve, that
compofition and arrangement in fentences, though nearly
connefted, are not entirely the fame. Compofition includes
arrangement, and fomething more. When two fentences
differ only in arrangement, the fenfe, the words, and the
conftruftion are the fame ; but when they differ alfo in
other articles of compofition, there muft be fome difference
in the words themfelves, or at leaft in the manner of con-
ftrning them. See Campbell's Philofophy of Rhetoric,
vol. ii. p. 158, &c.

VIVALDI, Don Antonio, in Biography, the moil po-
pular compofer for the violin, as well as player on that in-
ilrument, of his time. He was maettro di capella of the
confervatorio of La Pieta, at Venice. (See Conserva-
TORio.) Befides fixteen operas which he fet for the Vene-
tian theatres, and feveral others for different parts of Italy,
between the year 1714 and 1737, he publiflied eleven dif-
ferent works for inllruments, of which a lift is given in
Walther, without including his pieces called " Stravaganze,"
which among flafliy players, whofe chief merit was rapid
execution, occupied the higheft place of favour. H'.s
Cuckoo concerto, during our youth, was the wonder and
delight of all frequenters of country concerts ; and Wood-
cock, one of the Hereford waits, was fent for far and near
to perform it. If acute and rapid tones are evils, Vivaldi
has much of the fin to anfwer for. His title of Don wns
derived from hir, clerical charaftcr. " It is very ufual,"
fays Mr. Wright in his 'JVavcls through Italy, from 1720
to 1722, " to fee pricll.- play in thcortheftra. The famous
Vivaldi, whom they call the Prrle Ri^ffn, very wtll knows
R r among

V I V

V I V

S.'^ipiifr us for his concertos, was a topping man among them
at Venice."

VIVAR, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Caf-
tile ; 6 miles from Burgos. — Alfo, a town of Italy, in
Friuli ; 5 miles N.E. of Aviano.

VIVARAIS, before the revolution a province of France,
in Lower Langucdoc, on the right fide of the Rhone, of
which Viviers was the capital ; now the department of the
Ardeche.

VIVARIO, a town of the ifland of Corfica ; 10 miles
S. of Corte.

VIVARO, a fmall irtand in the Mediterranean, a little
to the eaft of Ifchia.

VIVARY, Vivarium, in our Laio-Bocls, is fometimes
ufed for a park, warren, or filh-pond, in which living crea-
tures are kept.

VIVER, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
Tince of Valencia ; 8 miles N.W. of Segorbe.

VIVERO, a town of Spain, in Galicia, on the river
Vivero or Landrova ; 18 miles N.W. of Mondonedo. —
Alfo, a river of Spain, in Galicia, which runs into the fea ;
12 miles E. of Cape Ortegal.

VIVEROL, a town of France, in the department of
the Puy de Dome ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Ambert.

VIVERON, a town of France, in the department of
the Dora, on a lake ; 10 miles S. of Ivrea.

VIVERRA, in Zoology. See Ferret and Mustela.

ViVERRA, in the Linntean Syjlem, is a diflinft genus
of the order Ferx (though united by Pennant and Shaw to
the genus Mujlela ; which fee), the charafters of which are,
tliat it has fix cutting-teeth, the intermediate being (horter;
one of tlie canine teeth on each fide longer than the reft ;
the grinders more than three ; the tongue bending backwards,
often aculeated ; and the nails extended. Gmelin reckons
twenty -feven fpccies, which are as follow.

Ichneumon ; Grey Ichneumon. With diftant thumbs,
and tail gradually tapering from a thick bafe, and tufted
at the end. This is called the rat of Pharaoh. See Ich-
neumon.

MuNGO ; Rufous-grey Ichneumon. With diftant thumbs,
and untufted tail, gradually tapering from a thick bafe:
the Indian ichneumon of Edwards ; the quil or quiopele
of Ray ; and the mangoufte of Buffon. Shaw fuggefts
that this may be a variety of the former ; and he obferves,
that the ichneumon is a fpecies of which there feem to be
two dilfinft varieties, one of which (t;«. the latter) is a
native of India, and the other (or former) of Africa :
they are alike in general appearance, but the Egyptian va-
riety is confiderably larger than the Indian, and has its tail
tufted at the end, and thus differing from the Indian. In
India, as well as in Egypt, the ichneumon is regarded as one
of the moft ufcful and eftimable of animals ; as it is an in-
veterate enemy to ferpcnts, rats, and other noxious creatures
which infeft tl>ofe regions. ( See Ichneumon. ) In India,
it attacks with great eagernefs and courage that moft dread-
ful reptile, the cobra de capello, or hooded fnake, and
cafily deftroys it. For fuch purpofes it is domefticated as
the cat is in Europe. It is faid to fwim and dive occa-
Conally, like the otter, and to continue for a long time under
water. This animal is found, not only in various parts of
India, but in the Indian iflands, as Ceylon and others. It
occurs alfo in various parts of Africa befides Egypt, as in
Barbary and the Cape of Good Hope, Sic.

Cafra ; Yellowifli-brown Weafel. With tail gradually
tapering from a thick bafe, and black at the tip. This ani-
mal, refembhng, in its general form, the pole-cat, and
nearly the length of the otter, with blackifh feet and very

12

(hort cars, covered with woolly fur, is a native of the Cape
of Good Hope.

Zenik ; Four-toed Grey Weafel. With ten tranfverfe
black bands on the body, and deep chefnut-coloured tail,
black towards the tip ; it is about the fize of a water-rat,
with a long fnout, and two incifive and fix canine teeth in each
jaw ; it has five toes on each foot ; the claws on the fore-
feet being very long, and almoft ftraight ; and thofe on the
hind-feet are fmall and crooked. It is defcribed by Sonnerat
as a Caffrarian fpecies, being found in the country of the
Hottentots.

Tetradactyla, or Surikatte ; the Grey-brown Wea-
fel. With four-toed feet, and long moveable fnout, and ferru-
ginous tail, black at the tip : the furicate of Buffon, and
four-toed weafel of Pennant. It is an inhabitant of the
Cape of Good Hope, where it is called Meer-rat. It feeds
on flefh, and preys on mice and other fmall animals. It com-
monly fits erect like the fquirrel, and when pleafed, makes
a rattling noife with its tail, from which circumftance it has
obtained, among the Dutch inhabitants of the Cape, the
name of Klappermaus. It is alfo found in the ifland of
Java, where the Dutch call it Surikatje, on account of a pe-
culiar acid fcent which it is faid to emit.

Nasua ; Rufous Weafel. With tail annulated with
white, and lengthened moveable fnout : the coati of Marc-
grave, and coati-mondi of others, and Brafihan weafel of
Pennant. Its fize is equal to that of a cat ; its colour cine-
reous-brown, with a caft of reddifti, and tail annulated with
diftinft circles of black. Like the pole-cat, it preys on
the fmaller quadrupeds, birds, &c. It is a native of South
America. Some animals are diftinguifhed by a prolongation
of the fkin at the back of the head into feveral horny pro-
ceffcs, about a quarter of an inch in length ; and the upper
part of the tongue is marked with feveral furrows, difpofed
fo as to refemble the fibres of a leaf.

Narica ; Brownifh Weafel. With tail of the fame colour,
and lengthened moveable fnout : the coali-brun of Buffon,
and dnfky weafel of Pennant ; reckoned a variety of the
former both by him and Shaw. However, it is larger than
the former, of a browner colour, and without any very dif-
tinft variegations on the tail. It feeds on animals and vege-
tables ; goes into the water, and alfo climbs trees. It is
found in South America.

Vui.pecula ; Dark-chefnut-coloured Weafel. With
lengthened fnout : the coaffe of Buffon, and ftifling
weafel of Pennant. It is about the fize of the pole-cat, of
a deep or blackilh chocolate colour, that of the tail fome-
times mixed with white. This animal is a native of Mexico,
and many other parts of America, and when attacked or ir-
ritated in purfuit, emits very powerfully offenfive effluvia.

Quasje ; Chefnut-coloured Weafel. Beneath yellowifli,
with prolonged fnout and annulated tail ; is found at Su-
rinam, and feeds on worms, infeAs, and fruits, and is
fetid. Probably a variety of the coati-mondi, or Brafilian
weafel.

Putorius ; Blackifti Weafel. With five parallel, white,
dorfal ftripes : the ftriated weafel of Pennant, and conepate
of Buffon : fuppofed to be the female of the V. vulpecula.
Found in North America. It is fometimes tamed, and
rendered domeftic. See Mustela Putorius.

Conepatl ; Blackifh Weafel. With two white dorfal
lines extending along the tail. It is a native of New Spain,
and probably a variety of the preceding.

Mephitis ; Brown Weafel. AVith white back, marked
with a longitudinal black ftripe : the ikunk weafe! of
Pennant, and chinche of Buffon. In manners and fmell
this fpecies refembles the two prececKng.

The

VIVERRA.

The V. Chir.ge of Molina, or black weafel, with a change-
able caft of blue, and a row of white fpots from head to tail,
refembles in fhape and general form the ch'mche juft men-
tioned ; but its colour is black. It is a native of Chili.
According to Molina, its fmell proceeds from a greenifh oil,
ejedled from a follicle or receptacle near the tail. The In-
dians are faid to value the Ikin of this fpecies on account of
its beauty, and to ufe it for various purpofes, quilts, &c.

ZoKiLLA. Weafel variegated with black and white :
the zorilla of BufTon ; the mapurito and niafutiliqui of Gu-
milla, &c.; fmaller than the three precedmg. A native of
Peru and other parts of South America. The ground-
colour is black ; the tail as bufhy and elegant as that of the
mephkic weafel. It poflefTes the fame faculty with the
three former fpecies.

Mapuuito ; Black Weafel. With fnovv-white band
from the forehead to the middle of the back, and without
any external ears. This is the V. putorius of Mutis. Its
tail is nine inches long, and whitifh at the tip. It inhabits
New Spain, burrows under ground, feeds on worms and in-
fers, and may, perhaps, be a variety of the mephitic
weafel.

ViTTATA ; Blackifli Weafel. With a broad white band
from the forehead to each fhoulder : the grifon of BufFon ;
a native of Surinam, and found at Pamplona, in New
Spain, and probably in every part of South America.

Zevi.anica ; Cinereous Weafel. Mixed with brown ;
whitidi beneath ; rcfrmbling the martin, and fufpefted by
Schreber to be the fame with the Ceylonefe dog of Vofmacr.
It is found in Ceylon, and probably in the Phihppine
ifles.

Cai'KNsis ; Black Weafel. With grey back edged wiih
white. This is the (linkbmkfen of Kolbe, and ratel weafel
of Petulant. It is one of the larger animals of the genus ;
cincrcoiis-grey above, and brownilh-black below, the two
colours being feparated along the whole length of the ani-
mal, from the bafe of the nofe to the tail, by a ftripe of
black and white ; when pnrfued it ejeds a fetid liquid, ac-
companied with the intolerable fmell of that of the Ameri-
can wcafels, or Ikunks, and producing the fame effefts. It
is found at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Guinea.

Mellivoha. With cinereous back, witli a black lateral
band ; the abdomen black ; the claws long, hollow beneath,
and formed for burrowing. This is the ratel of Sparrmann,
feeding principally on the honey of wild bees, and found
about the Cape of Good Hope. This iioncy-weafel has a
very tough and loofe fl<in, with thick hair, fuppofed to be
given to it as a natural defence againfl the (lings of bees.
Mr. Pennant feems to have confounded this animal with the
V. capenfis ; both fpecies feed on honey ; but Mr. Sparr-
mann does not mention any ofFenfive effluvia in his de-
fcription.

CivETTA ; A(h-coloured Weafel. Spotted with black,
with chefnut-coloured mane, and duflcy tail fpotted towards
the bafe. This is the fclis zibethi of Gefner and Aldro-
vand, and the civcttc of Buffon, and commonly known by
the name of the civet cat. It is a native of feveral parts of
Africa and India. It is of a mild difpofition, preys on
birds and fmall quadrupeds, and produces the drug called
ctvct ; which fee.

ZiiiETHA ; Alh-grey Weafel. Striated with bhick un-
dulations, and an annulated tail. It is the fclis /ibethi of
Gefner, and zibet of Buffon. Pennant regards it as the
fame fpecies with the former, but it is generally confidered by
modern naturalifts as diftinft. It is found in India, and the
Indian i/lands, and may be called the Indian, whilll thu
former is dejiominated the African civet cat. In djfpofuiou

and manners they both feem to agree ; as well as in the ftacre-
tion of the perfume before-mentioned, which is colleCled
from both animals in the fame manner.

HER.MAi'iinoDiTA ; Dark-grey Weafel. With three
black dorfal ftripes, and long tail with black tip. Schreber
lias defcribed this fpecies from Dr. Pallas. It is a native of
Barbai-y.

GENfilTA ; Fulvous-grey Weafel. With the body marked
with rows of black fpots, and annulated tail. It is the
genette of BufFon, and one of the mofl beautiful animals of
the genus, aiid about the fize of a fmall cat. Its difpofition
is mild, and it is eafily tamed. In various parts of the Eall,
and particularly at Conftantinople, it is domellicatcd like
the cat, and no lefs ferviccable in clearing houfes from rats
and mice. It is a cleanly animal, and has a flight mulky
fmell. It is a native of the weftern parts of Afia, and is
faid likewife to occur in Spain, and in fome parts of France.
The French variety, however, is lefs elegantly and dillindly
fpotted than the Oriental genet ; and Mr. Pennant confiders
it as a diftinft fpecies, under the name of " Pilofello."

FcssA ; Afh-coloured Weafel. Spotted with black,
and with annulated tail. Thisis the (odanc of Bullon, and
fo nearly allied to the genet, and of the fame fize, that it
might be taken for a variety of the fame animal. It is a
native of Madagafcar, Guinea, Bengal, Cochincliina, and
the Philippine iflands : it is fierce, and with difficulty tamed.
It dcftroys poultry hke the common weafel : when young,
it is faid to be good food.

TiGRlNA ; Yellowifh-grey Weafel. With fcrown varie-
gations ; annulated tail tipped with black or brown, and a
black llripe from head to tail. This is the chat-bizaam of
Vofmaer, and the blotched cat of Pennant ; of the fize of
the cat, and of mild manners. Mr. Pennant has referred it
to the genus Felis, but Mr. Schrader makes it a Viverra.
It is found at the Cape of Good Hope. Gmelin fuggefts
that it may be a variety of V. folfa.

CAUDivor.vui.A ; Yellow Weafel. Shaded with du/ky,
with prehenfile tail : the yellow macuaco and yellow weafel
of Pennant, and le kinkajou potot of BufFon. It is an ani-
mal of gentle manners, atlive and playful, and hangs by its
tail occafionally, like the prchenfile-tailed monkeys. Sup-
pofed to be a native of Jamaica. The kinkajou of Buffon
is fuppofed by Pennant to be a diflinft fpecies, and called
Mexican weafel. It was brought from New Spain ; and is
defcribed as fond of vegetables of various kinds, and de-
lighted with fugar and different fweets ; and would feize on
birds, and fuck the blood without tearing its prey. It
flept much by day, and was lively during the night; exhi-
bited the aftions of a monkey, and had various cries, fome-
times a kind of barking note, at other times hilTing, or va-
rioi.ifly modified.

Fasciata ; Grey Weafel. With fix longitudinal black
bands, beneath white ; the hairs of the t.ail long, black
and reddifti. This is the chat fauvage "a bandes noires de»
Indcs of Sonnerat, who firlt defcribed and figured it. It
is a native of India.

Malaccensis ; Grey Weafel. Dotted above with
black, with four round fpots above the eyes, and three
black bands on the neck and rump, and long tail annulated
with black. It is a native of Malacca, defcribed by Son-
nerat ; of the fize of a domeilic cat, and much allied to the
genet and the foffane. It lives by cliace, is nimble in climb-
ing trees, and fo fierce, that if it be only wounded when
/hot, it will turn back and attack the aggrelFor. It diffufcs
a powerful mufky odour, from a receptacle hke that of the
civet cat. The Malays coUcit the fluid there fecrcted, and
l>rclcnd tliat it is iliraulant and ftoroachic. It i.s much
R r i cftccmcd

V I V

cfieemed for thefc qualities by the Chincfc, who puichafc it
of the Malays. Of this fpecies there are fome varieties.

For other fpecies of weafel, we refer to Mustela and
Weasel.

VIVES, a difeafe of the glandular kind among animals,
efpeciaUy tho-fe of the horfe kind. In it there is an inflam-
mation of the glands under the ear, which produces a fwell-
ing, that gradually enlarges and forms a tumour, that
fometim^s terminates in fuppuration. It is occafionally ac-
companied with a flight fever, but not conftantly. It is
moftly caufed by cold and other circumftances which have
a tendency to produce inflammation.

In thefe cafes, when the inflammatory appearances and
fever are moderate, the fize of the tumour not large, but
after fuppurating difcharges itfelf externa'ly, there is little
danger ; while on the contrary, when the inflammation is
more deeply featcd, and the fvvelling breaks and difcharges its
contents internally, there is more danger to be apprehended.

In the removal of the difeafe, where the appearances of the
fever and inflammation are rather high, it may fometimes be
neceflary to take away a little blood, as a pint or two, or
more, according to the iize of the animal, keeping the
bowels properly open by the ufe of fuitable food and clyf-
ters ; and at the fame time, the inflamed and fwelled
gland or part has a fomentation or wafh of Goulard's water
and camphorated fpirit frequently applied to it, by moans of
a cloth of the flannel or other kind ; or, in iome cafes,
where there is a tendency to fuppuration, a bran or linfeed
poultice made up with the fame water may be more eft'ec-
tual. A powder compofed of nitre and aniteed, in the quan-
tity of an ounce or an ounce and a half of each, may like-
wife be given at night in a quart of oatmeal gruel.

In cafe matter be formed, and it can be plainly felt by
the gentle preffure of the finger upon the part, the tumour
may be opened with a lancet in the moil depending part,
wliich will prevent any ulceration of the (kin. In cafes
where the tumours have been very large, a feton is fome-
times introduced, in order to fupport the difcharge until
the cavity which contained the matter be filled up. In this
cafe, the fomentation need only be continued a few days
afterwards, when the wound n\ay be dreifed with common
digellive ointment fpread upon lint. As the wound begins
to heal, the feton may be withdrawn.

Where the tumours break inwardly, the animals may
often be greatly benefited by breathing occafionally for fome
time through a nofe-bag of fcalded bran.

When the animals do not recover their fl:rength in a
proper manner, but become weaker and weaker in confe-
quence of the difcharges from the opened tumours, bark of
the oak or other fimilar kinds fliould be given in large
quantities, with opium, and aromatic feeds in fine powder,
for fome length of time.

In the more early ftages of the difeafe, the animals fiiould
have malhes of bran and oatmeal, with warm water or thin
gruel often given them, and in cafe the maflies (hould be
refufed, the gruel fliould be more frequently given. And
in the latter, when their ftrength will permit, they fliould
have walking exercife daily, and be well taken care of in
their whole management.

While the tumours tend towards fuppuration, it is often
ufeful and neceflary to keep them warmly covered about
the heads and necks, but in other cafes this may fometimes
be hurtful.

When their ftrength is fuUv rellored, a dofe or two of
calomel is often beneficial in completely removing all danger
->f the complaint.
Vjves, Joannes Ludovicus, in Biography, was born at

10

V 1 V

Valencia in Spain in 1492, and having laid the foundation of
literature in his own country, went to Paris, where he fl.udied
the falhionable fcholaftic philofophy, which he afterwards
condemned. From Paris he removed to Louvaiu, devoting
himfelf there to the ftudy of Greek and Latin literature, and
pubhflting a work intitled " Contra Pfeudo-Dialefticos."
In this univerfity he became profeflbr of belles-lettres, and
acquired a degree of reputation which caufed him to be
chofen preceptor to William de Croy, afterwards cardinal.
He alfo ftudied divinity, and wrote a commentary on St.
Auguftine's book " De Civitate Dei," which he dedicated,
in 1522, to Henry VIII. king of England. In confequence
of this work he received an invitation, in 1523, to undertake
the inllrudlion of the princefs Mary, which he accepted.
During his refidence in England, he compofed for the ufe
of his pupil a tracl, " De Ratione ftudii puerilis," and by
command of queen Catharine, his treatife " De Inft.itutione
Foeminx Chriftiana?." At Oxford, where he fpent much
of his time, lie read leftures on law and alfo in the claflics,
and was admitted to the degree of D.LL. Vives forfeited
the king's regard by oppofing in converfation and writing
the divorce of queen Catharine, and was alfo confined for
;ix months in prifon. As foon as he was at hberty he left
England, ami fettled at Bruges, where he married. He was
highly efteemed by his contemporaries among men of literature ;
and fo high was his reputation, that he was popularly named
with Erafmus and Budreus, as one of the triumvirate at the
head of literature at that period. From an epitaph it is in-
ferred that lie died after he had completed his 48th year. His
works were both various and numerous. In divinity, his
treatife " De Veritate Fidei Chriftianse," in five books, is re-
prefented by Dupin as a learned and judicious performance.
His Commentary on St. Auguftine difplays much erudition,
but the Louvain doftors ccnfured fome paflages as too bold
and free, and in their edition of the commentary they were
omitted. Dupin is of opinion that his other theological and
devotional writings difplay more of the orator than of the
divine ; and that Erafmus excelled him in judgment. The
principal of his grammatical and critical works were his
" Exercitatio Lingus Latinas ;" " De Corruptis Arti-
bus ;" " De tradcndis difciplinis." Brucker fays of thefe
works ; " they difcover great ftrength of judgment, an ex-
tenfive knowledge of philofophy, much enlargement of con-
ception, uncommon fagacity in detefting the errors of an-
cient and modern philofophers, particularly of Ariftotle and
his followers, and, in fine, a mind capable of attempting
things beyond the ftandard of the age in which he lived."
The works of Vives were printed coUeAively in 2 vols. fol.
at Bafil in 1555. Dupin. Ivloreri. Brucker by Enfield.
VIVIANI, VixcENTio, an eminent mathematician, was
born of noble parents, at Florence, in the year 1622.
Manifefting at an early period his genius for mathema-
tics, he was recommended by Ferdinand II., grand duke
of Tufcany, to Galileo, under whofe tuition he made
very rapid progrefs in geometry and the new philofophy.
After his death, lie was invited by Torricelh to afliil him in
his experiments on the barometer. But he was chiefly de-
voted to the ftudy of geometry, and his attention was par-
ticularly directed to the ancient geometricians. His firft
objeft, at the age of 23 years, was to fupply the laft work
of a contemporary of Euclid, " De Locis Solidis ;" and he
then proceeded to accomplifli the fame defign with regard
to the " Conies of ApoUoaius ;" for an account of which
we refer to the article Apollonius. Vivlani projefted the
reftoration of the 5th book ; with this view he profecuted
his labour with great diligence, and in the year 1 659 pub-
liihed his divination of ApoUonius. When this work was

afterwards

V I V

afterwards compared witli that of the Greek matlicmaticiaii,
it was difcovered that Viviani had not only formed new
theories, but tliat he had difcovered many new properties of
the conic fedlions, fo that his work may be confidercd as a
fupplement to the ancient theory of thefe curves. In the
years 1664 and 1665, he was engaged, in concurrence with
Caflini, in concerting means for preventing the inundations
of the Tiber, by altering the courfe of certain rivers : and
in their furvey of the country for this purpofe, they were
led to a variety of collateral obfervations on the inlefts
found in the gall-nut, on marine fliells, partly petrilied and
partly in their natural Hate, dug up in the mountains, and
alfo on Etrufcan vafes and infcriptions. In 1666, the grand
duke of Tufcany honoured Viviani with tiie title of his ma-
thematician, which had been previoully enjoyed by Galileo ;
and in 1673 lie commenced printing the work of Arilleus,
an ancient mathematician, the reftoration of which he had
at an early period of his life contemplated : but infirmities
and other engagements prevented his proceeding with it.
In the following year he publidied, in a fniall quarto, fome
works of Galileo, and particularly his Trcatife on Propor-
tion, for illuftrating the 5th book of Euclid. In 1676,
three problems were propofed by M- de Comiers, provoft
of the collegiate church of Ternant, two of which related
to the trifeftion of an angle, for the folution of which Viviani
had difcovered three methods, which he now determined to
publifh. His work on this fubjeft, dedicated to the me-
mory of his friend Chapelain, appeared in 1677. ^" 1692
he propofed, in the Acts of Leipfic, a problem relating to
the art of piercnig an hernifphcrical arch with four equal
windows, in fuch a manner that the remainder of the turface
{hould be abfoUitcly fquarcable. This problem, which he
called a geometrical enigma, was folved by Leibnitz, J.
BernouiUi at Bade, the marquis de I'Hofpital in France,
and by Ur. Wallis and David Gregory in England. Vi-
viani himlelf publillied the problem and his own geometric;J
folution of it in a work, in which he treats, both as a geo-
meter and architect, of the arches of the ancient Romans,
and propofes a new arch to be called the Florentine. In
1664 Louis XIV. had fettled on him an annual penfion, in
confideration of his diilinguilhcd merit: and in 1669 he
was appointed one of the eight foreign alTociates ot the
Academy of Sciences. Thus noticed, he was led in 1701 to
publifh his divination of Arifteus, in three books, dedicated
to his bencfaftor. Part of his penfion was devoted by him
to the conftruclion of a magnificent edifice at Florence,
which he called " VEdes a Deo data," and over the gate
he placed a buft of Galileo, with feveral infcriptions in
honour of him. In his old age he amufed himfelf with the
folution of feveral problems relating to chances on dice.
He alfo publiihed, for facilitating the (tudy of geometry,
an edition of Euclid's Elements, both plane and folid. Vi-
viani, dcfirous of rendering mathematics in connection with
the arts praftically nfeful, was confult-'d both by his coun-
trymen and foreigners on various public works ; and it is
/lated, that, among other benefits which he conferred on his
country, he contributed, by the introdu£lion of new terms
in his mathematical and philofophical writings, to render the
Tufcan language more copious ; but his ftyle is faid to be
inferior in elegance to that of his mailer Galileo. After a
life of ufefulnefs and honour, prolonged to his 8 1 ft year, he
died of an apoplexy, in October 1703.

Baylc has accufed him of atheifm ; but Fabroni has re-
futed the charge. Fonteiielle fays, *' he had that innocence
and fimplicity which are commonly prcfervcd by perfons
who have more intcrcourfc with books than with men.

V I V

without that h-jiighlincls and boiftcrous rudeiiefs which are
often acquired by them. He was affable, modelt, fiiicere,
and faithful in his friendfhips ; and what includes many
virtues in one, he was grateful, in the highell degree, to
thofe from whom he received favours." His works were
numerous. To fome of them we have already referred.
Fabroni. Montucla. Fontenelle Eloges, &c. Gen. Biog.

VIVIEN, .lo.sEPn, a French painter, who, though a
pupil of Le Bruii, pradtifed his art moftly in crayons, and
obtained a degree of reputation, which few who ha«e worked
in tliofe perifhable materials have arrived at. He was
born at Lyons, in 1657. His portraits were frefh and vi-
gorous, and obtained for him confiderable employment,
and the favour of the eleftor of Bavaria, who made him
his flate painter, and gav him a penfion. His portrait is
among thofe of diftinguiflied artilis at Florence. He died
in 1735.

VIVIER, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the lUe and Vilaine ; 3 miles N. of Del.

VIVIERS, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardeche, on the right bank of the Rhone. Before the
revolution, the fcfe of a bifliop, and capital of a province,
called Vivarais, now the department of the Ardeche;
16 miles S.S.E. of Privas. N. lat. 44° 20'. E. long-
4° 46'.

VIVIFICATION, in Alfdkine, the art of -vivifying,
that is, of contributing to the attion that gives hfe, or
maintains life.

The chemifts alfo ufe the word in fpeaking of the new
force, vigour, and lullre, which, by their art, they give to
natural bodies, particularly to mercury ; whicii, after having
been fixed, or amalgamated, they rellore to its firft ftate.
See Revivikication.

VIVIPAROUS, ViVlPARUS, in Natural Hijlory, an
epithet applied to fucli animals as bring forth their young
alive and perfeft ; in contradillindtion to fuch as lay eggs,
which arc call-d oviparous animals.

The females of all the quadrupfd clafs are viviparous, and
thofe of the bird clafs are all oviparous.

The laws of nature in the larger animals are, therefore,
in 3 great meafure, fixed and certain ; but it is not fo in the
infeft tribes, nor in the fiflies ; for of thefe, fome are vivi-
parous, and others oviparous ; and thofe of genera nearly
allied to one another.

Among infefts, the much greater number are oviparous ;
but there are many which are not fo, as the p.icerons, pro-
gall infeds, cochineal, &c. The millepedes and fcorpions
are alio well known to be fo ; all the females of the butter-
fly, and of fome other clalfes, lay only eggs ; but the mod
fingular and remarkable inconllancy in nature, if we may be
allowel tiie cxprefiion, is that in the fly kingdom ; the fame
clafs ot infeits, aicd even the fame genus, will furnifli us with
lome which are viviparous, and others which are oviparous :
the two-winged flies give us inllances of this ; but tlufe are
not fingular in that ref])eft ; for among the reptile world,
there are other creatures whicli are fubje<ft to the fame va-
rieties ; and Swammerdam has obferved a viviparous fnail.

The fpecies of viviparous two-wi.iged flies are niiii;h more
rare than the oviparous ; and among the four-winged clafs
they are yet more uncommon. It is not certain, that any
of the latter, bcfide the winged. pucerons, are of this kind;
but among the former there are fix or feven fpeci' s which
are known always to produce living worms, an 1 -robably
many more will be difcovered, by a more clofe attention
ihun has hithcito been given them.

It is cafy to tlnd about our houfcs one of thefe fpecies of

viviparous

V I V

viviparous flies ; the creature is always buzzing about the
places where meat is kept, and loves to depofit her youn^,
as the common blue flelh-fly does its eggs, on meat. Its
way of carrying its wings is the fame with that of the blue
fly, and its antennx are of the fame form. It at leaft equals
the blue fly in length, but its body is lefs thick, and is a
little bent at the hinder part ; its colour is grey ; its legs
are black ; its petty wings whitiih, and its reticular eyes
reddifh.

There are, befide this fpecies, two other of the viviparous
flies, which are not uncommon. Both thefe, in a great mea-
fure, refemblc the former, but their bodies are ihorter, and,
in the whole, they much more than the other approach to
the form of the blue flefli-fly. They ari alio fmaller than
the former fpecies : the one of them, however, on the whole,
is not fo much fo, and, though fhorter, yet is much thicker
both in the corcelet and body. They are both, though
fmaller than that kind, yet tolerably large flies, and are
bigger than the common horfe-fly.

On the leaves of ivy alfo there are often feen, about au-
tumn, two other fpecies of 'viviparous flies, which are eafily
diltinguiflied from all the others. Thofe of one of thefe
fpecies are larger than the great blue flelh-fly, and have a
fhorter and thicker body than that kind. The manner of
carrying the wings is alfo the fame in both ; but though
both have antennae of the battledore kind, yet they are
evidently diftinguifhed by this, that the extremities of the
one are lenticular, and thofe of the other prifmatic. Near
the origin of each wing thefe have a brownifli fpot, as have
thofe oviparous flies which ufually have ia their body only
two large eggs at a time, and which are produced of the
yellow worms, fo common in cow-dung. But thefe vivi-
parous ones differ from thofe flies, in that they are larger,
and of a deep, but dead brown ; whereas the others are
black, or nearly fo.

The other fpecies is not much unlike this in form,
but is fmaller, being not more than of the bignefs of
the blue flefli-fly, and of a blueiih-black ; fo that it might
eafily be miftaken for one of the common flelli-flies, were
it not for the two brown fpots at the infertion of the
wings ; and both this and the former fpecies are plainly
diftinguifhed from the cow-dung fly before defcribed, by
their wanting the gold-coloured down which that has on
the fore-part of its head. Reaumur, Hift;. Infeft. vol. iv.
p. 405, feq.

Vipers are diftinguiflied from fnakes, in that the latter lay
eggs in dunghills, to be hatched by the warmth of them ; but
the former are viviparous, that is, they keep their eggs
within their bellies, aud bring forth live vipers.

In the PhilofopTiical Tranfaftions we have an account of
a viviparous fly of the oallrum or gad kind. Dr. Lifter
tells us, he opened- feveral females of this clafs, and found,
in each, two bags of live white worms. The hke is hinted
by Aldrovaiidus. Lifter even fufpefts, that all in this tribe
are, in fome meafiire, viviparous.

ViviPAKOUs Slurp Fifcue Grafs, in Agriculture, a fort
which is found on the tops of high mountains, and which
is particularly worthy of the notice of the ftock-farmer,
as it is of a very nutritious quality for ftieep, and is faid to
abound in Spain, and to contribute in producing the fine
wool of that country. See Festuca and Grass.

LT.IUM RAJAH Point, in Geography, a cape on the
north coaft of Sumatra. N. lat. 4° 58'. E. long. 96'' 31'.

VIVO, ill ArchtteSure, the fhaft or fuft of a column.

The term is alfo ufed, in a more particular fenfe, for the
naked of a column, or other part.

U K S

VIVOIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de.
partment of the Sarte ; 14 miles N. of Le Mans.

VIVONNE, a town of France, in the department of
the Vier.ne ; 6 miles E. of Lufignan.

VIVUM LiNUM. See Linum.

VivuM Sulphur. See Sulphur.

V'lX, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vendee ; 6 miles S. of Fontenay le Comte.

VIXEN, or FixEN, among Sport/men, denotes a fox's
cub.

VIZ A, or BiziA, in Geography, a town of Romania;
50 miles W. of Adrianople.

VIZAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; i8
miles S.E. of Chandor.

VIZARD, or VizoR. See Masque.

VIZERABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Lahore : 16 miles N. of Ameenabad.

VIZERABY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Baglana
coiH-.try, celebrated for its hot fprings ; 20 miles N.E. of
Bafteen.

VIZEROY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Ellore ; 10 miles N. of EUore.

VIZIAMANGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 13 miles S.V/. of Erroad.

VIZ I ANAGRAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Cicacole ; 108 miles N.E. of Rajamundry. N. lat.
18° 5'. E. long. 83° 36'.

VIZIANAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Cicacole ; 33 miles W.S.W. of Ganjam.

VIZIER. SeeVisiER.

VIZILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifcrc ; 7 miles S.S.E. of Grenoble.

VIZINI, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto ; 20
miles N.W. of Syracufe. N. lat. 37° 2'. E. long. 14° 53'.

UK, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Uda, 16
mili-s N. of Udinlk.

UKDE, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;
8 miles S. of Abu-Arifch.

UKELEY, a river of Brandenburgh, which runs into
the Rega, near Plate.

UKENSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Tobollk, at the conflux of the Irtifch and the Oby ; 196
miles N. of Tobollk. N. lat. ei'' 10'. E. long. 69° 14'.

UKERATH, a town of the duchy of Berg. In 1796,
the Auftrians eftablilhed here a ftrong poft.

UKIKITSCHA, a river of Ruflia, in the government
of Irkutfli, which runs into the Olenek, N. lat. 69° 20'.
E. long. 1 17^ 21'.

UK INS KOI, a town of Ruflia, in the peninfula of
Kamtfchatka ; 80 miles N. of Niznei Kamtfchatlkoi. N.
lat. 57^55'. E. long. 160° 14'. — Alfo, a cape of Ruflia,
on the eaftern coaft of Kamtfchatka; 60 miles N.E. of
Udinflcoi. N. lat. 58° 36'. E. long. 162°.

UKIPEN, a fmall illand in the North Pacific ocean,
fo called by the Ruffians, probably the fame with that called
Sledge ifland by Capt. Cook. N. lat. 64*^ 22'. E. long.
211°.

UKKA3S, a town of Algiers ; 10 miles W. of Tipfa.

UKLI KARAGAISKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruflia, in
the government of Upha ; ^6 miles W. of Troitfk.

UKRAINE, a name given to a very fertile country,
fituated on both fides of the river Dnieper, and fo fertile,
that by the Poles it was always called the " Land of Milk
and Honey." It forms now a part of the Ruflian govern-
ment of Ekaterinoflav. See Cossacks.

UKSA, a town of Ruflia, in the governmrnt of Viborg;

44 miles

U L A

44 miles N. of Serdopol. — Alfo, a river of Ruffia, which
runs into laice Ladoga ; 40 miles N.W. of Olonetz.

ULA, in Surgery, a gumboil, or a fmall abfcefs of the
gums.

VLACQ, Adrian, in Biography, a Flemilh mathema-
tician of Ghent, commenced with Napier and Briggs in
facihtating, by means of logarithms, the apphcation of tri-
gonometry to fcientific and praftical purpofes. The fervice
which he rendered to this branch of fcience appears partly
under the article Briggs. But bcfides his addition to the
work of Briggs, he extended his tables to fines, tangents,
and fecants, and their logarithms from 10 to 10 feconds.
Thefe new and ample tables were publifhed in 1633, with
the logarithms of the natural numbers from unity to 20,000.

VLADIMIR, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and ca-
pital of a government, at the conflux of the Kliazma and
the Nerl ; 100 miles E. of Mofcow. N. lat. 55° 50'. E.
long. 40" 22'.

Vladimir, Order of St., or as it is exprefled in the pa-
tents, of the prince equal to an apoftle Vladimir, a Ruffian
order of knighthood, founded by the emprefs Catharine II.
on the 22d of September 1782, being her 20th coronation
day, for men of merit in the civil or military ftations. It
has four clafTes, of which the fenior knight receives a pcn-
fion, in the firll clafs 600, and in the fourth 100 rubles.
Any perfon who has fcrved faithfully for 35 years may
apply for this order ; it is worn to a ribband, red in the
middle, and on each fide a black ftripe : the knights of the
two firft clades, as in the other high orders, wear a ftar on "
the bread. The ftar is of eight points, interchangeably of
gold and filvcr, having a red area, bearing a crofs, with the
Ruffian letters C. P. K. B. " Svsetago Revnoapoftelnago
Knsefa Vladimira," i. e. the holy apollle-like prince Vladi-
mir. Round the badge are the words " Polfa, Tfcheft i
Slava," utility, honour and fame, with a ribband of two
black and one red ftripes. The chapter of this order is
held in the church of St. Stephen. In 1790 the number of
knights was 7 1 6.

VLADiMIRSKOE, in Geography, a government of
Ruffia, bounded on the N. by the governments of Jaroflavl
and Koftrom, on the E. by the government of Nizegorod,
on the S. by the governments of Tambov and Riazan, on
the W. by Mofkovdiaia, and on the N.W. by Tver(l<oe ;
about 160 miles from E. to W. and 80 from N. to S. N.
lat. 55^ 20' to 57'^ 10'. E. long. 38° to 43'^

ULADISLAUS I., furnamed Herman, in Biography,
king of Poland, fuccecded his brother Boleflaus in the year
1082. As Boleflaus had been excommunicated by pope
Gregory VII., and the kingdom laid under an iiiterdift, the
pope would allow Uladiflaus no other title than that of
duke. The defeftion of Ruffia, Pruffia, Pomerania, and
other provinces at the commenc(-ment of this reign, obliged
Uladiflaus to have recourfe to arms ; and he fucceeded at
length in fubduing the Pomeranians. Soon afterwards, he
was involved in a civil war by the rebellion of his fons ;
but the archbllhop of Gnefna efFeftcd a rcconciKation, and
prince Boleflaus defeated the Prnffians arid Pomeranians who
had taken a part againft the king during the civil contefts.
In 1 103 Uladiflaus died, at the age of fifty-nine, with the
charaftcr of a pious and mild fovereign, too much under
the dominion of paralites and favourites. Mod. Un. Hiih
Moreri.

Ul.ADiSLAlis II., king of Poland, fon of Boleflaus III.
fucceeded his father in 1 139. Being under the influence of
his queen Chriilina, fider of the emperor Henry V., (he
engaged him in a plan for gaining entire polFcffion of Po-
land, part of it having been diftributed among his brothers

ULA

ui fc-parate duchies by the teftament of their father. He
convened the ftates, but notxvithflanding his eloquent ha-
rangue, they rcfufed concurring in his project. At length
Uladiflaus took up arms and attacked his brothers ; he ex-
pelled two of them from their dominions; but uniting to-
gether, they fell fuddenly on the royal armv and totally
defeated it. The king, defertcd by the Rufllans who had
engaged to affill him, retired into Germany to the emperor
Conrad. At length he was folemnly depofed by the diet,
after an inglorious reign of fcven years, and fucceeded by
his brother Boleflaus. Uladiflaus, in confequence of the in-
terceffion of the emperor Frederic BarbarofTa, obtained Si-
lefia, which was thus feparated from the crown of Poland,
and has never been re-annexed to it. Uladiflaus died in
1 159. Mod. Un. Hifl. Moreri.

Uladislaus III., king of Poland, furnamed from his
fmall flature Loketah, or cubit's length, having expelled
Premiflaus II. in 1296, obtained pofTeffion of the kingdom.
But the people were fo opprefi'ed by his tyranny and the
hcentioufnefs of his foldiers, that the Hates depofed him in
1300, and elefted Wenceflaus, king of Bohemia, to fupply
his place. He retired firft to Hungary, then to Rome ;
but hearing of the difcontents that prevailed in Poland, he
put himfelf at the head of a confiderable army : and whilif
he was making conqueils, Wenceflaus died, ai'id he was re-
ftored to the throne in 1305 ; with powers limited and
reftrained. The Teutonic knights having taken pofTeffion
of a great part of Pomerania, he commenced a war with
them, which, after alternate defeats and victories, termi-
nated in his recovery of the territories which they had
ufurped ; Uladiflaus, during the progrefs of the conteJl,
having difplayed great military talents, combined with hu-
manity and generofity. He then direfted his .attention to
the arts of peace, and having in the courfe of fifteen years
eftablifhed liis reputation, lie indulged himfelf and his queen
in a magnificent coronation, with the full confent of the
ftates and of the fee of Rome. Soon afterwards he fell
into a chronic difeafe, which clofed his life in 1333, the
ftates having previoufly promifed to cleft his fon Catimir as
his fuccefior. Mod. Un. Hifl. Moreri.

Uladisi.ai'.s IV., king of Poland, obtained the crown
by the intcreft of his wife, Hedwiga, daughter of king
Lewis, to whom the ftates had ofl"ered the crown on the
death of Ikt fatlicr, provided tliat (he married with the con-
fent of her fubjefts, and that her huftiand would refide in
the kingdom, .lagello, duke of Lithuania, was the fuitor
of the princefs, who confented to embrace the Chriftian
religion, to oblige his fubjefts to be baptized, and to annex
Lithuania infeparably to Poland, and to reconquer Pome-
rania and the territories ufurped by the Teutonic order.
The Poles approved liis liberal offers, and interpofed to gain
the confent of Hedwiga, who was attached to William of
Auftria. At lengtli Jagello's perfon and vivacity, together
with the urgent perfuafion of the people, overcame her re-
Inftance, and fhe gave her hand to him in 13S6, when he
was baptized by the name of Uladiflaus and elevated to the
throne. By tiiis alliance, not only Lithuania, but the duchies
of Sainogitia and Black Ruffia, were annexed to the Polifh
crown. The Teutonic knights became ii;dignant, and re-
volted ; and having recourfe to arms, took feveral fortrefTes
before the king was aware of their deligns. However, he
foon expelled them, and reduced the palatine of Bofnia,
who had revolted, to fubmiflion. He then undertook the
cnnverfion of the Lithuanians, who were grofs idolaters.
With this view he cut down their facred forells, cxtinguifhcd
their fires, demolifticd their temples, eftablifhed a body of
Chriftian clergy, and crcfted an archbilhopnc at its capital,

Wilna.

U L C

Wiliia. Leaving hU brother Skirgello as his viceroy, he
returned to Poland. Skirgello by his barbarity, and the
Teutonic knights by their unwarrantable praftices, foon oc-
cafioned a rebellion, that was not terminated without much
bloodfhed. This event was followed by a war with the
Tartars, in which the lieutenant of Lithuania was defeated
by a heutenant of Tamerlane, and by wars between Poland
and Pruffia, m which Uladiflaus took the field in perfon, and
penetrating into Pomerania, gained a great viftoi-y over the
knights near Marienburg. Failing to take the town, he
conlented to grant the knights an advantageous peace.
The reputation of Uladiflaus induced the Hufiites of Bo-
hemia to offer him the crown, but he dechned accepting it.
After a reign of forty-eight years, generally profperous and
at length tranquil, he died at a very advanced age in the
year 1434, highly honoured and much regretted. Mod.
Un. Hilt. Moreri.

Uladislaus v., king of Poland, was the fon of the
preceding. See Ladislaus IV. king of Hungary.

UL^, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afiatic Sarma-
tia, upon the coaft of tlie Cafpian fea. Ptol.

ULAK, in Geography, a mountain of Bofnia ; 20 miles
S.S.W. of Zwornick.

ULAMA, in Anesint Geography, a town of Paleftine,
S.E. of Dio Cxfarea, at the diilance of about 12 miles.

UL.^MIRSKA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Tobolfit ; 48 miles E.S.E. of Yalu-
torovlk.

VLARDINGEN, or Vlaerdingen, a town ©f Hol-
land, formerly the feat of the counts, fituatcd on the N.
fide of the Meufe ; 2 miles W. of Schiedam.

ULATHA, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by
Jofephus between Galilee and the Trachoniiis.

ULAUN, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 45 miles
W.N.W. of Ramgur.

ULBACH, a river of the duchy of Baden, which runs
into the Elzach, 4 miles N.W. of Elzach.

ULBO, a fmall ifland in the Adriatic, near the coaft of
Dalinatia ; 4 miles W. of Pago.

ULCAMI, or Ulcumi, a kingdom of Africa, on the
coaft of Guinea, N. of Ardra.

ULCER, in Surgery. The word ulcer, as profcflbr
Thomfon rightly obferves, does not cafily admit of a fatif-
faftory definition. It has, fays he, fometimes been ufed in
a more extenfive, and at other times in a more limited fenfe.
By fonie it has been defined to be a folution of continuity
in the folid parts of the body, accompanied with the dif-
charge of a purulent fluid. According to this definition,
the term ulcer is fynonimous with the words fore, fuppu-
rating wound, and open abfcefs. Dr. Thomfon thinks this
ufe of the term ulcer too general and indefinite. By others,
the term ulcer has been employed to exprefs only thofe fo-
lutions of continuity, from which an ichorous, fanious, or
vitiated matter is dilcharged, attended with a lofs ot fub-
ftance in the part. Although profeflbr Thomfon thinks
more favourably of this definition than the former, we con-
fefs our decided preference of the other, for the reafons
which this judicious furgeon has himfelf explained. If we
objeft to calling fuppurating wounds, and fuch abfcefles as
have burft, ulcers, as long as they difcharge healthy pus,
what particular reafon is there for approving of their re-
ceiving tliis name only when the matter from them happens
to be of a bad quality ? The healthy or unhealthy ftate oi
the difcharge from a fore or an abfcels, is an accidental cir-
cumftance, depending upon the favourable or unfavourable
condition of the parts to admit of the procefs by which
they are to be healed. If the preceding capricious rnethod

U L C

of defining an ulcer were to be fanftioned, every ulcer
would ceaie to be one, when the difcharge from it becomes
healthy pus ; nor could there be any inch ulcer as that
which has ufually been defcribed by the name of the fimple,
purulent, and 'healthy ulcer.

In all the foregoing cafes, whether fores, fuppurating
wounds, or open abfcefles, the parts can be healed only by
one and the fame procefs, — the formation of granulations ;
and the principal difference in thefe examples is, that in
fuppurating wounds and abfceffes, there is not always a lofs
of fubftance, as in the inftances of ulcers. In thefe, a chafm
or breach is aftually produced in the part affefted by the
aftion of the abforbent veffels in the procefs of ulceration ;
which fee.

The caufes of ulcers, fays Dr. Thomfon, are extremely
various. Some of thele caufes operate more, others lefs di-
reftly ; fome are limited in their operation to tlie parts to
which they are immediately applied, while the influence of
others extends to the general iyftem ; and hence a diftinc-
tion of ulcers, which is in common ufe, and which muft
ever continue to be made of ulcers, into local and conlti-
tutional. It is only, however, withitj certain limits, as pro-
feffor Thomfon oblerves, that even this dillinftion is well
founded ; for an ulcer which was at firft completely local,
may in time affeft the fyftem fo as to become conftitutional ;
and ulcers which derived their origin from fome general
affeftion of the fyftem, may remain after the conftitutional
affeAion has been removed, by which they were originally
■ produced.

When an ulcer arifes from an internal caufe, it is, as
profeffor Thomfon has accurately explained, the immediate
effeft of the procefs of ulcerative abforption ( fee Ulcera-
tion) ; but when a wound, a burn, or an abfcefs, becomes
an ulcer, it is by no means neceffary that the procefs of
ulcer.Htive abforption ftiould in any degree whatever have
taken place. A fuppurating furface, when it is long in
healing, or when it is changed from a healthy to an un-
healthy ftate, may, according to the ufe that is at prefent
made of the term ulcer, become an ulcer, without the pro-
cefs of ulceration having ever been induced. Every fuppu-
rating furface, or abfcefs of long continuance, may, in this
extended fenfe, be regarded as an ulcer ; at leaft, the period
at which they ceafe to be wounds or abfceffes, and when
they become ulcers is not very diftinftly marked. So true,
indeed, is this, that in defining and claffifying ulcers, au-
thors have always found it neceffary to fet out from a
healthy ftate of the fuppurating furface, or, in other words,
to begin the confideration of the fubjeft of ulcers, with
whA they term a healthy or a fimple purulent ulcer.

Ulcers, continues Dr. Thomfon, have ufually been dif-
tinguiftied from each other, as Fallopius very juftly remarks
in his treatife upon this fubjeft, by the caufes by which
they are induced, by the fymptoms which they exhibit, and
by the parts of the body in which they occur. The want
of a difpofition to heal in a fuppurating furface may depend
upon lome fpecific aftion in the caule from which it pro-
ceeds ; upon fomething pecuhar in the conftitution of the
patient in whom it exifts ; or merely upon aij improper
mode of management. Hence, the diftindtion that has ,
long been made of ill-conditioned fores, or ulcers, into thofe
which are fpecific in their nature, and into thofe which are
fimple.

Specific fores, or ulcers, may be occafioned by fpecific
poifons, or by particular diathefes. The fores, or ulcers,
which arife from fpecific poifons, may be either local, that
IS, confined, like a primary fyphilitic ulcer, to one part ; or
conftitutional, that is, liable to occur in any part, texture,

or

ULCER.

or organ, fuch as fecondary fypliilitic ulcers. Of diathefes
predifpofnig to ulcers, we have examples in the fcrophulous,
fcorbutic, and arthritic diathefes, and alfo in the fyphiloid
diathefis, or that which arifes not unfrequently in thofe who
have had fypliilie, from the too free and injudicious ufe of
mercury.

In addition to the foregoing obfervations, felefted from
the valuable leftures on inflammation, lately publifhcd by
profeflbr Tliomfon of Edinburgh, we fubjoin from the fame
excellent authority a few more general remarks on the fub-
jeft of ulcers.

The appearances, fays Dr. Thomfon, which different
ulcers exhibit, feem at firft view to afford an excellent
foundation for diftinftions among them ; and fo they un-
doubtedly do in many refpefts. Surgeons have accordingly
endeavoured to obferve, arrange, and claflify, the various
morbid appearances which occur in ulcers, and to give to
tliefe appearances appropriate and peculiar names. It is
probable that every morbid affeftion, to which the human
body is liable, poffefles charafters, or exhibits appearances,
which are peculiar to itfelf. To difcover thefe appearances
in the fymptoms of difeafes, and in the various modes of
their commencement, progrefs, and termination, is at all
times the great objeft which the fcientific praAitioner pro-
pofes to himfelf. It is to be regretted, however, that the
charafters upon which the dillinftions of ulcers, as well as
of many other local difeafes, are founded, are neither very
uniform in their appearance, nor very eafdy diftinguidiable
from one another. Not only are the local appearances,
which prefent themfelves in fimple ulcers, liable to great
variations in the different ftages of the fame individual affec-
tion, but they are often apparently the fame with, or at
leaft not eafily diftinguifliable from, thofe which occur in
fpecific difeafes, and which require for their cure peculiar
modes of treatment. It is this circumftance which renders
it fo neceffary for us, in endeavouring to diftinguifli and to
cure ulcers, to avail ourfelves of all the information which
we can procure from the hiftory of the ulcer, from the na-
ture of the exciting caufe by which it has been induced, and
from the effefts of the remedies which have been employed,
as well as from the particular appearances which the ulcer
ilfelf exhibits. But though the dillinftions, which are
taken from the appearances of ulcers, may not at all times
enable us to diliinguifti thofe which are fimple in their
nature from others which arifc from fpecific caufes, llicy
are not, fays profeffor Thomfon, to be regarded as unim-
portant or ufelefs ; for, he believes, it will be found, that
fimilar appearances in ulc-rs require in general, though not
always, the fame local applications, and fimilar modes of
management, whether the ulcers be of a fimple or fpecific
nature.

Specific difeafes render fomc parts more liable than others
to attacks of ulceration. Thus, fecondary fyphilis appears
moll frequently in the throat ; fcurvy in the gums ; cancer
in the lower lip ; and lupous and fcrophulou?^ ulcerations in
the upper lip, or in the nofe. Cancer fcldom or never ap-
pears primarily in the upper lip ; but fyphilis, when it
attacks this part, puts 0:1 many of the appearances of can-
cer ; a faft which profeffor Thomfon fird Icirncd from Mr.
Pearfon, and which he has fince had feveral opportunities of
feeing confirmed.

Ulcers upon the lower extremity, citteris paribus, are
longer in healing than fores in other parts o( the body.
This comparative backvrardnefs of ulcers of the legs to heal
is probably owing to three principal rircnmftances : firfl,
the diftance of thefe parts from the fource of the circul.-.tion ;
fecondly, the retardation of the venous blood in ihcm in the

Vol. XXXVII.

eretS pofition of the body ; aad, thirdly, the difturbance
and irritation to which fuch ulcers are frequently expofed,
by the patient imprudently walking about, and negleding
himfelf. The common pofition of the lower extremities is
alfo very unfavourable to the quick paffage of the lymph
through the trunks of the abiforbents ; and this may be the
reafon why even the flighted injuries of the lower extremities
are often accompanied with a confiderable degree of oedema-
tous fwelling.

Sir Everard Home, in his Praftical Obfervations on the
treatment of ulcers of the legs, mentions feveral fafts,
which feem to prove that ulcers are more common in tall
than in thort men ; and that ulcers of the legs heal with
more or lefs difficulty, according as they are feated nearer
to, or more remote from, the feet. Ulcers, unconnefted
with any fpecific difeafe in the conftitution, may occur on
the legs, as well as other parts of the body, from external
or from internal caufes. Among the external caufes, fays
profeffor Thomfon, we may rank contufions, wounds,
burns, and the application of every fubftancc capable of
exciting inflammation. Among the internal caufes we
ought probably to rank the predifpofing caufes. Of thefe,
we have not only the diftance from the heart, and retrograde
motion of the blood, but peculiarities of conftitution, fuch
as temperaments, diathefes, and idiofyncrafies ; which often
become manifeft only from the effefts to which they give
rife. Thus, the flight fcratch, or excoriation, which in
one perfon will heal without any trouble ; in another,
though placed in circumftances precifely ahke, becomes a
difagreeable and troublefome ulcer. An ulcer, alfo, which
is produced in the leg of a perfon of a fcrophulous diathefis,
though the difeafe may never have appeared in the general
fyftem, often difcovers a backwardnefs to heal, and in fome
inftances exhibits fymptoms that are peculiar to itfelf. The
age, mode of life, and habits of the patient, are circum-
ftances alfo which will modify the appearances, and tend to
increafe the backwardnefs to heal and the ubftinacy of ulcers.
Thus, the aged, the fedentary, and the diffipated, are
known to be more hable to ulcers of the lower extremities,
than the young, aftive, and fober. See Thomfon's Lec-
tures on Inflammation, p. 426 — 433.

We fliall next endeavour to defcribe the feveral principal
varieties of ulcers, and the moft approved methods of treat-
ment.

Simple purulent or healthy Ulcers. — The ulcers, termed
ftmplc purulent by Mr. Benjamin Bell, fir Everard Home
denominates ulcers in parts, ■which have fujficient Jirenglh to
carry on the aSions necejfary for their own recovery. As Dr.
Thomfon has obferved, the defcriptions, which have been
given of thefe ulcers by different authors, will loon apprife
us, that they differ in no refpeft from hcikhy fuppurating
furfaccs. The pus is of a white colour, thick confiftencc,
and readily feparatcs from the furfacc of the fore. When
diluted, and examined with a microfcope, it ii found to be
compofed of fmall globules, whicii fwim in a tranfparent
fluid. The granulations of a healthy ulcer are faall, florid,
and pointed .it the top. As foon as they have rifen to the
level of the furrounding fltin, thofe which are next to the
old fl<in become fmooth, and covered with a thin, tranf-
parent film, which is afterwards rendered opaque, and con-
verted into cuticle.

The main indications in the treatment of iK-allhy ulcers
are, to keep the furfacc, and efpccially the adjoining in-
teguments, clean, and to prevent the natural proccffes from
being interrupted. According to lir Everard Home, this
will in general be beft accomplilhed by the .ipplicaliun of
dry hnt, in order to ahforb and retain the Iccreted matter,
S f which

ULCER.

which ferves as a foft covering for tlie granulations. A
pledget of fimple ointment muft alfo be laid over the lint,
for the purpoie of hindering the evaporation of the fluid
parts of the pus. By this means, the dreflings will continue
foft and moift, be prevented from becoming adherent to the
furface of the fore, and kept in a ftate in vphich they can
always be removed without pain, or irritation.

In fome particular examples of healthy ulcers, fir Everard
Home has found rollers or bandages d:fagree, caufing un-
eafinefs in the part, and making the fores lole their healthy
appearance. This, however, is not the ufual eifeCl of a
roller in fuch cafes ; but, whenever it is obferved to be fo,
the bandage muft of courfe be difcontinued.

In a few other inftances, ointments are found to irritate
and inflame the neighbouring fl<in, fo that it becomes necef-
fary to leave them off. In fach cafes, the furgeon may
apply over the lint a comprefs of fnie linen, wet with water,
or the lotio plumbi acetatis.

There are alfo certain fuperlicial ulcers, which will not
heal, while kept in a moiil itate, unexpofed to the air ; but
which readily heal when allowed to become dry, and covered
with a fcab. Sir Everard Home has made the following
general remarks on the fubjeft of dreflings for healthy
ulcers.

1. Applications in the form of vapour, and fomentations,
fliould never be employed, as they render the texture of
the granulations loofer, and diminifti the difpofition to form
fldn.

2. With refpeft to fluid applications, fir Everard Home
alfo very properly condemns poultices, as well as fomenta-
tions. He fpeaks of alcohol, as being an application,
which promotes the formation of a fcab, wlien this mode of
cure is chofen.

3. In regard to ointments, their only ufe, in cafes of
healthy ulcers, is to keep the matter from evaporating.
The moft fimple ointments are the beft for the purpofe, par-
ticularly the one compofed of white wax and olive oil.

The great objections to the common fimple ointments are,
that they fometimes difagree viith the fliin, even when re-
cent, and free from all rancidity. When they have acquired
the latter quality, they ftill more frequently create a greater
degree of irritation.

4. With refpeft to applications in the form of powder,
fir Everard Home remarks, tliat when it is delirable to form
a fcab on the ulcer, any inert powder may be fprinkled on
the fore ; but he prefers dry lint. Nothing (hould touch
the powder, or lint ; and to prevent this circumftance, lir
E. Home recommends applying a little boUler on each
fide of the fore, and over them a roller, which will go from
one boUler to the other, in the manner of a bridge.

For healthy ulcers, dry Imt is to be regarded as being,
upon the whole, the moft eligible application. When the
fore does not fccretc pus enough in twenty-lour hours to
moiften the lint, the dreflings are only to be changed every
other day.

When a moderately tight bandage is not forbidden by
conftitutional peculiarities, it is ufeful, both in fupporting
the mufcles and fixin, which are often in a flabby ftate, from
the uncxercifed ftate of the limb, and in defending the
nev.-ly formed parts.

We fliall prefently have occafion to fpeak of Mr. Bayn-
ton's plan of drefling old ulcers of the leg with ftrips of
adhefivc plafter. This method is now not confined to old
ulcers, but often adopted with advantage in cafes of fimple
healthy fores upon the lower extremities.

Of irv'itahle Ulcers. — Thefe are called by Mr. Benjamin
'&t:\\ ftmpU vitiated ulcers ; and by fir Everard Home, ulcers

in parts, luhofe aSions are too violent to form healthy granu-
lations, either from the flate of the parts, or of the conjlitution.
Mr. Bell charafterizes this fpocics of ulcer chiefly by the
vitiated ftate of the difcharge ; while the other gentleman
ranks all ulcers under the denomination of irritable, which
require fedative apphcations for their cure.

According to the obfervations of the latter writer, an
irritable and an indolent ulcer cannot always be diftinguiftied
from each other by mere appearances, though they can be
fo in a few inftances. The difpofition of an ulcer, like the
difpofition of a conftitution, can only be accurately afcer-
tained by determining the aftions, which arife from the dif-
ferent impreflions made upon it.

Tlie following appearances, however, are faid to afford a
decifive indication of the iiTitable nature of an ulcer. The
margin of the furrounding fliin is jagged, and terminates in
an edge, which is fliarp and undermined. The bottom of
the fore exhibits concavities of different fizes. There is no
diftinft appearance of granulations, but a whitifh fpongy
fubftance is feen, covered with a thin ichorous difcharge.
Every thing which touches the furface gives pain, and very
commonly occafions hemorrhage. The difcharge is altered
from common pus to a thin fluid, in proportion to the de-
gree of irritability communicated to the fore by conftitu-
tional caufes. The pain of an irritable fore in general
gradually diminifties. When it is not conftant, but comes
on in paroxyfms, chiefly in the evening, or night-time, with
great violence, convuliive motions of the limb are apt to
occur, and to extend to various other parts.

When the foregoing figns of an irritable ulcer are not
prefent, we muft form a judgment of the nature of the fore,
by attending to the hiftory of the cafe, and the effefts of
various apphcations upon the difeafe. But when fuch in-
formation cannot be obtained, it is the advice of fir Everard
Home, that the treatment fliould always begin with the fup-
pofition of the ulcer being of an irritable nature.

When an ulcer occurs juft over the malleolus externus, it
is generally of an irritable kind, in confequence of the nature
of the part on which it is fituated, quite independently of
any conftitutional or local difpofition to irritability. Sir
Everard Home conceives that the periofteum, which here
lies immediately under the fl<.in, becomes the feat of the
ulcer, is the caufe of its being very difficult to heal, and
gives it an irritable appearance. The faft, that fores fitu-
ated upon the ligament of the patella, and over the peri-
ofteum of the anterior furface of the tibia, affume a fimilar
appearance, and are equally difficult to heal, made the above
gentleman more confirmed in his fentiment.

I. On the fubjeft of applications to irritable ulcers, fir
Everard Home entertains a favourable opinion of thofe
which are in the form of vapour. The fteam of warm water
has very beneficial effefts ; but it is not often ufed alone ;
and, what feems curious, its utihty is faid to be greater in
thefe cafes, when the water is mixed with fpirits. Fo-
mentations, containing opium, ai'e alfo defcribed as pro-
ducing confiderable benefit. The tiiifture of opium,
fprinkled on flannel wrung out of hot water, and flannels
M-et with a warm iolution of the extraft of opium, or with
a decoftion of poppy -heads, are enumerated as eligible ap-
plications. A decoftion of chamomile flowers, the tops of
wormwood, or hemlock leaves, may alio be ufed with ad-
vantage.

There are fome particular irritable ulcers, however, fpe-
cified by fir Everard Home, which are rendered more pain-
ful by warm apphcations. Thefe fores are reprefented as
being generally attended with a mottled purple difcoloura-
tion of the limb for fome diftance from them, and a coldnefs
4 of

ULCEK.

of the lower part of the leg. They are likcwife faid to have

a tendency to raortlficatioii, and it is remarked that this dif-

■ agreeable event feems to be promoted by warm applications.

2. With rcfpcA to moift applications, the linfecd-meal
poultice is tlie mod fimple, and mod cafily prepared ; and
as it does not neceflarily require any addition of oil, it is to
be prepared when the latter ingredient appears not to agree
with the fore.

The lotio plumbi acetatis fometimes makes an ufeful fluid
for the compofition of poultices for irritable ulcers ; but it
does not always agree with thcfe fores ; and fir Evcrard
Home Hates, that if it be ufed a long time, it is apt to
excite a kind of paralyfis, known by the appellation of the
lead colic, or colrca piftonum.

In cafes of irritable ulcers, the decoftion of poppy-heads
fhould not be forgotten, as it is a very excellent liquid for
poultice^. The carrot poultice is alfo found to agree
better, than moft other things, with a large number of ir-
ritable ulcers.

If poultices be employed, their ufe is to be continued as
long as the granulations are fmall, and the ulcer is rapidly
diminirtiing in fize, even till the cicatrization is complete.
When the granulations become large, and loofe in their
texture, poultices (hould no longer be ufed.

When the weight of a poultice cannot be Jforne, the
furgeon may try the application of lint dipped in one of the
foUowmg lotions, and rovcred with a pledget of any fimple
ointment : — a folulion of the extraft of opuim ; a decoftion
of poppies ; the tintture of opium ; a decoftion of cicuta ;
the lotio plumbi acetatis compofita ; or a diluted folution
of the nitrate of filver.

ProfefTor Thomfon obferves with refpeft to poultices,
that, notwithllanding all that has of late years been laid
againft their ufe in tlie treatment of ulcers, he is IHll very
partial to their employment in a great proportion of the
morbidly inflamed and irritable dates into whicfi ulcers are
fo liable to pafs. He declares, that he has often feen irritable
ulcers, which had rcfifted all other means of cure, heal up
under the continued ufe of thefe appUcations. Ledtures, &c.
p. 444.

3. Applications in the form of powders arc generally
found to be too dimulating for irritable ulcers. Carbon
has fometimes been tliought to do good ; and fo has pow-
dered extraft of opium, mixed with an equal quantity of
carbon, or linfeed flour. However, opium fometimes af-
fefts the conditution by being abforbed, and fometimes it
produces a great deal of pain, irritation, and (loughing.

4. Ointments cannot be faid to be frequently proper ap-
plications for irritable ulcers ; as they are always more or
lefs rancid, and generally difagree with the flcin in fuch
cafes. Sir E. Home recommends cream as a very ufeful
application, efpecially in thofe examples in which warmth
is found to do harm. As a fubditute for it, the fame
writer mentions an ointment, compofed of hog's-lard, puri-
fied by repeated wadiing in fpring water, and then mixed
with a fmall quantity of white wax and rofe-wntcr.

The obfervations made rtfpcdling fokitionsof lead, apply
to the unguentum plumbi acetatis.

5. If the horizontal polition be neceflary in the cure of
fimple ulcers of the leg, it is dill more fo in every indance
of an inflamed or irritable fore.

6. Irritable fores cannot generally bear the preffure of
bandages. According to fir E. Home, however, a flight
degree of prelTure does good to certain ulcers which anfe
from weaknefs, and are fomewhat irritable.

7. In the treatment ot ulcers in general, and nf irritable
fores in particular, the furgeon will often find immcnfe ad-

vantage from frequently changing the kind of dreffing em-
ployed. Few c::Ccs will continue to heal favourably longer
tlian a certr.in time under the employment of one fort of
application. The furgeon ought therefore to be acquainted
with the effefts of many dificrcnt kinds, in order that he
may make an alteration as frequently as the date of the
cafe liequires.

Of the Fungous Ulcer In fome cafes, as Dr. Thomfon

obfervei, the inflammation of tiie furface of an ulcer is
followed by an excefs in the growth uf granulations; in
fome, by the deatli or floughing of the granulations, and
of the pai'ts which furround them ; and in - "hers, portions
of the iurface and edge of the ulcer are removed by the
procefs of ulcerative abforption. The extremes of thefe
dates form fores, whicli are termed fungous, putrid or
floughing, and ulcerative or phagedenic ulcers. In mod in-
dances, however, the furface of an old fore upon the legs
manifeds but little difpofition, after an attack of inflam-
mation, to pafs into tlie date of granulation, or of ulcer-
ation. It often remains long in a dationary condition,
forming what lias been termed an indolent or callous ulcer.

When the granulations of an ulcer, indead of being
fmall, red, and firm, become large, pale, loofe, foft, and
flabby ; and when, indead of rifing to, and remaining on
a level with, the furface of the furrounding fl<in, they rife
much higher ; the cafe is technically called z. fungous ulcer,
or ulcer with hypcrfarcofis. This is the cafe which fir
Everard Home has cliofen to name the ulcer in parts, zuhith
are too ivcal to carry nn the aSions necejfary for their recovery.
It is the difeafe which Mr. Burns delcribes under the name
of the o-ver-ailing ulcer. We think that profeflbr Thomfon,
of Edinburgii, is perfeftly right in regarding the old name
oi fungous, as L-fs exceptionable than thofe which have been
more recently propofcd as fubditutes for it. The old
name, as this gentleman obferves, involves no hypothefis
rcfpefting the date or aftion of the veflels, and merely ex-
prefles the faft, that in fome fuppurating furfaces, the gra-
nulations are fpongy in their confidence, and too luxuriant
in their growth. Ledlures, &c. p. 437, 438.

The granulations of thefe fores are larger, more round
on their external furfnce, and of a lefs compaft texture than
thoie formed on ulcers in healthy parts. Sir E. Home has
alfo noticed their femi-tranfparcnt appearance. When
they have filled up the cavity of an ulcer to a level with
the furface of the body, they do not rerdily form flcin' but,
rifing up in a dill higher manner, often lofe altogether tlie
power of producing new cutis. When the parts are dill
weaker, the granulations fometimes continue gradually to
fill up the hollow of the ulcer, and then, all on a fudden,
are fuddenly abforbed, fo as to leave the fore as deep as it
was before.

Ulcers may be weak from the fird, or become fo in the
progrefs of the cafe. Even granulations of the molt
healthy kind, if they are not ikinned over in a certain time,
gradually lofe their primitive ilrengtli.

Sores on the legs are greatly under the influence of all
natural peculi;;ritie3 of the conditution, and every thing
which affcfts the health. When the conditution becomes
in the lead weaker or dronger, the appearance of the gra-
nulations becomes changed accordingly, and this effeft of
condilulional weaknefs or drength on ulcers, is greater in
proportion as the fores are further from the fouree of the
circulation.

While the conflitution is undergoini; any kind of dif-
turbance, the healing of an ulcer is fiifpendcd. Mental
anxiety is very apt to retard cicatrization.

Such cffcCls of the conditulional kind on ulcers are
S f 2 greater

ULCER.

greater in weak and delicate perfons, than in the ftrong and
robuft. Change of weather has confiderable influence over
the heahng of fores. Sir E. Home mentions, in proof of
this fa£t, tliat when there were feveral hundreds of ulcers in
the Naval Hofpital at Plymouth, in 1778, every time the
weather changed from a dry to a moift ftate, the ulcers uni-
verfally afTumed an unliealthy appearance ; but put on a
better afpeft when the weather became dry again.

In the treatment of this kind of ulcer, tonics are to be
exhibited, particularly bark and fbeel ; and every thing
which difagrees with the conftitution is to be avoided.
Wine and cordial medicines are alfo iifuaUy prefcribed.
Porter, however, is deemed better than wine, for working
people.

Sir E. Home obferves, that the firft objeft in the local
part of the treatment, is to keep the granulations from
rifing above the edge of the furrounding (Icin. This gen-
tleman very judicioufly reprefeiits the greater propriety of
preventing the granulations from ever becoming too high
by the employment of proper applic.:tions, than following
the common plan of deftroying the high granulations with
efcliarotics, after they have rifen to an improper height.
There cannot be the fmallefl doubt, that if the granulations
could always be prevented from rifing up too much, the
patient would fuffer a great deal lefs pain.

Inftead of applying to the furface of the ulcers, now
under confideration, lunar cauftic, blue vitriol, red precipi-
tate, &c. fir E. Home prefers mixing thefe efcharotics
with other fubftances, fo as to render them only ftrong
ftimulants, and ufing them in this latter form. He con-
ceives that, when the high granulations are deftroyed with
efcharotics, the difpofition of the furface underneath to re-
produce them is increafed, but that this is not the cafe
when the luxuriant parts are only ftimulated fo as to be-
come abforbed.

The fame gentleman fcems to think, that when animal
fubftances grow with great rapidity, they are, like vege-
table ones, weaker than when produced in a flower man-
ner. Hence fir E. Home is of opinion, that the growth
of granulations ought to be checked in the early ftage of
their formation, by lome refiftance which they are juft able
to overcome, under which circumftances they derive ftrength
from the limited increafe of atlion which they are obliged
to undergo.

On the fame principle, according to fir E. Home, the
preffure of tight band.iges is advantageous ; and ulcers
which heal while the patient is walking about, are not fo
apt to break out again as when healed while the parts are in
a ftate of reft.

In the treatment of thefe ulcers, when the granulations
have come to a proper height, and do not form a thin femi-
tranfparent pellicle upon their furface, they are to be con-
fidered as weak parts, and treated accordingly. Sir E. Home
thinks, that in this circumftance, the heft plan, when no
particularity of conftitution forbids, is preflure made with
a thin piece of lead over the drefTmgs, and fupported with
a tight bandage.

Although, ftriftly, we have no topical applications
whi'ch can direftly communicate ftrength to granulations,
there are certainly fome which prevent the granulations
from exhaufting themfelves by luxuriant growth, and fti-
mulate them to draw more blood from the arteries, which
efFeAs, as fir E. Home remarks, render fuch granulations
ftronger.

I. This gentleman very properly condemns, as appUca-
tions to weak ulcers, all relaxing fomentations commonly
employed ; and recommends inftead of them the ufe of

9

fpirits of wine and tlie decoftion of poppies, in equal pro-
portions, not however to be apphed hot.

2. With regard to moift apphcations, the fame gentle-
man exprefles his difapprobation of poultices, and mentions
a weak folution of the argentum nitratum as the moft
eligible apphcation in an aqueous form.

3. On the fubjeft of powdered fubftances, as applica-
tions to weak ulcers, fir E. Home fays he has often tried
bark, and the lapis calaminaris, without perceiving that the
former had any power of ftrengthening granulations, or the
latter any virtue in difpofing them to form new fltin ; pro-
perties commonly imputed to thefe applications.

Sir E. Home entertains no better an opinion of plafter of
Paris, or powdered chalk, employed with a view of pro-
moting the formation of fltin. Powdered carbon, he fpeaks
of, as being more adapted to irritable, than weak ulcers.
He praifes powdered rhubarb, as particularly applicable to
the latter kind of ulcer, becaufe it repreffes the luxuriant
growth of the granulations, renders them fmall and com-
pact, and difpofes them to form flcin. When, however, the
granulations have rifen above the level of the fltin, it is not
powerful enough to reduce them. When the rhubarb is too
ftimulating, it is to be mixed with a fourth part of crude
opium in powder.

A piece of lint, a little lefs than the fore, is always to be
put over the powder, and covered with a pledget of firaple
ointment.

4. Ointments, according to fir E. Home, are particu-
larly apt to difagree with weak ulcers. When other ap-
plications fail, however, greafy ones may be tried, and the
above gentleman gives a preference to the ung. hydrarg.
nitrat. mixed with hog's-lard, in the proportion of one to
five, or elfe to common cerate, blended with a fmall quan-
tity of the hydrarg. nitrat. ruber.

Of Indolent or Callous Ulcers — When the edges of the
flcin furrounding an ulcer become thick, prominent,
fmooth, and rounded, and when the bottom of the ulcer is
covered with fmooth and glofly raw flefli, which, as Dr.
Thomfon remarks, can fcarcely be faid to be raifed into
granulations, the cafe is called an indolent or callous ulcer.
This is the difeafe which fir E. Home has denominated an
ulcer in parts, tuhofe adions are too indolent to form healthy
granulations.

Under the name of callous or indolent ulcer, as profcffor
Thomfon obferves, authors have included by far the greater
number of ulcers which affeft the lower extremities. This
is the ulcer which, of all the varieties to be mentioned, is
perhaps the moft deferving of attention ; for the callous or
indolent ftate is that into which almoft all ulcers of the
lower extremities have a tendency to pafs, and in which they
often continue ftationary, or nearly fo, for months or even
for years. Moft of the general rules which have been laid
down by praftical authors, refpefting the treatment of
ulcers qf the legs, and moft of the improvements which
have of late years been introduced into this branch of fur-
gery, relate chiefly, if not folely, to the treatment of the
callous or indolent ulcer. The parts furrounding this
ulcer may be inflamed or uninflamed. If uninflamed, the
cafe is fimply a callous ulcer ; but if inflamed, it then be-
comes a callous ulcer in an inflamed, vitiated, or irritable
ftate. This laft is the ftate in which moft patients, affeded
wFth ulcers of long ftanding, apply to medical men for
advice and afliftance. It is the ftate in which patient*
affeAed Avith this complaint are almoft always found, upon
their admiffion into pubhc hofpitals. Leftures, &c.
p. 438, 439.

According to fir E. Home, the indolent ulcer forms in

its

ULCER.

its appearance a cwnnditc conlrall to the irritable one.
The edges of the funoundiiiE Ikiii are thick, prominent,
fmooth, and rounded. The lurface of the granulations is
fmooth and gloffy. The pus is thin and watery, being
compofed of a mixture of pus and coagulating lymph.
The lymph confills of ilakcs, which cannot be eafdy fepa-
rated from the furface of the fore. The bottom of the
ulcer forms quite a level, or nearly fo, and the general
afpeft conveys an idea that a portion of fkin and parts
underneath has been for fomc time removed, without the
expofed furface having begun any new aftion to fill up
the cavity. When, however, the indolence of the ulcer is
not fo ilrongly marked, the fore does not correfpond to
the preceding defcription, but refembles in appearance the
ulcer which pofFefTes an inferior degree of irritability, and
it can only be difcriminated from it by the circumftance of
its receiving no benefit from foothing applications.

When an indolent ulcer does form granulations, thefe in
fome cafes are all on a fudden abforbed, and in the courfe
of twenty-four hours the fore becomes as much increafed in
fize, as it had been previoufly leffened in as many days or
weeks.

Two varieties of indolent ulcers have received diftinft
names. In one of thefe cafes, the ulcer is connefted with
one or more apertures, leading into hollow fuppurating
cavities : this forms what has been fometimes termed a
Jjjtulous, and at other times z. finuous ulcer. The other va-
riety of callous or indolent ulcer is that which is accom-
panied with a permanently enlarged, or varicofe ftate of the
veins of the limb. This cafe is often called the -varicofe
ulcer, and is frequently very difficult of cure. The prac-
tical obfervations which apply to this particular form of
difeafe, will be found in another article. See Vaiiicose
Veins.

In the treatment of indolent ulcers, the indication is not
merely to heal them, but to render the cure as permanent
a« poffible. This is to be efl:e£ted by changing the nature
of the granulations, and ufing fuch dreffings as will give
them a more vafcular healthy appearance. When an
ulcer, which has exilled fix months, has been drclTed with
poultices for a week, the granulations will have partly filled
\ip the hollow of the fore ; but they will be found to be
large, loofe, and glofiy. Should the poultice be now dif-
rontinued, and fome proper llimulating application be ufed
for another week, the granulations at the expiration of this
time will have become fmaller, more compacEt, redder, and
free from the glofiy appearance. Now experience proves
that the ulcer, when healed by the latter application, will
not be fo likely to break out again, as when healed with
large, loofe, flabby, gloffy granulations. Indeed, fir E.
Home alfures us, that the number of indolent fores which
heal under the ufc of ftimulating applications, and do
not break out again, are, in compariloji with fimilar cafes
treated with mild drcfiings, as four to one.

The callous, or indolent ulcer, as Dr. Thomfon obferves,
changes very readily into an inflamed or irritable one ; and
the fore is generally in the latter flatc, when patients firlk
apply to furgeons for relief. Their ulcers arc commonly in
a temporary ftate of irritation from iiegleft, excrcife, cx-
ccflTes, &c.

We have already dated, that medicines, in the form of
vapour, cannot heal indolent fores, fo as to effeft a durable
cure. Such remedies, however, are proper, when thefe
\dcer8 affume a foul appearance, and are in a tempor:iry ftate
of irritation. Hence, for the firft few days after the com-
mencement of regular furgical treatment, poultices and
fomentations arc the beft applications.

The fomenting liquor may be a decoaion of poppy-heads,
or chamomile flowers, or fimple warm water, which an-
fwers equally well. The beft poultices are thofe of bread
and milk, linfeed meal, and oatmeal. The moll advanta-
geous time for fomenting the fore is while the poultice is
preparing, which fliould be changed twice a day.

When aa indolent ulcer does not appear to be attended
with any particularity, a folution of the nitrate of filver j?
confidered by fir E. Home as one of the beft watery apph-
cations. It ftimulatcs the granulations, and makes them
put on a more healthy appearance. Its ftrength is to be in-
creafed according to circumftances. An ulcer, which at firft
cannot bear this folution above a certain ftrength without
pain, and an abforption of the granulations, becomes able,
after the application has been ufed about ten days, or a fort-
night, to bear it twice as ftrong : a proof of the granulations
having acquired ftrength.

The tinfture of myrrh, a deco6lion of walnut-tree leaves,
and the diluted vitriolic acid, have all been tried as applica-
tions for indolent ulcers, and with advantage. A fcruple of
nitrous acid, mixed with eight ounces of water, forms alfu
another ufeful local remedy, which, according to fir E. Home,
promotes, in a very uncommon manner, the progrefs of the
cure. The firft application of diluted nitrou» acid gi^^s a
good deal of pain, which, however, ceafes in about half an
hour.

When an indolent fore heals with the diluted nitrous
acid, the procefs of flcinning is accompliftied with more
rapidity, than when other applications are employed ; and
the new fkin is faid by fir E. Home to be more completely
formed.

The only application, in the form of powder, ever much
employed for indolent ulcers, is the pulv. hydrarg. nitrico-
oxydi. It cannot be ufed, however, except for the moft
indolent fores, as in faft it is an efcharotic, and, if applied
too freely, deftroys every attempt at the formation of
granulations upon the furface of the ulcer. When too often
ufed upon a fore of any material fize, it will alfo fometimes
produce a violent falivation of the patient. The writer of
this article has fcen many patients umntentionally falivated
in this manner.

Ointments, containing ingredients which are more or lefs
ftimulating, have been at all times the favourite dreffings
for indolent ulcers. " Ointments containing refin, or oil of
turpentine, in their compofition, to which a fmall portion of
fome metallic oxyd, or metallic fait, has been added, were
(as profeflbr Thomfon obferves) till very lately the moil
approved applications in the management of callous ulcers.
Every variety and form of thefe ftimulating ointments had
its partifans and recommenders among praftitioners ; but the
truth is, that this kind of ulcer occafionally got well under
every divcrfity in the form and compofition of the ointments
employed." (Leftures on Inflammation, p. 446. ) Ac-
cording to fir E. Home, one of the beft ointments for indo-
lent ulcers confifts of one part of the unguentum hydrar-
gyri nitrati, mixed with three of hog's-lard. Its ftrength,
however, muft be increafed, after it has been ufed a ccrtaiT^
time for the fame ulcer. This ointment is faid to have the
good effcdl of quickly removing the thickening of the edges
of indolent ulcirs, and the furrounding dark red colour of
the flcin. It alfo fcems to poftlfs extraordinary efficacy in
making the granulations affume a fmall hcaltliy appearance,
and the ulcer, when healed with fuch granulations, is lefs
likely to break out again. Sir E. Home thinks that the
refins and turpentines are not fo powerful as the acid? and
metallic falts, in giving the granulations a healthy appear-
ance, and adifpcfition to r< (ill being ablorbcd.

Camphorated

ULCER.

Camphorated ointments are reprefented as being parti-
cularly applicable to cafes, in which there is prefent a degree
of indolent thickening.

Befides ointments fomewhat ftimulating in their nature,
bandages have been found particularly ferviceable to indolent
ulcers. The laced flocking was much ufed, and is parti-
cularly recommended by Wifeman. As Dr. Thomfon re-
marks, however, it is in appearance only, that this mode
of bandaging in ulcerated, or varicofe legs, has any advan-
tage over that by the common circular roller. The ufe of
the circular bandage, with dreffings compol'ed of unguentum
refmofum and red oxyd of mercury, in different proportions,
was fome years ago recommended in a particular manner to
the attention of the Englifh public in a very ufeful treatife,
which Dr. Underwood publiflied upon the treatment of old
ulcers of the legs. He allowed his patients to go about their
ordinary occupations, under this mode of treatment, firft,
becaufe it was inconvenient for many of them to be confined ;
and fecondly, becaufe it was found, that many of thofe pa-
tients whofe ulcers were healed up during reft, broke out
again as foon as they began to take exercife. It muft be
acknowledged, that many indolent ulcers do get well under
the mode of management recommended by Dr. Underwood.
In many perfons the bandaging, and that degree of cleanli-
nefs which is occafioned by the regular dreffing of their
fores, are of infinite fervice ; but it is a mode of treatment
which does not anfwer in all old and indolent ulcers ; for
many of them, according to the experience of Dr. Thomfon,
become inflamed and irritable under its ufe. He obferves,
alfo, that the recurrence of ulcers in perfons who begin to
take exercife after being cured, has appeared to him to be
often occafioned by their leaving off the bandaging, by their
ftanding or walking too much, and by accidental injuries.
The part which has been healed up during reft is weak,
and requires fupport and careful defence, which it very
feldom receives from the clafs of individuals who are molt
liable to this fpecies of ulcer. Leftures on Inflammation,
p. 447.

The treatment of ulcers with bandages has had of late
years a very zealous advocate in Mr. Whateley, who, in the
year 1799. publifhed ftrongly in favour of the plan, in his
Praftical Obfervations on the Cure of Wounds and Ulcers
on the Legs, without reft. In the cafes adduced in this
eflay, very little variety of drefling was employed ; and, with
fome exceptions fpecified by the autlior, preffure was prin-
cipally rehed upon as the means of cure. This gentleman
gives a preference to fine flannel rollers, fomewhat lefs than
four inches wide.

But of all the improvements which have of late vears
been introduced into the treatment of old indolent ulcers of
the legs, that which was firft propofed and praftifed by
Mr. Baynton, of Briftol, is by far the moft interefting and
important.

Mr. Baynton acquaints us, that the means propofed by
him will, in moft intlances, be found fiifficient to accomphfh
cures in the worft cafes, without pain or confinement. After
having been repeatedly difappointed in the cure of old
ulcers, Mr. Bayuton determined on bringing the edges of old
ulcers nearer together by means of Jl'ips of adhefive plaflers.
To this he was chiefly led, from having frequently obferved^
that the probability of an ulcer continuing found, depended
much on the fize of the cicatrix which remained after the
cure appeared to be accomplifhed ; and from well knowing,
that the true Ikm was a much more fubftantial fupport and
defence, as well as a better covering, than the frail one
which is obtained by the aflSilance of art. But when he
had recourfe to the adhefive plafter, with a view to leffen

the probability of thofe ulcers breaking out again, he little
expected, that an application fo fimple would prove the
ealieft, moft efficacious, and moft agreeable means of treat-
ing ulcers.

Although the firft cafes in which Mr. Baynton tried this
praftice were of an unfavourable nature, yet he had foon
the fatisfaftion to perceis-e that it occafioned very little pain,
and materially accelerated the cure, while the fi/.e of the
cicatrices were much lefs than they would have been, had
the cures been obtained by any of the common methods.

At firit, however, the fuccefs was not quite pevfecl ; as,
in many intlances, he was not able to remove the flips
ot plafter, without removing fome portion of the adj.icent
fl<in, which, by occafioning a new wound, proved a difa-
greeable circumllance, in a part fo diipofed to inflame and
ulcerate, as the vicinity of an old fore. He th.ercfore en-
deavoured to obviate that inconvenience, by keeping the
plaflers and bandages well moiflened with fpring-water, for
fome time, before they were removed from the limb. He had
foon the fatisfaftion to obferve, that the inconvenience was
not only prevented, bat that every fucceeding cafe juftified
the confidence which he now began to place in the remedy.
He alfo difcovered, that moiftening the bandages was at-
tended with advantages which he did not expett : while the
parts were wet and cool, the patients were much more com-
fortable in their fenfations, and the fiirrounding inflamma-
tion was fooner removed, than he had before obferved it
to be.

By the mode of treatment here recommended, Mr. Bayn-
ton found, that the difcharge was leffened, the offenflve
fmell removed, and the pain abated in a very Ihort time.
But befides thefe advantages, he alfo found, that the cal-
lous edges were in a few days level with the furface of the
fore ; that the growth of fungus was prevented, and the
neceflity of applying painful efcharotics much leffened, if
not entirely done away. Mr. Baynton gives the following
defcription of his method.

" The parts fhould be firft cleared of the hair, fometimes
found in confiderable quantities upon the legs, by means of
a razor, that none of the difcharge, by being retained,
may become acrid, and inflame the Ikin, and that the dref-
fings may be removed with eafe at each time of their re-
newal, which, in fome cafes, where the difcharge is very
profufe, and the ulcers very irritable, may perhaps be ne-
ceffary twice in the twenty-four hours, but which I have,
in every inftance, been only under the neceffity of perform-
ing once in that fpace of time.

" The plafter fhould be prepared by flowly melting, in
an iron ladle, a fufficient quantity of litharge plafter, or
diachylon, which, if too brittle, when cold, to adhere, may-
be rendered adhefive by melting half a drachm of refin with
every ounce of the plafter : when melted, it fliould be ftirred
till It begins to cool, and then fpread thinly upon flips of
fniooth porous caUco, of a convenient length and breadth,
by fweeping it quickly from the end, held by the left hand
of the perfon who fpreads it, to the other, held firmly by
another perfon, with the common elaftic fpatula ufed by
apothecaries ; the uneven edges muft be taken off, and the
pieces cut into flips, about two inches in breadth, and of a
length that will, after being pafted round the hmb, leave an
end of about four or five inches. The middle of the piece
fo prepared, is to be apphed to the found part of the limb,
oppofi^e to the inferior part of the ulcer, fo that the lower
edge of the plafter may be placed about an inch below the
lower edge of the fore, and the ends drawn over the ulcer
with as much gradual extenfion as the patient can well
bear ; other flips are to be fecured in the fame way, each

above

ULCER.

above and in coiil;itt with tlic other, until the whole furfacc
of the fore and the hmb are completely covered, at leaft one
inch below and two or three above the difeafed part.

" The whole of the leg (hould then be equally defended
with pieces of foft calico, three or four times doubled, and
a bandage of the fame, about three inches in breadth, and
four or five yards in length, or rather, as much as will be
fufReient to lu nort the hmb from the toes to the knee,
(hould bo applied as fmoothly as can be poffibly performed
by the furgeon, and with as much firmnefs as can be borne
by the patient, being firft pafled round the leg, at the ankle
joint, then as many times round the foot as will cover and
fupport ever)' part of it, except the toes, and afterwards up
the limb till it reaches the knee, obferving that each turn of
the bandage (hould have its lower edge fo placed as to be
about an inch above the lower edge of the fold next below.

" If the parts be much inflamed, or the difcharge very
profufe, they fhould be weU moiilened, and kept cool with
cold fpring-water poured upon them as often as the heat
may indicate to be neceflary, or, perhaps, at leaft, once every
hour. The patient may take what exercife he pleafes, and
it will be always found, that an alleviation of his pain and
the promotion of his cure will follow as its confequence,
though, under other modes of treating the difeafe, it aggra-
vates the pain, and prevents the cure.

" Thefe means, when it can be made convenient, (hould
be applied (oon after nfing in the morning, as the legs of
perfons alfefted with this difeafe are then found mod free
from tumefaction, and the advantages will be greater than
when they are applied to limbs in a fwollen ftate. But at
whatever time the applications be made, or in whatever con-
dition the parts be found, I believe it will always happen,
that cures may be obtained by thefe means alone, except in
one fpecies of the difeafe, which feldorn occurs, but which
will hereafter be dcfcribed. The firft application will fome-
times occaiion pain, which, however, fubfides in a (liort
time, and is felt lefs fenfibly at every fucceeding dreding.
The force with which the ends are drawn over the limb,
muft then be gradually increafed, and when the parts are
reftorcd to their natural ftate of eafe and fenfibility, which
will foon happen, as much may be applied as the calico will
bear, or the furgeon can exert ; efpecially if the limb be
in that enlarged and incomprelfible ftate which has been
denominated fcorbutic ; or if the edges of the wound be
widely feparatcd from each other."

In adopting the preceding method, Mr. Baynton fome-
times obfcrved a breaking of the (l<in near the ulcers ; a
circumftaoce which fometimes proved troublefome, and
arofe partly from the mechanical eff^eft of the adhefivc
plafters, and partly from the irritating quality of the plafter.
Mr. Baynton, however, only confiders fuch fores of ferious
confequence, when they are fituated over the tendon of
Achilles, in which fituation they are fometimes feveral weeks
in getting well. In order to prevent them, Mr. Baynton
recommends a little bit of foft leather to bo applied to the
parts which are in danger of being affetted.

The cures will generally be accompUdied very well by
the mere application of the flips and bandage ; but when
the parts are muc!i inilained, the fecrction great, or the fea-
fon hot, Mr. Baynton ftates, that the frequent application of
cold v/aier will be found a valuable auxiliary. See A
Defcriptive Account of a New Method of Treating Old
Ulcers of the Legs, by Thomas Baynton, zd edit. 1799.

Of the Mulignimt or Putrid Ulcer ; or Hofpital Gangrene.
— This is a difeafe which is of a very pccuhar nature, and
its hiftory muft be highly intcrefting to every praftitioner,
whofe avocations make him likely to have the care of a

large number of patients who are afHitted with ulcers or
wounds, and collefted together in one building. The fur-
geons of the army and navy in particular, and thofe of great
hofpitals and prifons, ought to be fully acquainted with the
fubjeft ; for they are all liable to be fuddonly called upon
to exert their ikill in checking the ravages of this fevcre
complaint, the treatment of which is far from being either
fimple, or well determined.

The fymptoms by which the mahgnant ulcer, or hofpital
gangrene, is charafterized, are partly of a local, and partly
of a conftitutional nature. According to profeilbr Thom-
fon, thefe two claflTes of fymptoms are not invariable in the
order of their appearance ; but his own obfcrvations lead
him to believe, that the conftitutional fymptoms ufually
precede the local. He obferves, that, in the progrefs of
the conftitutional fymptoms, a general uneafinefs is felt
before any vifible change takes place in the wound, or fore,
which is attacked with hofpital gangrene ; the tongue
becomes foul, with a fenfation of bitternefs in the moutii ;
the appetite decreafes, and the patient begins to loathe his
food ; the pulfe becomes very quick, but is in general rather
weak than ftrong ; the flciii feels hot ; and the patient in
the progrefs of the diforder becomes affefted with great
anxiety and reftlcfsnefs.

The local appearances of wounds, fores, and ulcers, are
foou altered after the commencement of an attack of hofpi-
tal gangrene. Their furfaces become pale ; the difcharge
of pus, becomes lefs copious and lefs healthy than formerly ;
their edges fwell, inflame, and become exceedingly painful ;
they are fometimes ragged ; at others reverted, and exhibit
a foft fpongy appearance. A dufl<y red-coloured circle of
inflammation, having more or lefs of a livid tinge, extends
from thefe edges into the furrounding integuments, and is
often the forerunner of gangrene and fpliacelus. Inflamed
lymphatic abforbent velfels are (ometimes to be oblerved,
extending from the furfaces affettod with hofpital gangrene,
to the contiguous, or communicating, cervical, inguinal, or
axillary glands.

The local affeftion in hofpital gangrene feldom occupies
at firft the whole furface of extenfive wounds or lores. It
more frequently appears in the form of dirty white afli-
coloured (loughs, occupying only one, two, or more fmall
fpots, and from thefe, it gradually extends itfelf over the
whole of the difeafed furface. In fome inftances, hofpital
gangrene begins in th^- form of a fmall inflamed pimple, or
veficle, without our being able to perceive any previous
injury of the part in which it appears. More frequently,
however, it attacks parts whicli have been fcratched,
bruifed, or wounded, or which have had the integuments
injured by ulceration, burns, or bliitcrs. Specific fores, or
ulcers, feem to be lefs liable to att.icks of hofpital gangrene,
than thofe which arc of a fimple nature. Dr. Thomlon has
feen it, however, repeatedly attack cancerous fores and
venereal idcers. In fome inftances, it has been faid to have
produced a cure of tluie difeafes, deftroying by mortifica-
tion tlie parts on which they were fituated. In fevere cafes
of hofpital gangrene, the furface of the wound, or fore,
whicli it attacks, is foon changed into fphaceliis, and
covered with dirty wiiite-colourcd floughs. During the
feparation of thefe floughs, an ill-coloured and fanious dif-
charge, having a peculiar fetid fmell, takes place from the
furface of the woiuid, or fore. This furface is often feen
covered with a tenacious vifcid pus, whicli firmly adheres
to the furface from wliich it is fecrcted. In mild cafes, the
deftrudive elfefts of liofpital gangrene arc confined to tlie
fliin and fubjacent cellular membrane ; but it often extends
its ravages beyond tliefe textuies, dcllruying tendinous

fafcix.

ULCER.

fafcix, mufcles, ligaments, and tendons, together with the
nerves and blood-veffels. Artery Teems to be the texture
which refifts moft powerfully the deftruftive aftion of hof-
pital gangrene, as well as of mod other fpecies of mortifica-
tion. When, in the progrefs of hofpital gangrene, adhefive
inflammation does not occur, hemorrhage is liable to take
place, and, in fome inftances, to prove fatal. Even in cafes
in which diftinft hemorrhage does not occur, a thin bloody
fanies is often difcharged, which has a very offenfive fmell ;
and the pus, which begins to appear during the feparation
of the flough, or mortified part, often continues for days to
be reddened by an admixture of blood.

The feverity and progrefs of the fymptoms in hofpital
gangrene, as well as the duration of the difeafe, are ex-
tremely different in different individuals. In fome, the fever
continues with unabated violence for a period of one or two
weeks. After fuffering an abatement, it is liable to recur ;
and the patient fometimes finks under a fecond or third
attack. When the affeAion has been very fevere, has con-
tinued long, or has returned frequently, the patient becomes
at laft generally afFefted with fever and obflinate diarrhcea.
This is a Ifate, from which, if patients recover, it is always
in a very flow and tedious manner. See Thomfon's Lec-
tures on Inflammation, p. 458 — 461.

Hofpital gangrene (fays Boyer) is a fpecies of humid
gangrene, which attacks in fome degree epidemically the
wounds and ulcers of patients, who happen to be crowded
together in an unhealthy place.

Its occafional caufes are ; the Ctuation of an hofpital
upon a low maHhy ground ; the vicinity of fome fource of
infeftion ; the uncleanlinefs of the individuals, or of the
articles for their ufe ; the crowded flate of the wards,
efpecially when they are fmall and badly ventilated ; laftly,
every thing that tends to corrupt the air which the patients
breathe. An infefted atmofphere may produce in the mofl
fimple wounds unfavourable changes, partly, as Boyer con-
ceives, by its immediate aftion on the furface of the wound,
but, no doubt, principally by its hurtful influence upon the
whole animal economy. The foregoing caufes have aKo
fometimes produced alarming and obtlinate gangrenes of an
epidemic kind, or, at leaft, a flate of the conftitution, under
the influence of which all wounds and ulcers conftantly took
on a bad afpeft, and were often comphcated with the molt
gangrenous mifchief. M. Vigaroux faw fuch an epidemic
difeafe prevail for twenty months in the two hofpitals of
Montpellier, and he flates, that the moft powerful antifep-
tics were of little avail againft the diforder, which often
invaded the flighteft fcratches.

In general, this epidemic fpecies of gangrene is not
obferved in new-built hofpitals, nor in thole which are
erefted out of the central parts of cities, upon high ground.
Hofpital gangrene may occur in any feafon ; but it is mofl
common after the fultry heat of iummer. It comphcates,
without dillinftion, evei-y kind of folution of continuity.
However, it never attacks thofe of aU the patients in the
fame ward. It manifefls itfelf in different degrees on the
majority of them, and it is remarked, that the more exten-
five the folution of continuity is, the more it is expofed to
the diforder. But, occafionally, the difeafe is confined to a
part of the furface of fuch folution of continuity, while the
reft continues to make progrefs towards cicatrization.
Patients, who have efcaped infeftion once, are not on that
account exempt from the danger in future.

A bilious conftitution, mental trouble, unwholefome or
infufficient food, a fcorbutic diathefis, great debility, and
fevers of a dangerous type, may become fo many predif-
pofing caufes of hofpital gangrene.

The obfervations of Pouteau, and thofe of fome other
praftitioners, convincingly prove, that hofpital gangrene
may be communicated to the moft fimple wound, or nicer,
in a fubjeft of the beft conftitution, and breathing the pureft
air, by merely putting into contaft with fuch wound, or
ulcer, fponges, lint, or charpie, impregnated with the infec-
tion of this peculiar diforder. But this inoculation is con-
ceived to be more alarming, and to take efFeft the more
quickly, in proportion as patients have been more expofed
to the influence of fuch caufes, as are themfelves capable of
producing the difeafe, and alfo in proportion as the kind of
conftitution predifpofes to it.

Although the contagious nature of hofpital gangrene has
been generally admitted by all the beft informed writers on
the fubjeft, we ought to notice, that the doftrine was not
confidered by Dr. Trotter as having a good foundation.
Modern authors, however, have not joined this latter gen-
tleman, and both Dr. J. Thomfon and Delpech beheve that
the diforder is infeftious. " The contagious nature of hof-
pital gangrene (fays profelTor Thomfon) appears to me to
be fufficiently proved, firft, by the faft that it may be
communicated by fponges, charpie, bandages, and clothing,
to perfons at a diftance from thofe infefted with it. Secondly ;
by its having been obferved to attack the flight wounds of
fiirgeons, or their mates, who were employed in drefGng
infefted perfons ; and that even in circumftances where the
medical men fo employed did not hve in the fame apartment
with the infefted. Thirdly ; by our being able often to trace
its progrefs diftinftly from a fingle individual through a fuc-
ceflion of patients. Fourthly; by its attacking recent wounds
as weU as old fores, and that in a fliort time after they are
brought near to a patient afFefted with the difeafe. Fifthly ;
by our being able to prevent the progrefs of the difeafe
in particular fituations, by removing the infefted perfon,
before the contagion, which his fores emit, has had time
to operate. Sixthly; by its continuing long in one par-
ticular ward of an hofpital, or in one particular fhip,
without appearing in other wards or Ihips, if pains be
taken to prevent intercourfe between the infefted and un-
infefted." (Leftures on Inflammation, p. 484.) But al-
though there can be no doubt of the difeafe fpreading
partly by its contagious nature, it appears to us equally
certain, that the number of cafes is alfo often increafed by
the continued operation cf the fame caufes which produce
the earlieft inftance of the diforder in any particular hofpital.
If this were not the cafe, upon what principle could we
account for the origin of the difeafe at all, fince the com-
mencement of the firft inftance cannot pofhbly be referred
to contagion ?

It is alleged, that when once a patient has taken the in-
feftion, he cannot avoid the confequences, whatever precau-
tions he may adopt. Thus, Boyer informs us that he has
feen hofpital gangrene take place in wounded patients, who,
in the hope of efcaping this epidemic affeftion, had quitted
the infefted hofpital, and retired to elevated fituations,
where they breathed the moft falubrious air. Traite des
Maladies Chir. tom. i. p. 322.

The duration of hofpital gangrene is various, according
to the extent of the wound, or ulcer affefted ; the confti-
tution of the patient ; the impreflion made by the putrid
efBuvia on the animal economy ; and the intenfity of the
diforder. Hofpital gangrenes have been known to continue
more than a month, m which circumftance, the patients
feldom recover. In ordinary cafes, the wound puts on a
favourable appearance again between the fixth and ninth
days ; and in flight examples, the amendment is manifefted
between the third and fifth. Whatever may be the period

of

ULCER.

of the complaint, its wiflied-for termination is always an-
nounced by a dimimition of pain ; the piis acquiring a
white colour and more confillence, and lofing its fetid
naufeous {null. The edges of the ulcer fubfidc, while its
furface becomes lefs irregular, and puts on more of the ver-
milion colour. The red, purplifh, oedematous circle which
furrounds the difeaie, alTumes a true inflammatory nature,
and the folution of continuity, reftored to a fimple (late,
heals up with tolerable quicknefs, even when the deftruftion
of foft parts is fomewhat confiderable, unlefs any frefti un-
toward circumftanccs occur to interrupt cicatrization. But
fometimes, when the patient is on the point of being com-
pletely well again, his condition is fuddenly altered for the
■worfe; ulcerated fpots make their appearance on the cicatrix,
and thefe fprcading ia different direftior.s occafion a relapfe,
which may happen feveral times.

Hofpital gangrene mu(t be regarded as a ferious com-
plication of wounds and ulcers, fmce it confiderably retards
their cure. When, however, the folution of continuity is
rot extenfive, and the conftitution good, and in other re-
fpefts healthy, the difeafe is not dangerous. In this cafe,
as foon as the (loughs are detached, the ulcer heals up, and
leaves a cicatrix accompanied with very little disfigurement.
But when the folution of continuity is large, or of long
ftanding, the diforder commits much greater ravages, renews
its attacks repeatedly, and the relapfes prove exceedingly
obftinate. Tiie fame thing is faid to happen when it affefts
pcrfons labouring under fcorbutic or venereal complaints,
who are often put into great danger. Hofpital gangrene
proves particularly dangerous, and moftly fatal, when it
complicates large contufed wounds, attended with badly
fraftured bones. All the foft parts of the injured limb are
then frequently obferved to be progreffively deftroyed, and
the unfortunate patient falls a vidlim, fometimes to typhoid
fymptoms attending the complaint, fometimes to frequent
hasmorrhages, but ftill more often to heftic complaints, the
almoft inevitable confequence of long-continued profufe
fuppuration.

The cfFcfts of hofpital gangrene fhould be carefully dif-
criminated from thofe of the fcurvy. Ulcers, attacked
virith hofpital gangrene, are not afFefted in any degree, like
fcorbutic ulcers, by the ufe of vegetable diet and lemon-
juice, and they occur among men who are fed upon frefti
meat and vegetables, as readily as they do upon thofe who
have been fed altogether upon fait provifions. (Thomfon's
Leftures on Inflammation, p. 482.) Hofpital gangrene
is almoft always accompanied with fevere febrile fymptoms ;
but, " as to fevers (fays Dr. Lind), it may indeed be
doubted whether there be any fuch as are purely and truly
fcorbutic. The difeafe is altogether of a chronic nature ;
and fevers may be juftly reckoned amongft its adventitious
fymptoms." (Treatife on the Scurvy, p. 106.) We may
alfo remark, that in cafes of hofpital gangrene, the general
fymptoms of fcurvy are abfcnt, fuch as forenefs and bleeding
of the gums, livid blotches and wheals on the flefliy part 01
che legs, oedematous ankles, Sec.

The treatment of hofpital gangrene is cither preventive
or curative.

With a view of preventing the diforder, it is effential to
remove all the caufes which have been fpecificd as capable
of producing it. Thus, the wards in which the wounded
arc placed Ihould not be crowded ; they ought to be freely
ventilated ; as much detached as polTible ; the utmoft atten-
tion 10 cleanlinefs fhould be paid ; and every fource of in-
fe£>ion obviated. The predifpofition of the wounded to
this fpccics of gangrene may be lefTened by a wcU-chofen
diet, by drinks acidulated with vegetable acids, or with the

Vol. XXXVIl.

fulphuiic acid, and by the moderate ufe of wine. Tin.
ftate of the ftomach and bowels fliould be particularly
attended to, and if found to be out of order, emetic's
and purgatives ought to be immediately employed, and re-
peated according to circumftanccs. In the beginning of
the conftitutional attack, Pouteau and Dunaflbis parti-
cularly recommended the ufe of emetics, and Mr. Briggs
alfo found them highly ufeful. It is by the advantageous ufe
of thefe remedies, that the tendency to bilious fevers is re-
moved, to which all wounded patients are fo liable, who have
not been evacuated in time ; and which (as Boyer obferves)
always retard cicatrization, and frequently impart to wounds
the moft fatal complications. After due evacuations, the
furgeon fhould prefcribe bitter aromatic decodions proper
to fupport the tone and funftions of the ftomach. The
dreffmgs fliould be apphed with extreme attention and
cleanlinefs, and too much care cannot be taken to pre-
vent the infeftious matter of one wound from coming into
contaft with another. All fatty refinous applications fhould
likewife be abandoned in the treatment of wounds and ulcers
threatened with hofpital gangrene. The drefHugs, fays
Boyer, fhould be of a quality calculated to keep up the
Kpne of the parts, without irritating them. According to
this profeffor, fuch are the decodion, or fimple infufion of
aromatic plants in fpirit of wine ; diluted alkaline lotions,
&c. Pledgets, kept conftantly wet with thefe applications,
are to be applied to the wound.

Such are the means, which, judicioufly reforted to, will
prevent hofpital gangrene, or at leaft render its occurrence
much lefs frequent. Let us next confider what can be
done after the diforder has manifefted itfelf, with a view of
affuaging it, before it attains fuch a degree as puts the pa-
tient's life into danger.

No doubt the moft certain mode of arrefting the progrefs,
or, at all events, of abridging the duration of the complaint,
would be to tranfport the wounded into a more healthy
fituation, fo as to remove them from an atmofphere con-
taminated by putrid contagious elBuvia, and in which the
difeafe has had its firft formation. But, as Boyer obferves,
this change of place is generally impoffible. In faft, where
is the hofpital in which can be found large well-ventilated
wards in referve, feparated from every fource of infeftion,
and into which the patients can be direftly moved on the
very firft appearance of the diforder i The beft built hof-
pitals offer no fuch accommodation. As then the patients
cannot ufually be tranfported into a different ward, the air
which they breathe fhould be purified, by renewing it as
much as pofTible, fixing ventilators, and efpecially by ufing
the oxygenated muriatic acid fumigations, as recommended
by Guyton-Morveau, or elfe thofe of the nitric acid.

The nitric acid fumigations are made by putting into a glafs
vcffel on the ground, half au ounce of concentrated fulphuric
acid, to which an equal quantity of nitre is to be added
gradatim. The mixture is to be ftirrcd with a glafs tube,
when an abundance of white vapour will be produced.

The oxygenated muriatic acid fumigations are made, by
mixing three ounces two drachms of common fait, with five
drachms of the black oxyd of manganefe in powder. Thefe
two ingredients are to bo triturated together ; they are then
to be put into a glafs vefTcl ; one ounce two drachms of water
are to be added, and then, if the ward or chamber be un-
inhabited, one ounce feven drachms of fulphuric acid are to
be poured upon the mixture all at once ; or gr.idually, if
the patients are there. This quantity wil! be fufficient
for difinfefting a very large ward. Sec LafTns Pathologic
Chirurgicalc, torn. i. p. 38, 39.

When one or move of'^the patient* afflificd with the dif-
T t order,

ULCER.

order, before it has become general, are lying in a badly
ventilated part of the ward, or near fome fource of infeAion,
the furgeon can partly counterbalance the difadvantage of
not having a fre(h ward, by caufing the patients to be put
into a more airy part of the ward, and as far as pofllble
from the quarter in which they contrafted the difeafe.
Diet, internal medicines, and topical applications, form the
three eflential points in the treatment of hofpital gangrene,
after change of fituation, or purification of the air, when
that is imprafticable.

When hofpital gangrene attacks a large wound or ulcer,
and the fever attending the complaint is confiderable, no
folid animal or vegetable food (hould be allowed. Where
more nouri(hment is required than can be obtained from
flops, tea, &c. thin rice-milk, weak gruels, &:c. will agree
better than broth or foup, which cannot be digelled without
confiderable diforder. In proportion as the heat and irri-
tation of the fyftem diminifh, the rice-milk and gruels may
be made fomewhat thicker, and when the patient can venture
to eat folid food, new-laid eggs, baked or boiled fruits, vege-
table difhes, fifh, and even what are called white meats, may
be given. The lefs meat, however, the patient eats, the lefs
liable will he generally be to a relapfe.

With regard to internal medicines, while irritation
and febrile heat accompany hofpital gangrene, diluent acid
drinks are proper, fuch as nitrated whey fweetened with
fyrup of violets, lemonade, &c. Blood-letting is admifiible
in but few inftances, not merely becaufe the orifice made
by the lancet is apt to become gangrenous, but becaufe
the fever which accompanies hofpital gangrene is ufually
of the typhoid, or afthcnic charafter. Thomfon, p. 493.

When the ftomach appears much opprcffed with bilious
complaints, an emetic ought to be adminiftercd. When
there is debility, good generous wine Ihould be allowed,
either by itfelf, or mixed with lemonade, according to cir-
cumftances, Bai-k, whofc antifeptic qualities have been fo
highly praifed, is in general more hurtful than uleful in this
diforder. Boyer, however, allows that it may be bene-
ficially given when the feverifli heat has abated, and the
debility is very great. He thinks alfo that the extradl is
the beft preparation.

Acids are not liable to the fame objeftions as bark :
they are proper in all ftages of the difeafe, and their efficacy,
which has been proved in a vaft number of inftances, is the
more marked, the greater the dofes. The fulphuric acid is
that which is given with moft fuccefs ; but the acidulous
tartrite of potafla is alfo an excellent medicine. From two
drachms to half an ounce may be given every day, and the
beft plan is to make with it an acid drink, which ihould be
fweetened and ftraincd.

In fevere cafes, attended with quick and feeble piilfe, de-
preflion, reftleflhefs, and anxiety, an opiate becomes necef-
fary. " So long as we wifh to excite a degree of moifture
on the fl<in (faj-s profeflbr Thomfon), Dover's powder,
or laudanum with antimonial wine, form in general the beft
opiates." This gentleman, however, is not an advocate
for the employment of opium in the early ftage of hof-
pital gangrene, while the heat and other febrile fymptoms
are at their height. ( See Leftures on Inflammation, p. 494,
495.) For thefe cafes, camphor was highly praifed by
Pouteau.

With refpeft to the local treatment, it is at leaft as im-
portant as the conftitutional. Indeed, the French furgeons
conceive that it is much more fo. " I was told by feveral
of the French furgeons," fays a late vifitor to Paris, " that
they did not rely at all on internal means for flopping the
prcgrcfs of hofpital gangrene, and that their experience had

proved them to be infufiicjent, if not wholly iuefEcac!ou$>
Dupuytren, in reply to the account I gave him of the prac-
tice and opinions of Englilh furgeons on this fubjeft, aifured
me, that he had no confidence but in local apphcations ; and
that internal remedies alone, as far as he had found, did almoft
nothing." The fame remark has been made in a very recent
publication on hofpital gangrene (Delpech Mem. fur la
Complication des Plaies, &c. 1815.), although it feemstobe
rather at variance with its being a conftitutional and conta-
gious difeafe, which the author has admitted. See Sketches
of the Medical Schools of Paris, by J. Crofs, p. 83.

Perhaps there is nota fingle antifeptic application which has
not been tried as a dreffmg for wounds or ulcers affefted
with hofpital gangrene. All watery applications, and com-
mon poultices and fomentations, are generally condemned
as inefficacious, and even hurtful, in the treatment of this
diforder.

M. DufFaffois was convinced by the obfervation of nu-
merous cafes, that the beft apphcation is powder of bark.
He recommends the wound to be covered with feveral layers
of this powder, which are then to be moiftened with turpen-
tine. When this compofition dries, it forms a fragile fort
of coat, at the fides of which, and through which, the dif-
charge efcapes. After twenty-four hours, the firft coat tr
to be removed, and a frefti one applied. In general, four or
five fuch drefTings are fufScient in limple cales, wl\ere the
diforder is confmed to the ficin and cellular fubftance.
Healthy inflammation then occurs, the floughs come away,
and the wound puts on a healing appearance. Duflaffois, in
bad cafes, fometimes added one-fifth of powdered muriate of
ammonia to the powder of bark. In mild inftances, as we
learn from Mr. Crofs, the modern furgeons in France alfo
employ with fuccefs vegetable and diluted mineral acids.
P. 84.

But when, by tlie employment of thefe means, and of the
other remedies which have been enumerated, the progrefs of
the diforder caniiOt be checked, and all the furrounding foft
parts are ihreat-jncd with deftrutlion, Pouteau, Duflaffois,
and other French furgeons, even thofe of the prefent day,
have immediate rccourfe to the aftual cautery, and repeat the
application of it, until the whole furface of the ulcer is con-
verted into a firm hard efchar. Even the edges of the
folution of continuity Ihould not be fpared, — " ils doivent
etre torrefies ct r6tis pour ainfi dire." (Boyer, Traite des
Maladies Chir. t. i. p. 332.) The efchar is then to be co-
vered with a thick ftratum of bark, moiftened with turpen-
tine. This application is to be removed in twenty-four,
thirty-fix, or forty-eight hours, and the furgeon is then to
judge from the appearance of the flefh, and the quality of
the difcharge, whether a further repetition of the cautery
will be neceffary.

Although we thus find from the accounts of Boyer, Mr.
Crofs, and others, that the modern French furgeons ftill re-
gard the aftual cautery as the only efTeftual means for
flopping the progrefs of bad cafes of hofpital gangrene,
their opinion has fortunately not been adopted in this country.
Nothing can be a greater proof of fuch fevere praftice being
at .aU events unnecetfary, than the faft that many bad cafes
of hofpital gangrene have done well without it, and even its
greateft advocates cannot prefume to affert that it will always
effeft a cure.

Inftead of the aftual cautery, the apphcation of boiling
oil has been propofed ; but the advocates for red-hot irons
maintain, that the heated oil does not extend its aftion to
a fufficient depth.

A phlegmonous fivelling at the circumference of the
wound, or ulcer, evinces, that the ravages of the difeafe are

ftopped,

ULCEK.

ftoppeJ, and that fuppuration and the detachment of tl>e
(loughs are about to follow. In order to promote thefe de-
firable changes, Boyer recommends the inflamed parts to be
covered witli an emollient poultice ; but as foon as pus is
fecrcted, the poultice is to be difcontinued, as it might re-
lax too much, and fome gently tonic application employed,
fuch as the decoftion of bark.

When tlie (loughs have fcparated, and the bottom of the
ulcer appears firm and of a vermilion colour, the reft of the
treatment ought to refcmble that of a common vround, and
the cure then generally follows with tolerable quickncfs.
However, cifl-ris paribus, wounds and ulcers, after an attack
of hofpital gangrene, heal more (lowly than other folutions
of continuity.

But when, after the detachment of the efchars, the wound,
inftead of prcfenting a firm vermilion appearance, and dif-
charging healthy pus, is covered with pale flabby granula-
tions, the recurrence of hofpital gangrene is to be appre-
hended. With a view of preventing it, the patient is to be
purged with a decoftion cf tamarinds, which Boyer fays is
preferable to any thipg elfe, and fmall dofes of the acidu-
lous tartritc of potafla are to be given every other day. But
if the difeafe returns, the French furgeons direft the cautery
to be uled again, if the patient be not too much exhaudcd to
bear it ; for when he is, there is no hope from this or any
other means. Rflapfes feldom happen, except in wounds
and ulcers which are very large, and have confined the pa-
tients a long while in the hofpital. A relapfe, in thefe cafes,
is always an unfavourable omen ; for it fometimes proves
mortal, and if the patient gets over it, ftill the ulcers, or
wounds, which have been repeatedly affefted by it, are apt
to degenerate into chronic fores, which it is extremely diffi-
cult, or even impoffible, to heal. Boyer, Traite des Mala-
,dies Chirurg. t. i. p. 320, et feq.

By referring to the various publications, publilhed by
Englifh furgeons on hofpital gangrene, wc (hall find that
they have fucceeded in frequently (topping the difeafe,
without having recourfe to that heroic means, (as it is
called by M. Roux,) the aftual cautery. " The fer-
menting poultice, fpiriis, and turpentine, (fays profefTor
Thomfon,) are certainly much milder applications, and will,
I am convinced, when judicioudy ufcd, be found to be much
more efficacious in effedting a cure. If attention to cleanli-
ncfs in the dreffing of fores and ulcers be at all times re-
quired, it is needlefs for me to remark to you, how much
more impcrioufly it mull be required in holpital gangrene,
where the difcharge from the fores, and probably the effluvia
from the body of the patient, are of a contagious nature."
See Left, on [nflammation, p. 500.

Befides the fermenting poultice, camphorated fpirits, and
turpentine, the following local applications feem eligible ;
•viz. decoftion of bark ; charcoal poultice, cfpecially when
the difeafe is (lopped, and the (loughs are feparating ; the
citric acid, with or without laudanum ; vinegar ; the diluted
mineral acids ; the vapours of the nitric, muriatic, and
oxygenated muriatic acids ; a folution of gum kino in equal
quantities of claret and port wine.

0/ Ulcers attended -wilh fome fpecijic difeafed AHioti, either
conjlilulionat or local.

1. Ulcers •which yield to Mercury — Here we (hall exclude
from confideration venereal ulcers, as this fubjeft is treated
of in the article LuEi Vknkhf.a. At prefent we fhall only
notice fuch fores as arc produced by other difeafis of the
general fyllem, or of the parts, and are capable of being
cured by mercury.

Perhaps there is no greater fourcc of error in the whole

praftiee of furgery, th»n the £uppofition, tliat a fore, when
it yields to mercury, muft be a fyphilitic ore. Surgeons,
however, who run into this abfurdity, can hardly be imagined
to be uniware, that fo potent a medicine muft have effects on
numerous difeafes of very different defcriptior.s. Sir E.
Home very truly remarks, that many ulcers, unconnefted
with the venereal difeafe, which receive no benefit from other
medicines, heal under a mercurial courfe, or yield to mer-
curial applications. In fome cafes, the ulcer remains in the
fame Hate while mercury is ufed ; but begins to look better
as foon as the medicine is difcontinued, in confequence of
the beneficial change produced in the fyftem by the mercu-
rial courfe. In thefe cafes, mercurial friftions are the beil,
becaufe they occafion leaft impairment of the conllitution,
in confequence of the flomach continuing undiflurbed, and
capable of digefting well.

Another defcription of ulcers noticed by fir E. Home,
as deriving benefit from mercury, occur on the inftep and
foot, have a very thickened edge, and are attended with a
difeafed ftate of the furrounding ilcin, fo as to bear fome re-
femblance to elcphantiafis. They are frequently obferved
affefting fervants who live in opulent families in an indo-
lent and luxurious way. Sir E. Home ftates, that fumiga-
tions with the hydrargyrus fulphuratus ruber heal thefe
ulcers, and refolve in a great degree the fwelling of the fur-
rounding parts. In fome inftances, an ointment of calomel
and hog's-lard ; in others, the camphorated weak mercurial
ointment, is the bed application.

Many difeafed ulcers, particularly fuperficial ones, with
a thickened edge, may be healed, when they are dreffed
writh a folution of one grain of the hydrargyrus muriatus, in
an ounce of water, containing a little fpirit.

2. Ulcers -which are curable by Hemlock. — Sir E. Mome
places more reliance on hemlock as an external, than an in-
ternal remedy for ulcers. The ulcers which ufually receive
benefit from hemlock applications, look like thofe of an ir-
ritable fort ; but the furrounding parts are thickened, in
confequence of fome difeafed aftion. Such fores occur near
the ankle ; which joint is at the fame time enlarged. Some-
times, but not fo often, they take place over the ligaments
of the knee. On account of their fituation, and the fwell-
ing of the joint, they may be fufpcftcd to be fcrophulous,
though they are more fenfible than flrumous ulcers ufually arc.
The fores jnft defcribed are rendered lefs painful, their dif-
eafed difpofition is checked, and the fwelling of the joint
dinunifhed, by hemlock. Several irritable fcrophulous
ulcers are alfo particularly benefited by this medicine.

Sir E. Home gives the preference to hemlock poultices,
unlefs their weight fhould be obje6\ionable, in which cafes,
he advifes lint to be dipped in a decoftion of the herb, and
put on the fore.

Of the ointment made with the infpiffated juice, fir E.
Home feems to fay little in regard to its efficacy.

3. Ulcers -which may he cured by Salt Water Sir E. Hoane

takes notice of other fpecific ulcers which yield to this ap-
plication, after refilling other remedies. Poultices made
Willi fca-water are often employed ; but this gentleman
fecma to prefer keeping the part immcrfed in the water in k
tepid Hate, about a quarter of an hour, twice a day.

When fea-water poultices bring out pimples, in cafes
of fcrophulous ulcers on the legs and feet, fir E. Home in-
forms us, that this difagrccable circumflancc may be ob-
viated by diluting fuch water with an equ.al quantity of a
decoftion of poppies. After a time, the fall-water may be
tried by itfelf again. While each fre(h poultice is pveparliig,
the part fhould alfo be immerfed in fuch water warmed.
When there is a tcndencv to anafaKca, or when there it
T t 2 < an

ULCEK.

ai) unufual colJnefs in the liir^b, unattended with any pro-
penfity to mortification, tepid falt-water may be ufed with
infinite advantage.

4. Ukers which may be curtd by the jlrgentum Nitratum.
— Sir E. Home notices, under this head, an ulcer, which
does not penetrate more deeply than the cutis ; but fpreads
in all direftions, producing ulceration on the furface of the
fkin, iind often extending nearly through its whole thick-
nefi. The part firft afFeAed heals, while the fltin beyond
is in a ftate of ulceration^

Of this defcription are", a leprous eruption, moftly feen
i;i TT.tn impreffed in Ireland ; a difeafe of the (kin induced
by buboes, which have continued a great while after the ve-
nereal virus has been dellroyed ; and the ring-worm.

AU thefe difeafes are moft eafily cured by applying to
them a folutior. of the argentum nitratum.

The leprous eruption is communicated by contaft, and
makes its appearance in the form of a boil. This is con-
verted into an ulcer, which difcharges a fetid fluid, by which
the furrounding fkin is excoriated, and the ulceration is ex-
tended over a large furface. The pain is the moft fevere,
and the difcliarge greateft, in hot weather. The parts firft
difeafed heal, while others are becoming iJcerated, and the
difeafe is always rendered worfe, by fpirituous liquors, fait
provifions, and catching cold.

Sir E. Home remarks, that the difeafe in the flvin, pro-
duced by the effefts of very irritable buboes, in coiiftitutions
broken down by mercury, is attended with ulceration of a
more violent, deep, and painful kind than the foregoing dif-
temper. The progrefs of this diforder is, in other refpefts,
very fimilar to that of the leprous eruption.

Although the ring-worm only occurs in the form of an
ulcer in warm climates, a mild fpecies of the affection takes
place in fummer-time in this country. It feems to be infec-
tious ; though it often occurs without infeftion. It com-
mences with an efflorefcence, which is attended with very tri-
vial fwelling, and fpreads from a central point. The cir-
cumference of the efflorefcence becomes raifed into a welt,
while the reft affumes a fcurfy appearance. The welt be-
comes covered with a fcab, which falls off, and leaves an
ulcerated ring, in general not more than a quarter of an
inch wide. The outer margin of this ring continues to ul-
cerate, while the inner one heals, fo that the circle gets
larger and larger. The difcharge confifts of a thin acrid
fluid, which feems to have a great ftiare in making the dif-
eafe fpread.

For all the three preceding difeafes, a folution of the
argentum nitratum is ftrongly recommended by fir E.
Home.

5. Ulcers which yield to Arfenlc The fores which are

named noli me tangere, derive great benefit from this power-
ful remedy. Sir E. Home obferves, that they are nearly
allied to cancer, differing from it in not contaminating their
neighbouring parts by abforption, and only fpreading by im-
mediate coi.taft.

From Come cafes which fell under fir E. Home's obferv-
ation, he difcovered that arfenic was not only efficacious
as an external, but alfo as an internal remedy. Indeed, ex-
perience proves, that, in all cafes of lupus, or noli me tan-
gere, if any medicine is entitled to more confidence than
others, it is unqueftionably arfenic.

Sir E- Home is an advocate for its employment, both in-
ternally and externally, for ulcers of untoward appearance
on the legs. The fungated ulcer is particularly pointed out
by this gentleman as being benefited by arfenic. This ulcer
occurs on the calf of the leg, and on the fole of the foot.
From, its furface a fungus flioots out, which is entirely differ-

ent from common granulations. The new-formed fiibllance
is radiated in its ftruAure, the bottom of the ulcer being the
central point, aud the external furface, which is continually
increafing, the circumference. The fubftance of this fungus
is very tender, and readily bleeds. The firft ftage of the
difeafe fometimes has the appearance of a fcrophulous affec-
tion of the metatarfal bones ; but the parts feem more en-
larged, and when the fltin ulcerates, a fungus (hoots out, and
betrays the nature of the cafe.

One fpecies of the fungated ulcer is capable of contami-
nating the lymphatic glands, the other is not fo. The firft
is reprefented by fir E. Home as being incurable by arfenic,
or any other known medicine.

The fecond yields to this remedy. Sir E. Home ufes a
faturated folution, made by boihng white arfenic in water,
for feveral hours, in a faad heat. He gives from three to
ten drops internally ; and, for outward ufe, dilutes a drachm
with two pints of water, making it afterwards gradually
ftronger and ftronger, till it is of double ftrength. The ap-
plication may either be made in the form of a poultice, or
by dipping lint in the lotien.

The bell and fafeft preparation of arfenic, both for inter-
nal and external ufe, is the kali arfenicatum.

6. Ulcers attended ivith Varlcofe Veins. — A certain kind
of ulcer is very apt to occur on the infide of the leg, and
is equally difficult to cure, and liable to break out again.
It has the look of a mild indolent fore ; but the branches
and trunk of the vena faphena are enlarged, and this varix
of the veins keeps the ulcer from healing. The fore is fel-
dom deep, ufually fpreads along the furface, and has an oval
fliape, the ends of which are vertically fituated. There is a
pain affefting the limb rather deeply, extending up in the
courfe of the veins, and exafperated by keeping the leg a
long while in an ereift pofture.

This is a kind of ulcer which derives immenfe benefit
from a tight roller, applied from the toes to the knee, al-
though the direft operation of the prefTure of the bandage
on the fore is itfelf produftive of no particular good.

Sir E. Home found, however, that many patients could
not bear to wear laced ftockings or tight bandages, and that
fome received no relief from them. Hence, this gentleman
was led to confider what elfe could be done for the cure of
the varicofe ftate of the veins. He reprefents, that, in con-
fequence of the fize of the vena faphena, and its numberlefs
convolutions, the return of blood from the fmaller branches ia
fo impeded, as to retard the circulation in the fmaller arteries,
and to interfere with their aftion in forming healthy granu-
lations. The coats and valves of the veins alfo become
thickened, fo that the latter parts (the valves) do not do
their office of fupporting the weight of the column of
blood.

Thefe refleftions induced fir E. Home to think, that fome
benefit might be obtained by taking off a part of the pref-
fure of this column of blood, by making a ligature round
the vena faphena, where this vcfTel paffes over the knee-joint.
Thus the cavity of the vein at this part would be dbliterated,
and a kind of artificial valve would be formed.

This gentleman recommends the following way of per-
forming the operation : " As the veins are only turgid in
the ereft pofture, the operation (hould be performed while
the patient is ftanding, and if placed upon a table, on which
there is a chair, the back of the chair will ferve him to reft
upon ; and he will have the knee-joint at a very convenient
height for the furgeon. The leg to be operated upon muft
ftand with the inner ankle facing the light, which will expofe
very advantageoufly the enlarged vena faphena pafTmg over
the knee-joint. While the patient is in this pofture, if a fold

of

ULCER.

of the /kill, which is very loofe at this fdit, is pinchrd up
tranfverfely, and kept in that pofiLion by the finger anrl
thumb of the furgeon on one fide, and of an affiftant on the
other, this fold may be divided by a pointed fcalpel, pufhed
through with the back of the knife towards the h'nib to
prevent the vein being wounded ; much in the fame way
as the fl<in is divided in making an ifTiie. This will expofc
the vein fufficiently ; but there is commonly a thin membra-
nous fafcia confining it in its fituation ; and when that is
met with, the vein had better be laterally difengaged by
the point of the knife. This is moft expeditioufly done by
laying hold of the fafcia with a pair of dilTefting forceps,
and dividing it ; for it is difficult to cut upon parts which
give little refinance, and there is a rilk of wounding the
vein. After this, a filver crooked needle, with the point
rounded off, will readily force its way through the cellular
membrane connefted with the vein, without any danger of
wounding the veiTcl, and carry a ligature round it. This
part, or, indeed, what may be confidered as the whole of the
operation, being fiuifhed, the patient had better be put to
bed, fo as to allow the vein to be in its eafiefl; ftate, before
the ligature is tied, and then a knot is to be made upon the
vein : this gives fome pain, but it is by no means fevere.
The edges of the wound in the (Itin are now to be brought
together by fticking-plaifter, except where the ligature
pafles out, and a comprefs and bandage applied, fo as to
keep up a moderate degree of preffure on the veins, both
above and below the part included in the ligature." See
Home's Praft. Obf. on Ulcers, p. 296, edit. 2.

The foregoing method does not appear to pofiefs novelty,
as it was praftifed by Pare. What is of Hill more confe-
quence, it is a plan which is not free from ferious danger.
We have feen feveral examples, in which the praftice was
followed by a violent degree of conftitutional irritation,
confiderable difturbance of the nervous fyllem and a ten-
dency to convulfions.

Mr. Brodie has tried another method of operating, which
is laid to prove effeftual, and to be milder in its confequences.
Some account of it will be found in the article Varicose
yeins.

On the whole, we believe that there are few cafes in
which an operation is advifable, and that Default, Mr.
Whately, and feveral other furgcons, have been perfeftly
right in giving a preference to the fafer and more fimple
plan of making methodical preffure with a bandage.

Ui.CEH, in animals of the doraeftic or live-ilock kind, is a
wound of fome (landing, arifing from a folution of con-
tinuity in fome flefliy part of the bodies of tliem with a lofs
of fubftaiice. The term is by fome, in thefc as well as
other cafes, confined to that breach or crofion of the (l<in
and parts immediately connedled with it, which cither pro-
ceeds direftly from an internal caufe, or at leall iii clofely
concerned with a peculiar (late of the conllitutioii. Others,
however, divide ulcers into two clalTes, the fimple and the
compound : the former being a mere wound of fome du-
ration, whicii is capable of being rellored by nature without
the afPiftance of art, efpecially in thefe animals ; while the
latter is that which is attended with a bad ilate of the body.
But although in tlicfe inllances an ulcer may be fuppofed
to proceed from a vitiated cr difcafed ftate of the habit of
body in the animal, all common fores may hkewife be
reckoned ulcers, when they degenerate and contraft an ill
difpofition, whether they take their origin from an internal
or an external caufe. They arc, of courfe, of various
kinds, according as they are owing to thefe different caufes.
Wounds, bruifes, and other accidents, when iU-treated or
reglcfted, often occafion ulceri ; as well as a depraTcd Ilate

of the blood rtud juices, which in the firJl inftancc only pro-
duce tumours. Of this kind are all thofe of the fillular and
fome other kinds in thefe forts of animals.

Some ulcers too are internal, as in the lungs, liver, kid-
neys, and other vifcera of animals, where they not unfirc-
quently produce waftes and decays in them ; and fome are
among the joints and hgaments, which are much more
common. This is much the cafe in the legs of fome
animals.

There are other diftinilions alfo occafionally made ufe of
in defcribing ulcers in fuch animals; as thofe of Jikuouj,
Jijluloui, putrid, fcrophulous, cancerous, •varlcout, and fome
others, as their nature may be, and as may be feen under the
fame head in Surgery.

The fimple ulcer is always fuperficial, and attended only
with foulnefs, and hard or uneven edges raifed above the
furface of the common (Icin. A compound ulcer is, pro-
perly, when not only the fle(h is ulcerated, but a caries or
decay exifts in (he bone, with other bad appearances in the
animal. A cavernous ulcer is that which has a fmall nar-
row entrance, with a wide fprcading bottom part. The
ulcers that run aflant, proceeding from abfcelfes between the
mufcles or their tendons, are called finuous ulcers : the
ulcers that are tubular, fmooth, and callous on the infide,
and run in feveral meanders, are called fiftulous : and where
there is a great efflux of fetid matter, with inflammation,
fwelling, and inward ficknefs in the animal, fuch ulcers arc
faid to be putrid. Cancerous and fcrophulous ulcers are
ufually feated on the glands, and may be di(lingui(hcd by
their particular appearances ; the latter being more flow in
its progrefs, and lefs offenfive than the former, which ex-
tends rapidly, and makes great havock on the parts, and
ferioufly affeds the whole conllitution of" the animal.
Varicous ulcers arc feated among the veins, and are always
foft and dillended with blood in their parts. There are
many of this kind that take place in the legs and other
parts of animals of thefe different forts.

It is found by experience, that fimple and fuperficial
ulcers on the (kin in animals, are not, in general, difficult of
cure ; but fometimes their edges rife above the fnrfacc-fkin,
and grow callous, in which cafe they require fome time
before thefe can be reduced and cicatrized or healed. An
ulcer or caries in the bone is necelFarily more tedious and
difficult to cure than one in the fledi, and the difficulty is
more or lefs, in proportion to the nature of its fituation,
and the caufes whence it proceeds. Cavernous ulcers often
become fo, merely by tlieir fituation being in places where
compiefiion or bandages cannot be applied ; but they are
not fo troublefome as finuous ulcers, efpecially when the
finuofities terminate near a joint, for then they are often at-
tended witii great difficulty and danger. Fillnlous ulcers
are attended with all the fame, or rather greater difficulties,
being often fituated among the joints, and other incon-
venient places ; a circumftance which to animals of dif-
ferent forts is of bad confequence, and, for the moft part,
renders them of little ufe, even when a cure is effefted.
Putrid ulcers are always dangerous, as proceeding from a
bad Hate of the body in the animal ; and when they dif-
charge very great quantities of fetid matter, they are
liable to end in mortification, and the dellruftion of the
animals.

Cancerous ulcers are not of lefs ill confequence, only
that there is more refpite given ; as the animals will live
languilhing a confiderable time with thefe and other anoma-
lous ulcers, as in fome forts of glanders or afleftions of the
.".oilrils in horfes, and fomttimes in other diforder«, until
they are quite reduced, and the cure in moll cafes is im-

praAicablc.

ULCER.

prafticable. Varicous ulcers among the blood-veffelj of
the legs or other parts of animals are of a ipongy nature,
and hard to manage, difcharging, for the raolt part, a
bloody fort of ichoK. Of this kind too are fome of thofe
ulcerations that creep along the veins in the limbs, where
they are equally troiiblefonie and difficult of cure, on ac-
count of the exertions of the animals ; but a fimple and
fingle ulcer of this kind may cafdy be healed by fuitable
applications, and a proper ufe of bandages or compreflion.

In the cure of thefe different forts of ulcers, the methods
that are direfted below, may moftly be had recourfe to with
fuccefs in moft kinds of domeilic animals.

The firft or fimpk kinds, it is thought by fome, feldom
need any other management than walhing them with pure
water a little warm, or with fpirit of wine, and then drefiuig
them with pledgets of lint or tow fpread thinly with di-
geftive ointment, compofed of yellow wax, refin, common
turpentine, and olive oil, in the proportion of two parts of
the others to one of turpentine. However, if there be an
itching, with fmall pimples, it is fometimes advifed to mix
in every four ounces of the digeftive ointment a drachm of
verdigris in very fine powder, and to apply dreffmgs with
it once a day, or once in two days, if the difcharge be fmall.
And if little papilla arife in the bottoms of the ulcers,
that are of a faint red colour, the dreffmg ointment fhould
be mixed with red precipitate, in the quantity of a drachm
of it in fine powder to every two ounces of the digeftive
ointment. Where the ulcers are deep, and do not fill up in
a proper manner, as is the cafe fometimes in weak bad habits
of body in the animals, bark, and ftrengthening remedies of
other kinds, will likewife be neceffary, as well as good keep ;
and the ulcers may be dreffed with a mixture of common
turpentine and myrrh in fine powder put on the pledgets
every other day, wafhing them firft with brandy, ipirit of
wine, or tinfture of myrrh, or any other fimilar application.

The common black and yellow bafilicons too, when
made without lard, with oil, fometimes anfwer in thefe
cafes, as they tend to fill up the ulcers with granulations of
good flefh ; efpecially if proper remedies be at the fame
time given internally. It is advifed alfo, that equal parts of
antimony and gum guaiacum (hould be divided into ounce
dofes, and one of them be given every day, with plenty of
good nourifhlng food, confiiting of the beft forts of fodder
and oats, with water-gruel for drink in fome cafes.

In cafes where the ulcers fill up too faft, and produce a
quantity of fungous flefh, it may be repreffed by dreffmg
with dry powders, fuch as myrrh and lapis calaminaris, or
occafionally with red precipitate and burnt alum in fine
powder, in equal proportions, mixed together ; carefully
avoiding all greafy applications. If the fungus continue
troublefome, the dreffing may be lint or tow, dipped in blue
vitriol water, and wrung out dry, and then applied. If the
edges be callous, fo as to make a kind of rim round the
ulcers, red precipitate dreffings are always the beft. This
methjod has been found by fome to fucceed better, in fome
kinds of animals, as the horfe, than either cutting the cal-
lous edges off, or eating them down by cauftic, or deftroy-
ing them by a hot iron. Although fomewhat flower, it is
fuppofed more fafe, as not being io apt to produce mflam-
mation, which, inftead of deftroying fuch callofities, fre-
quently renders fuch ulcers more obftinate than before, and
more liable to fungus.

Thefe ulcers, in their fimple ftates, may often be cured
fimply by drawing together, and fupporting the parts by
flips of fticking-plaiftfer.

In the cavernous kind of ulcers, where they are deep,
(narrow at their entrances, and wide at their bottom parts,

they require to be laid open, or the fmall orifices of them
to be widened by a cauftic, fo that no matter may be con-
cealed. Where they are in fuch fituaiions that they can be
laid open with fafety, and the habit of body in the animals
is good, they may be cured with the fame ez,le as almoft a
fimple flelh wound, by merely obferving the fame methods
as in the former cafes. But when they do not fill up by
fuch means as are directed above ; and if they be found on
probing to have finuofities, they muft be managed as finuous
ulcers, as below.

The Jinuous kinds of ulcers are a fort which fliould be
laid open without lofs of time, by incifion, where it can be
properly done, provided acrid injeftions, fuch as the folu-
tions of blue vitriol, alum, or corrofivo fublimate, have been
previoufly tried, and where bandage or comprclfion cannot
be iifed ; as when they are fuftered to continue long, they
will run deeper and deeper, and often among the tendons
and interftices of the mufcles, fo as at laft to make their
way to the bones, which become carious in confequence,
and the cure in that cafe is rendered equally tedious and
difficult.

The JiJIuhus kinda of ulcers moftly take place by there
being inflammations and tumours in the parts, which form
abfcefles or colleftions of matter, which, if not let out and
removed by incifion, and proper preffure applied, penetrate
deeper, and become finuous ulcers ; which when they have
exifted long, or have occurred in unhealthy animals, feveral
finufes often form, and the matter makes its way from one
to another by fmall tubes, or communicating paflages ; in
which cafes the infides are commonly lined with callous
coats or membranes, fo that no re-union can be effeAed
until thefe connefting palfages are laid into one, and their
callofities are deftroyed. This may moftly be accompliflred
by proper incifions being made, when the parts ftiould be
dreffed with levigated red precipitate, or with pledgets of
Imt or tow dipped in a folution of blue vitriol, and phage-
denic water, made by diflblving a drachm of corrofive fub-
limate in a pint of lime-water ; or when made ftronger in
fome obftinate cafes.

Common abfcefles, on fome occafions, by injudicious
treatment, are converted into finuous and fiftulbus ulcers,
where they would perhaps have no fuch tendency ; as by
the bad and abfurd pradtice fometimes ufed, of introducing
long hard tents, that feparate the mufcles in the fame man-
ner as a piece of timber is cleft by a wedge, and by thus
tearing the membranes apart, the abfcefles grow deeper,
and even occafionally run into finufes that lie out of the
reach of common applications. The frequent and unne-
ceffary ufe of the probe too, often promotes the fame bad
confequences. In abfcefles, the weight of the coUefted
matter in them occafions an eafy feparation of the con-
tiguous cellular membrane, fo as to give way readily to a
flight force applied by a rude hand, and to form deep
finuofities ; to prevent which, in all fuch cafes, the parts
fliould be kept as firm and clofe by the ufe of a bandage
as they are capable of bearing, or a depending opening may
be formed for the paffage of the matter in another direc-
tion ; a feton too may fometimes be introduced for the
fame purpofe : fo that by one or other of thefe methods,
moft bad cafes of this kind may be prevented or removed in
thefe forts of animals.

In putrid ulcers, as whatever may be their origin, they
always exift under unfavourable ftates of the conftitution of
the animals, the cure of them will, of courfe, ftand in need
of internal means, fuch as the ufe of bark, opium, and good
nouriftiing food, in as large quantities as they can be taken-,
with fomentations and cataplafms of the fpirituous and

opiate

U L C

U L C

opiate kinds applied in as powerful a manner as poffible ex-
ternally to the parts. By thefe means, fteadily per-
fevered in, they may often be removed without much
difficulty.

The caiuerous ■».ndi fcrophulous are forts of ulcers that take
place in the glandular parts of the bodies of animals. The
firft fort fometimes occurs in horfes in bad cafes of glanders
and farcy ; and horfes have occafionally cancerous warts,
which, when deep feated, are liable to become true can-
cerous ulcers. Some fuppofe too that ulcers of this nature
take place from fetons, in fome cafes, when improperly
placed in glandular parts.

In neat cattle, they moftly begin by hard livid tumours
forming themfelves in glandular parts, fome of which are
moveable, others more fixed at firft, and fome inflame and
quickly break out, difcharging a thin acrid fort of ichor,
while others are more flow in breaking, and difcharge a
more thick matter, being liable to fill up with fungous flefli.
Thefe latter often occur about the face, on the eye-lids,
and in the glands about the jaws, being very difficult of
healing. There is frequently a fcrophulous difpofition in
the parts that keep them up.

In thefe cafes the cure depends much on their fituation.
In fome iiiftances they can be readily removed by cutting
the difeafed parts wholly out. Some deftroy the excref-
cences by the ufe of cauftic. Thefe modes are particularly
iifed with neat cattle, and fometimes with other forts.
After the ulcers have been made clean in their parts, they
may be touched all over with cauftic of the lunar kind, or
have red precipitate, in fine powder, dufted on them, and be
afterwards drefted with fmall pledgets of tow or lint,
dipped in a folution of fublimate in cgyptiacum, to which
a little tuicture of myrrh and fpirit of turpentine and of
fait have been added, once a day ; any rifing flefti being
kept down by the above cauftic. In order to fill up fuch
ulcers more readily, in fome cafes, as where they are clean,
and without acrid difcharge, it may be neceflary to ufe
digsftive ointment wrought up with the above folution, on
the dreffings, once or twice a day.

Mild purges in thefe cafes may fometimes be beneficially
made ufe of to promote the healing of the ulcers, as well as
medicines of fome other kinds.

The hard glandular tumours that produce thefe ulcers
may fometimes be difperfed at firft, by the ufe of ftrong
mercurial ointment mixed up with turpentine, well rub-
bed upon them once or twice a day for fevcral days, and
then leaving it off for a time, to be repeated again if neceffary.
The fame ointment may likewife be employed with more
advantage, in fome cales, when combined with ftrong aqua-
fortis and powdered cantharidc-s. See TuMouu.

In the cure of the varicous kind of ulcers, it has been ad-
vifed by fome to bathe the parts with aftringent foment-
ation? prepared by oak and other fuch barks in proper
proportions, or with alum and white vitriol diffolved in
warm vinegar. The matter of thefe ulcers is generally, it is
faid, of a thin bloody watery nature, which will thicken or
dry up by fuch applications. In cafe the veffels continue
weak and relaxed after fuch ulcers are healed, firing will
fometimes be ufefwl and proper for ftrengthening the parts,
by contrafting the coats of the veins that caufe and |)ro-
mote the ulcers : and in fome cafes it may be dont- fa dec ply
as to cut off the comnujnication of tliem. Ulcers of this
watery kind, which have fome affinity to the varicous, lake
place in horfes in the farcy, and in fome otlier difeafcs of
ihcm, as well as other aninjal^.

In moft cafes of old ulcers in animals, it will be of much
6

ufe to have recourfe occafionally to calomel, given in dole^
of from h.ilf a drachm to a whole one, with coolmg purges,
and good keep, as well as the frequent appUcation of band-
ages where they can be employed.

By thefe different means properly apphed, moll of the
ulcers in different forts of domeftic animals may be fpeedily
removed.

ULCERATION. That the living body (hould pof-
fefs a power of removing portions of itfelf, feems at firft a
propofition fomewhat extraordinary ; but when it is known
that there exifts in the animal body a fyftcm of veffels,
whofe peculiar function is to take away the old particles of
matter, in proportion as new particles are depofited by the
arteries, the difappearance of parts then readily admits of
explanation by adverting to the power and acSlion of the
abforbent veffels. In faft, there can be no greater difficulty
in conceiving how thefe veffels remove the particles of the
body, than in conceiving how fuch particles are depofited
by another order of veffels, named arteries. One of the
moft common examples of the abforption of particles of the
living body in difeafe, is that which is every day exemplified
in the procefs of ulceration, by which an aftual breach or
folution of continuity is produced. It was tliis procefs
which Mr. Hunter ufed to diftinguifti by the name of
vlrerallve abforption.

Ulceration, or ulcerative abforption (asprofeffor Thomfon
obfervesl, is a morbid procefs which muft have prefented
itfelf in every age, and with the appearances of which
medical men mufl have been at all times very familiarly ac-
quainted. The phenomena which it exhibits were deno-
minaicd erofion by Galen. Since his time, it has ufually
been fuppofed that the folution of continuity which occurs
in erofion is produced by the corrofive or folvent power of
the fluids which are generated in that procefs.

Mr. Hunter was the firil who ventured to c.dl this
opinion of Galen's in queftion, and who pointed out to
future obfervers the fliaie which the abforbent veflels have
in this procefs.

In moft inftances of inflammation, in which the procefs
of ulcerative abforption occurs, it ufually begins at a fingle
point, forming a fmall fore or ulcer ; while in other ex-
amples it commences at feveral points, either at the fame
time or in fucceffiou. In many inftances, its operation ap-
pears to be diffufed over a confidcrable extent of furface ;
and in others again it is limited to a very narrow hue, pro-
ducing a chink or fiffure, an appearance fimilar to that
which occurs in the feparation of mortified parts. The
progrefs of ulcerative abforption is very various in different
textures, and in the fame texture in different individuals, ac-
cording to the nature of the inflammation, the degree in
which It exifts, and perhaps, alfo, according to the particular
conftitution of the perfon in whom it occurs. In fome
inftances the procefs of ulcerative abforption is exceedingly
flow, or clironic in its progrefs, the fores which it forms
remaining long open, without manifefting any difpofition to
extend themfelves into the parts more unmediately furround-
ing them. In other inftances it ads with great rapidity,
removing and deftroyiiig confiderable portions of textures
or organs in the courfe of a few hours.

Dr. Tiiomfon then proceeds to notice, that pain of a
pricking or lancinating nature is an alnioll conftant attend-
ant upon attacks of ulcerative abforption ; but this varies
exceedingly m different textures, in different kinds of in-
flammation, and according as the abforption is more rapid
or flow.

Every organized part of the body fceras liable to ul-
cerative

U L C

<:erative abforption, but we fee ifoccur more frequently in
cutaneous texture, and in mucous membrane, tlian in any of
the other textures of the body.

In all the parts in which it occurs (faysDr. Thomfon),
it h preceded by a certain degree of inflammation, and this
inflammation is ufuaily the adhefive ; but ulcerative ab-
forption may fupervene in parts afi"efted with fuppurative
or gangrenous inflammation. The inflammation which
precedes and accompanies ulcerative abforption, may be
either of a fimple or of a fpecific nature, and great differ-
ences will be produced by this circumfl;ance in the appear-
ances and effefts of the fores or ulcers which are formed.

Ulcerative abforption, in fimple inflammation, may arife
from a great number of caufes, as from prefTure upon parts
in a ftate of inflammation. We fee this effeA daily pro-
duced in cafes of fimple and compound fraftures, where the
limbs are frequently kept a long while in one pofture. It
may be produced by the application of irritating fubftances
to inflamed furfaces, or by the too long retention of ex-
creted fluids upon furfaces in a ftate of fuppuration.

Many fpecific inflammations feem to give a difpofition
to ulcerative abforption, and the fores or ulcers which are
formed, are moft of them very difBcult to heal, if they are
not in their nature abfolutely incurable. This difficulty is
often very remarkable in fcrophulous, fyphilitic, cancerous,
and lupous ulcerations. The ulcerative abforption which
occurs firfl in cutaneous texture, may in its progrefs be
confined to that texture, removing a confiderable portion of
(kin, and expofing the parts which lie under it ; or, without
extending far along the furface, it may penetrate into the
interior parts of the body. In doing this, it often fuccef-
flvely attacks and removes flcin, cellular membrane, fafcix,
Rnufcle, blood-veflel, abforbent, nerve, and bone. We have
examples of this in the progrefs of cancerous and lupous
ulceration. That inflammation conftantly precedes ulcer-
ation. Dr. Thomfon thinks is proved, not only by the
occurrence of rednefs, pain, heat, and fwelling in the parts
which arc contiguous to thofe in which the ulceration ap-
pears, but alfo by that clofure (which is effefted by adhe-
iion) of the canals of the blood-veflels and abforbents
divided in ulcerative abforption, and without which a cer-
tain degree of hemorrhage would be the never-failing and
conftant attendant upon the ftate of ulceration.

When, in the healing of fores, the (kin which imme-
diately furrounds them becomes red, hot, fwoUen, and
painful, we have reafon to dread an extenfion of the fore by
the progrefs of ulcerative abforption. In fome inftances
this procefs occurs in the whole circumference, producing
?.n extremely irritable and painful ulcer ; in others, the
ulcerative abforption is confined in its operation to a par-
ticular fpot, which is always more inflamed and painful than
the other parts of the fore. Certain ftates and degrees of
gangrenous inflammation have a tendency to terminate in
ulcerative abforption ; and when the ulcerating and fpha-
celating procefTes occur together in the fame difeafed
lurface, dreadful are the havock and deftruftion of parts
which they occafion. Mucous membrane, next to cuta-
neous texture, feems to be moft liable to attacks of ulcera-
tive abforption. In mucous membranes, the ulcerating
procefs often appears in the form of fmall round fores,
which are termed aphths when they appear in the mouth or
fauces, and chancres when on the parts of generation.
Thefc, like the ulcerations in cutaneous texture, may be
either of a fimple or fpecific nature, and it is often ex-
tremely difncult, from the appearances which they exhibit,
to determine to which divifion we ought to refer them.

V L E

Bone is another texture which feems very liable to ulcer-
ation, and the diforder here generally receives the ap-
pellation of caries.

Ulcerative abforption very feldom begins originally in
rnufcle, tendon, fafcia, blood-veflels, abforbents, or nerves,
though, in the progrefs of difeafe, it mav attack all thefe
ftruftures.

Synovial membranes are often the feat of ulceration,
particularly in the progrefs of chronic inflammations, which
attack the articulating furface of the joints. Here the
ulcerative procefs begins moft frequently in the fynovial
membrane, and from this extends to the articulating carti-
lage, and afterwards to the bone.

Of the internal vifcera, there are none which feem fo
liable to ulcerative abforption as the ftomach and inteftinal
canal. Death is almoft always the fpeedy effeft of ulcer-
ation, when it eats through the coats of thefe vifcera, the
contents of which efcape into the cavity of the abdomen.

Healthy pus and the appearance of granulations are
always agreeable occurrences in the progrefs of an ulcer, as
they indicate that a ftop has been put, at leaft for a time, to
the procefs of ulcerative abforption.

It was particularly remarked by Mr. Hunter, that new-
formed parts are more liable to ulcerative abforption than
fucli as conftitute original portions of the body. This is
feen in the frequent abforption of granulations, cicatrices,
and callus.

There is alfo a procefs in the animal body, very analogous
to open ulceration, or, what Mr. Hunter called, ulcerative
abforption : we allude to that pecuhar operation which he
thought proper to name progreflive abforption. By this,
abfceffes, aneurifms, and various tumours, make their way
to the furface of the body, the parts covering them being
gradually rendered thinner and thinner by abforption
And it is by the fame procefs that foreign bodies, fuch as
pins, needles, bullets, &c. travel from one part of the body
to another, and are at length brought to the lurface. See
Hunter's Treatife on the Blood, Inflammation, &c. and
Thomfon's Leftures on Inflammation, p. 369, &c.

ULCEROUS Sore-Throat. See Quinsey and Cy-
NAN'CHE TonfiUaris.

ULCHUNSKOI, NiZNEI, in Geography, a town and
fort of Ruflia, on the Amur ; 56 miles S.S.W. of
Doroninflc.

Ulchunskoi, Verchnel, a fort of Ruflia, on the Amur,
on the borders of China; 100 miles S.W. of Doroninflc.

ULCI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the
interior of Lucania. Ptolemy.

ULEA, or Ulaborg, in Geography, a fea-port of
Sweden, capital of a government which comprehends a
part of Eaft Bothnia, fituated in a peninfula, at the mouth
of a river of the fame name, which runs into the gulf of
Bothnia. It was built in the year 1610, and is the largeft
town in all Eaft Bothnia. It has very ftraight and long
ftreets, a good fchool, a commodious harbour, and a fine
falmon fifhery. In the year 1 7 14, this town was demo-
liflied by the Rufiians. The caftle which ftands near it on
a fmall ifland, and is properly called Ulaborg, was built and
fortified in the year 1590 ; but now lies in a ruinous con-
dition ; 320 miles N. of Abo. N. lat. 65° 40'. E. long.

25° 23'-

Ulea, a river of Sweden, which runs into the gulf of
Bothnia, N. lat. 65° 2'. E. long. 25° 22'.— Alfo, a large
lake of Sweden, in the province of Cajana.

ULEASALO, a town of Sv/eden ; 4 miles S. of Ulea.

VLED DE Nun, a count)7 01 Africa, next to the

10 provir/re

U L E

province of Suz, or Suft?, in Morocco, and feparated from
it by faiidy deferts. The emperor of Morocco arro-
gates to himfelf the fovereignty of Vied de Nun, but his
real authority is here extremely feeble. This vaft, but
defert, province affords not a fingle harbour or anchor-
ing-place along a coaft of 60 leagues, or quite to Cape
Bajador. It is inhabited by different tribes of Arabs,
whofe camps are fcattered over fuch parts of the interior
country as are capable of cultivation. The fide next the
fea is a fandy (hore, lined with rocks under water, over
which the waves break violently. Ships are often driven
on this coaft by rapid currents formed between the continent
and the Canary iflands, and Spanilh, Engliih, and French
velTels are frequently Ihipwrecked. When tiiefe difaftrous
events occur, the unhappy mariners are immediately feized
and ilripped by the Arabs, expofed to every kind of priva-
tion, bought and fold, or exchanged for camels, or other
beails, in the markets of the deferts. The province of
Vied de Nun has a confiderable trade. After having pafTed
the deferts that feparate it from Morocco, we find many
trafts of land capable of cultivation, and which produce
gums and excellent wax. As thefe people are fo far re-
moved from the reach of tyranny as to live in a kind of
independence, luxuries are more indulged among them ; and
they make uie of many European commodities, efpecially
linen. Several of thefe Arab tribes are more affable and
lioncft than the other Moors. They trade to Mogodor,
but with referve and circumfpeftion, that they may not ex-
pofe their riches to the uncertainty of accident. It is pro-
bable they have a m.ore immediate communication with the
factories of Senegal, with which they may trade with lefs
reftraint ; and it is only by their means that the weitern
Moors have any intercourfe w-ith the people of Nigritia.
If it were prafticable to form fettlements on the coaft of
Cape Bajador, a very profitable commerce might be efta-
blifhed with thefe Arabs ; and mariners, who might have
the misfortune to be fhipwrecked on the coaft, would he
able to obtain more certain and fpeedy afliftance ; but fuch
a plan is expofed to too many difficulties ever to be
realized. Chenicr's Morocco, vol. i.

ULEMAS, the name by which the minifters and inter-
preters of religion are diftinguilhed in ths- Ottoman empire.
In Turkey they pofTefs the moft lucrative employments ;
they join judicial to religious power ; they are at the fame
time interpreters of religion and judges of all civil and cri-
minal affairs ; they are fecure from the extortions of the
pachas and great men of the empire ; they cannot be legally
put to death without the confent of their chief : their pro-
perty, after their deceafc, pafl'es as a right to their heirs, fo
that the imperial treafury cannot appropriate it to itfelf.
In fliort, they form a corporation, highly regarded, power-
ful, and fometimcs formidable to the throne itfelf, from their
having the direftion almoft always of public opinion, and
becaufe there is, perhaps, no government where public
opinion is pronounced with fo much ftrength and fuccefs as
in Turkey. Thefe magiflrates and doftors of the law muft
not be confounded with the iinams who fervc the mofqiies,
(fee Imam,) nor with the muezims ; which fee. 'I'he order
of ulemas, the moll refpeftable and bell informed in the
Ottoman empire, comprehends the mufti or muphli, the Li-
dilejkers or cadiUfchtrs, the Jlambol-efftntl't, and the mui/eris ;
which fee refpettively. The immediate minifters of reli-
gion, though they make no part of the body of ulemas,
may be admitted into it, either by undergoing examinations,
and getting themfelves received as muderis, or by obtaining
through favour a place of provincial mufti, of cadi, fir of
naib. If, after having occupied thefe employment.";, they

Vol. XXXVII.

U L E

be admitted into the body of the muderi:, and wifh to paf» to
the mofque of Suhman, they may then arrive at the inolV
eminent places of judicature. The firfl rank among them is
that oi fchiek, or preacher, whofe fun6lion is to preach in
the molques every Friday after the noon prayer, and even
oftener when there are foundations for that purpofc. The
fcheiks of the fourteen imperial mofqucs of Conl^antinople
are the moft confidered in the empire, and are appointed by
the mufti ; thofe of the other mofques are named by thie
magiftrate of the place or of the diftrid. The khatibs have
no other employment befides that of difcharging, in imita-
tion of the prophet and of the firft caliphs, and in the place
of the fultan who reprefents them, the functions of imameth,
or of the priefthood, at the folemn prayer which takes place
on the Friday, and of reciting the khoutbe, or public pro-
feffion refpefting the unity and the attributes of the Su-
preme Being, accompanied by a prayer for the prefervation
and profperity of the fultan, and for the fuccefs of his
arms againft the infidels. They are appointed by a khaily-
fcherif, figned by the hand of the fultan. The imam re-
cites in a loud voice, in the mofque, five times a day, except
at the folemr. Friday's prayer, the nama%, which the perfons
prefent repeat in a low tone : he at the fame time performs
the ceremonies which accompany that prayer ; he afTifts at
circumcifion and interments : in a word, he difchargcs all
the funftions which worfhip requires. In the early ages of
Mahometanifm, imam fignified and deCgnated the pontiff, or
the fupreme chief of Idamifm : the fucceffors of the firft four
caliphs took only the title of imam-ul-mujlimin, pontiff of the
MufTulmans. The doftors and interpreters of the law were
afterwards decorated with it, and for fome time paft it has
no longer been given to any but the minifters of religion.
In moft villages, and fome mofques of the towns, whofe
revenue is too limited, the imam difcharges at the fame
time the funftions of fchiek, khatib, imam, muezim, and
cayim. The mofques of the fecond order, called mfjjirls,
have no need of a khatib, becaufe they have not the right
to celebrate the folemn prayer on a Friday. Olivicr's
Travels.

ULE-TREE, Castill.4, in Botany, Mexican Elaftic
Gum, conftitutes a new genus of plants, of which an account
has been given by Don Vicente de Cervantes, in the fupplc-
ment to the Gazeta dc Literatura, publifhed at Mexico,
July 2, 1794. See Konig's Trafts relative to Botany, 229.
This genus is named Castilla, in memory of the late Don
.luan delCaftillo, a native of Jaca, in the kingdom of Aragon,
who at the age of twenty-feven was appointed chief bo-
tanift to the royal hofpital at Porto-Rico. Seventeen years
afterwards he was one of the naturalifts chofen to invef-
tigate the produftions of Mexico, where he diid July 26,
1793, at the age of forty-nine years. — Clafs and order,
Monoecia Icojandria. Nat. Ord. Scabridt, I. inn. Urticir,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, hemifphcrical,
covered with imbricated, ovate, acute fcaks. Cor. none.
Slam. Filaments numerous, thread-(hapid, inicited into the
infide of the calyx, the outcrmoft gradually lunger ; anthers
fimple, roundifh.

Female, on the fame branch, alternate with the male, Cal.
as in the male, but with rather broader and thicker fcales,
permanent, at length fprcading. Cor. none. Pijl. Gcr-
mcns numerous, fifteen to twenty, ovate ; ftylestwo, rarely
three, to each gcrmen, fprcading, pcrmaneiil ; ftigmas fim-
ple, revolute. Peric. Drupas from fifteen to twenty, com-
bined at the bafe, obfcurely triangular, excavated at the
fummit. Seed. Nut ovate, of one cell, with a kernel of the
fame fhapc.

U u Eff.

U L E

U L E

Eir. Qi. Male, Calyx of one leaf, imbricated with fcales.
Corolla none. Stamens numerous.

Female, Calyx as in the male, permanent. Cor. none.
Germens numerous. Styles two or three. Drupas nu-
merous.

I. C. elajlka. Cervantes as above, t. 9 — Native of the
hot north-eaft coafts of Mexico, where it is one of the lofti-
eft and mod luxuriant of trees, much refembling Aiuiona
muricata. Stem three or four yards in circumference, very
ftraight. Bmi Imooth, foft, three or four lines thick, afh-
coloured, bitter and iiaufeous in tafte, as is the milky juice
ifTuing from every part when wounded. Branches- alternate,
horizontal, round, flexible ; the younger ones clothed with
ftifF liairs. Leaves alternate, on fhort thick Italks, elhptic-
obloncr, acute, eighteen inches long and feven broad, veiny,
downy on both fides, entire, though apparently toothed
from the equidiftant tufts of h;ur, ranged along the margin ;
heart-fhaped at the bafe ; reticulated with veins. Slipulat
in pairs at the bafe of each foocftalk, oblong, pointed, mem-
branous, deciduous. Floivers axillary, folitary, nearly
feflile, the male and female alternate in the lower part of each
branch, but towards the end are male flowers only. Calyx
ftraw-coloured. Stamens white, with deep-yellow anthers.
Drupiis larger than a pea, crowded together in the bottom
of the extended calyx, orange-coloured, mucilaginous, almoft
taftelefs.

The milky juice of this tree forms that kind of Elaftic
Gum, which the Mexicans call Ule. The Cecropia peltata,
■with fome fpecies of Jatiopha and Fictis, yield a fimilar
produce, valuable for divers economical purpofes. See
Caoutchouc.

ULEX, the Furze-bufli, a name in Pliny, which pro-
fefior Martyn is difpofed to derive from cuAo,-, cr'ifped or
curled ; but De Theis traces the word to the Celtic ec or ac,
a point, certainly applicable enough to its habit and appear-
ance; this etymology being moreover fupported by the French
name of the (lirub, ajonc, anciently acjonc, or prickly rufli. —
Linn. Gen. 379. Schreb. 488. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 969.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 756. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 4. 265. Brot. Lufit. v. 1. 78. Juff. 352. La-
marck Illullr. t. 621. Gsertn. t. 151. — Clafs and order,
Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papllionaceit, Linn.
Lsgumtnofx, JuflT.

Gen.Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of two ovate-oblong,
concave, ftraight, equal, permanent leaves, rather fliorter
than the keel ; the upper one with two teeth ; lower with
three. Cor. papilionaceous, of five petals. Standard very
large, inverfely heart-fhaped, emarginate, ftraight. Wings
oblong, obtufe, (horter than the ftandard. Keel ftraight,
obtufe, of two petals converging at their inner margin.
Stam. Filaments in two fets combined at the bafe, one
limple, the other in nine divifions ; anthers fimple. Pift.
Germen oblong, cylindrical, hairy ; ftyle thread-fliaped,
afcending ; ftigma fmall, obtufe. Pcrlc. Legume oblong,
turgid, nearly covered by the calyx, ftraight, of one cell
and two elallic valves. Seeds few, roundilh, emarginate,
with a fleftiy appendage.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two leaves. Legume fcarcely longer
than the calyx. Stamens all conncfted.

The few fpecies of this genus are almoft confined to
the v/efterii more tL'mpcrate parts of Europe, ;md are remark-
able for their rigid thorny buftiy habit. The leaves are
fimpk", fmall and inconfpicuous. Flaiuers numerous, deep
yellow.

I. U. eiiropxus. Common Furze, Whin, or Gorfc.
Linn. Sp. PI. 1045. W^illd. n. i. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl.
Bol. t, 742. Fl. Dan. t. 608. Brot. n. 1. (U. graiidi-
iz.

florus ; Pourret Ail. Tolof. v. 3. 333. Genifta fpinofa
vulgaris; Ger. Em. 1319- Scorpius primus; Cluf. Hift.
V. I. 106.) — Calyx-teeth obfolete, converging. Bra6leas

ovate, lax. Branches ereft Native of gravelly or fandy

heaths, in Denmark, Germany, Brabant, France, and Por-
tugal, very frequent in England, flowering in May. — On
Putney heath it is remarkably luxuriant, and very fplendid
when in bloffom. Linna:us is recorded to have been pe-
culiarly flruck with the appearance of this ftirub, when he
vifitcd England, and he complains in Hort. Upfal. 212, that
he could never prcferve it in his garden through the winter.
With us it varies from two to fix feet in height. The
branches are exccffively numerous, crowded, furrowed, hairy,
tipped with ftrong, fharp, compound, permanent thorns,
which bear at their bafe the leaves and fometimes flowers.
Leaves folitary, awl-ftiaped, fpinous-pointed, fmall, roughifti
or hairy, deciduous, chiefly on the youngeft. moft vigorous
branches. Floiver-Jlalks axillary, folitary or in pairs, fimple.
BraHeas near the calyx, but not clofe-prefted, fometimes
fpreading, ovate, concave, fdky. Calyx downy. Corolla
near twice the length of the calyx, honey-fcented, of 3
golden yellow. Legume downy, fplitting with a crackling
noife, in hot ftill weather.

2. U. nanus. Dwarf Furze. Forft. in Svm. Syn. 1 60.
Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 743. WiUd. n. 2. Ait.
n. 2. (U. europaeus /S ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1.04J.- U. genif-
toides ; Brot. n. 2. Genifta aculeata minor, five Nepa
Theophrafti ; Ger. Em. 1321.) — Calyx-teeth lanceolate,
fpreading. Brafteas minute, clofe-prefled. Branches
reclining. — Found on rather mountainous or 'elevated heathy
ground, in France, England, and Portugal, flowering in
autumn ; though it muil be obferved that both fpecies are
to be met with more or lefs in bloffom, in all open weather.
This is much imaller than the foregoing ; Jloiuers not only
fmaller but paler ; branches more elongated and cylindrical ;.
Iradeas minute, brown ; calyx yellower, with deeper more
evident teeth.

U. capenfis, Linn. Sp. PI. 1 046, being no other than
Polygala fpinofa, Linn. Sp. PI. 989, is properly left out by
Willdenow, tliough he ought to have referred, to it under
the faid Polygala.

Ule.x, in (Jardm\ng,l\xrKiSati ftirubby plants of the thorny
kind, among which the fpecies cultivated are, the common
furze, whin, or gorfe ( U. europasus) ; the dwarf furze (U»
nanus ) ; and the Cape or African berry -bearing furze { U.
capenfis).

The firft is a well-known plant, frequently met with on
waites, commons, and heaths, fpreading over large trafts of
land.

There are feveral varieties, as the common yellow furze ;
the white-flowered furze ; the long-fpined furze ; the ftiort-
fpined furze ; the large French furze ; the fmall or dwarf
furze ; and the round-podded furze.

This fort and varieties of furze are remarkable for having
all their young (hoots, branches and ipinesof a lafting green
colour, which, though they are deciduous in the leaf, which
comes out in the fpring, and foon falls off and difappears,
yet from thefe numerous branches, flioots and fpines remain-
ing conftantly green, they always appear in the manner
of evergreens, and are moftly ranked under that head or clafs.
See Evergreen.

The fecond iort is much lower than the common fort,
having decumbent branches. It is found witli the other
kind chiefly on dry elevated heaths, but by no means fo
generally ; flowering from Auguft to Ottober. It was
formerly confidercd by fome as a variety of the above.

The third,, or Cape fort, has a woody hard ftem, which is

covered-

U L I

•covered with a greenifti bark, when young, but afterwards
becomes greyidi : the branches are aJfo flender and woody.
It has not yet produced any flowers in this chmate.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may all be increafed
from feeds. Thefe in the firft fort fhould be fown in the
autumn or fpring, in any light mould, where the plants are to
remain. They are likewife fometimes fown in drills in nurfery-
beds, to be tranfplanted afterwards while -very young ; but
the firft is the better pra6tice, as they do not remove well,
efpecially when grown of 3 large fize. Hedges of this plant
are beft. raifed by lowing them in drills an inch deep where
they are to remain, keeping them perfeAly free from all
forts of weeds, &c. for two or three years, until a little
advanced in growth.

In the fecond and third forts, in the latter of which the
feed rtiould be obtained from abroad, and be fown in pots
of fine mould, plunging them in the hot-bed ; when the
plants are up a few inches in height, they (hould be removed
into feparate fmall pots, being afterwards managed as other
ftrubs of the greenhoufe kind. But with the former, the
fame modes may be followed with the feeds as in tiie firft;
fort and its varieties.

The laft fort is difficult to raife, either by layers or cut-
tings.

The firft fort and varieties afford ornament and variety in
llirubberies, where a few plants of the different kinds may
be admitted in fuch as are extenfive, having a fine effeft in
their evergreen flowery appearance, and the two latter
among potted plants of the greenhoufe kind. The former
alfo in borders and clumps.

ULEY, L,\, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Grenada ; 10 miles W. of Vera.

ULFEN, a fea-port town of Sweden, in Angermanland,
on the coaft of the gulf of Bothnia ; 25 miles N.N.E. of
iiernofand.

ULFON, North and South, two fmall iflands on the
■wefl fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63" 2'. E. long.
18° 27'.

ULFSBY, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;
J miles S.S.E. of Biorneborg.

ULIA, {Monte Major,) m Ancient Geography, a town of
Hifpania, in Boetica, towards the N.E. By a medal of
Gruter, it appears to have formed a fmulleitatc, and to have
alTumed the title of a republic.

ULIARUS, the yic ofOleron, an ifland on the coafl of
Gallia Aquitanica.

VLIEGER, SiMov DE, in Biography, was born at Am-
flerdam about the year 161 2. It is not known by whom
this artift was educated, but his piftures are very defervedly
efteemed for their force ai.d brilliancy. He had the honour
to be the inftruftor of the younger Vandevelde ; and though
the delicacy of the pencil enjoyed by the pupil furpaffud
that of the mafter, yet the works of tiic latter retain tlieir
power, ar.d have a charafter of their own, which gives them
a place in tl'.e bell colleftions.

VLIELAND, or Flielant, in Geography, an ifland in
the German fca, at the entrance of the Zuyder See, about
eight miles long, and three in breadth; taken by the Englifh
in 1799 ; 5 miles N. from the Texel. N. lat. 53"^ 24'.
E. long. 4° 25'.

ULIETEA, one of the Society iflands, in the South I'a-
cilic ocean. On the call and weft coafts of this ifland are
fomc good harbours. One harbour or bay, called by the
natives Oopoa, and capabh' of holding any number of fhipa,
extends almoft the whole length of the E. fide of the ifland,
and is defended from the fca by a reef •f coral rocks ; the
Xouthernmoft opening in this reef, or cliannel into the hur-

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hour, is little more than a cable's length wide ; it lies olTthc
eafternmoll point of the ifland, and may be known by another
fmall woody ifland, which lies a little to the S.E. of it, called
by the people Oatara. Between three and four miles N.W.
from this ifland lie two other iflcts, in the fame diredion as
tlie reef of which they are a part, called Opururu and Tamou,
between which lies another channel into the harbour, a
quarter of a mile wide. Still farther to the N.W. are fomo
fmall iflands. On Ulietea there is a great Moral, called
Tapodtioalea, different in its conllrti^ftion from the Morals of
Otaheite. Several jaw-bones are found, which, like fcalps
among the Indians of North America, are trophies of war.
On this ifland they exhibit dances and dramatic exhibitions
for the amufement of thofe who choofe to attend them. The
inhabitants in general are more fuperllitious than thofe of
Otaheite. Oreo, the chief of this ifland, when Cook vifited
it in 1774, is a native of Bolabola, but is poffenfed of uhe-
nooas or lands at Ulietea, which he, as well as many of Ids
countrymen, are fuppofed to have gotten at the conqucll.
He refides here as the lieutenant of Opoony of Bolabola,
feeming to be veiled with regal authority, and to be the fu-
preme magiltr.-ite in the ifland. Oo-oo-rou, who is the earce
by hereditary right, has little more left him than the bare title,
and his own uh^nooa or dift^ricl, in which he is fovereign.
Oreo was obferved to pay him the refpeft due to his rank.
The land is hilly, broken, and irregular, except on the fea-
coaft ; yet the hills are green and pleafant, and in many parts
abound with wood : the produftions and manners of the in-
habitants are fimilar to thofe of Otaheite. The principal
refrefhments that are to be procured at this ifland are plan-
tains, cocoa-nuts, yams, hogs, and fowls : the hogs and fowls
however are fcarce ; and the country appears to be neither
fo populous nor fo rich in produce as Otalieite, or even
Huaheine. Wood and water may alfo be procured here,
but the water cannot be conveniently got at ; lying S.W.
by S. diftant 7 or 8 leagues from Huaheine. See; Society
//lands.

ULIETER, or File Stroom, a road in the north part of
Zuyder See, near the coafl of Friefland.

ULIGINOUS Land, in Agriculture, a term fometimes
applied to a dark-coloured fort of moiil, moorifh, or fenny
ground or foil.

VLISSINGEN, in Geography. See Flushi.ng.
\J'LVLlV)\?'.KliA,\n Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, towards the S. of Adrumetum. Ptol.

L'LKANSKAIA, in Geography, a town of Rufllajin the
government of Irkutlk ; Oo miles S. of Kirenflc.

ULKOGRUNNE, three fmall iflands on the eaft fide of
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65^ 24'. E. long. 24° 14'.

ULKOKALLA, a fmall ifland on the eaft fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 64° 22'. E. long. 23° 31'.

ULLA, a river of Spain, which runs iuto the Atlantic,
N. lat. 42° 40'. W. long. S"" 25'.

ULLAGE, in Commerce, a term denoting what a calk
of liquor wants of being full.

ULLAPOOL, in Geography, a fea-port town of Scotland,
in the county of Rofs, fituated at the mouth of a river which
runs into Loch Broom ; it was firft founded in 178S, and is
advantagcoufly fituated for fifliing or commerce. The road-
iload is lafe and conveuieiit for any number of veifels ; and
there is a good (juay where goods may be loaded or un-
loaded with tiic grcateft cafe. N. lat. 57" 52'. W.
long. 5° 1'.

ULLARED, a town of Sweden, iu Halland ; 50 miles
N. of Halmftad.

ULLAVA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wafa ; 32 miles N. of Jacob ft ad t.

U u 2 ULLERS-

DLL

U L M

ULLERSDORF, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Neiffe ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Otmuchau.

ULLERUD, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Warmeland ; 1 2 miles N. of Carlftadt.

ULLESWATER, a lake of England, fituated partly
in the county of Weftmoreland, and partly in Cumberland,
whofe waters run into the Eden, by the river Einiot, 3 miles
S. of Penrith.

ULLO, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near the coaft of
Lapland. N. lat. 69° 32'.

ULLOA, AjJTONio Di, in Biography, a celebrated naval
officer of Spain, was born at Seville in the year 1716, and
fo diftinguifhed by talents and knowledge, that at the age of
eighteen years he was appointed to accompany his friend
Don George Juan to South America, to co-operate with the
academicians Condamine, Bouguer, and Godin, in mealuring
a degreeof the meridian. On tl<e 26th of May, 1735, he failed
for Peru, and remained at Quito till the mcafurement was
completed on the 12 th of May, 1744. On his return home
in a French {hip he was captured, in Auguft 1745, by two
Englifh men of war, and from Louifburg, in the ifland of
Cape Breton, whither he was carried, he proceeded to Lon-
don, where he was kindly received, particularly by Martm
Folkes, efq. prefident of the Royal Society, of which he was
admitted a member in December 1 746. After his arrival
in Spain, he and his friend Don Juan publiihed an account
of the voyage to America, in five fmall folio volumes, en-
titled " Relacion hiftorica del Viage de Orden de S. Mag.
para medir algunos Grados de Meridiano," Mad. 1748.
Tranflations of this work were printed, one in German, at
Leipfic, and one in Englifh, at London, in 2 vols. 8vo. 1758.
Another in French, entitled '' Voyage hiftorique de I'Ame-
rique Meridionale," Amft. 1757, 2 vols. 410. is con-
fidered as the moft complete, as the author approved the
imdertaking. His next objeft was to collect information
with regard to the ftate of the arts and fciences, &c. in
various parts of Europe, and with this view he made a tour,
under the appointment of Ferdinand VL through England,
France, Holland, and various diftrifts of Germany ; and
the refult of this tour was that many young Spaniards were
fent at the public expence to France, Holland, Geneva, and
Italy, to acquire a knowledge of medicine, furgcry, engrav-
ing, watch-making, and various other arts in which the Spa-
niards were at that time very deficient. Ulloa was alfo aftive
in promoting the royal woollen manufadlories, and in organiz-
ing the colleges of hiftory and furgery ; he alfo fuperintended
and completed the canals and bafons both at Carthagena and
Fen'ol. The famous quickfilver mines of Almaden were
objefts of his peculiar attention, and in 1759 he was deputed
to vifit thofe of GuancaveUica in Peru. From this fervice
he was removed, in 1766, to the government of Lomfiana,
which had been ceded to Spain, but the dillurbances that
enfued obliged him very foon to abandon that ftation. In
1776 he commanded the galleon fleet that failed from Cadiz
to Mexico, and having been charged with negleCl in that
fervice, he was honourably acquitted by a council of war at
Cadiz. His fecond great work, which was a Phyfical and
Hillorical Account of the Southern and North-eallern Part
of America, and which contained a curious difquifition on the
peopling of America, was publiihed at Madrid, 410. in 1 772,
under the title of " Entretenimientos Phvficos-Hiftoricos
fobre la America Meridional y Septentrional Oriental :" the
difquifition is entitled " Sobre el Modo en quel palTaron los
primeros Pobladores." This work wastranflatcd into Ger-
man by profeflbr Diez, and publiflied at Leipfic in 1 78 1,
I782,in 2 vols. 8vo., and was enriched by the valuable addi-
tions of profeffor Schneider. Dr. Robertlon eftimated them fo

highly, that he procured a tranflation of them into Englilh for
his own ufe. Another eminent Spaniard related to the fub-
jeft of this article, Don Bernard di Ulloa, pubhdied i;i
1740 an interefting work, entitled " Reftablecimiento de las
Fabricas y Commercio Mai-itimo di Efpagna," which was
tranflated into French in 1753, and which contains feveral
extrafts from the work of Don Ant. Ulloa. This latter
died in the ille de Leon, near Cadiz, on the 5th of July,
1795. The Tranfaftions of the Royal Society contain fe-
veral papers which he communicated to the Society. He
was a knight and commander of the order of St. Jago, heu-
tenant-general of the royal navv of Spain, and dircftor-
general of the Spanifh marine. Gen. Biog.

ULM, in Geography, an imperial city of Germany, in
the circle of Swabia, fituated on the Danube. This city is
well fortified ; the magiftracy and principal part of the in-
habitants are Lutherans. The cathedral is one of the
largeft, and with reipeft to its Gothic tower, is efteemed one
of the loftieft in Germany. N. lat. 48^ 24'. E. long.

9° 59'-

ULMA, a town of Portugal, in Ettremadura ; 1 1 miles
E. of Santarem.

ULMARIA, in Botany, fo called, as Cafpar Bauhin
and all following writers inform us, from the (hape of the
leaves, though we confefs ourfelves unable to difcover any
ftriking refemblance therein to any kind of elm. See Spik^a,
n. 21.

ULMEN, or Thai Ulmen, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Sarre ; 6 miles W. of
Kavfcr's Efch.

ULMESFELD, a town of Auftria ; 18 miles E. of
Steyr.

ULMI, in ^Indent Geography, a town of Pannonia.
Anton. Itin.

ULMIN, in Chetmjlry, a fubftance obtained from the elm-
tree (uimus), firft made known by the celebrated Klaproth,
and ranked by Dr. Thomfon, in his " Syllem of Chemif.
try," (vol. iv. p. 69. 4th ed. ) as a diftinct vegetable prin-
ciple, on account of its pecuhar and extraordinary qualities.
This very intelligent chemift obferves, that though in its
original ilate it is eafily foluble in water, and wh-oliy infolu-
ble in alcohol and ether, it changes, when nitric or oxy-
muriatic acid is poured into its folution, into a refinous fub-
ftance, no longer foluble in water, but foluble in alcohol :
and this fingular alteration is attributed to its union with a
fmall portion of oxygen, which it has acquired from thefe
acids. It has been the fubjeA of Mr. Smithfon's particular
examination, and he has obferved fafts which appear to
warrant a different hittory of its phenomena, and opinion of
its nature, from that which has been given of them. The
ulmin ufed in his experiments had been freed from the frag-
ments of bark by folution in water and filtration, and re-
covered in a dry ftate by the evaporation of the folution in a
water-bath. In lumps, fays this ingenious writer, ulmin
appears black, but in thin pieces it is tranfparent, and of a
deep red colour. In a dilute ftate, folution of ulmin
is yellow ; in a concentrated one, dark red, and not unlike
blood. When this folution dries, the ulmin feparates into
long narrow ftrips, arranged in rays towards the centre,
which curl up, and detach themfelves from the vefTel, and
the fluid part feems to draw together and become protu-
berant. The folution feebly and flowly reftores the colour
of turnfole paper reddened by an acid.

If dilute nitric acid be poured into a folution of ulmin, a
copious precipitate is immediately formed. When the mix-
ture is thrown on a filter, the matter fuppofed to be a refin
remained on the paper, and a clear yellow liquor pafled
1 1 through

U L M

througti it ; wliich yellow folution, on evaporation, produced
a number of prifmatic cryftals, having the appearance of ni-
trate of potafli ; and thefe were tinged yellow by fome of
the refin. The mixture, heated in a gold di(h, deflagrated
with violence, and left a large quantity of fixed alliali. Si-
milar reiults were obtained by means of dilute muriatic acid.
The filtered liquor afforded faline matter, which being freed
by ignition from a portion of diffolved refin, (hot into pure
white cubes of muriate of potafli. A fimilar precipitation
was effeAed by fulphuric, phofphoric, oxalic, tartaric, and
citric acids, in folution of ulmin. Ditlilled vinegar pro-
duced no turbidnefs, but the mixtui-e, exhaled to drynefs, at a
gentle heat, was found to be again wholly foluble in water ;
and when it boiled, fome decompofition occurred. On adding
muriatic acid to a mixture of iolution of ulniin and dillilled
vinegar, a precipitate was produced, as in an aqueous folu-
tion. The nitric and muriatic acids received from the ulmin
a fmall quantity of hme and iron, and, as was fuppofed, of
magnefia ; which were conceived to be foreign admixtures.
Some experiments were made in order to deteCl the quantity
of potafli in ulmin. When four grains of this fubftance were
decompofed by nitric acid, 2.4 grains of refin-like matter were
the rcfult ; and when the nitrate of potafli ubtained was heated
to deflagration, in a platina crucible to free it from refin,
the alkali produced was fuperfaturated with nitric acid,
dried, and flightly fufed ; it then weighed 1.2 grain : fo that
if we admit 4 of nitrate of potafli to he alkali, this will de-
note Vi'V of potafli in ulmin. By deconipofing five grains
of ulmin by muriatic acid, the rcfinous matter weighed

3.3 grains ; and the muriate of potalh, ignited, feparated
from the charcoal, dried, and again made red-hot, weiglied

1.4 grain. Suppofing ' of muriate of potafli to be alkali,
we may infer that tlie ulmin had -rV'o- Two grains of
ulmin were made red-hot in a gold crucible ; and it then
weighed only 1.05 grain. The flakes, retaining their form,
appear to have acquired the blue and yellow colours of
heated fteel, with the metallic afpeft and luftre ; but the
metallic appearance was immediately dellroyed by water.
Muriatic acid poured on, caufed a Itrong effervcfcence, and
formed muriate of potafli, which freed from charcoal, and
made red-hot, weighed 0.6 grain, correfoonding to tW of
potafli in ulmin. From tiiefe experiments our author in-
fers, that the quantity of potafli in ulmin is about J-.

The fubilance feparated from ulmin by acids has the fol-
lowing qualities : it is gloffy, and appears rcfinous : in
lumps it appears black, in minute fragments tranfparent, and
of a garnet-red colour : it burns with flame, and is reduced
to white aflics : alcohol diflblves it in a very fmall quantity,
which is alfo the cafe with water : acids caufe a precipitate
on the folution, though the refin-like matter appears neither
to contain any alkali, nor to retain any of the acid : its
watery folution feems to redden turnfole paper : neither
ammonia nor carbonate of foda promotes its folution in cold
water : on adding a fmall quantity of potafh to water, it
diffolvcs immediately and abundantly. Upon tlie whole, it
appears that ulmin is not a fimple vegetable principle of ano-
malous qiialitiuB, but a combination with potafli of a red, or
more properly, a high yellow matter, which, if not of a
peculiar genus, feems rather more related to the extractives
than to tiie refins.

Our author made feveral experiments with a black fhining
fubftance, appearing like ulnii'i, collected from an elm-tree
in Kenfington gardens ; and found tliat it diflers in a variety
of refpeits from tiiat wliich he obtained from Palermo.
The Englifh ulmin had an excefs of alkali, which he fup-
pofes to be owing to liie tree from wljjcli it was collected
having been afi'eCted with the dileafe whicli producee llie

U L M

alkaline ulcer to which the elm is fubjedt. Ubiiin, he
fays, appears to be the produdt of old trees. The ufes to
which it is apphcable, as an allringcnt, are ttill to be invef-
tigated. See Phil. Tranf. for 181 3, pt. i.

ULMUS, in Bolany, an old Latin name, generally left
by etymologifts unexplained, but deduced by De Theis
from Elm, its fynonym in Angio-Saxon, as well as in all
the dialcfts of the Celtic tongue ; and whic! has remained
unchanged in Englifli to this day. — Linn. Gen. 123.
Schreb. 173. WiUd. Sp. PI. v, i. 1324. Mart. Mill. Dia.
v. 4. Siri. Fl. Brit. 381. Prodr. Fl. Gra;c. Sibth. v. i.
171. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 2. IC7. Purfli 199. Juif. 408.
Tourn. t. 372. Lamarck Did. v. 4. 609. lUuilr. t. i8j.
Gsertn. t. 49. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat.
Ord. Scabride, Linn. Amentacea, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, turbinate,
corrugated ; its limb four or live-cleft, eredl, internally co-
loured, permanent. Cnr. none. Stam. Filaments four or
five, ?.wl-fliapcd, twice the length of the calyx ; anthers
ereft, fhort, with four furrows. P'ljl. Gernien orbicular,
compreffed, ereft, fomewhat ilalked ; flyles two, flioiter
than the Itamens, reflexed ; iligmas downy. Pvr'ic. Cap-
fule membranous, large, oval, compreffed, winged, with
the dilated llyles, of one cell, not burfting. Seed folitary.
roundifli, flightly compreffed.

EfT. Cli. Calyx four or five-cleft, inferior, permanent.
Corolla none. Capfule membranous, compreffed, nearly
fiat, with one feed.

Obf. The flowers in fome fpecies have only four fegments
and four flamens, in fome occafionally fix. Schkuhr is
laid to have met with eight flamens, which WiUdenow con-
firms. The pericarp was called by Linnaeus foiiielimes a
dry drupa, iometimes a dry berry. Schreber adopted the
latter. In more modern language it is a S.wiaua ; fee that
article.

The fpecies of Ulmus have not been well defined. Lin-
naeus confounded all the European ones together, under the
name of U. campejlrls. The writer of this has dillinguifhed
five Britifli fpecies in his Engl. Bot., and Compendium,
ed. 2. More may perhaps be made out hereafter. Cha-
radlers formerly fuppofed accidtiital, fuch as the number of
ftamens and fegments of the flower, have been found per-
manently to indicate a fpecific difference ; and the dilferent
value of the feveral fpecies, for ornamental planting, or for
timber, renders their difcrimination important. They are
generally trees of lofty Itature, with hard and tough wood ;
Italked, alternate, roughifh leaves ; and numerous, tufted,
fmall, reddifli or pnrplifh, very vixr\y Jlowers, fading long
before the foliage expands. The eiipfules are deciduous, co-
pious, of a light ehaify afpeft, fcarcely ever perfefting their
Jeed, at leall in England.

I. U. campe/lr'u. Common Elm. Linn. Sp. PI. 327.
Bauh. Pin. 426 ? Fl. Brit. n. I, «. Compend. 42. Engl.
Bot. t. 1886, excluding the reference to Willdenow and
Ehrhart. ( U. minor, folio angullo fcabro ; Goodyer in
Ger. Em. 1480. Raii Syn. 469. U. fuberofaat; Dryandr.
in Ait. 11. 2.) — Leaves doubly ferrated, rough, unequal at
the bale. Flowers nearly feflile, four-cleft, with four fla-
mens. Fruit oblung, naked. — Common in fcattered woods
and hedges, chiefly in t!ie fouthern pai-t of England, flower-
ing in April, fcaltcring its uiiprolific feeds in .June. The
tree attains a cuiifiderable height before it b!t)flbms, with a
rugged crooked trunk and branches, being of flower growth
than our other wild fpecies, with a li.^.rder, more durable,
and confequently more valuable, wood, wliich is preferred
for cofGns, as rcfifling wet for a long while. Leaves on
fliort llalks, ovate, fomewhat rhomboid, uiitqudl at llie bafe,

doubly

ULMUS.

cioubly ferrated, rough on both fides ; moft downy beneatli,
efpecially at the axillary glands of their veins : their length
is from one to two inches, fcarcely more. Footjlalks {hort.
Flowers from feparate, much more early, buds, in numerous,
denfe, round tufts, almoft feffile, with oblong fringed
IraBens. Calyx light red, in four ovate, obtufe, equal,
fringed fegments. Stamens four, oppofite to each fegment,
fmooth, with large purple anthers. Stigmas downy alonj
tlieir upper edge ; at length dilated at the other, incurved,
and running down into the membranous fmooth wings of the
capfuk, whofe oblong wedge-hke fhape eiTentialiy diftin-

guifhes this fpecies from the next Whether this be

Schkuhr's U. ietrandra, we have no means of knowing.
It is ccrt:inly very erroneoufly combined with fubenyfa in
Hort. Kew. Linn;eus doubtlefs confounded it with mon-
tana ; but the latter name having been long eftablilhed, v.e
prefer retaining campejlris for the prefent fpecies, authors
having made fo many niiftakes, that no name can be chofen
which fome authority or other does not contradict.

2. U.fubsrofa. Cork -barked Elm. Ehrh. Arb. 142.
Willd. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 2161. Compend. 42. Ait.
n. 2, /3. (U. campellris ^ ; Fl. Brit. n. i. Hudf. icg.
U. vulgatiffima, folio lato fcabro ; Goodyer in Gcr. Em.
1480. Raii Syn. 468.) — Leaves pointed, doubly and
fharply ferrated, rough, unequal at the bafe. Flowers on
fhort ftalks, four or five-cleft, with four or five ftamens.
Fruit rounded, deeply cloven, naked. Bark corky. — Found
in woods, and about villages, in many parts of Europe.
Very common in Suflex, according to Mr. Borrer, flower-
ing in March. The branches fpread widely, and their bark
of a year old is covered with a fine dcnfe cork, divided by
deep fiflTurcs. Leaves larger than in the foregoing, more
pointed, as well as more ftiarply and finely ferrated.
Flowers earlier, more hairy, on longer ftalks, and often five-
cleft ; their fegments obtufe. Capfuk much fhorter and
nearly orbicular, more deeply cloven than in montana, to
which fpecies the prefent feems more akin than to campejlris.
The axillary tufts of hair to the veins beneath, are peculiarly
■broad in U. fuberofa.

3. U. major. Dutch Elm. Engl. Bot. t. 2542. Com-
pend. 43. (U. hoUandicus ; Mill. Dift. ed. 8. n. 5. U.
major hoUandica, anguftis et magis acuminatis famaris, folio
latiffimo fcabro; Pluk. Aim. 393.) — Leaves unequally,
rather bluntly, ferrated, rough, unequal at the bafe.
Flowers nearly feflile, four-cleft, with four ftamens. Fruit
obovate, naked, flightly cloven. — Native of Holland, and
perhaps of England. We beheve it may not be fpecifically
diftinft from what was pointed out to us by his grace the
duke of Bedford, near Shugborough, Staffordfhire, by the
name of the Huntingdonftvire Elm, but of that we have not
feen either Jloiuers ov fruit. We originally confounded the
U. major with fuberofa, and this may have led to the ilill
greater miftake in Hort. Kew. of uniting our campejlris to
the Dutch Elm, though the vcood of the former is mentioned
in Engl. Bot. as the moft valuable of its genus, while that
of the latter is declared by Miller to be " good for nothing."
This author favs his U. hoUandicus was brought from Hol-
land in king William's reign, and being recommended for
its quick growth, was a falhionable tree for hedges in gardens,
but afterwards fell into difufe. We prefer for this fpecies
the name of major, taken from Plukenet's fynonvm. It is
intermediate between fuberofa and montana, agreeing moft
with the latter in its broad, hluntly-fcrrated rough leaves,
and the large obovateyru/V, which is much leis deeply cloven
than in fubertfa. The branches fpread widely, in a drooping
■manner, and their bark is fnore corky than even that of the
■ipecies laft meutioned.

4. U. minlana. Broad-leaved Elm, or Wych Hazel.
Bauh. Pin. 427. Camer. Epit. 70. With. 279. Fl. Brit,
n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1887. ( U. campeftris ; Willd. n. I.
Ait. n. I. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 197. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
GrsEc. Sibth. n. 599 ? Fl. Dan. t. 632. U. nuda ; Ehrh.
Arb. n. 62. U. folio latiffimo fcabro ; Goodyer in Ger.
Em. 148 1.) — Leaves doubly ferrated, pointed, roujgh, un-
equal at the bafe. Flowers on fhort ftalks, five or fix-cleft,
with five or fix ftamens. Fruit rounded, naked, fcarcely
cloven. — This appears to be one of the moft common fpecies
throughout Europe, from the foulh of Sweden. It is fre-
quent in woods and hedges in Britain, flowering at the end
of March, or early in April, and ripening feed, more per-
feftly than our firft fpecies, in June. The tree is large and
fp reading, with drooping or pendulous branches. The wood
fetches about half the price of otir Norfolk campejlris. The
bark is not corky. Leaves much larger than in campejlris,
and fomewhat lefs rough, with longer points. Floiuers
larger, on rather longer ftalks, their fegments acute, from five
to fix, or even feven, with the fame number of y/ami-ni. Fruit
larger, more orbicular, flightly obovate, fmooth at the
edge, and very flightly cloven at the end. — Since the fpecies
of Elms have been more accurately inveftigated, botanifts
have diff^ered about the names of this and our firft defcribed.
That the prefent is U. montana of Bauhin, fo well figured
by Camerarius, and diftinguiftied from what thofe authors
term campejlris, there can be no doubt. The latter is the
Ulmus figured by Mattliiolus, Dodonasus, Lobel (in his
Icones, V. 2. 189.), with a fort of gall, but no fruftification,
and we prefume it to be either our campeftris ox fuberofa, but
moft probably the former. However this part of the quef-
tion may be decided, we conceive there can be no doubt as
to the montana, which can never be juftly taken for the true
campejlris, though confounded by Linnxus with other fpe-
cies under that name, and though it may be the Swedifh
plant. Both perhaps are indigenous in Greece, but we have
no fpecimens from thence.

5. U. glabra. Smooth-leaved, or Wych Elm. Mill.
Dift. ed. 8. n. 4. CuUum Fl. Angl. 97, unpubhftied.
Sm. Compend. 43. Engl. Bot. t. 2248. (U. montanap;
Fl. Brit. n. 2. U. folio glabro ; Ger. Em. 1481. Raii
Syn. 469.) — Leaves doubly ferrated, fmooth, unequal at
the bafe. Flowers nearly feflile, five-cleft, with five fta-
mens. Fruit obovate, naked, deeply cloven. — Native of
England. Obferved by Mr. Edward Forfter to be the
moft abundant fpecies of this genus in fome parts of Eflex,
flowering in March. We have arranged Gerard's fynonyms
of this and the firft two fpecies, under the aufpices of that
accurate Britifh botanift. The prefent is an elegant tree,
with fpreading drooping branches, whofe bark is fmooth and
blackiih. Leaves more oblong and rigid than thofe of
fuberofa, very unequal at the bafe ; quite fmooth to the

touch on the upper fide, and nearly fo beneath, except the
general downinefs of the rib and veins. Flowers fringed,
obtufe, with long Jlamcns. Fruit fmall, cloven down to the
feed. Goodyer in Gerarde's Herbal fays the wood is pre-
ferred for the naves of cart-wheels. If fo, it perhaps equals
our campejlris in quahty.

6. U. ejfufa. Loofe-flowering Elm. Willd. n. 3, with
many wrong fynonyms. (U. cihata ; Ehrh. Arb. 72.
U. pedunculata ; Lamarck n. 2. U. folio laliflimo, flori-
bu3 in petiolis (pedunculis) pendentibus ; Buxb. Halenf.
340. U. longioribus florum et ferainum petiolis ; Rupp.
Jen. ed. Haller. 330. ) — Leaves doubly ferrated, fmooth,
unequal at the, bafe. Flowers oftandrous, on drooping
iialks. Fruit eUiptical, cloven, denfely fringed. — Native
oi Germany. Buxbaum fpeaks of it as growing about vil-
lages,

ULMUS.

hges, affordiiiij a grateful ftiade. Ruppius gathered it near
Lcipfic, and Ehrhart at Hanover. We know nothing of
this fpecies in England. Its kaves are larger than the laft,
and not lefs unequal at the bafe ; very fmooth, with downy
ribs and footlla)ks. FJotver-fla/is about an inch long,
fmooth, loofely pendulous. Calyx probably anfwering in
its fegments to the number of the ftamens, which are faid to
be eight, but we do not always find the calyx more than five
or fix-cleft, with blunt fhallow divifions. The fruif is ellip-
tical, acute at each end, larger than the latt, cloven, but
rot quite down to the feed ; its margin denfely woolly ; by
■which laft mark, and the long drooping Jloivcr-JIalks, this
fpecies is vei-y clearly diftinguifhed. We cannot concur
■with Willdcnow in thinking this U. glabra of Miller, or
montana of Bauhin ; it certainly does not anfwer to the cut
of montana in Camerarius.

7. U. americana. American Elm. Linn. Sp. PI. 327.
Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Purfh n. I. — Leaves acutely fer-
rated, very rough, fomewhat unequal at the bafe. Flowers
on longifh ftalks. Fruit ovate, deeply cloven, denfely
fringed. Common in all low lands and woods, from New
England to Carolina, flowering in April, and known by the
name of White Elm. Purfh. There is a variety with red
branches, another with white, and a third more pendulous,
ivhofe haves are faid to be fmoothcr. In our fpecimens the
leaves are large, long-pointed, unequally ferrated, more
or lefs rough, like a file, on fhort downy ftalks ; their ribs
numerous, ftraight and parallel ; their under fide downy and
hoary when young. Stipuhis long, ftrap-fhaped, reddifh,
deciduous, fmooth. Stamens apparently more than five.
Fruit reticulated, as denfely fringed as the laft, and more
deeply cloven.

8. U. nemoralis. Hornbeam-leaved Elm. River Elm.
Ait. n. 4. Willd. n. 5. Purlh n. 2. ( U. polyama ; La-
marck n. 5. Rhamnus carpinifolius ; Pallas Rod. v. i.
part 2. 24. t. 60. Planera Gmelini ; Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. v. 2. 248. P. aquatica ; Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 967.
Pur(hll5. P. Richardi ; Michaux ibid. ?) — Leaves ovate,
oblong, equally ferrated, nearly Imooth ; fcarcely unequal
at the bafe ; paler beneath. Fruit inflated, oblique Na-
tive of the banks of rivers in North America, flowering in
April and May. Pallas found it in Siberia, and was jullly
doubtful of its genus. This tree is faid to have been cul-
tivated by the late Mr. Gordon, in 1760. It flowered in
the royal French garden at Trianon, for the firft lime, in
April 1779. "^^f^ fynonyms appear very paradoxical, and
we hardly feel juftified in fuppofing that Michaux as well
as Purfh, have each dcfcribed the plant twice over. Yet
■we never could meet with more than one fpecies anfwerable
to the above names. The tree is tall and handlome, with a
white brittle wood. Leaves an inch and a half long, bright
green, with large, broad, blunt, equal ferratures. Foot-

jialks downy, very fliort. Flowers nearly fcffile, in lateral
or axillary tufts, fome of them occafionally male or female
only. Calyx bell-fliaped, ufually five-cleft, with (\\cjlamens.
Capfule ovate, oblique, gibbous, reticulated, bordered, not
winged, very unhke an Ulmus, yet furcly lefs like a-Rhant-
nus, or a Cellis, to both of which it has been compared.
Not having feen the fructification alive, to trace its progrefs,
we muft leave the genus of this remarkable tree in the
uncertainty in which we find it.

9. U. j-lbellcea. Sandal-wood Elm. Sm. Prodr. FI.
Grace. Sibth. n. 600. ( Abilicea crctica ; Pon. Bald. 1 1 j,
with a figure. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 126. Bauh.
Hiit. V. 1.490. Pfeudofaiitalumcrcticum ; Bauli. Pin. 393. )
— Leaves elliptical, equally ferrated, fcarcely unequal at the
bafe J downy and hoary beneath. Fruit iuflated, obliq,uc.—

Native of Crete, from whence its wood is faid to have been
formerly tranfported to Italy, as a fort of Sandal-wood.
Honorio Belli communicated a figure of the branches and
leaves to Pona, and we have the fruit from Dr. Siblhorp,
but no fpecimen or account of the Jlowers. This fpecies
differs from the laft chiefly in the hoary pubefcence of ita
leaves on their under lide. The fruit is v.^ry fimilar to that,
but more comprefled, and cloven like an Elm at the fummit.
The ivood is harder, and reddifli.

10. U.fulva. Red, or Slippery, Elm. Michaux Bo-
real.-Amer. V. I. 172. Purfli n. 3. — Branches rough.
Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, unequally ferrated, very
rough, downy on botli fides ; fcarcL-ly unequal at the bafe.
Buds denfely woolly. Flowers felfile. — On mountains, from
Canada to Pennfylvania, flowering in May. The vifcid
inner bark is ufed by the natives as a healing application for
fores. Purjh. Leaves variable in fliape and ferratures, but
more downy than thofe of other American Elms. Stamens
from five to feven. Stigmas purplifli. Young fruit downy
on both fides. Michaux.

1 1 . U. alata. Whahoo, or Cork-winged Elm. Michaux
Boreal. -Amer. v. i. 173. Purfli n. 4. — Branches winged
with cork at each fide. Leaves oblong-oval, tapering;
to a point ; nearly equal at the bafe. Fruit downy, denfely
fringed. — In fandy low woods of Virginia and Carolina,
flowering in April. Purjjj. A middle-fizcd tree, with
leaves like horn-beam, and nearly \.\\e fruSif cation oi U. ame-
ricana. Michaux. This is the {/./i;/m;/a of Walter, Fl. Ca-
rolin. III.

12. V.pumila. Dwarf Elm. Linn. Sp. PI. 327. Willd,
n. 6. Ait. n. 5. Pall. Rofl". v. i. part i. 76. t. 48. (U.
humilis ; Amm. Ruth. 180.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
equally ferrated, very fmooth ; nearly equal at the bafe.

Fruit roundifli-ovate, cloven, fmooth Native of Siberia

and China. Hardy in England. A bufliy Jhrub, with
fliining, veiny, neatly ferrated leaves, fmaller than in any
of the former, except perhaps U. yll/eliicj. Flowers
ftalkcd, red.

13. U. integrifolla. Entire-h-aved Elm. Roxb. Coro-
mand. v. 1. 56. t. 78. Willd. n. 7. — Leaves entire.
Fruit orbicular, emarginatc. — Native of the Circar moun-
tains of the Eaft Indies, flowering during the cold feafon,
and cafting its leaves after the rainy feafon, but young ones
come out in March. This is a large timber tree, whofe
wood fervcs for a variety of ufes. The ovate, acute, entire
leaves are near three inches long. Flowers fmall, feflile,
deeply five-cleft ; fome of them male, with eight Jlanuns ;
the reft with five. Fruit fomewhat racemofe, veiny, near an
inch broad.

Uj.iMUs, in Gardening, contains plants of the deciduou*
timber-tree and ornamental liedge-kind, and others, among
which the fpecies cultivated are, the common elm (U. cam-
peilris) ; the Dutch elm (U. fuberofa) ; the broad-leaved
elm,or Wych hazel (U. montana) ; the American elm (U.
americana) ; the hornbeam-leaved elm (U. nemoralis) ; and
the dwarf elm (U. pumila).

The firft fort grows to a great high tree ; the bark of
which in the young trees and the boughs of the older ones
is fmooth and very tough, and will 11 rip or peel from the
wood a great length without breaking, being fomewhat of
an aftringent quality, and prob.ibly capable of being em-
ployed in the bufineis of tanning leather.

There is a variety called the narrow-leaved elm, which is
like the other, but much lefs and lower: the leaves are
ufually about two inches and a half long, and an inch or aa
inch and quarter broad ; indented about the edges, and hav-
ing one fide longer than die other, and being harfli on both

fide*

ULMUS.

fides like the other. It is called in the nurferies the Eng-
liHi elm. It is ftated by Dr. (now fir James) Smith, as the
opinion of Mr. Crowe, that this is the origin of all the cul-
tivated varieties of the elm : and Miller afferts that there
are feveral other varieties, but not worth noticing ; among
thefe is that with variegated or blotched leaves. Gilpin alfo
makes mention of the weeping elm.

However, the varieties commonly noticed are, tlie com-
mon fmall-leaved Englifh elm ; the larger rough-leaved Eng-
lifli elm ; the fmall-leaved Cornifli elm ; the fmooth-barked
or Wych elm ; the narrow-leaved Wych or Scotch elm ; the
broad-leaved Wych elm ; the fmooth-leaved Wych elm ; the
rough-leaved Dutch elm, with large leaves ; the yellow or
golden-lbiped leaved elm ; the filver-ftriped elm ; and the
filver-dufledelm.

The fecond fpecies is chiefly remarkable for its quick
growth and fungous rough bark. It is a native of Eu-
rope, and is often called the cork-barked or the Dutch
elm, as it was introduced from Holland at the beginning
of king William's reign : the wood is of very inferior
quality.

The third fort has the bark of the branchlets fmooth and
even : the bark on the outfide in this is blacker than in that
of the firft kind, and is alfo very tough ; fo that when there
is plenty of fap, it will ftrip or peel from the wood of
the boughs from one end to the other, a dozen feet in
length, or inore, without breaking : the timber is in co-
lour nearly like the firft : it is not fo firm or ftrong for
naves of wheels, but will more eafily cleave : the branches
or young boughs are groffer and bigger, and fpread them-
felves broader, and hang more downwards ; the leaves
being much broader and longer than in any of the other
kinds of elm.

The variety of it termed the fmooth-leaved elm is in big-
nefs and height like the firil, but the boughs grow as thofe
of the Wych hazel, hanging more downwards than thofe of
the common elm : the bark is blacker than that of the firft
kind, but will alfo peel from the boughs : the flowers and
feeds are like thofe of the firft ; the leaves alfo, ia form, are
like that, but fmooth in handhng on both fides : the wood is
faid to be more delired for naves of cart-wheels than that of
the firft fort.

The fourth kind has three varieties, according to the Kew
catalogue : the firft is the red, or Canada elm, which grows in
its native country to a vaft fize ; the leaves are ovate, wrin-
kled, and fcabrous, broader than thofe of our Dutch or
Wych elms, fmoother, and of a much more lively green ; the
branches are red, whence it has the name of red elm. It
grows very faft in this climate.

In the fecond variety, or the white elm, which is fo named
from the whitenefs of the branches, the leaves are fcabrous,
but oblong ; and, according to Gronovius, having narrower
leaves than the red, and the trunk befet at intervals with
twigs clofely cluftered together below the boughs. Boats
are faid to be made from the bark of it.

The third, or the drooping or weeping variety of this
fort of elm, is diftingnidied by its oblong fmoothifh leaves,
and its pendent branches. Martyn obferves that the Ame-
rican fort diff^ers from the European elm, in having the
leaves equally, or, as Gronovius expreffes it, quite fimply
or fingly ferrate.

The fifth fort, or the hornbeam-leaved elm, is a North
American fort of elm.

The laft fort has the branches more flender than in the
other kinds, divaricating, and of a greyifti afli-colour : the
wood is very hard and tough, grey, remai'kably waved with
tranfverfe lines of a deeper colour, larger fibred, and when

expofed to the air becomes yellower than oak, and is pre-
ferable to it : the aflies exported from Riga, under the
name of waidafche, are made entirely from the wood of this
and other elms, burnt in brick-furnaces ; the root is beauti-
fully variegated, and fit for the ufe of the turner, Sec: the
bark does not readilv peel ofi^, and therefore is not ufed for
making ropes. It is faid, in Southern Ruflia, to often con-
tend with the oak in ftature.

There is a variety with both young and old branches
winged and rendered irregular with comprefted fungous
excrefcences of the bark varioufly interrupted ; and in
mountain rocks there is a variety which has fhorter
thicker branches, winged with fungous excrefcences of the
bark.

Method of Culture. — In thefe trees it is efFefted in dif-
ferent ways ; as by feed, fuckers, layers, and grafting.
The feed, when perfetlly ripened, may be coUefted and
fown in the autumn or fpring, in four-feet wide beds, half
an inch deep ; that whicii is kept to the fpring being pre-
ferved by drying it well, out of the fun, then putting it
up clofe till towards autumn, when it fliould be mixed with
fand, to preferve it more effectually through the winter ;
when about the middle of February it fhould be fown as
above. The young plants fhould afterwards be carefully
fhaded, watered, and kept clear from weeds. They fhould
have one or two years growth in the feed-bed, and then be
planted out in nurlery lines, in rows two or three feet
afunder, and the plants fifteen or eighteen inches diftant in
each row, giving them the common nurfery care, and train-
ing them for the purpofes intended. If for ftandards, for
timber, or ornamental plantations, they fhould be trained
each to a fingle ftem, and as they advance in height, clear-
ing the ftems from all lateral fhoots, leaving only the very
fraall twigs, juft to draw and detain the fap, for the better
increafe of the ftem ; fuffering the leading top-fhoot to re-
main entire, as alfo the principal branches of the head ; but
thofe defigned for hedge-work. Sec. fhould be let branch
out all the way, and become feathered to the bottom, or as
low as may be requifite for the purpofes intended, only
trimming them occafionally with the knife or garden-fhears,
to give them the intended form. When the trees have had
four or five years' growth, and are from four or five, to fix,
eight, or ten feet high, they are fit for planting out where
they are to remain.

The feed method of raifing the plants is the beft praftifed
with the Wych elm forts, as they ripen their feeds better
than the other kinds, during the fpring and fummer months ;
but when it can be obtained of a good quality from the
other forts, it may be ufed in the fame way with equal
fuccefs.

The fuckers which moft of the forts fend up from the
roots, but efpecially the Englifh and Dutch forts, tliould be
taken up carefully with root-fibres, in autumn, winter, or
fpring, trimming them for planting by cutting them down
at top to fix or eight inches, placing them in fmall trenches
or drills five or fix inches deep, one row in each, half a
foot apart, and the drills about half a yard afunder ; giving
waterings in fpring and fummer ; letting them remain two
years, to form good roots, then planting them in wide
nurfery-rows, and managing them as direfted for the
feedlings.

The layers of all the forts may eafily be made by pre-
vioufly preparing a quantity of ftools to produce fhoots,
fituated near the ground : the proper feafon for laying them
down is in the autumn, winter, or early in the fpring, per-
forming it by (lit-laying ; and as foon as the whole are laid
and moulded in, every layer fhould be lopped with a knife,

down

ULMUS.

down to one eye above tlie ground. In this way tliey rea-
dily take root in the fpring and fummer following, (hooting
at top fometimes two or three feet long by the autumn, when
they (Kould be detached from the ftools, and be planted in
nurfery-rows, two feet or a yard afunder, and half a yard
diftant in tlie rows : when they begin to ilioot, they fliould
be trained with one leading {hoot only, as tlie fecdling elms,
managing them in the fame manner.

In the grafting method, all the varieties of elms may be
increafed and continued diftinft, which niould be done upon
llocks of the Wych elm, raifed from feed, fuckers, or layers,
though the feedling (locks are prelcrable. For which pur-
pofe, fome rows of Wych elms (hould be allotted for (locks,
which, after having two years' growth in the nurfery lines,
will be fit to graft on : when about the beginning of Fe-
bruary, the cuttings of the young moderate (lioots of the
beft Englilh elm, or any other variety, fliould be inferted
into the (locks by the method of whip-grafting, putting
them in as low as poffiblc, for which the earth fliould be
removed away a little down to each root, then cutting off
the head of the (lock within two or three inches of the
bottom ; the grafts be inferted one in each (lock, as
above, binding them clofe, and claying them well ; then
drawing the earth up about and over the clay, the more
efFeftually to fccure it from falling off by the etfefts of the
froft or other caufes. When they begin to flioot, they
(hould be trained with only one leading (hoot, fo that if they
fork at top into two or more, the weakell (liould be taken
off, leaving the bed Ihoot for the leader, difplacing all large
fidc-(hoots from the (lems, and letting the tops or leading
(hoots remain always entire, as alfo the general upper
branches of the heads.

It has been obferved, that as the common elm produces no
feeds in this country, it is beft propagated by fuckers, or
cultivated by grafting. In the firft cale, when the old tree
is cut down, or the roots wounded by any accident, young
(hoots are thrown out in great abundance. The raifing oi
elms by layers is advife d by fome as better than by fuckers,
which it ia laid are more liable to breed fuckt'rs, and of
courfe to injure the trees, and encumber tlie ground
around them. Sucti (latements are not, however, exaflly
true, as there are no better trees than thofe raifed by fuckers,
when it is properly performed, and they are placed for two
or three years in a good nurfery-ground. Young trees
growing as fuckers, without tranlplanting, certainly breed
and fend up new ones, as they fpring up from long hori-
zontal roots, which being bruiled by accident, or otherwife
wounded, will, in all fucii places, throw up new plants ;
but if the young trees be cut and feparated Irom fuch roots,
and then planted out in good foils, they fpcedily become
llourifhing, and grow exadlly in the fame manner the larger
trees grow.

On the examination of thefe roots, no deficiency will be
found, it is afferted ; but the cafe is widely didcrent if the
young trees remain attached to the parent roots, the decay in
the (lumps of which communicates with the young trees ;
and this is the reafon, it is fuppofed, wliy io much orf the
hedge-row elm-timber in fome places falls in an unfound
(late. Although apparently flourifliing in the lower parts
of the ftotks, they all grow from fuckers, which convey
tlie rot from the parent to the odspring ; and it is a rare
thing, in fome dillrifts, to find two lound elms together that
have fprung up fpontancoufly ; though it in equally uncom-
mon to find a planted tree unfound at the bottom. The
plants, in all expofcd fit nations, (hould be put down fmall
and nouri(hing, being free from any fort of former check,
as fuch plants anfwcr the bed in all cafes.

Vol. XXXVII.

In order to prevent the above danger, the young plants
(hould be early fevered from the parent roots or trees ; they
will then almoft immediately fend down perpendicular roots
into the foil, take firm hold of the ground, and become in-
dependent trees.

As the (lumps of old trees decay in a few years, they be-
come a fort of bowls filled with rain-water, which not only
rots thefe (lumps, and penetrates and deftroys the interior of
thofe roots that formerly nourilhed the trees, but which
adually afcends the Hems of the young elm-plants, that
fpring from fuch roots. It is contended, that in fpite of
luxuriant foUagc and a clean bark, it will be found on the
infpeftion of any plant fo produced, tiiat the mifchief has
already begun, which grows with itb growth, and (Irengthens
with its (Ireiigth, until the tree becomes fit for felling. Spe-
cimens of fuckers from decaying Humps, not an inch in dia-
meter, have been met with and prelerved, in which the heart
was already injured ; and this will continue, it is faid, to in-
creafe, until the channel of communication is cut o(F. Af-
ter feparation the evil does not increafc, as it is found, on tlie
examination of fuckers of this dcfcription, planted in a nur-
fery, that they bid fair to make found trees. The butt of a
planted elm has never been feen to be unfound, unlefs from
great age, or external injuries : it is confequently advifed to
plant, in the firft place, trees of this fort from the nurfery,
when of proper fize, and to conftantly fupply the nurfery
with fuckers from the hedge-rows, as it may be done with
little trouble and expenfe ; and in the fecond place, to cut
o(f the connexion and communication of young promifing
trees with their parent roots or ftools early, opening the
hedge-rows at three or four feet diftant from the ftems or
ftumps ; as by thefe means found trees of this fort may be
eafily raifed and provided for dilFerent purpofes.

Thefe trees are highly ufeful, both for timber and in the
way of ornament, wlien planted out on large open fpaccs,
or other ways ; likewife for being clipped, or cut into parti-
cular forms, and as forming hedges in various fituations.
Thefe forts of trees, in their larger or fmaller growths, are
ufed for fupplying thofe and other intentions and purpofes
in many dilFerent methods. All the forts and varieties of
the elm are of hardy growth, and will fuccced perfectly well
in any common foil and cxpofure, but delight mod in a ricli
deep earth of a ftifR(h loamy nature, which is rather inclined
to moifture, the Englilh forts having the beft fituations and
foil, and the Wych and Dutch kinds thofe which are inferior
in thefe refpefts.

For moll purpofes, the plants of thefe forts of trees (hould
be planted out finally while they are in their young (lates of
growth, as from four or five, to fix, eight, or ten feet in
height, in which they commonly take root, grow, and
eftablilh tliemfelves the moil freely, expeditiou(ly, and in
the fulleft manner.

It may however be particularly noticed, that elms will
bear removing when large, better than moll other forts of
trees, as they are more furnilhed with fuperficial horizontal
root-fibres. Thus, trees of fifteen or twenty feet in height
may often be taken up with a large iprcad of roots .ind
balls of earth about ihem, and be lafely removed by being
replanted in fpacious pits or holes dug for them, where
they readily (Irike new root, and grow llrongly. But the
removing and tranfplanting of thefe large trees is not by
any means a proper or dcfirable prattice for making plant.i-
tiona, or other forts of field planting, but merely occalionally
for particular ufes and purpofes, where (hade, Ihcltcr, or a
blind to fome part is wanted.

The moft proper and fuitable time for planting out and

removing all fuch plants and trees, is from the beginning of

X X autumn

U L O

U L O

autumn until the early part of the following fpring. See
Plantation and Planting.

All thefe forts of trees, but efpecially the common
Englifh, Cornifh and Wych kinds and varieties, are highly
proper for different deriominafons of foreft and timber
plantations in mixture with other forts of trees, or as an
ulmarium, and in groups, ranges, hedge-rows, or clumps,
on the borders, fides, boundaries and corners of fields, large
parks, avenues, pleafure-grounds, or other out -grounds, as
growing freely, and forming large-fized valuable timber for a
number of ilrong ufes, fuch as moll kinds of vpheel-wright
work, pipes for condufting water under the ground, water-
pumps, and various other under-water and durable purpofes.
Alfo in garden plantations, thickets, and other ways, for
Tariety, diverfity, ornam.ent, fhade and Ihelter, near walks
and other places, to break and keep off the violence of
florms and tcmpeftuous blafts, letting them in all fuch cafes
afTume their own natural growth, only trimming away the
Ihong irregular lateral fhoots and low draggling branches
on the ftems and in the heads. They are likewife adm.irable
for training, by means of which beautiful lofty hedges,
quite clofe from the top to the bottom, from the height of
ten to more than forty feet, were formerly made and much
valued on the confines of gardens and in other places, for
fcreens and in other defigns. They were frequently too
trained as arches, porticoes, pilafters, galleries, and other
forms, producing mucli effeft in the ancient mode and ftyle
of ornamental gardening, but which at prefent is almoft
wholly exploded. The Englifh and Cornifh forts are here
by far the beft, in confequence of their more thick and
regularly branching growth, as well as their m.ore clofe
foliage.

ULNA, in Anatomy, one of the bones of the fore-arm.
See Extremities.

Ulna, FraP.ure and Luxation of the, in Surgery. See
Fracture and Luxation.

Ulna, an ell in meafure. See Ell and Measure.

Ulna Ferrca, denotes the ftandard iron ell, kept in the
Exchequer.

ULNAGE. See Alnage;
• ULNAR Artery and Nerve, in Anatomy. See Artery
and Nerve.

ULNARIS, a name given tofome mufclesof the fore -arm.

L^lnaris Gracilis, the palmaris longus. See Palmaris
and Fascia.

Ulnaris Extcrnus, '] ■.^ ■ . r

Ulnaris Internus . ( N^-"" given to certam muf-

Ulnaris, E.-ctenJhr Carpi, \ S,^" °^ "^^^ fore-arm. See

Ulnaris Flexor Carpi, J *-- '^^i'^-

ULOPHONUS, in Botany, h a name given by the
ancients to a poifor.ous plant, fince called the channcleon
thijlle, and even at that time known to Diofcorides, Galen,
and others, under the name of the black chamaleon thijlk.
See IxiAs.

ULOTA, a new genus of MofTes, eftablifhed by the
late Dr. Mohr, of Kiel, in Sims and Konig's Annals of
Botany, v. 2. 540. t. 14. f. 3, 4 and 6, and named from
okAo?, curled, in allufion to the curling of the leaves by
drying. This character diftmguifhes the genus in queftion,
as to habit, from Orthotrichum ; fee that article. The
eflcntial generic difference between thefe two genera confifts
in the ftrufture of the Calyptra, or Veil. In Orthotrichum,
that part is marked with broad furrows, fcparated by nar-
i-ow ridges, which are cloven at the bottom : in Utola, the
veil is furnifhed with broad convex ridges, feparated bv
narrow furrows, which furrows are cloven, very deeply, at
the bottom.

The author of this genus has wifely kept in view the
Linnajan maxim, genus dabit charaBerem, non character genus;
but the meaning of this maxim he has totally mifreprefented
in a note, Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 533, as follows. " In the
feries of natural beings the genera are altogether natural,
being as given by nature herfelf ; in the fyiiem they mud
be artificially determined, but when we (hall become true
obfervers, we (hall find means to make our genera natural
alfo." We prefume this note was written by Dr. Mohr,
and not by his editor. If it be correAly tranllated, we are
obliged to obferve that the author has explained away the
meaning of this great principle, on which the fcience of
generic diftinftion abfolutely depends. Linnjeus meant that
an idea of each genus is to be conceived in the mind, from
an enlarged contemplation of the natural habit, and predo-
minant technical charafters of the fruftification, all confi-
dered together, in a number of plants nearly related to each
other. As the natural genera thus prefent themfelves to
the mind of a learned obferver, he will then be able to feize
one or more eflential charafters of each, to difcriminate
them from each other. Genera thus eftablifhed are inde-
pendent of all fyftem, whether natural or artificial. This
is making the genus give the charaHer. If we make the cha-
ra3er give the genus, we might in many inftances found as
many genera as there are fpecies. Dr. Mohr has followed
the firll rule in the formation of his genus Ulota, of which
he fays he has, befides fpecies already known, about a dozen
exotic ones, moftly nondefcript ; all are characterized at firil
fight by their crifped foliage, and marked by the above cha-
radler in the calyptra. But when Dr. Mohr, in p. 541, 542,
of the fame volume, expreffes doubts of the propriety of
having recourfe to the form and ilrufture of the capfules
of mofles, in forming their generic charafters, " becaufe it
will oblige us to divide Polytrichum and other genera into
feveral new ones, and to make more fuch unnatural altera-
tions," he forgets that this would be to make the charader
give the genus, the very principle which is prohibited by
the Linnxan rule. It is on this rule that we find ourfelves
perpetually obliged to infill. Botanifts of the French fchool
feem, by a fort of fatality, unable to comprehend it, or at
leaft incompetent to follow it. Some have occafionally un-
dertaken to demonftrate its " abfolute falfehood ;" but they
were not fuch as could handle mathematical tools. No bo-
tanift can ellabhfh permanent genera, but by chance, with-
out making this rule his only guide.

Dr. Mohr has not defined the fpecies of his Ulota, which
he fays are chiefly nondefcript. We are therefore unable to
give more than two or three examples of the genus. Its
clafs and order are Cryptogamia Mufci. Nat. Ord. Mujci.

Eff. Ch. Capfule oblong. Outer fringe of fixteen teeth ;
inner variable, or wanting. Veil with convex ribs ; the in-
termediate furrows cloven at the bafe.

\5. crijpa. Common Curhng-mofs. ( Orthotrichum crif-
pum ; Hedwi Crypt, v. 2. 96. t. 35. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1266.
Engl. Bot. t. 996. Turn. Mufc. Hib. 93. Bryum flria-
tum h ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1580. Polytrichum capillaceum
crifpum, calyptris acutis pilofilfimis ; Dill. Mufc. 433.
t. 55. f. 1 1. ) — Leaves linear ; revolute when dry. Capfule
cylindrical, furrowed. Veil hairy. — Native of various parts
of Europe, growing on the trunks of trees. Not unfre-
quent in Britain, flowering very early in the fpring, ripen-
ing fruit in April. The Jlems are branched from the bottom,
forming denfe leafy tufts. Leaves crowded, linear, acute,
entire, fingle-ribbed ; when dry roUed back in their whole
length, aod curled at the edges. Fruit-Jlalk rifing about
half its length above the leaves, twilled when dry, as is alfo
the bafe of the capfule, whofe whole length is marked with

eight

U L P

ciglit ftronp furrows. Fringe of eight pairs of fpreading
combined leetli ; inner one of eight Umple capillary teeth.
Hairs of the ti«7 creft, finely joiiiti^'fl.

U. lorquata. Spiral Curling-mofs. (Hypnum torqiia-
tum ; Svvartz Prodr. 142. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 246. t. 63.
f. 4 — 7. Ncckera torta ; .Swartz I«d. Occ. 1800.) — Leaves
lanceolate ; fpiral and clofe-prefVed when dry. Capfule
ovate, even. Veil naked. — Found on the moffy trunks of
old trees in Jamaica, by Dr. Svi'arf/. ; in New Zeeland by
Mr. Menzies. The trailing (hoots tiu-ow up many ereft,
thick, fubdiviJed branches, an inch high, denfcly clothed
with leaves of a Ihining golden hue, turning brown with
age ; all fpirally twiltcd, and fomewhat undulated, pointed,
entire, witii a ftrong mid-rib. Fru'u-Jlalks above an inch
long, angular, red, (hining, rifing high above the branches,
and at length fpiral. Capfule ereft, ovate rather than cylin-
drical, brown, turgid, quite fmooth and even. Veil of a
brilliant golden colour ; brown at the tip ; fpht at the bafe
into many narrow convex fegmenta ; its furface quite naked.-
— Such are our fpecimens from Mr. Menzies, on whofe au-
thority we depend for the fynonym of Swartz. Indeed
Hedwig's figure, though rude, is expreffive of our plant.
Dr. Mohr's fig. 3. exaftly reprefents its calyptra. This is
faid to belong to a mofs nearly related to Anifianoiutn c'lrrho-
fum, Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 42. t. 5. f. i — 3. (Neckera cirrofa;
Sw. Ind. Occ. 1802.) which may be what we liave here
defcribed.

\J. polylrhhoides. Slender Curliiig-mofi. (Neckera poly-
trichoidcs ; Swartz Ind. Occ. 1796. Hypnum polytri-
choides ; Sw. Prodr. 141. Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 244. t. 61.
f. 7, 8.) — Leaves ovate, pointed, concave, twifted ; two-
ribbed at the bafe. Capfule oblong. Veil hairy. — Ga-
thered by Dr. Swartz, on the branches of trees and fhrubs,
a.s well as on ftones, in the mountainous parts of .Jamaica.
The Jboots are three or four inches long, afcending, more or
lefs crowded, fomcwhat branched. Leaves fcattered, not
imbricated, fprcading, wavy, entire, except fome fine fer-
ratures near the point ; under a magnifier they prove finely
reticulated. Fruk-Jlalls rather ftiortcr than the leaves, three
lines only in length, lateral, red. Capfule oblong, ereft.
Veil clothed with ereft hairs.

ULOTHO, or Ulotiiow, in Geography, a town of
Weftphalia, in the county of Ravenfberg, with a I>>itheran
and a Ro.man Catholic church ; near it is a medicinal fpring ;
6 miles S. of Minden. N. lat. 52" 5'. E. long. 8° 4;'.

ULPHA, a term ufed by fome authors to exprefs the
muddy fubltance which falls off from whet-ftones, grind-
ftoiies, and the like, which is fometimcs ordered in medi-
cines among the chemical writers, and is only the commi-
nuted particles of the ftone, with a very fniall portion of
iron abraded from the things ground on them.

ULPHILAS, in Biography, a Gothic bifliop, was a
native of Cappadocia, referred by Philollorgius to the year
326, and higlily honoured by Conftantine tiie Great, who
called him the Mofes of his tim«. At this period he muft,
therefore, have arrived at maturity of age; and as he was em-
ployed in the year 375 by the emperor Valcns to folicit a
fettlemcnt for the Goths in Thrace, after they had been
expelled by the Huns, and embraced Arianifin in order to
accomplifh his objeft, he muft have lived to a very ad-
vanced age. To him hiflorians afcribe the invention of the
Gothic charafters and the tranilation of the Bible into that
language. Sec Ahoenteus Codex.

ULPIA CAST R A LEG. 30, in Jneient Geography, a
town of Gallia Belgica, upon the banks of the Rhine, be-
tween Burgmatium and Vetera. Anton. Itin.

ULPIANUM, a town of Upper Mocfia, in Dardaiiia

U L S

(Ptol.), faid by Procopius to have been repaired and em-

belliflied by .Jultinian, and called " Juftiniana fecnnda."

Alfo, one of the principal towns of Dacia. Ptol.

ULPIANUS, DoMiTius, in Biography, an eminent
lawyer, was a native of Tyre, a difcipic of Papinian, and
tutor, as well as friend and minifter, of the Roman em-
peror Alexander. Heliogabalus exiled him from the court
on account of his virtues, but when his pupil became em-
peror he was recalled, and placed at the head of fixteen
fenators, who formed a council of ftate. He was alfo
fecretary of ftate and infpeftor over the two pretorian pre-
fefts, whofe jealoufy of his authority produced a mutiny
among the foldiery, that, proved fatal to themfelves ; and
occafioned his advancement to the dignity of fole prefeft.
His wife and virtuous adminiftratjon engaged univerfal
efteem, until the emperor, probably at his fuggeftion, un-
dertook to reform the army. The foldiers mutinied, and
occafioned, for three days, a kind of civil war at Rome,
which terminated in the maffacre of Ulpian, A.D. 228,
notwithftanding all the attempts of the emperor and his •
mother Mammasa to fave him. The Heathen writers have
concurred in their eulogies of Ulpian, but the Chriftians
have reproached him, not unjuftly, as their enemy ; for,
obferving the emperor's favourable inclination to them, he
collefted all the decrees and edifts of the preceding fove-
reigns againft them. This hoftility is afcribed to hio pro-
feffional attachment to the laws. Of Ulpiaii's writings there
are extant twenty-nine titles of fragments, which are an-
nexed to fome editions of the civil law. Crevicr. Gibbon's
Hift.

ULPICUM, in Botany, a name by which Columella, and
fome other authors, have called the allium, or garlic.

ULRACH, a name given by fome writers to the/anguij
draconis, or dragon's blood.

ULRICHEN, in Geography, a village of the Valais, in
the dixain of Goms ; famous in the hiftory of the country
for two battles fought here in 121 1 and 12 19, for the
eftablilhment of their freedom and independence ; 8 miles
N.E. of Munfter.

ULRICHSKIRCHEN, a tou-n of Auftria ; 7 miles
N.E. of Korn Neuburg.

ULRICHSTEIN, a town of Upper HelTe ; 18 miles
W. of Fulda.

ULRICSHAMN, or Uliucahamn, a town of Swe-
den, in Weft Gothland. This town was anciently called
Bogefund ; the prefent name was given it in compliment to
queen Ulrica Eleonora in the year 1741. The inhabitants
carry on a confiderable trade in cattle, provifions, tobacco,
&c. ; 47 miles E. of Gothenburg. N. lat. 57° 48'. E.
long. 13° 19'.

ULSE, a river of France, which runs into the Mofelle,
6 miles N. of Traarbach.

ULSEN, a town of Germany, in the county of Bcn-
thi-im ; 5 miles W. of Nienhuus.

ULSTADT, a town of the duchy of Baden, with a
falt-fpring ; 9 miles E.S.E. of Spire.

ULSTER, a river of Heffe, which runs into the Werra,
near Vacha.

Ulsteii, one of the provinces of Ireland, forming the
northern part of the kingdom ; it contains nine counties,
and is in general the moil improved part of Ireland. It
was moftly forfeited in the reign of James I. and divided
amongft fettlers from England and Scotland, which is
called the plantation of Ulfter.

Ui.STici!, a county of New York, in the United States,

which, with Dnlchefs, had two delegates in the firfl logif-

lative afitnibly of the colony, which met at New York in

X X 2 1691,

U L T

U L V

1691. It was oneof thofc formed by the general organiza-
tion afts of 1788 and 1801, and has conftituted one of
tlie colony and ftate of New York ever fince 1691, though
the boundaries have been altered. Several tovyns have been
annexed to Orange county, and Sullivan county has been
erefted from the northern part. It is bounded northerly
by Delaware and Greene counties, E. by the Hudfon, or
by Columbia and Dutchefs counties, S. by Orange, and
W. by Sullivan county. The area is eftimated at 966
fquare miles, or 617,440 acres. It is fituated between
41° 33' and 42° 19' N. lat., and 66' E. and 47' W. long,
from New Yorli. Its towns are Efopus, Hurley, Kingfton
the capital, Marbletown, Marlborough, New-Paltz, Platts-
kill, Rochelfer, Saugerties, Shandakan, Shawangunk, Wa-
warfuifr and Woodftock. Its population confills of 26,576
perfons. This county is coufiderably broken by the Catf-
bergs, or Catfkill mountains. The foil is of various qualities.
The channel of the Hudfon forms the eaftern boundary of
Uliler, and the fmall ftreams are very numerous. The
uplands are, in general, rich and produflive ; and the flats
along its ftreams are very cxtenfive, with confiderable trafts
of recent and rich alluvion, tliough interfperfed with clay
and argillaceous mould. The agriculture of this county is
inferior to that of Dutchefs. Its marble is very fine ; the
mill-ftones of Efopus are in high eftimation : lime-ftone,
flate, marie, and iron-ore are found in great abundance ; and
lead, native alum, plumbago, coJ, peat, and a variety of
pigments, have been found in this county. It lias thirteen
congregations and houfcs of worfhip belonging to the Dutch
reformed, and feveral Quaker and Methodift nieeting-houfes ;
and at Kingfton there is a flourilhing academy. The early
inhabitants of this county were Germans and Dutch, and it
was fettled at a very early period of American hiftory.
Kingfton, the capital, is delightfully fituated between Efo-
pus and Wall creeks, and contains about 150 houfes and
llores. Many of the houfes are of ftone. Uliler, Vvrith
Sullivan county, fends four members to the houfe of
afiembly.

Ulster, a towndiip of America, in the ftate of Pennfyl-
vania, and county of Lvcoming, containing 627 inhabitants.

ULTERIOR, in Geography, is applied to fom.e part
of a country or province, which, with regard to the reft
of that country, is fituate on the farther fide of a river,
mountain, or other boundary, which divides the country
into two parts.

Thus Africa, with regard to Europe, is divided by
Mount Atlas into citerior and ulterior, i. e. into two por-
tions, the one on this fide Mount Atlas, and the other on
that.

ULTIMA BASI A, Lajl Kifs, is a phrafe ufed am.ong
fome painters, for lail finifliing touches with the pencil.

ULTIZURI, in Ancient Geography, a barbarous people,
comprehended under the general name of Huns, who made
themfelves famous until the reign of the emperor Leon.

ULTRAMARINE, is a beautiful and durable fl<y-
blue, formed of the mineral called lapis lazuli, and confut-
ing, according to the analylis of Klaproth, of little elfe
than oxyd of iron. It is feparated from the earthy parts of
the above-mentioned mineral in the following manner. Let
the lapis lazuli be heated juft to rednefs, and then fuddenly
quenched in cold water, and let this be repeated two or
three times, till the ftone becomes almoft friable ; then let it
be ground down with a few drops of water in a clean iron
mortar, or, ftill better, in an agate one, till it is reduced to a
perfectly impalpable powder. Then take one pint of lin-
leed oil, warm it over the fire in a clean veflel, and add one
pound of bees-wax, one pound of turpentine, half a pound

7

of rofm, and half a pound of gum maftich ; keep the 10-
gredients over the fire, with conftant ftirring, till thev are
melted and thoroughly incorporated together ; the refult
will be a tenacious adhefive mafs. Of this take any quan-
tity, fix ounces for example, melt it and pour it into a
warm clean mortar ; then fprinkle upon it three ounces of
pulverized lapis lazuli, and incorporate it thoroughly bv
long beating with the peftle ; this being done, pour in fome
warm water, and again work it about in the fame manner asi
before : in a fhort time the water will become charged witli
the blue colouring matter ; it muft then be poured into a
clean tail glafs, and replaced by frefh, proceeding in this
manner till the pafte will give out no more colour on the
addition of frefh water. By ftanding a few days the colour
will fubfide from the water in which it was fufpended ; the
clear ?.uid being then decanted off", and the reft got rid of
by evaporation, there will remain a deep-blue powder, which
is ultramarine. See Lazuli Lapit.

Ultramarine AJ}:ics, is the name of a pigment which is
the refiduum of the lapis lazuli, after the ultramarine has
been extrafted from it. But as the coloured particles which
remain are mixed with thofe of another kind contained in
the lapis lazuli, thefe afhes muft of courfe be much lefs
valuable than even the worft ultramarine.

Their appearance is that of the ultram.arine, a little tinged
with red, and diluted with white. The adulteration to
which they are fubjedl, and gives them a better appearance
than that of their genuine ftate, may be delefted by the
methods propofed for difcovering the fophiftication of the
ultr.imariiie. See Lazuli Lapis and Blue.

ULTRAMONTANE, fomething beyond the moun-
tains. The term is principally ufed in relation to Italy and
France, which are feparated by the mountains of the Alps.

In France, the opinions of the ultramontane canonifts,
I. e. of thofe of Italy, are not received.

The painters, particularly thofe of Italy, call all thofe
that are not of that country ultramontanes, or fimply, tra-
montanes. Pouflin is the only tramontane painter that the
Italians feem to envy.

ULTRAMUNDANE, Ultramundanus, Beyond the
World, is that part of the univerfe fuppofed to be without
or beyond the limits of our world, or fyftem.

ULTZEN, or Veltzen, in Geography, a town of Weft-
phalia, in the principality of Luneburg, on the Ilmenau.
It contiiins three churches, three hofpitals, and about 330
houfes ; the principal articles of trade are wool, brandy, and
meal. It was at one time Hanfeatic ; 20 miles S.S.E. of
Luneburg. N. lat. 52° 58'. E. long. 8° 22'.

ULVA, in Botany, a Latin word, occurring more fre-
quently in the poets than any where elfe, and pofleffing a
general, rather than a very precife or appropriate, meaning,
Pliny has it not. Virgil and Ovid often mention it, vrith
the epithets of viridis, Itev'ts, mollis, pr.Iuflr'u, glauca, Jlumi-
nca ; and Vitruvius fueaks of roofs made of " the raarfli
Ulva." Hence Caefalpinus-and others have been led to be-
lieve the Typha, or perhaps the whole tribe of Bulrufhes,
Sedges, &c. were underftood by this appellation. Perhaps
Ulva is fimply fynoaimous with aquatic plants in general ;
which opinion is confirmed by the etymology pointed out
by De Theis. He refers this word to the Celtic ul, water,
the origin of uligo, ooze, and fynonimous with lu, from
whence comes lutum, mud, &c. Dillenius latterly rqefted
Ul-va entirely, becaufe of its uncertain meaning ; adopting
Tremella, which he confidered as more exprcllive. Lin-
na;us, diftinguilliingTREMELLA (fee that article) as a frefh-
water genus, with lefs decided charafters, retains Ul-ca for
one chiefly of marine origin, more membranous in habit,

and

ULVA.

and fufEciently well marked by the arrangement of its
feeds, by which it differs from Fucus. The Enghfti name
Laver is well applied to the genus before us. — Linn. Gen.
567. Schreb. 768. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Dill, in Raii
Syn.62. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. v. 2. 331. Hiuif.
566. Roth Catal. V. I. 204. Jufl". 6. Lamarck lUuftr.
t. 880. — Clafs and order, Cryplogamia Algic, Linn. Nat.
Ord. Algx fubmerft.

Eflf. Ch. Frond membranous or gelatinous. Seeds fo-
litary, fcattered throughout its fubftance, under the cuticle.

Fewer difficulties attend the generic charafter of Ulva
than that of feveral other marine Algx, yet various things
have been improperly referred to this genus. (See Rivula-
RIA.) Some excellent remarks on this fubjedl are given by
Mr. Woodward, in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 46 ; and the
fame is ably treated by Dr. Roth, in the firft volume of his
learned CataleSa, above cited. We iliall follow the laft-
mentioned author in his leading principles ; regretting that
we are (till deprived of a more compLte view of the whole
genus, long promifed by Mr. Dawfon Turner ; who in his
peculiar attention to this natural order of plants, has en-
joyed more opportunities than any other botanift, for their
complete elucidation, Thefe opportunities however may
perhaps have ferved to make him the more fully aware of
the difSculties of the undertaking. With refpeft to the
exiftence of fpecics, in which, as Mr. Woodward obferves,
" no aftual fruftification has been hitherto difcovered," we
can only fay that thefe are referred by analogy of habit to
Ulva, with which they accord at leaft as well as with any
thing elfe, the fame dcfeft which renders their place here
doubtful, difabhi.g us from removing them elfewhere. We
fliall enumerate all the known Britifh Ulvt, with fuch ex-
otic ones as appear to be well determined, aiming rather at
giving a general idea, than a complete view of the genus.

Seft. I . Frond expandtd, leafy.

1. U. pavonla. Turkey-feather Laver. Linn. Syft.
Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 719. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. Sibth.
n. 2515. E'lgl- Bot. t. 1276. (Fucus maridmus, gallo
pavonis pennas referens ; Raii Syn. 43. Tourn. Inft. 568.
Ellis's Corallines, 88. t. 33. f. <r. D,'E. Morif. left. 15.
t. 8. f. 7.) — Frond membranous, flat, kidney-fhaped, with
a taper bafe. Seeds in tranfvcrfe arched lines. — Found at-
tached to fubmarine rocks and ftones, on the fouthern coaft
of England, as well as throughout the Adriatic and Medi-
terranean feas, and on tlie fhores of France, Spain, and
Portugal. Several fronds, from one to three inches high,
grow from one central root, fprcading circularly and hori-
zontally, each of them rounded at the extremity, either un-
divided or lobed, entire at the edges, of a light greenifh-
brown. "Wii feeds are thickly lodged, in many brown, arched,
tranfverfe, continued lines, making an elegantly ftriped ap-
pearance, and refembling the feathers of a turkey-cock.
This arrangement of the feeds can fcarcely be thought to
contradift the generic charadlcr ; for it appears, in other
fpecies, that the expanfion of the frond, after the firft forma-
tion, and^xalion, if we may fo expreff it, of ihc feeds, can-
not but feparate them, more or Icfs accurately, into p.itches
or ftripes. Thefe ftripes are neverthelefs, as we mull allow,
more determinate, from the very firll, than in any other
known fpecies. The feeds are oval, about two rows in each
ilripe.

2. \5 . Jlabell'iformis. Green Fan Laver. Wulfen Crypt.
Aquat. n. n. Decand. Fr. fuppl. 4. Prodr. Fl. Gric.
n. 2516. (Conferva flabelliformis ; Dcsfont. Atlant. v. 2.
430. Flabellaria Dcsfontainefii ; Lamouroux Ann. du
Muf. V. 20. 274. t. 12. f. 4. Tuffillaginc dell' Adriatico ;
Gixiann. Adriat. v. i. 25. t. 2j. f. 56.) — Frond fpongy,

filamentous, flat, fan-fhaped, laciniated and jagged, with a
taper bafe — Native of the Adriatic and Ionian feas. Rather
taller than the foregoing, of a hght fpongy texture, and
uniform green colour, without any ^\(\b\e feeds. The genus
of this plant is unqueftionably very doubtful, yet a vague
refemblance to U. pavonia, makes us more willing to place
it here than any where elfe. With Conferva it ill accords,
and few botanifts will follow Ginanni in making it a
Tufilago!

3. U. atomaria. Concentric dotted Laver. Woodw.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 53. Engl. Bot. t. 419. — Frond
membranous, flat, dilated, palma'e ; fegments linear, flightly
branched ; fometimes fringed. — Found waflied up on the
Yarmouth coaft, by Mr. Lily Wigg. The root is a fmall, di-
lated, downy diflc, bearing a pale olive-brown, thin, wedge-
(haped, fpreading frond, four or five inches high, deeply
cut into numerous, unequal, irregularly jagged and perfo-
rated, oblong or linear, occafionally fringed, fegments ; the
whole marked with many tranfverfe concentric ftripes, of a
darker hue, full of minute hrovin feds.

4. U. Itgulata. Laciniated Red Laver. Woodw. Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 54. Engl. Bot. t. 420 Frond mem-
branous, flat, branched ; branches dilated, fomewhat forked,
with obtufe finufes ; terminated and fringed with ftrap-

Ihaped fegments Found by Mr. Wigg, on the Yarmouth

beach, along with the laft ; but Mr. Woodward met with
it, in a growing ftate, on the rocks at Cromer, Norfolk.
The root is a fmall callous dillc. Fronds cluftered, from
three to fix inches high, of a light rather bright red, mem-
branous, but varying in denfity ; their general outline
wedge-ftaped, deeply cut into a few principal branches,
which fubdivide into others, and are fringed about the
bottom with many very narrow fegments, rather blunt at
their ends. Seeds extremely minute and abundant, fcattered
throughout the whole fubftance, in cloud-like fpots or
patches.

5. U. Lafiuca. Green Laver, or Oyfter-green. Linn.
Sp. PL 1632. Hudf. 566. Engl. Bot. t. 155 1. Prodr.
Fl. Grsec. n. 2520. Roth. Catal. v. i. 206. (U. marina,
laftucx fimihs ; Dill, in Raii Syn. 62. Tremella marina vul-
garis, laftucae fimihs ; Dill. Mufc. 42. t. 8. f. i.) — Frond
membranous, pellucid, palmate, bright green ; fegments con-
trafted below ; dilated upwards, obtufe, plaited — Native
of moft of the fhores of Europe, and perhaps other parts of
the world, growing on ftones, pebbles, fhells, and the larger
fea-weeds, forming annual tufts of thin green leaves, uni-
form in colour and texture, but very various in figure and
dimenfions ; being fometimes fimplc and undivided, but
more frequently palmate, lobed, or proliferous. They
always taper downward, and have no ribs nor veins. The
very mm\iXe feeds are equally difperfed. — This is the Laver,
fo often introduced at fafhionable tables, within a few years
paft, being ftewed and fenfoned with lemon juice, wliich
moderates its fait bittcrifh flavour and " fea-weed fcent ;"
nor is this difh unpleafant, after a fliort trial, to moft palates.
We fufpeft it to have been originally contrived with a
medical intention, for the benefit of Icrophulous patients,
fo numerous, alas ! in the gay circles of the opulent and
great. Where laxatives are ufcful or admiffible, nothing
can be better applied.

(}.{]. lubrica. Slippery Laver. Roth. Catal. v. 1 . 204.

t. 5. f 7. excluding the fynonyms Fronds trifled, oblong,

convoluted, inflexed, undulated, rugofe, interbranching, very
thin and flippery. — Found in ftagnont diti lies of frefli water,
in marftiy jiarts of Germany. In tlic fpi ing and beginning
of fummer, the plant is fixed to the bottom of the pool or
ditch, in denfe, rourdiih, deep-green patches, and is fo cx-

ceflively

ULVA.

ceflively tender, gelatinous, and flippery, as fcarcciy to be
gathered entire. The length of each frond is from two to
five Inches ; the breadth, as far as the convoluted and en-
tangled habit of the plant will allow that matter to be
afcertained, is from one to three lines at moft. Roth.

". U. terrefrh. Thin Ground Laver. Roth Catal.
V. i! 211. (U. crifpa; Lightf. 972. Hudf. 661. U.
LaftucR r ; Hudf. 567. Tremella terreftris tenera crifpa ;
Dill. Mufc. 52. t. ic. f. 12.) — Fronds membranous, very
thin, decumbent, clullered, curled and plaited. — Found on
the ground, in fliady places, on gravel walks, and fome-
times on old thatched roofs, fcarcely attached by any vifible
roots. It does not fhrink up to nothing, in dry weather,
like a Tremella, though moft vigorous in wet. The fronds
lie over each other, and arc of a deep, though ftiining,
green. Ho feeds are difcernible.

8. U. buHofa. Cellular Green Laver. Roth Catal.
V. 3'. 329. Engl. Bot. t. 2320. {U. Laftuca^; Hudf.
567. Tremella paluftris, vulgari marinas fimilis, fed minor
et t'enerior; Dill. Mufc. 44. t. 8. f. 2.)— Frond mem-
branous, very tender, dilated upwards, varioufly Cnuated,
cellular, bright green. — Found in fhallov? flagiiant ditches
of frefti water, in Germany and England. Dillenius ob-
ferved it in meadows behind Newington ; Mr. W. Borrer at
Henfield, SulTex, in July. The former remarked that as
warm weather came on, the plants floated on the top,
turned yellowifh, and became full of air-bubbles, as if in
fermentation. In this ftate perhaps the feeds are fcattered.
The whole pjant is fmaller than U. LaBuca ; of which it
has been thought a variety ; much more flippery and flimy,
fo tender as fcarcely to be gathered without breaking.
The frond is variable in fhape ; cellular like a cabbage-leaf
when full-grown"; appearing beautifully dotted when ex-
amined with a microfcope.

9. U. plicata. Plaited Firm Laver. Fl. Dan. t. 829.
Roth Catal. v. i. 208. Uft. Annal. v. i. 5. (Mufcua
marinus alter Plinii ; Camer. Epit. 872. Lichen marinus ;
Ger. Em. 1566. ' — Fronds green, plaited, laciniated, elon-
p-ated ; combined and imbricated at the bafc. — Found at-
tached to fubmarine rocks, ilones, and large (hells. This
varies in length from one to twelve inches. Dr. Roth dif-
tinguifties it from U. Lnduca by its more opaque green
colour, and firmer more rigid fubftance. It is alfo more
complicated in form, as well as more plaited longitudinally,
and jagged at the edges. We have not been able to com-
pare thefc two plants, but from the analogy of fome others,
fhould fufpeCl them to be merely varieties.

10. \J. p/antaginea. Plantain-leaved Laver. Roth Catal.
v. 2. 243. Engl. Bot. t. 2136. (Tremella marina, ca-
lendulje foho atro-virente et verrucofo ; Dill. Mufc. 46.
t. 9. f. 4. i — Fronds aggregate, membranous, fimple, ob-
long, obtufe, flat, entire, minutely warty, brown ; tapering
at the bafe. — Native of the coafts of Italy and England.
The fronds fpring from a cartilaginous did-:, and are from
three to fix or eight inches high, an inch broad, of a very
dull olive-brown, firm, not adhering to paper in drying ;
the furface befprinkled with flightly prominent warts ; the
bafe of each tapering into a fhort fl:alk. This fpecies is
very generally found eroded by marine animals.

11. U. umbllicaUs. Peltate Laver. Linn. Sp. PL 1633.
Hudf. 567. Engl. Bot. t. 2286. (Tremella marina um-
bilicata ; Dill. Mufc. 45. t. 8. f. 't,A — Frond rather coria-
ceous, purphfli-ohve, orbicular, feffile, peltate, fpreading
neaily flat, varioufly lobed. — Frequent on the fea-coaft,
growing folitary or difperfed, attached to rocks or ftones
by its central root, and often wafliedup on the fandy beach.
Its more coriaceous fubftance, and browner, fomewhat

purphfn, colour, diftinguifh this Ulva from the LaBuca
and plicata. The furface is very fmooth, and fliining.
Each plant is a fpm or more in diameter, orbicular, va-
rioufly cut or lobed, even to the very centre ; the edges and
lobes crifped, wavy and jagged, not imbricated ; the in-
ternal fubftance finely cellular, appearing dotted. Seeds
difperfed in fmall mafles, darker than the frond. Mr.
Borrer conceives Roth's U. purpurea, Catal. v. i. 209.
t. 6. f. I, which, according to fir Thomas Frankland's
fpecimen, is Hudfon's fufca, to be an oblong variety of
umbllicaUs. U. laciniala, Lightf. 974. t. 33, may be, as
Hudfon fufpefts, another variety.

12. U. mefntcrifcrmis. Mefenteric Laver. Roth Catal.
V. I. 210. — Frond folitary, oblong, broad, plaited, wavy,
cellular and rugofe, dark green. — Native of the northern
feas of Europe, or of muddy falt-water ditches on tiie coaflis
of Oldenburgii and Bremen. Various in fize and fhape,
ovate, roundifli or oblong, eighteen inchei or more in
length, and iometimes a foot broad, fo much plaited and
corrugated that it cannot be laid flat, nor does it adhere to
paper. Roth compares this to U. latiftma of Linnseus,
wliich we find by the original fpecimen to be only Fucus
faccharinus, more cellular than ordinary ; and we are much

inclined to believe Roth's mefcnteriformis to be no other, the
varieties of that Fucu: in fize and configuration, according
to its age, being almcit endlefs.

13. "U.cocclrua. Scarlet Laver. Hudf. 567. — "Flat,
roundifli, membranous, finuated, fcarlet." — On fubmarine
rocks and fl;ones, near Plymouth and Falmouth. Frond from
fix inches to a foot in diameter, wavy, pellucid and fliining.
Seeds numerous, fmall, roundilh, dark purple. Hudfon.
This may prob.ibly be Fucus pundatus, Engl. Bot.

t. 1573-

14. U. furcellata. Rcddifli Forked Laver. Turner in
Schrad. Journ. v 3.301. Engl. Bot. t. 188 1. — Frond nearly
cyhndrical, gelatinous, repeatedly forked, reddifli ; ultimate
fegments flattened, lanceolate, cloven. — Gathered by Mr.
Turner, at Sheringham, Norfolk, and by Mifs Biddulph,
at Southampton. Fronds fevcral, from three to fix inches
high, tender, gelatinous, nearly of equal thicknefs through-
out, except the flattened ends. Seeds large, fparingly fcat-
tered juft under the cuticle. The colour of the whole is a
pale brownifli-red, fomctimes greenifh.

15. U. ? multifida. Laciniated Brown Laver. Engl.
Bot. t. 191 3. — Frond rather cartilaginous, brown, com-
prefled, repeatedly branched, fomewhat palmate. Seeds

irregularly fcattered. Root fmooth Found by Mr.

Turner, in Auguft 1804, on the beach at Yarmouth,
where it is of very rare occurrence. This has much of the
hue and general afpcdl of U. atomaria, n. 3, but the root is
fmooth ; fubftance of the frond very much firmer and
thicker ; feeds not difpofed in concentric lines, but thickly
fcattered over the frond in fmall round clufters. By Mr-
Sowerby's drawing, they feem, when highly magnified, to
be congeries of oblong, H-Aked feed-ve^els, with three or four

feeds in each, rendciing the plant a Fucus rather than an
Ul-va. However fmall, they give a palpable roughnefs to
the frond.

16. U. monlana. Red Mountain Laver. Lightf. 973.
Hudf. 652. Engl. Bot. t. 2193. — Frond leathery, dark
red, of numerous, afcending, rounded, flattifti, finely granu-
lated lobes. — This grows on the ground, amongft grafs and
mofs, on the fides of mountains in Skye, Rofslhire, Dum-
friesftiire, &c. being called Mountain Dulfe by the high-
landers, who make a thin pulpy mixture, by rubbing the
plant between their hands, into fome water, with which
they purge their calves. It has the fmell of Common

Dulfe,

ULVA.

Dulfe, or Fucus palmntus, to \sliicli, tliougli growing in fo
different a (lation, the prefeiit Ulva lias much natural af-
iiiiity. The colour of both is a deep dull red, feldom
grecnifh, or brown, and their iubftance, when foaked, is
alike pulpy and mucilaginous, with a fea-vveed odour.
Our prefcnt plant, however, is much the fmalleft, being
rounded, not palmate, fcarcely notched, each frond or lobt
from half" an inch to two or three inches wide, generally
convex. Innumerable internal granulations, the feat, as we
prefume, of the feeds, raifc the cuticle in fuch a manner as to
give a roughnefs to the furface.

17. U. rupejlris. Broad Rock Laver. Engl. Bot.
t. 2194. — Frond leathery, depreffed, very wide, indeter-
minate, fmooth and (lippery, of a dull red The only fpe-

cimen of this remarkable vegetable that ever occurred to
our notice, grew on the wet (hady furface of a rock, above
Tyloge bridge, by the river fide, at Hafod, Cardiganfhire ;
the fine feat of the celebrated Mr. Johnes, fo well known by
his tranilations of the old French hillorians, and now fo
much lamented by all who truly knew him. We can com-
pare this plant to nothing better than a well-foaked ikin of
parchment, both in fize and texture, though more tender,
and jagged at the edges, fo that it could not be ftripped
entire from the rock, nor could the form of its outline be
afcertained. It dried fpejdily, flightly adhering to paper,
and (hrinking confidcrably in width ; but recovered its ori-
ginal appearance many years afterwards, on the application
of water, when numerous, minute, granular, dotted bodies,
prefumed to be feds, were found imbedded in the fibrous
fubftance under the cuticle, not projcftnig, fo as to produce
a roughnefs, like the montana. We cannot doubt the flridl
affinity of this to the kit, though they mull be fpecifically
diftina.

18. U. dicbotoma. Green Forked Laver. Hudf. 568.
Lightf. 97 j. t. 34. Engl. Bot. t. 774. (Fucus membra-
naceus dichotomus graniineus ; Rail Syn. 45, according to
Hudfon. ) — Frond membranous, quite flat, repeatedly
forked, reticulated, pale-green, with linear, ohtufe fegments.
— Found on thecoafts of Scotland and Cornwall, in fummer
time. The whole plant, three or four inches high, and of a
wedge-fhaped or fan-like figure, is thin and flat, curioully
reticulated internally like a Fhijlra, or like our n. 2, U.

jiahellform'is. The fegments are alternate, from one line to
three in breadth, generally notched ac the end, but other-
wife very entire. Seeds blackidi, difperfed, with a ferics of
imbedded bladders, between them and the margin of the
leaf.

19. U. Linza. Ribband Laver. Linn. Sp. PI. 1633.
Ilndf. 56.S. Fl. Dan. t. 889. (Tremella marina fafciata ;
Dill. Mufc. 46. t. 9. f. 6. Linza; Imperato 111. Nat. 651.)
— Frond oblong-lanceolate, folded, green, lomewhat undu-
lated and cellular. — Native of lalt-water ditches, and receffes
of the fea among rocks, in various parts of Europe. Its
form is oblong, ribband-like, acute, when full-grown folded
and wavy, always membranous and pellucid ; its length a
foot or more. Mr. Turner in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 7. 108,
records, that he found the original foecimen of this in the
Dilleniari herbarium to confift of two long narrow pieces of
different things, U. Laduca and umLiitcalis. The figure
however reprelents what we underttand by U. Linza, and
agrees with Fl. Dan. Mr. Turner affords us, in the place
jull cited, a dill more curious piece of information, that the

U, lanceolala of LinHxus, taken up in his Syil. Nat. ed. 12.
v. 2. 719, from DiUeniiis, is no other 'than U. Linza, the
figure in Hill. Mufc. t. 9. f. 5. reprefenting fcveral indivi-
duals of that fpecics, as palled in the herbarium, with their
tops downward, crowded together, and the roots upward 1

Thefe were communicated, it feems, by Mr. Brewer, from
the Ifle of Man, and appear to be young plants, not yet be-
come wavy or folded.

Sedl. 2. Frond concave, or tubular.

20. U. inlejlinalis. Gut Laver. Linn. Sp. PI. 1612.
Hudf. 568. (Tremella marina tubulofa, intellinorum figura ;
Dill. Mufc. 47. t. 9. f. 7. Cava; Imperato III. Nat. 651.)

— Frond tubular, menjbranous, green, irregularly cellular.

Common in falt-water ditches and pools, throughout Eu-
rope, attached to (tones and rocks. The frond is occafionally
branched, according to Dillenius. Young plants hardly
exceed a ilraw in thicknefs, and are even in furface, of a
yellowifli or brownifh colour ; but when full grown they
become an inch or two in diameter, varioufly cellular, like a
cabbage-leaf, and of a fine green ; often floating to the fur-
face, inflated with air, eighteen inches or two feet in length.
In this llate they refemble, except colour, the inteftines of
feme animal. Nothing is known refpefting the feeds,
which are probably perfected and diffeminated at tlie pefiod
jull defcribcd.

l.\.\5.compreJfa. Compreffed Laver. Linn.Sp. PI. 1632.
Hudf. 569. Engl. Bot. t. 1739. (Tremella marina tenu-
ifiima etcompreffa ; Dill. Mufc. 48. t. 9 and 10. f. 8. Con-
ferva compreffa ; Roth Catal. v. i. 161.) — Frond tubular,
more or lefs branched, compreffed, irregularly conllricled,

green; the branches elongated Common on fubmarine

rocks, ftones and pods, as well as in fait ditches, throughout
Europe. Dr. Sibthorp noticed this, along with the laft, in
the fea near Conftantinople. The fronds grow in tufts, ex-
tremely variable in fize, and from two inches to a foot or
more in height, each of them very (lender at the bafe, where
alfo they are moil branched ; the branches are often greatly
enlarged upwards, but frequently nearly cylindrical ; they
are interrupted here and there by ilriftures, at each of which
the internal cavity (eems divided by a tranfverfe membrane.
Hence Necker and Roth made this plant a Conferva, but
furely without fufficient reafon. The furface is even and
fmooth ; the colour fine green.

22. U. ramulofi. Green Sharp-branched Laver. Engl.
Bot. t. 2137. — Frond tubular, very much branched, fonie-
what compreffed, green ; ultimate branches fcattered, ex-
tremely numerous, (harp-pointed. — Dilcovered by Mifs
Hutchins, in Bautry bay, Ireland. A very elegant fpecies,
remarkable for the innumerable little branches, fcattered
over each principal ramification, which give it the afpeft of
a Conferva. The height of the tufted fronds is three or
four inches ; their colour a beautiful given ; and the fur-
face, under a moderate magnifier, is louiid curioufly and
unitormly dotted, perhaps wxihfeds. The fubllance of the
plant is a little gelatinous, being far lefs membranous than
U. compreffa.

23. U. piirpurafcens. Purplilh Laver. Hudf. 569.
Woodw. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 52. Engl. Bot. t. 641.
— Frond tubular, branched, nearly cylindrical, purpli(h-
brown ; branches mollly oppofite, fimple or compound,
acute. — This grows on fubmarine rocks and (lor.cs, lu
various parts of the I'outh coall of England, being in per-
fedlion about the middle of fummer. Several_/Von(//, about
fix inches high, (pring from. one fmall cartilaginous di/k.
Each, like its branches, tapers coiifiderably at the top and
bottom, (welling in the' middle, to a line or two m diameter.
The branches are two or three inches long, generally oppo-
fite, and in feme degree two-ranked. fcir Tliomas Frank-
land has favoured us with a repeatedly compound fpccimen,
a foot long, 'i'iie whole plant is juicy, of a light reddifli-
brown, fmooth and even, with little black feeds fcattered
copioufly and irregularly jull under the cuticlv. Light-
fool '1

ULVA.

foot's Fucus verticillatus, Fl. Scot, t.jl, a plant we have
never examined, is cited for this ifl'va by Mr. Hudfon,
p. 66l ; but the figure reprefents numerous ftrittures in the
main branches, with compound, whorled, capillary fubdi-
TiCons, nothing like which occurs in our fpecimens.

24. \5 . fjlulofa. Pipe Laver. Hudf. 569. Woodw.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 52. Engl. Bot. t. 642. — Frond
tubular, uniform, fimple, bluntifh, a little zigzag, gelatinous,
yellowiih-brown. — Found at Falmouth, and other parts of
our fouthern coaft. Mr. Hudfon attributes to this fpecies
a creeping root. The fronds grow in clutters, ereft, three
or four inches high, being ftouter than the laft, and con-
ftantly unbranched ; their furface uneven or gibbous, with
fome appearance of ilriclures ; their bafe tapering ; their
termination abrupt and bluntifh. Seeds very minute, fcat-
tered through the foft fubftance of the frond, vifible by
their dark colour, contrafled with its very pale brownifh-
yellow.

i^.U.Turneri. Reticulated Laver. Engl. Bot. t. 2570.

Frond membranous, tubular, fimple, bluntifh, brown,

finely reticulated. Seeds in little patches. — Found by
Mifs Hutchins, in Bantry bay, Ireland, and by Mr. Borrer,
on the Suffex coafl. The name is a manufcript one of
Mr. Dillwyn, who is faid to have been long preparing a
treatife on Ulva, which, if we may judge by his excellent
performance on Conferva, cannot but prove a great accefGon
to cryptogamic botany. Several fronds grow together,
but apparently not connefted, bearing a great refemblance
to the laft in height, figure, and fomewhat in colour, though
darker, rather thicker, and, when cut acrofs, difplaying a
more membranous fubftance, which is finely reticulated
throughout. The feeds moreover differ effentially, being
collefted into little [irregular patches.

26. U. rugofa. Corrugated Cape Laver. Linn. Mant.
311. — Frond membranous, tubular, branched, corrugated,
tuberculated, dark brown ; branches two-ranked, burfting

at the extremity Gathered by Koenig in the fea near the

Cape of Good Hope. The fronds are four or five inches
long, and about half an inch thick, befet with many fimple
branches, fpreading in two ranks, each branch from an inch
and half to three inches in length, not fo thick as the main
ftem ; their point of infertion much contracted ; their ex-
tremity moftly open and tubular ; their rugged furface
befprinkled with flightly prominent, umbilicated, minute
prominences, in every one of which a feed appears to be
imbedded.

Se£t. 3. Frond Jiejloy, folid.

27. U. diaphana. Pellucid Flefhy Laver. Hudf. 570.
(Alcyonium ge'.atinofum ; Linn. Syft. Nat. v. i. 1295.
A. n. 5 ; Ellis Cor. 87. t. 32. f. d, D. Fucus fpongiofus
nodofus ; Ger. Em. 1570. Urtica marina nodofa ; Bocc.
Muf. 269. t. 5. f. 13.)

/3. U. fiavefcens; Hudf. 570. (U. diaphana; Engl. Bot.
t. 263. Alga minor fiavefcens, varie divifa ; Mart. Cent.

'•32-)

Frond gelatinous, folid, tumid, pellucid, roundifh or

compreffed, with numerous irregular branches.

This fingular marine production, referred by Linnaeus and

Pallas to the animal kingdom, feems by its fcent rather of a

vegetable nature, betraying no figns of animal life, and

having the charafter of an Uiva very apparent, in the diftri-

bution of what we prefume to be the feeds ; to fay nothing

of its drying as well as any very juicy fea-weed, though its

fubftance is io extremely fpongy and watery. The common

appearance of this Uha, as found on our coafts, exaftly re-

fcmbles wet fea-fand in colour. Its length is feveral inches,

the mainj^fm, which fwells upward, being befet with irre-

gular feries of knobby branches, more or lefs acute. The
very copious imbedded feeds are brown, very fmall. Our
more uncommon variety ^, erroneoufly figured in Engl.
Bot. as the true diaphana, though the defcription compre-
hends both forts, differs from the above-defcribed, in its pale-
yellow colour, refembling barley-fugar [or fucre brule) ; the
branches are faid by Hudfon, who neverthelcfs fufpefted it
might prove but a variety, to be more obtufe ; this charafter
however is variable.

28. U. defraSa. Broken Laver. With. v. 4. 124.
t. 18. Engl. Bot. t. 1626. — Frond thread-fliaped, folid,

unbranched, elaitic, vifcid, pellucid, with pale red dots

Found by Mr. Brodie of Brodie, on the eaft coaft of Scot-
land, and by the late colonel Velley on tlie beach at Wey-
mouth, at low water. The tender delicate plants of this
fpecies grow entangled amongft other marine vegetables,
twifted together like worms, of a very pale flelh-colour to
the naked eye ; each being from two to twelve inches long,
fimple, brittle, bluntifh, very glutinous, (hrinking up to
nothing when dried. The minute pink dots, fcattered over
the white furface, and prefumed to contain the feeds, change
gradually to an orange hue.

29. U.fitiformis. Thread-fhaped Laver. Hudf. 570

" Frond gelatinous, thread- ihaped, much branched, purphfti ;
branches Icattered, diftant, very long." — Native of fubma-
rine rocks and ftones, near Chriftchurch, Hampfhire. An-
nual, occurring from April to September. Frond fix inches
long, the thicknefs of packthread ; the branches obtufe.
Hudfon. We are unacquainted with this fpecies.

30. U. capillaris. Capillary Laver. Hudf. 571. —
" Frond gelatinous, thread-fhaped, much branched, pale ;
branches alternate, capillar)-, acute."— Found in fimilar
fituations with the preceding, near Chriftchurch, and elfe-
where, in Hampfhire, as well as at Margate. Annual ;
from May to Oftober. The frond k four inches long, folid.
Hudfon. This (hould feem to be very little different from
the laft.

31. U. rubens. Reddifh Short-branched Laver. Hudf.
J71. — Frond gelatinous, thread-fhaped, equal, reddifh or
greenifh, much branched ; branches fcattered, horizontal,
obtufe. — Found by Mr. Hudfon on fubmarine rocks and
ftones, in Portland ifland, and near Pool, Dorfetthire.
Annual ; from May to October. Frond four inches long,
of nearly equal thicknefs throughout, of the diameter of
fmall packthread, divided into feveral alternate or fcattered
principal branches, each of which is befet with numerous
others, all horizontal, fhort and blunt. Little \Az!:.\i feeds
are fcattered under the cuticle. An authentic fpecimen of
this, and many other fea-weeds, defcribed by Hudfon, were
given to the younger Linnaeus by fir Thomas Frankland.
We are alio poffelfed of another, found by the fame gentle-
man at Scarborough, in Auguft 1 807, which is fix inches
high, green, with very copious branches of the fame thick-
nefs as above defcribed ; the internal fubftance of the main

flein, in the lower part, appearing very firm and horny, like
a coralhne. Notwithftanding the difference of colour, we
cannot doubt tlie identity of the fpecies.

32. U. rubra. Crimfon Laver. Hudf. 571. Engl.
Bot. t. 1627 — Frond gelatinous, much branched, forked,
thread-fhaped, unequal, fomewhat flattened, bright red,
fmooth. — Found by Mr. Hudfon, near Chriftchurch,
Hampfhire, and by fir Thomas Frankland on the Scar-
borough coaft, in Auguft. Several fronds, from an inch
and a half to three inches high, fpring from a fmall callous
difl.:. They are taper at the bafe, much branched and va-
riortfly dilated, efpecially the principal ftem, which is moft
flattened ; the ultimate divifions forked, or aggregate. The

colour

U L V

U L V

colour of the whole is either a full or pale crimfon, fome-
times tawny, or (lightly variegated.

^■^. XJ. phmcifa. Feathered Green Laver. Hudf. 571.

Eugl. Bot. t. 2375 Frond gelatinous, green, thread-

ftiaped, fomewhat compreffed, branched ; branches pinnate,
with numerous, parallel, linear, (hining fegments. — Ga-
thered by Mr. Hudfon on the Dcvondiire coall ; by Mr. W.
Borrer at Brighthelmftone ; and by Mr. Woodward at Cro-
mer, in little rocky pools, tilled daily by the foa. This
Ipecies is fuppofed to be perennial ; it occurs throughout
tUe fummer and autumn. 'The fronds are three inches high,
ereft ; when frelh of a bright, uniform, very beautitul
green ; but the colouring matter foon coUeitls towards the
ikin, leaving the middle part vacant, and of a glafly tranf-
parency. The branches are numerous ; naked at their bafe ;
copiouily feathered above, with crowded, two-ranked, hncar,
obtufe, entire fegments, gradually Ihorter towards the point.
Nothing is known of the fruftification. The habit of the
plant, and the mode in which the green colouring matter
fubfides, accord with one tribe of the Confa-va ; but there
are no joints, nor internal partitions.

34. U. protuberans. Prominent-feeded Laver. Engl.
Bot. t. 2583. — Frond gelatinous, thick, angular, green.
Seeds elliptical, at length prominent and deciduous. — Dif-
covered by Mr. W. Borrer, growing amongil mofs, on wet
fliady parts of the fand-rocks, at Uckiield, Suffex, in Sep-
tember 1813. This is fo fingular a produftion, that much
doubt may arife concerning its real genus. The whole is
an alTemblage of thick, fleihy, juicy, angular or wrinkled,
obtufe lobes, about half ar. inch high, of a light, pellucid,
g.-afs green. Copious elliptical uniform feeds, about the
fize ot red poppy-feed, are lodged feparately throughout
the whole fubllance, the external feries projefting beyond
the furface, and when ripe eafily feparating from it if
touched. According to our prefent ilate of knowledge
therefore, this plant can be referred only to Ulva, though,
like a few other fpecies, it is not of marine origin.

Some doubtful fpecies require to be mentioned, and of
thefc we (hall take a compendious notice.

N. coiifervoides, Linn. Sp. PI. 1632. (Conferva marina
fiftulofa; Dill. Mufc. 34. t. 6. f. 39-), has all the appear-
ance of a branched Conferva, but Dillenius defcribes it as
pervious throughout, admitting water freely along the ftem
and branches. Hence Linnsus made the plant an Ulva,
but our knowledge of many Confervn: renders the propriety
of fuch a determination doubtful. He adopted this fpecies
folely on the authority of the Hijloria Mufcorum, what he
fubfequently referred to it in his herbarium being very
dilTereat.

U. liUiffimii, Linn. Sp. PI. 1632, we have already men-
tioned under 11. 12, as not at all different from Fucus fac-
r/Mirinus, which the original Gothland fpecimen clearly
fhcws.

U. labyrinthiform'ts, Linn. Sp.Pl. 1633, found by Van-
delli in warm baths near Padua, and defcribed, with a good
figure annexed, in that author's TraHatui de Tliermts yfgri
Patavini, 120. t. 2, (hould feem to belong rather to Tre-
mtlla, no feeds having been obferved,

U. lumbrkalis, Linn, Mant. 311, may be found under
Mebtensja.

U. papUlofa, ibid, is probably a Fueui, near to the Lin-
man F. fp'inofus, and perhaps the fame with F. fi'irialus.
Turn. Hid. Fucor. 32. t. 16.

U. prumformis, Linn. Sp. PI. 1633, and

U. incraffata, Hudf. 572, are fpecies of R1VUJ.ARIA ; fee
that article.

Vol. XXXVII.

U. granulata, Linn. Sp. PI. 1633, is Trcmella granulala,
Engl. Bot. t. 324.

U.fleUata, Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. i, 351. Prodr. Fl.
Grac. n. 2522, very nearly related to Lichenoides gelatiiio-
fum tenue reticulatam. iDill. Mufc. 138. t. 19. f. 21, if
not the very fame ; is likewife next akin to Conferva umbil't'
aata of Col. Velley, Tranf. of Linn. Soc. v. 5. 169. t. 7.
Tliefe plants are fo pecuhar in ftruAure, that their fruAifi-
cation, when difcovered, will probably eftablidi them as a
genus by themfelves. At leail they could be referred to
Ul-va, or to Conferva, for the prefent only, nor are they
reconcileable to the generic charatter, or habit, of either.

Ulva, in Geography, one of the Wcilern iflands of Scot-
land, about feven miles in circumference, near the W. coall
of Mull. N. lat. 56^^ 28'. W. long. 6° 13'.

ULUA, a river of Honduras, which runs into the bay,
N. lat. 15° 48'. W. long. 88=' 38'.

Ulua, or Sol, a fmall iiland in the gulf of Mexico. N.
lat. 1 5° 40'.

ULUBR^, in Ancient Geography, a borough of Italy,
in Latium, in the vicinity of Velitrs and of Suefl'a Pometia •
it was a Roman colony. Horace fays of it (Epift. ii.
V. 28. 1

■ Navibus atque

Quadrigis petimus bene vivere ; quod pctis, hie ell,
Eft Ulubris ; animus fi te non deficit aequus."

But we learn from Juvenal (Sat. x. v. 10 1.) that this
place became defert :

" Et de menfura jus dicere, vafa minora
Frangere pannofus vacuis .^dilis Ulibris."

ULUCITRA, a town of Thrace, ia the province of
Rhodope.

ULVERSTON, in Geography, an ancient market-town in
the hundred of North Lonfdale, and county palatine of Lan-
cafter, England, is fituated within the diftridt of Furncfs, at
the dillance of 20 miles N.W. from the county-town, aud 270
miles N.W. by N. from London. Edward I., in the eighth
year of his reign, granted a charter to this town for a weekly
market and annual fair : but the benefit derived from this
grant was inconfiderable, while Furnefs abbey was inhabited
by the monks, as the great mart of this dillrirt was Dalton,
which, from its contiguity and conneftion witii the abbey,
faperleded all the vicinal towns. After the dillolution of
that monaftery, Dalton loft its importance, and Ulverllon,
from its convenient and central fituatioii, became the em-
porium of the diftrift. The fair granted by king Edward
has grown into dil'ufe, but two others are annually held.
Monday is the market-day. The principal trade ot this
town is in iron-ore, pig and bar iron, lime-llone, blue Ilate,
oats, barley, and beans : the manufaftures are cotton, check,
canvas, and hats. Within the laft fixty years, great im-
provements have taken place in the appearance of the town ;
the llreets are fpacioiis and clean ; and tlie lioufes, which,
from the advance of trade, rapidly increafe in number, are
well built : in the return of the year 1811, they were elli-
mated at 728, the population at 3378. At the intcrleftion
of two principal llreets, in the centre of the moll ancient
part of the town, is an old crofs. The church, wiiich
ftands in a field at a fmall diilance from the town, was aU
moll wholly rebuilt in 1804 '• 't is a plain, neat edifice ; has
three ailles and a fquare tower. A fmall theatre, an al-
fembly-room, and a public fubfeription library, have bwa
recently tftablilhed. A canal, aboiil a mile and a quarter
in length, was cut in 1795, to form a communication from
Y y the

U L U

the eaft fide of the town to the channel of tlie river Leven :
it is well fupplied with water, has a fpacious bafin, with a
warehoufe, and has been navigated by fhips of 400 tons
burden. It was made after the plans of J. Rennie, efq.

In the vicinity of this town is Conifhead, the feat of
Wilfon Bradyll, efq. The houfe ftands on the fcite of the
ancient priory of Conifhead : the fouth front is modern,
with an ornamental arcade ; the north front has a piazza
and wings.

About half a mile from Ulverfton is Swartmoor-Hall, to
which feme degree of celebrity has attached from its having
been the refidence and property of George Fox, one of the
founders of the fedl of Quakers. He made a convert of
the former proprietor, Thomas Fell, one of the Welfh
judges, and married his widow. Fok died in 1691. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lancadiire, by
J. Britton, F.S.A.

ULUGH-BEIGH, in Biography, a learned and power-
ful Tartarian prince, was born in the year 1393. He was
the grandfon of the celebrated Timur ; and his real name
was Mohammed Taragai, Ulugh-Bcigh being an epithet
which jignifles a great lord or prince. He entered upon
the government of Iran and Turan, that is of Perfia and
Tartary, durnig his father's life, in 1407, and conduced
himfclf in a manner that fecured univerfal efteem. His lei-
fure hours he devoted to reading, and thus acquired a
knowledge of various fciences. He was famed for a very
retentive memory, and having written a book or journal
of all the animals which he had killed in hunting, which
book was accidentally loft, he diftated the contents of it to
a tranfcriber ; and upon comparing this tranfcript with
the original when it was found, it was correct except in
four places. Among other inftitutions for the promotion
of fcience, he eftabliflied a gymnafuim at Samarcand, his
capital, which accommodated a hundred ftudents, received
into it for education. His chief attention, however, was
devoted to mathematics and aftronomy ; and for the im-
provement of the latter fcience, he invited to Samarcand a
great number of aftronomers, and conllrufted an obferva-
tory, which he furnilhed with the beft aftronomical inftru-
ments. Here he aflilled in perfon, employing in his obler-
vations, as fome have faid, a gnomon one hundred and
eighty Roman feet in height. His principal aihftant was
Salah-Eddin, his preceptor, and a Chriitian, who was the
direftor of this aftronomical academy, and who co-operated
with UUigh-Beigh in the conftruttion of the tables which
he intended to publifli ; but as he died before their com-
pletion, the pimce himfelf eng.iged in the laborious under-
taking, and felee^ted for his coadjutors Aliculhi, the fon of
Salah-Eddin, and the aftronomor Ali Beu-G-iiat-Eddin
Mohammed Jamchid. To this work, which has never
been printed entire, we are indebted for thole tables that
pafs under the name of Ulugh-Beigh. A fourth part of it
was publifliud by the learned Hyde, with an ample com-
mentary. This was a catalogue of the fixed ftars, formed
upon the Obfervations made at Samarcand, and completed
in 1437. Its title is " Tabulx Longitudinis et Latitudinis
Stellarum fixarum, ex Oblervatione Ulugbeighi, Tamerlanis
M. Nepotis, RefJ^ionum ultra citraque Giihun I'Oxuml Prin-
cipis potentiflimi, ex tribus invicem collatis M3S. Perficis,
jam primum luce et latio donavit, et Conimentanis illuftravit,
Thomas Hyde, A. M. e Coll. Regin. Oxon. ; in calce
zccefferunt Mohammedis Tizini Tabula: Dechnationum et
Reftarum Afcenfionum. Additur Elenchus Nominum Stel-
larum," Oxon. 1665, 4to. Thefe aftronomical tables were
fcarcely completed, when a difference occurred between

U L Z

UIugh-Beigh and his eldeft fon. Addifted, like otha"
orientals, to aftrology, he calculated his fon's nativity ; and
hence portending fome great misfortune, he gave the pre-
ference to his younger fon, fo that the eldeft, being flighted,
rebelled ag.iinft him. A civil war took place, and in a
bloody battle near Samarcand the father was defeated, and
was obliged to fave himfelf by flight. Returning after-
wards to Samarcand, hoping that his fon would have com-
pafTion upon him, he was at firft kindly received ; but foon
afterwards a mandate was ifTued for his execution, which
tragical event occurred near Samarcand, according to Flam-
flead, in the year 1449 ; but, as Herbelot fays, in 1450.

Two other learned works, which ferve for the illuftra-
tion of the eaftern geography and hiftory, written by this
prince, were publifhed by Mr. Greaves ; viz. " Binae
Tabulx Geographies, una NalTir Eddini, altera Ulug-
Beighi, Opera et Studio J. Gravii nunc primum pub-
licatae et Commcntariis ex Abulfeda aliifque Arabum Geo-
graphis illuftratK," Loud. 1648, 410. : and alio " Epochx
celebriores Aftronomis, Hiftoricis, Chroiiologis, Cha-
taioruiTi, Syro-Grscorum, Arabum, Perfarum, Choraf-
miorum ufitatae ; ex Traditione Ulug-Beiglii Indiae citra
extraque Gangem Principis, eas primum publicavit, recen-
fuit, et Commcntariis illuftravit J. Gravius," Lond. l6yo,
combined, in Arabic and Latin, in J. Hudfon Geogr. Vet.
Script. Minores, tom. iii. Montucla. Gen. Biog.

ULVrSON, in Geography, a river of Sweden, which
runs into the Mseler lake.

ULULA, in Ornithology. See Strix.
ULULEUS, in ^Indent Geography, a river which fur-
niftied Dyrrhachium with water ; now called Argentca.

ULiYSSEA, a town of Hifpania, in Boetica, fituated
on the mountains, above Abdera, according to Strabo ; who
fays that here was a temple dedicated to Minerva, and that
it contained many monuments of the voyages of UlyfTes.

ULYSSES, in Geography, a townfhip of New York, in
America, in the S.E. corner of Seneca county, 14 miles
S.E. of Ovid, and 180 W. of Albany, with two poft-
ofRces, Ithaca and Tremain ; bounded N. by Ovid, N.E.
and E. by Cayuga county, S. by Cayuta in Tioga county,
and W. by HeCtor. On the E. it embraces the half of the
S. end of Cayuga lake, an extent of eight miles, where it
receives Cayuga creek, or the main inlet ; Six-mile and
Fall creeks, which furnilh many mill-feats in this part of
the town ; and it lias fome fmall tlreams that fall into the
W. fide, and fupply miU-feats in the N. part of the town.
The fouth part is hilly, and the foil lefs valuable than the
north, which is fiifiiciently level, with a very good foil. It
has been fettled fince the year 1789, at flrll by Yankees,
OF New England people, and fince by Dutch from New
Jerfey. It has one Methodift meeting-houfe, and a con-
gregation of Prefbyterians. The town has a confiderable
quantity of white pine, which is very valuable. Ithaca is
a handfome poft-village at the S. end of Cayuga lake, con-
taining 40 houles, with a confiderable trade ; and Tremain
is a poft-village, 11 miles N.W. of Ithaca, containing 10 or
J 2 houfes.

ULYSSIS PoUTUS, in Ancient Geography, a port on the
eaftern fide of Sicily, near Catana. It was an ancient
opinion that Ulyffes had landed in this place. However,
if we admit the recitals of Homer in the Odyffee, Ulyffes
liad landed on the promontory of Pachvnum.

ULYSSOPOLIS, a town of Thrace, faid to be tht
OdifFus of Ptolemy.

ULZEN, in Geography. See Ultzen.
UMA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo goddtfs

Parvali^

U M B

U M B

Parvafi, under wliicli article an ample account is given of
this important many-named deity. Uma is ftated to be an
incarnation of Paivati.

Uma is a name ftill given to Hindoo females, in common
with fcveral others of this and other goddefles ; fuch as
Lakfhmi, Parvati, Bhavani, &c.

UMAGNO, in Geography, a town of Etruria ; 5 milts
N. of Voltcrra.

UMAGO, a fca-port town of Iftria. Here is a fpacioiis
harbour at tlie mouth of a river, but the fituation being
unhealthy, the town is but thinly inhabited ; 16 miles E.
of Venice. N. lat. 45° 35'. E. long. 13° 43'.

UMA PA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Culia-
can ; 10 miles E. of Culiacan.

UMARI, in Botany, the Brafilian name of a tree, rudely
figured in Marcgravc's Hijl. Plant. 12 1. See Geoffr«A.
UMARRAH, in Geography, a town of Nubia ; 85 miles
S. of Syene.

UMATAG, or Umatay, a town of theiflandof Guam,
in the Eaft Indian fe?., where velTels flop to refit.

UMBA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Arch-
angel, on the White fea. N. lat. 66° 45'. E. long. 29'-' 14'.
Umba, Lower, a middle province of Matamba.
Umba, Upper, the moft northerly province of Matamba.
UMBAA, a town of Abyflinia ; lOO miles S.S.W. of
Gondar.

UMBAGOG Lake, a lake of New Hampfhire. N.
lat. 44'' 38'. W. long. 70'^ 59'.

UMBALLA, a to^n of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sirhind ; 32 miles E.S.E. of Sirhind.

UMBEL, Umbki.i.a, in Botany, a I>atin word, for a
little (hade, or umbrella, is ufcd to defignate a particular
mode of inflorcfccnce, thence called umbellate. ( See Um-
BELLATiE. ) The umbella was formerly named in Englidi
rundle, probably from its round (hapc ; but umbel is now
univerfally adopted. This mode of inflorcfccnce confiRs of
feveral flowcr-llalks, or rays, nearly equal in length,
fprcading from a common point or centre, their fummits
forming a level, convex, fonictimes globofo, furfacc ; more
rarely, as in the Carrot, a concave one. When each ray is
fimple, and bears a folitary flower, the umbel is denominated
fimple, as in the Ivy and Cowflip, as well as in yljlrantia,
Erioc.ilia, and Hy/lrocotyle. A compound umbel, properly
fo called, has each of its principal rays terminating in an-
other fmaller umbel. Such, at lead, is the cafe with thofe
plants conftituting tiie natural order of Umbellattic ; few
of which, beiides the three genera jnll mentioned, have
fimple umbels. Inflances of compound ones are familiar in
the Hemlock, Carrot, Parfley, &c. There are indeed
other kinds of compound umbels, found in various other
tribes of plants ; as in Euphorbia, wliofe general nmbel, in
moft of the fpecies, is repeatedly fubdivided, either in a
threefold, or a forked manner. A Cvme (fee that article)
is in the firft inftance a general umbel, though its partial
flalks are irregularly fubdivided. On tiie contrary, a
panicle, whofe primary ramifications are alternate, or irre-
gular, fometimes has its ultimate ones umbellate, of which
examples occur in Fil'tt and ylralia. We refer the reader
to Cyme, Inflokescence, and Genus, for remarks on
the different conceptions of authors, refpcfling tiie nature
of an umbel, referving furtiicr confiderations of that kind
for the article UivinELLAT^E. We have here only to add,
that an umbel is fometimes naked, but much more generally
.iccompanied by bracleas, or by a fimple or compound ;h-
<i>olucrum, not always conftant, or uniformly prefint, even
in the 'fame fpeciej. The rays themfclvcs are ufually per.

manent, feldom deciduous, till long after the fccdb have
fallen.

UMBELLATjE, a very natural order of plants, fo
named from its mode of inflorefcence, (fee Umrel, ) and
conftituting the forty-fifth order among the Fragmenta
of Linnxus. It is cxaftly equivalent to tlie Umbelliftrx
of other writers, at leaft of fuch as are correct, being'
the fixtieth order in JufTieu's fyflcm, or the fecond of his
twelfth clafs. The charafters of that clafs are thefe.
A fuperior calyx of one leaf. Petals fcveral, definite, in-
ferted upon the piftil, or upoii the border of a gland crown-
ing the germen. Stamens definite, diftinft, infcrted into the
fame part, being alternate with the petals, and equal to
them in luimber. Germen inferior, fimple ; ftyles feveral,
definite ; ftigmas as many. Seeds agreeing in number with
the ftyles, either naked, or rarely inclofed in a feed-veifel,
having a fimilar number of cells. Corculum mniute, oblong,
at the top of a woody albumen. Floiv^rs imibcllatc, that
is, fupportcd fingly on numerous ftalks, fpringing from the
fame point. Umbel either naked, or furroiuided by a many-
leaved involucrum : and either fimple, or compofed of leffer,
or partial, umbels, which likewife .ire fometimes naked,
fometimes furniflied with a partial involucrum. The orders
are two; l. Akai.i/E, whok petals, Jlyhs, M\A feeds, are
numerous, their y>-«/V capfular or pulpy : and 2. Umbelli-
VKKX, of which we are about to treat.

JufTieu tlius diftinguilhes the order in quellion. Calyx
either entire or five-tootiied. Petals five. Stamens five.
Styles andjligmas two. Fruit perpendicularly feparable into
two feeds, various in ftiape, hanging by their fummits to a
central, thread- fhapcd, often deeply divided, axis or re-
ceptacle. Flowers difpofed in little umbels, which are
moilly collefted into general umbels, each being either
naked or fui-niflied with involucrums, and for the moft part
regular, in a few inllances anomalous. The _y7«n is often
herbaceous, nucly fhrubby. Leaves alternate, with iTieath-
ing footllalks ; and either fimple, or moll frequently com-
pound, with repeated fubdivifions. The colour of the
Jloiuers is ufually white, fometimes reddilh or purpli/h ; in
a few inftances yellow. Lagoecia, and we may add Erto-
ealia, are remarkable for a folitary feed, the ftyle alfo being
folitary in the former. We may add alfo, that Eryngium is
fingular for having the umbel condenfed into a head, the
flowers having no footftalks, forming the only exception to
the umbellate inflorefcence of the whole order.

Linnaeus fixes the charafter of his Umbellatx in the five
ftamens, two ftyles, and two feeds, all umbellate flowers
not being comprehended therein. But as Eryngium is not
excluded, though deftitute of a proper umbel, fo neither arc
Lagoecia and Eriocalia, though having only folitary feeds.
His general idea of the order agrees with Juffieu's, but he
held a peculiar opinion of the umbel being in itfelf an aggre-
gate flower. On this fubjeft we have already faid allthat
is neccflary, under Cyme. -We proceed to the generic dif-
tinftions in this order, a fubjeft of the greateft difficulty,
becaufe the order itfelf is fo very natural. The ipecies, as
Hallcr obfcrves, are eafily difcriminated. This author, and
his pupil Crantz, follow Tournefort, in defining the genera
by the feeds. Linnxus holds this principle rather too cheap,
adopting the plan of liis friend Artedi, who (nil fnggefted
the ufe of the general and partial involucrum tor the purpofc
required. Hence he diftributes the Umbell.itj into three
feftions, Thofe which have a genenJ as well as partial in-
volucrum ; thofe which have oiily a partial one ; and thofe
which have neither. .Tuflieu follows the fame arrangement,
only rcvcrfing the fcClioiis. The author of the flora Bri-
Y 7 2 lanr.ka

U M B

U M B

tann'ica has not undertaken to reform this fubjeift, though he
has always objeAed to the principle on which it is founded.
Like other Linnasan botanifts, he adopts it, with many
thini^s befides, for prefent ufe. Gsrtner, as might be ex-
peAed, recurs to the feeds, but not with the happieft
fucccfs.

Two ingenious writers have of late taken up this depart-
ment of botany afrefli, independent of each other ; profefTor
Hoffmann, late of Gottingen, now of Mofcow ; and pro-
fefTor Sprengel of Halle. The former founds his genera on
the feeds and petals ; the latter on the feeds alone, cai-rying
into execution the principles of the late M. Cuffon of Mont-
pellier, whofe premature death deprived the world of the
fruit of his laborious (Indies on this fubjeft.

Mr. Sprengel's feftions ai-e as follows. I. Fruit com-
prefTed, flat. 2. Fruit rather folid, winged. 3. Fruit
bladdery. 4. Fruit coated. 5. Fruit armed. 6. Fruit
fohd, naked. This laft feftion is fubdivided into thofe
■whofe fruit is linear-lanceolate, and thofe in which it is
obloncr-ovate, or quite ovate. Subordinate charafters are
afforded by the ribs of the feeds, and their interftices,
which, after Cuffon, are termed vaUccuU. Latufcula of
thefe authors are the flopirg lides of each feed, from the
back to the cotnmtffura, or feam, where the edges of the
two feeds meet. ProfeiTor Sprengel eftablifhes 63 genera,
and 371 fpeciss, in his Prodromus, publifhed at Halle in

The Umbcllatx liitherto known are chiefly found in the
temperate clinriates of the northern hemifphere, as Mr.
Brown obferves ui his General Remarks on the Botany of
Terra Auilralis, fubjoined to captam Flinders's Vovage.
Very few occur within the tropics, but the eminent botanift
jull quoted informs his readers, that thofe of Terra Auf-
trahs, including a few Aral'ie, exceed fifty fpecies. Thefe
are moflly new. The fingular genus Ekiocalia, (fee that
article,) adopted in Sprengel's Prodr. 27, is one of them.
Mr. Brown fpeaks of another genus, by the name of Leu-
colena, " worthy of notice on account of the great apparent
differences of inflorefcence, exilling among its fpecies ;"
which, however, prove, by his luminous explanation, to be
only apparent.

We think it hardly neceflary to mention the polygamous
charafter of the flowers in fome of this order, though that
charafter is made to enter into the Linnasan generic dif-
tinftions. The central flowers, or central partial umbels,
are mod inclined to be male, the furrounding ones female,
Or at leaft moil fertile. Tfie petals of the latter are alfo
moft radiant, or dilated outwards.

Linnxus remarks, that the. principal qualities of thefe
plants refide in their roots, (often biennial,) and their feeds ;
the herbage, for the moft part, being inactive. They con-
tain an acrid aromatic, or cauflic principle. Such as grow
in dry places are mofl wholefome or fafe, as well as moft
agreeable in flavour ; thofe found in watery places are
among the moft virulent of all vegetable poifons ; witnefs
Cicula virofa and Oenanthe crocata. Cultivation, in a dry or
manured foil, renders fome aquatic umbsUatte fafe and whole-
fome, particularly the ylp'mm gravsclens of our ditches,
which becomes, under proper treatment, the garden Celery.
UMBELLIFERjF. See Umbellat.s.
UMBELLIFEROUS Plants, a name given to cer-
tain kinds, as all fuch as form and produce their flowers in
the manner of an umbel, and wliich are principally of the
herbaceous kinds, with fome few of the tree fort, having
the flowers in this mode either in the fimple or compound
form, nfing with ereft hollow italks in the firft defcription,

and moftly branching in the alternate method, and either
fimple-fingered, "or winged. The chief forts in the garden
herb clafs are thofe of angelica, the different carrot kinds,
the parfnip, parfley, the various kinds of celery, common
fennel, dill, giant fennel, alexanders, coriander, carraway,
Macedonian parfley, famphire, eringo, &c. But befides
thefe ciculcnts for difl'erent culinary purpofcs, it belongs to
fome of the medicinal fort, and others which do not relate
to tlic butinefs of gardening. See KlTCHEN-Gar^/fn Plants,
and Medicinal Plants.

UMBELLUS, in Qrn'ithohgy, a fpecies of 7i?//"ao / which
fee.

UMBER, Ombros, or Umbros, in /Indent Geography, a
lake of Italy, in Umbria ; which, according to Scaliger,
is the fame witli the Vadimonis lacus of Livy.

Umber, or Umbrc, in Natural H'ljlory, a foffile brown
or blackifh fubftance, ufed in painting, fo called from
Ombria, the ancient name of the duchy of Spoleto, in
Italy, whence it was firft obtained ; diluted witli water, it
ferves to make a dark-brown colour, ufaally called with us
an hair-colour.

Dr. Hill and M. Da Cofta conuder it as an earth of the
ochre kind. It is found in Egypt, Italy, Spain, and Ger-
many ; in Cyprus alfo it is found in large quantities ; but
what we have brought into England is principally from
different parts of the Tnrkifli dominions. But it might
be found in confiderable plenty alfo in England and Ireland,
if properly looked after, feveral large mafTes of it having
been thrown up in digging on Mendip-hills, in Somerfet-
fliire, and in the county of Wexford, in Ireland : it is alio
fometimes found in the veins of lead-ore, both in Dcrby-
fhire and Flintfhire.

Mineralogifts mention two kinds of umber ; the one
called " Cologne earth," which is a variety of peat or
earthy-brown coal. In the vicinity of Cologne they work
large beds of it, principally for fuel, and a confiderable
quantity is imported into Holland, where it is ufed for the
adulteration of fnuff, and a fmaller quantity is employed
by the paint-makers. Its colour is a fomewhat pinkifli-
brown, and it is ufeful to the painter in water-colours.
The fecond kind is known by the name of "Turkifh umber,"
and appears to be a variety of the iron-ore, called brown
iron-ftone ochre. Klaproth analyfed a fpecimen from Cy-
prus, and found that it contained

48 oxvd of iron.

20 oxyd of mangan?fe.

13 filex.

5 alumine.

14 water.

Wallerius ranks the umber as a humus or m.oijid, appre»
bending, by its immediately flaming in the fire, and by the
fmell which it emits, that it owes its colour to an admixture
of bituminous parts. But M. le Baron de Hupfel (Berlin,
Mem. 1 771) has difcovered it to be a foffile wood, filled
with a bituminous juice. It is found in two different ftates,
firft, as retaining the form of wood, which it has preferved
by means of a bituminous matter that has prevented the
rotting of the wood ; and fccondly, as a powder, like that
into whicti the firft kind, that ftill retains the form of the
wood, eaiily crumbles.

It is certain, however, fays Mr. Kirwan, that the name
bath been alfo given to a fort of brown ochre, which be-
comes

U U B

comes red when (liglitly heated, but in a Ihoiigcr heat is
again brown and magnetic, and in a Hill ftronger, melts into
a black glafs. It does not efTL-rvefce with acids before
roattiiig, but after that the martial part is foluble. Elem.
Mineral, p. 78.

This fubllance, when burnt, makes a good (hade for
gold. It need only be put into the naked lire in large
lumps, which fhould not bo takjn out till they be thoroughly
red-hot.

Umbeh, or Ombre, in Ichthyology, an EngliHi name for
a lilh of the truttaceous kind, mor: commonly called the
rraylina, and by the authors in ichthyography, thymallus,
a frefh-water filh of a very fine tafte.

UMBERPATTONS, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doollan, in Boggilcund ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Rewah.

UMBERSTON Creek, a river of Virgini.i, which

runs into the Potomack, N. lat. 39'' 35'. W. long. 78'' 6'.

UMBILICAL, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to the

arteries and veins which pafs through the umbilicus. See

Embryo.

Umbilical Region, is that part of the abdomen lying
round the umbihcus, or navel.

Umbilical Rupture, a rupture or protrufion of the
bowels at the navel. The difeafe is frequently called by
furgeons exomphalos ; which fee. See alfo Hernia.

Umbilicalis Funiculus, popularly called the naveljlring.
See Embryo, Funis, and Labour.

Umbilical Points, in Mathematics, the fame \v\l\\ foci.
See Focus.

Umbilical VcJfAs of Vegetables, in Agriculture and Gar-
dening, a term lately applied by fome writers, as Darwin,
to the fmall velTels which pafs from the heart part of the
feed into the fide fecd-lobcs, and there imbibe the folution
of facchariiie, farinaceous, or oily matter, which is prepared
and depofited in them for the nourifliment and fupport of
the new vegetable in its germination and infant growth.
They are confequently fuppofed to perform the important
office of lupplying nutrition to the young plant, and of
oxygenating, or aftbrdittg the oxygene principle of the air
to the vegetable juice, fap, or blood, and thereby to be of
very material ufe in the fprouting and vegetation of grain,
feeds, and buds. See Vegetation, and Vital Air.

UMBILICARIA, in Botany, a genus of the Lichen
family, fo called by Hoffmann, from the rounded depreffed
figure of its frond, whofe centre is firmly attached to the
rocks, by a central root, like an umbilical cord. This
genus confifts of the Lichcnes umbilicats of Linnaeus, and is
now called Gykophor A ; fee that article. Nineteen fpecies
are defcribed in the molt: recent publication of profcflbr
Acharius, Synopfis Methodi Lichenum, p. 63 — 69.

UMBILICATED, in Gardening, a term which fignifies
and is applied to thofe forts of fruit and leaves which are
navel-lhaped, or formed in the manner of that part. This is
the cafe in fruit of the apple and pear kinds, as well as fome
others, in which one or both ends are hollowed in a navel-like
manner. Alfo in fome leaves, as thofe of the peltate 'or
target-formed fort, which are fafhioned or rtiapcd in a
manner fomevvhat fimilar to that of the navel, at the part
or place where the footllalk is infcrted, which is commonly
about the middle, on the under fide, but in fome inllances
above.

UMBILICUS, in Anatomy, the navel, a round opening
in the linea alba, for the paffage of the umbilical veifels of
the fietus. Its fituation is marked by a deprefflon, after
the cord has feparated, produced by the inlletlion of the
integuments. See Ohi.iquus.

Umbilicus, in Mathernatics, the fame with/ofw.

U M B

Umbilici's Marinus, « name given to a fmall oval body
of a (helly matter, from its refemblance to the human
navel. It is properly the operculum of a fheU-fi(h, ferving
to clofe up the aperture of the fhell in the buccinum, and
other turbinated fhells ; and to that purpofe it is fixed to
the anterior extremity of the body of the animal ; fo that
when it retrafts its body into the (hell, this naturally fills
up the mouth of it : it is convex on one fide, and flat on
the other; the convex fide is plain and white, the flat fide
is yellowifh or reddifh, and marked with a fpiral line. See

CONCHOLOGY.

It is faid by authors to have great virtues as an abforbent
and albingent ; but it is not uled at prefent in the (hop?,
though it holds a place in the catalogues of the Materia
Medica, as well of our own as other nations.

Umbilicus Veneris, in Botany. (See Cotyledon.)
The Engli(h name of the fame import, Venus's Navel-wort,
13 applied to the CynogloJ'um linrf'ulium, on account of the
little hollow, or dcprcffion, in each of its beautiful feeds.

UMBINUS, among the Ancients, a kind of coin current
in Gallia Narbonnenfis.

UMBLA, or, as fome write it. Umbra, in Ichthyology,
the name of a filh of the truttaceous kind, and nearly allied
to the falmon.

It is the falmo umbla of LinnKus, vrith the lateral lines
bent upward, and a bifurcated tail. See Salmo.

There are four fpecies of this fifli mentioned among natu-
ralifls ; but the umbla prior and umbla altera of Roiideletius,
which are two of them, feem only to be the different fexes
of the fame fi(h. Thefe are confidcrably large, very like
the common falmon, but have blue backs and yellow bellies.
The third is the fifli commonly called the falvelin, or falmo
falvelinus of Linnasus, with the upper jaw longer than the
other : and the fourth is the red charr. Willughbv's Hift.
Pifc. p. 198.

UMBO, in Antiquity, the round protuberant part of a
(hield. ^

Umbo, in Geography, a lake of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Archangel. N. lat. 67° 40'. E. long. 29° 14'.

UMI50NE, or Horn, among Fkrifls, fignifies any-
pointed ftyle, or piftil, in the middle of a flower.

There is alfo an umbone called double-pointed, or liparted,
as in the pxony ; and fometimes the umbone has four (harp
points, in which cafe it is termed, an umbone divided into
fo many heads, or cut into three or four parts.

UMBOYNA, in Geography, a town of Nubia ; 50 miles
S. of Gous.

UMBRA, Shadow. See Light, Shadow, Penumbr.*,

&c

Umbra, in Ancient Geography, a fmall river of Italy, in
Etruria.

Umbra, in Geography, a river of America, which runs
into the Wabafli, N. lat. 38° 38'. W. long. 88° 12'.

Umbra, in Ichthyology, the name of a fea-hfli caught in the
Mediterranean, and brought to the markets in Italy and other
places ; called by fome chromis,?inA by the Venetians corvo.

Its ufual fize at market is about twelve or fourteen inches
in length ; but it grows to fixty pounds weight, and to the
length of five or fix feet. It is of a fomcwhat Ihtted figure,
and its back i^ ridged and rifes up from the head. It loTat-
thing refembles the carp in its general figure, but is broader.
It is very elegantly coloured, for there arc a number of long
oblicjue lines covering its whole fides, which are alternately
of a fine p.nle blue, and a beautiful yellow. Its fcales are
moderately large, and its coverings of the gills, arid great
part of its very head, as v/ell as its body, are covered with
thcfe i its head is moderately large, but its mouth fniall, and

it

U M B

U M E

it has a fingle beard hanging down from its chin. Rondelet.
de Pifc. p. 182. See Sci.i;NA.

Umcra, in Zoology, a fpecies of lacerta. See Lizard.
UMBRATILIS Pugna, the lighting with one's own
iliadow.

This was one of the kinds of exercife much recommended
by the ancient phyficians ; they ordered the perfon who
ufed it, not only to box, but to wreftle, with his {hadow ;
that is, not only to ufe his arms, but his legs alfo, and often
to put himfclf into a leaping pofture, and throw his body
violently forward, and often to retreat haftily backwards.
The cuftom feems to have been of ancient date ; Plato ex-
prefsly mentions it, and St. Paul feems to allude to it in the
paffage where, glorying in the reality of his conflifts, he fays
he does not fight as one who beats the air. The phyficians
greatly recommended this exercife to people of fedentary
lives, and to thofe who had weak nerves, and were afflifted
with tremors. They etteemed it ufeful alfo m difeafes of
the kidneys, and of the thorax.

UMBRE, in Mineralogy. See Umber.
Umbre, in Ornithology. See Scopus.
UMBRELLA, in Rural Economy, a well-known (hade
or guard from the fun or rain, formed by ftretching filk,
canvas, or any other linen or woollen fluff, over elaftlc ftrips
of whalebone, fo difpofed as to diverge from a central point
and make a circular covering, which may by means of a rod
or ftaff palling through the centre be held over the head,
when occalion requires it, or which may be drawn up
round this rod and conveniently carried in the hand.
Thefe temporary guards from heat or wet have not long
been introduced into our country, but they have been found
fo convenient and ufeful that they are now become very com-
mon. They feem to have been of much more ancient ufe
in the Eall. M. de la Loubere, who was envoy extraordi-
nary for the French king to the king of Siam, in the years
1687 and 1688, informs us in his " New Hiftorical Relation
of the Kingdom of Siam," a tranflation of which into Eng-
lifh was printed at London in 1693, ^^^^ the ufe of um-
brellas, in Siamefe Roum, was a favour which the king of
Siam did not grant to all his fubjeCts, although the umbrella
be permitted to all the Europeans. Thofe which are hke to
ours, or which have only one round, were the leaft honourable,
and were ufed by mod of the Mandarins. Thofe that had
more rounds about the fame handle, as if they were feveral
umbrellas fixed one upon another, were for the king alone.
Thofe which the Siamefe called " clot," and which had only
one round, having two or three painted cloths fufpended
from them, one lower than the other, were granted by the
king of Siam to the " Sancrats," or fuperiors of the " Ta-
lapoins." Thofe which he gave to the king's ambaffadors
were of this laft fort, and had three cloth hangings. The
Talapoins had umbrellas in the form of a fcrccn, which they
carried in their hands. They were formed of a kind of
palmetto leaf cut round and folded, and the folds were tied
with a thread near the ftem, and the ilem was made crooked
like an S, and fervcd for a handle. In the Siamefe language
they called them " Talapat," and it is probable, fays Lou-
bere, that from ht;»ce comes the name of " Talapoi" or
" Talapoin," which is in ufe only among foreigners, and
which is unknown to the Talapoins themfelvcs, whofe Sia-
mefe name is " Tchaou-cou."

An umbrella, held in a proper pofition over the head,
may ferve to coUeft the force of a diftant found by reflec-
tion, in the manner of a hearing-trumpet ; but its fubftance
is too flight to refleft any found very perfeftly, unlefs the
found fall upon it in a very oblique direftion. The whif-
jpering gallery at St. Paul's produces an effeft nearly fimilar,

by a continual repetition of refleftions. Mr. Charles's pa-
radoxical exhibition of the invifible girl has alfo been (aid
to depend on the refleftion of found ; but the deception is
really performed by conveying the found through pipes,
artfully concealed and opening oppolite to the mouth of
the trumpet from which it feems to proceed. Young's
Philofophy.

U.MBRELLA-TVff, in Gardening, the common Englifh
name of a very ornamental tree. See Magnolia.

UMBRETTA, in Ornithology. See ScopUS.

UMBRIA, in Ancient Geography, a large country of
Italy, bounded on the N. by a part of GaUia Cifpadana,
on the N.E. by the Adriatic gulf, on the E. by Picenum,
and on the W. by the Apennines, which feparated it from
Etruria. This country, which was very mountainous, con-
tained in its northern part the Senonois. It was divided
into two parts by the Apennines, and took its name, a;
fome have faid, from the Greek 0/ji(3^o-, Imber, becaufe, as
they fay, without fufficient reafon, rain inundates this coup.-
try. Propertius fays of it :

" Proxima fuppofito contingens L^mbria campo
Me genuit terris fertilis uberibus."

Ptolemy mentions feveral towns as belonging to this coun-
try, the names of feveral of which are now unknown. To
the N. of this country lies the Rubicon, which ferves as a
boundary to Italy, properly fo called.

Umbria, in Ger.graphy. See Spoleto.

UMBRIATICO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra,
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of St. Severina ; 57 miles E.
of Cofenza. N. lat. 39° 27'. E. long. 17' 6'.

UMBRINO, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by fome au-
thors for the c'jracintis, or umbra, as fome call it. The um-
brino has by fome been elleemed a diflintl fpecies of fifh
from the coracinus ; but they feem to differ no other way
than as the one is the older, the other the younger fifh.
Willughby's Hill. Fife. p. 330.

UMBRO, Ombro, or O.MBROXE, in Ancient Geography,
a river of Italv, in Etruria, commencing N.E. of Sena, and
difcharging itfelf into the fea near Ruffellse.

UMBUNCULUS, in Natural Hijlory, a name given
by ancient authors to the fmall prominences on the fur-
faces of certain Hones. It was originally derived from the
word umbo, which expreffes the prominent knob, or round
lump in the centre of a fhield ; and its firll ufe that we find
in the naturalifls is, in exprefling a very fimilar thing ; that
is, the prominent part of the zmilampis. This was a flone
of the nature of what we call oculis beli, or bcUochio, and
was of a white ground, and roundifh figure, fomewhat re-
fembling an eye. It was found in the Euphrates, and
other rivers, and had always an umbunculus of a glaucous
or bhieifh colour. This umbunculus was a prominent round
fpot, fuch as we fee in our oculi beli, and call ihe pupil. It
was afterwards ufed to exprefs the inequalities on the fur-
faces of flints and agates, which frequently are roundifh and
obtuie, and reprefent a kind of umbones.

UMDOOM, in Geography, a town of Nubia; 10 miles
N. of Chiggre.

UMEA, a fea-port town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia,
at the mouth of a river of the fame name, in the gulf of
Bothnia, built by Guflavus Adolphus, with a good harbour.
This town was twice burned by the Ruffians in the begin-
ning of the 1 8th century. N. lat. 63° 52'. E. long. 20" 4'.

UMEABY, a town of Sweden ; 60 miles N.W. of
Umea.

UMELHEDEGI, a town of Africa, in the country of
Tafilct; 66 miles S.W. of Sugulmeffa.

UMEL-

U M R

U N B

UMELHEFEL, a town of Africa, in tlie coimlry of
Tafilet ; 40 miles S.W. of Sugulmcffa.

UMEMGIVEAIBE, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Fez.

UMENAK, an ifland on the W. coaft of Eaft Green-
land. N. lat. 60° 35'. W. long. 45= 30'. — Alfo, an
ifland on the S.W. coaft of Eaft Greenland. N. lat.

59° 43'. W. long. 43° 20' Alfo, an ifland near the W.

coaft of Weft Greenland. N. lat. 61° SS'- W. long.
48° 25'.

UMIAK, a river of Riiffia, which runs into the Viatka,
20 miles S. of Marmalifch, in the government of Kazan.

UMMA, or Amma, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Paleftine, in the tribe of Aflier. Jo(h. xix. 30.

UMMANTZ, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Baltic,
near the W. coaft of the ifland of Rugen. N. lat. 54^ 30'.
E. long. 13° 14'.

UMMENDORF, a town of Weftphalia, in the duchy
of Magdeburg ; 24 miles W. of Magdeburg.

UMMERSTADT, a town of the principality of Co-
burg ; 5 miles W. of Coburg.

UMPIRE, a third perfon, chofen to decide a contro-
verfy, left to an arbitration, in cafe the arbitrators cannot
agree. See Akbitrator.

Minfhew fuppofes the word formed of the French un pere,
a fiither. Some call him ^fur-arb'Urator.

UMPLE, in our Statutes, fignifies fine linen. 3 Ed. IV.
cap. 5. Blount.

UMREVISKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Tobolflv, on the Oby ; 88 miles S.W.
of Tomflc.

UMRITA, or Amkita, the Sanfcrit name of a
precious elixir, that, according to Hindoo fabuhfts, con-
fers immortality on thofe who quaff it. This word, and
the legends connefted with it, remind us ftrongly of the
Ambrofia of Weftern poets. There can, indeed, be little
doubt of a common derivation, <ir of one being borrowed
from the other. In the Sanfcrit language its root is trace-
able to mrit, meaning mortality : a being a privative particle.
Immortal is, therefore, a ftritt tranflation of the compound.

With the Hindoos, as with the Greeks, the fubjeft of
this article furniflies an endlefa fource of poetical alliifion.
Both people had the notion that the moon was a vafe of this
quinteflence, which both fometimes confound with amber
and ambergris. ( See Soma.) Under our article Ki uma-
VATARA, a brief relation is given of the churning of the
ocean by gods and demons for the purpofe of recovering
the beverage of immortality, which appears to have been
loft by the iniquities of the antediluvian world. For farther
information as to the fabulous origin and hillory of tlie Am-
rita, we refer to the notes to Wilki:is's Gita, and the fecond
article of the i ith vol. of the Afiatic Rcfcarches, by major
Wilford.

When the gods fliarcd among thcmfelvcs the precious
things gained in the churning procefs above alluded to,
Indra, regent of the firmament, obtained the Umrita, hence
probably the name of his city Umravati ; for we find feve-
ral places ftill fimilarly named : Umrapura, the metropolis
of Ava (fee Ava) ; Umritfir, or Amritfar, the capital of
the Sikh nations, and others, might be inftanccd. Perhaps
too the cave and village of Amboly, on the ifland of Sal-
fette, may be hence derived. This beautiful cavern temple
is faft mouldering to decay, and no good defcription of it
has yet been given. There is alfo a refpcftable town about
40 miles S.E. from Poonah called Amravaty.

I'MRUT, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in Gii-
y.crat ; 18 miles E. of Pernalla.

UMSEQUIR, a towu of Africa, in the defertof Barca ;

2Q miles E. of Siwah.

UMSTADT, a town of HefTe Darmftadt ; 10 miles
E. of Darmftadt.

UNA, in /Indent Geography, a river of Africa, in Mau-
ritania Tingitana, the mouth of which, according to Ptolemy,
is between Suriga and the outlet of the river Agna.

Una, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu-

zerat ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Chitpour Alfo, a town of

Brafil, in the government of St. Paul ; co miles S.E. of
St. Paul.

UNADILLA, a paft-townfliip of America, in New
York, fituated in the extreme fouthern angle of Otfego
county, ICO miles S. by W. from Albany ; bounded
N. by Butternuts and Otego ; E. by Otego ; S.E". by
Sufquehanna river, or the county of Delaware ; and W.
by the Unadilla, or the county of Chenango. Its area is
fuppofed to be about 65 fquare miles. The furface is hilly
and uneven, but along the ftreams that form the boundaries,
and alfo fome fmaller ones, the land is very good and pro-
duftive. The uplands and hills alfo afford fine grazing and
meadow lands. Several fmall ftreams furnifli mill-feats, which
are numerous. Here are a quarry of ftones ufed for grind-
ing, fixteen faw-mills that prepare lumber conveyed to the
Baltimore market on rafts upon the Sufquelianna, five grain-
mills, an oil-mill, and other water-works, and five diftilleries
of whiflvey. Here are one epifcopal church, and fourteen
fchool-houfes. In 18 10, the whole population confifted of
1426 perfon s, with 1 16 fenatorial eledors, 341 taxable in-
habitants, and 141,^96 dollars of taxable property.

Unaililla Village is pleafantly fituated on the Sufque-
hanna, and contains an epifcopal church and 30 dwellings,
befides ftores, &c.

UNALASHKA. See Oonalashka.

UNALGA, one of the Fox iflands ; 15 miles S.E. of
Unalaflika.

UNAMAK. See Ooxamak.

UNAMIS, a tribe of Delaware Indians.

UNAMPELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
15 miles S.W. of Gootv.

UNANIMITY of Juries. See .Jury.

UNANNEALED Bottles, or Bologna Bollles, a kind
of unannealed glafs bottles made at Bologna, and many
other places, in the year 1742, which, though appearing
very ftrong, yet are to be broken by a fragment of flint,
fcarce larger than a grain of fand, thrown into them. See
jlnniiiling of Gla.SS.

UNARA, in Geography, a river of South America,
which ferves for a line of divifion between the governments
of Caraccas and Cumana. It is navigable as far as the
village of San Antonia de Clarinas, fix leagues from the fea.
Its courfc extends about 30 leagues from S. to N.

UNA ROTA, among the Ancients, a carriage with only
one wheel.

UNAU, in Zoology, a name given by BufFon to the
V)n\Tt\vv^ Jittad^liis ; which fee. See alio Sloatii ;

UNAWA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu-
zerat ; 12 miles S.E. of Pattan.

UNBALLAST, To, in Sea Language, is to difcharge
the ballaft of a fliip.

UNBENDING, generally implies the aft of taking off
the fails from their yards and ftays ; of cafting loofe the
anchors from their cables, or of untying one rope from
another.

UNBIAK, or SKMI.sOKO.sruNoi, in Geography, one of
the Fox iflands, in the Nortli Pacific ocean, about 71 nules
in tircumftreace. N. lat. 53' 40'. E. long. 179'^ 14'.

fclNBIT-

U N C

U N C

UNBITTING, in Sea Language, denotes the operation
of removing the turns of a cable from off the bitts.

UNCARIA, in Botany, fo named by Schrebar, from
uncus, a hook, alluding; to the hooked prickles of the ftem
in one fpecies. See Nauclea.

UNCASING, among Hunters, the cutting up or flaying
of a fox.

UNCASTILLO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
Aragon, on the Riguel ; 12 miles N. of Exea.

UNCATA, in Botany, a name given by feme authors
to the ftramonium, or thorn-apple.

UNCEASESATH, iu cur Old Writers, an obfolete
word, ufed where one killed a thief, and made oath that he
did it as he was flying for the faft, and thereupon parentibus
ipjius occifijuret unceafefath, viz. that his kindred would not
revenge his death ; or they fwore that there fhould be no
contention about it.

Du-Cange derives the word from the negative particle un
and the Saxon ceath ; which laft fignifies the fame with
ajjithment in the law of Scotland.

UNCERTAIN, in the Manege. We call a horfe uncer-
tain that is naturally reftlefs and turbulent, and is confounded
ill the manege he is put to, fo that he works with trouble
and uncertainty.

UNCHiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Alia, in
AiTyria, about two ftages from the road of the ilraits at
the entrance into this province. Quintus Curtius.

UNCHASAIR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the fubah of Delhi ; lo miles S.S.E of Secundara.

UVCIA, a term generally ufed for the twelfth part of a
thing. In which fenfe it occurs in Latin writers, both for
a weight called by us an ounce, and a meafure called an inch.
See Ounce. See alfo Measure and Weight.

Uncia, in Zoology, a fpecies of Felis ; which fee.

Uncia Terrs, or Agri, is a phrafe frequently met with in
the ancient charters of the Britifli kings ; but what the
quantity of ground was is a little obfcure. All that we
know for certain is, that it fignified a large quantity, as
much as twelve modii, which modius fome conjefture to
have been an hundred feet fquare.

UNCIjE, in Algebra, are the numbers prefixed to the
letter of the members of any power produced from a
binomial, refidual, or multinomial root : now ufually called
co-ejicients.

Thus, in the fourth- power oi a -^ b, that n, a a a a ■\-
^. a,a a b.+ 6aa66 + ^abbb + bbbb, the unciae are
4, 6, 4.

Sir Ifaac Newton gives a rule for finding the unciae of
any power arifing from a binomial root. Thus : let the
index of the power ba caUed m, then will the unciae arifc

from fuch a continual multiplication as this, viz. 1 x —

the required power of the firft part of the root, and end-
ing in unity ; and the (econd beginning with unity, and
ending in the required power of the fecond part ; thus, for
a fixth power of a + b ;

m — I m — 2 m — z m — 4„ _, ...

X X — X X , &c. Thus, it the

2345

unciae of the biquadrate or fourth power were required ;

the rule is, i x ( = 4) x ( = 6 ) x

I 2 3

( = 4) x — ( = I ) ; which fliews that the unciae are

4

i.4» 6, 4, I.

Or thus : The terms of any powers are compounded of
certain little faftums, with numbers, called uncise, pre-
fixed ; and the faftums are found by making two geo-
metrical progreflions ; the firft of them beginning from

' a' a* a'

firft feries

I b b^ b^ i* b^ V' fecond feries.

And multiplying the terms of the fame order in either
feries into one another ; as a* -(- a' i -f- a' i= -|- a' b^ -)-
a^ b* -\- a b' -r b'', out of which the fixth power of a -|- ^
is compounded.

The unciae, then, are found by writing the exponents of
the powers of the fecond feries, /. e. or b, under the ex-
ponents of the powers of the firft feries, /'. e. of a ; and
taking the firft figure of the upper feries for the numera-
tor, and the firft of the lower for the denominator of a
fraftion, which is equal to the uncia of the fecond term,
and fo for the reft. Thus, for the fixth power, we have,

654321
123456

Accordingly, — = 6 is the uncia of the fecond term of the

o I

fixth power ; — ^" = - = 15, the uncia of the third term ;

5.4.

= --- =20, the uncia of the fourth terra

120
2. 3. 6

5- 4- 3- _ 6

1

1. 2. 3. 4.

6- 5^_4:J:

I. 2. 3. 4,

6- 5- 4- 3'

2.
6
I

2

, the uncia of the fifth term ;

6, the uncia of the fixth term ;

— ^ I , the uncia of the laft. power. See
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

BiNOMI.AL Theorem.

UNCIAL, Un'cialis, an epithet which antiquaries give
to certain large-fized letters, or charafters, anciently ufed
in infcriptions and epitaphs.

The word is formed from tlie Latin nncia, the twelfth
part of any thing, and which, in geometrical meafure,
fignified the twelfth part of a foot, vi^. an inch ; which was
fuppofed to be the thicknefs of the ftem of one of thefe
letters.

UNCIFORME Os, in the carpus, is the fourth bone of
the fecond row ; it has its name from the Latin uncus, a
hook, and is compofed of a body, and a hooked, or unciform,
apophyfis. See Carpus, under Extremities.

UNCINARIA, in Zoology, a genus of the Vermes In-
teftina, the charafters of which are, that the body is fihform
and claftic, obfoletelv nodulous forward ; with angulated
membranaceous lips ; the tail of tlie female is aciculated,
and that of the male armed with two cufpidated hooks in-
clofed in a pellucid bladder. There are two fpecies, one
lodging in the thick inteftines of the badger, and the other
in thofe of the fox.

UNCINIA, in Botanyy from uncus, a hook, becaufe of
the barbed or hooked awn, on which the generic diftir.ftion

is founded " Perf. Syn. v. 2. 534-" Brown Prodr.

Nov. Holl. V. I. 241. — Clafs and order, MonoeciaTriandria.
Nat. Ord. Calamariit, Linn. Cyperoidcit, Juff. Cyperacee,
Brown.

Eff. Ch. Male, Glumes imbricated every way, fingle-
flowered. Corolla none.

Female, in the lower part of the fame fpike, Glumes im-
bricated every way, fingle-flowered. Corolla of one leaf,

capfular.

U N C

U N C

capfular, contrafled at the mouth, fcarcely divided, per-
manent. Awn iiiferted into the receptacle, beneath the
germen, longer than the corolla, hooked. Nut inclofed in
the enlarged corolla.

Mr. Brown obferves, that this genus differs from Carex
merely in the prefence of the awn, which by no means ori-
ginates from the bafe of each fcalc, as defcribed by Will-
denow, Sp. PI. v. 4.. 209, and by Pert m ; but from the
receptacle, within the corolla, termed by Mr. Brown pe-
rianth, on the outermoll fide. Hence, we would remark,
a new difficulty occurs refpedling the true denomination of
the part here called by us corolla, which we have always
taken for a tunic, arillus, but which cannot be fnch, if fe-
parated from the feed by the awn, a part belonging to the
flower.

1. U. comf>a3j. Br. n. I " Spike oblong, denfe,

many-flowered. Lowed fcale awned. Fruit denfely im-
bricated, perfeftly fmooth. Stem fmootli. Leaves flat,
ftraight." — Found by Mr. Brown, in Van Diemen's ifland.

2. U. riparia. Br. n. 2. — " Spike thread-fhaped, rather
loofe, of few flowers. Lowed fcale like the reft. Fruit
alternate, half-imbricated, lanceolate, ribbed, perfeftly
fmooth. Angles of the ftem rough. Leaves flat, flaccid."
— From the fame country.

3. U. mijlralls. Br. under n. 2 ? (Carex uncinata; Linn.
Suppl. 413. Willd. Sp. PI. V.4. 209. See Carex, n. 12.)
— Spike thread-flispcd, denfe, many-flowered. Lowed
fcale leafy-pointed. Fruit lanceolate, fcarcely ribbed.
Stem fmooth. Leaves flat. Awn twice the length of the
glume. — Native of New Zeeland. We prcfume this mull
be what Mr. Brown means by U. nuflni/is, though we can
find no pubcfcence about the top of the fniil, which he in-
dicates as the chief didinftion between this fpecies and the
lad, except its longer fj>'de.

4. \5 . plileoldes . (Carex phleoides ; Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 40.
t. 464. f. I. C. hamata ; Swartz Prodr. 18. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 4. 209. C. uncinata b ; Swartz Ind. Occ. 84.
Schkuhr Car. 13. t. G. f. 30. See Carex, n. II, by mif-
take printed bumata.) — Spike thread-fliaped, elongated,
denfe, many-flowered. Fruit oblong, with three fringed
angles. Awn thrice the length of the glume. — Native of
Jamaica, Cliili, and the ifland of Mauritius.

^. U. erinacea. (Carex crinacea ; Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 40.
t. 464. f. 2. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 210. See Carex,
n. 13.) — Spike cylindrical, denfe. Fruit roundidi, trian-
gular, fmooth. Awn five times the length of the glume.
— Native of Chili, and Brafil near Montevideo. The /pile
•meafures about an inch and a half, being only about one-
third the length of the lad, though full as thick as in that
fpecies.

6. U. tenella. Br. n. 3. — " Spike thrcad-fliaped, of few
flowers. Scales uniform, deciduous. Fruit fomewhat im-
bricated, lanceolate, fmooth. Stem fiender, with fmooth
angles. Leaves flaccid, nearly bridle-lhaped." — Gathered
by Mr. Brown, in the idand of Van Diemcn.

UNCINUS, in Surgery, the name of a imuU hooked in-
ftrument, ferving for many purpofes.

UNCKEL, in Geography, a town of Germany, on the
right bank of the Rhine ; 2 miles N. of Lint/.

UNCO RE, or Ungues Pryi,JliU ready, in Law, a plea
for the defendant, being fued for a debt due on a bond at a
day pad, to fave the forfeiture of his bond, Sfc. by affirm-
ing that he tendered the debt at tlic time and place, and that
there was none to receive it ; anil that lie is yet alfo ready
to pay the fame.

UNCTION, Unctio, the acl of anointing, or rubbing
with oil, or other fatty matter.

Vol. XXXVIL

Mercurial unftion, properly applied, brings or a faliva-
tion. The furgcons cure divers wounds, ulcers, &c. by
repeated undlions, with oils, unguents, cerates, &c.

Unction, in Mailers of Religion, is ufed for the cha-
ra&er conferred on facrcd things by anointing them with
oil.

A nciently in the eadern countries, wliich abounded fo
much in oil and odoriferous fpices, it was the cudom to
feparate perfons and things defigned for extraordinary
offices or ufes, by anointing them with ointments compofed
of fuch ingredients ; fymbolizing thereby, both an effufion
of the neceffary gifts to quahfy them for their office, and
a difTufion of the good and grateful effefts expefted from
them.

There were three forts of perfons to whom this unftion,
or confecration, 'efpecially belonged, kings, prieds, and
prophets; who, therefore, are all of them (fays Barrow)
dyled in fcripture the Lord's anointed.

The unftion of kings is fnppofed to be a ceremony intro-
duced very late among Chridian princes : Onuphrius fays,
none of the emperors were ever anointed before Judinian, or
.Tudin. The emperors of Germany took up the praftict
from thofe of the eadern empire. King Pepin of France
was the firlt king who received the unftion.

Unftion, although we have no fcripture warrant for it, is
one of thofe rites that fuccceded baptifm in the ancient
church. Of unftion, or chrifmation, TertuUian (De Bap-
tifm.) fays, " as foon as we are baptized, we are anointed
with the bleffed unftion, — an external unftion is poured
upon us, but it is fpiritually profitable." And Cyprian
alfo fays (Epid. 70. i) 3.), " he that is baptized muft of
neceffity be anointed, that having received the chrifm or
unftion, he may be the anointed of God, and have in him
the grace of Chrid." Under this chrifmation was compre-
hended Agnation, or the figning of the baptized perfon with
the lign of the crofs, which the minider performed with tliis
ointment or chrifm. See TertuUian, de Refurreft. Carnis,
and Cyprian, de Unft. Ecclef. § \6. To fignation fuc-
ceedcd impofition of hands. Or that which is now termed
confrmalion ; which fee. The ceremony of unftion was
derived from the .lewidi rites, and was employed in the
indalment of the higli pried, to denote his facerdotal con-
fecration to the fervice of God. The unftion of Chrid by
God the father, in confcqucnce of which he was called
Chrid, or anointed, was urged as a plea for this carnal and
external unftion by TertuUian, ubi fupra.

In the Romifli church, befides an unftion at baptifm, on
the forehead, and at confirmation, on the head (fee Chrism,)
they have an exlremc unftion, given to people in the pangs
of death, on the parts where the five fenfes refide, being the
parts by which the perfon is fuppofed to have finned.

The fird mention that is made of this ceremony is by
pope Innocent I. Sacred oil, indeed, was held in grMt
veneration fo early as the fourth century, and cdeemcd
as an univerfal remedy ; for which purpofe it was either
prepared and difpenfed by prieds and monks, or was taken
from the lamps which were kept burning before the relics
of the martyrs. But in none of the lives of the faints
before the ninth century is there any mention made of their
receiving extreme unftion, though their deatii;! are fome-
times particuKirly related, and their receiving the euchariil
is often mc ntioncd. But from the fovcnth century to the
twelfth, thi y began to ufe this anointing of the fick, and a
peculiar ofricc was made for it ; but the prayer that was
ufed in it plainly fljcws that it was with .1 view to theu-
recovery, for which purpofe it is dill ufed in the Greek
church, But becaufe it failed fo often, that the credit of
Z I this

U N D

U N D

.this rite was in danger of fuffering much in the ellcem of
the world, they began, in the tenth century, to fay tliat it
did good to the foul, even when the body was no better for
it ; and then they applied it to the feveral parts of the body,
after having originally applied it to the difeafed parts only.
Ifl this manner was the rite performed in the eleventh cen-
tury. In the twelfth, the prayers that had been made
before for the foul of the fick perfon, though only as a part
of the office (the pardon of fm being fuppofed to be pre-
paratory to their recovery) came to be confidered as the
mod edential part of it. After this the fchoolmen brought
it into fhape, and then it was decreed to be a facrament by
pope Eugenius ; and it was finally eilablilhed at the coun-
cil of Trent. Burnet on the Articles, p. 268. See Ex-
TREAM Unaion.

UNCTORES, among the Romans, fervants whofe em-
ployment it was to anoint their mailer when he bathed.

UNCTUARIUM, a room in the ancient baths, where
people were anointed before they went away.

UNCUS, among the Romans, an inllrumcnt ufed in tor-
turing criminals. It was a kind of club, bent and inclined
to one fide.

UNCUTH, Uninotun, is ufed in the ancient Saxon laws,
for him that comes to an inn, gueft-wife, and lies there
but one night. In which cafe, his holl was not bound to
anfwer for any offence he committed, of which he was
guiltlefs himfelf.

" Prima nocle poteft dici uncuth ; fecunda vero, gueft ;
tertia nofte hogenhine." Brafton, hb. iii. See Third
night aivn hynd.

UND ALUS, in Ancient Geography, a town, according to
Strabo, of Gallia Narbonnenfis, at the place where the
river Selgi (Sorgue) difcharges itfelf into the Rhone.
Livy calls it Vindalium, which probably is the true name,
and Undalus a corruption.

UNDE, Undee, or UnJy, in Heraldry. See Waved.

Unde nihil habet, in Law, a writ of dower. See DoTE
iinde nihil habet.

UNDEARCORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooitan,
in the circar of Ruttunpour ; 40 miles S.W. of Ruttun-
■pour.

UNDECAGON, is a regular polygon of eleven fides.

UNDECIMVIR, a magiftrate among the ancient
Athenians, who had ten other colleagues, or affociates,
joined with him in the fame commiffion.

The funftions of the undecimviri at Athens were much
the fame as thofe of the prevots de marechauffe in France.
They took care of the apprehending of criminals ; fecured
them in the hands of jullice ; and when they were condemned,
took them again into cuftody, that the fentcnce might be
executed on them.

They were chofen by the tribes, each tribe naming its
own ; and as the number of tribes, after Callilthenes, was
but ten, which made ten members, a fcribe or notary was
added, which made the number eleven. — Whence their
name, ci viliy.-x, or undecimviri, as Cornelius Nepos calls them
in the life of Phocion. In Julius Pollux they are denomi-
nated IVX^X.°'> ^"d vOfiOfuXaxEC. See NOMOPHYLACES.

UNDENAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft
Gothland ; 81 miles E.N.E. of Uddevalla.

UNDER the Sea, in the Sea Language. A Ihip is faid to
be fo, when (he lies ftill, or waits for fome other (hips, with
her helm lafhed, or tied up a-lee. See Lying under the Sea.

UNDER-CHAMBERLAINS, or DtputyChamber-
laini of the Exchequer, officers there, who cleave the tallies,
and read the fame ; fo that the clerk of the pell, and the
comptrollers of it, may fee tliat the entries arc true.

I

They alio make fearches for all records in the treafury,
and have the cuftody of Domefday-book.

UNDER-CURRENT. See i7n^^r-CuRRENTs.

UNDERDENGARDE, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Coimbetore ; 40 miles AV. of Ardenelli.

UNDER-DITCHING, in Agriculture, a term applied
in fome diftrifts, as that of the county of Eftex, to fuch
ditches as are formed for the purpofe of taking away the
furface wetnefs of land. In fome places it is called land-
ditching by the farmers. It is laid to be one of the moft
beneficial and permanent modes of improving land that is
not commonly known. It is much praftifed in different
parts of the above county, and with perfeft fuccefs, there
being no fort of hufbandry from which the land derives
greater advantage. So that it is not unufual for the farmer
to extend the praftice over almoft the whole of his land, in
this diftriift. Where this practice is intended, it is firft to
be confidered, whether the foil be fufficiently open and
porous for receiving a benefit adequate to the expence of
performing it, as in very ftrong land this fort of ditching is
not found to anfwer. However, in caies where the wetnefs
can fink in a ready manner to eighteen or twenty inches in
the land, the farmer may fafely draw a furrow from the
higheft to the loweft part of the field, then dig out a fpit of
earth below, and again with a tool three inches wide, con-
trived for the purpofe, work fourteen or fifteen inches
deeper, and with the bent fcraper, for this ufe, take out all
the loofe earth at the bottom ; thus making a narrow
channel along the centre of the furrow, leaving fufficient
fupport on each fide to keep up the materials ufed in filling,
and prevent the replaced earth from faUing into the narrow
opening left for taking off the wetnefs. This fort of ditch-
ing is done at different diftances and depths, as there may be
a neceffity for them, and as the nature of the foil through
which the wetnefs has to pafs into them may be, making
them fo as to empty themfelves into deep ditches at the
bottoms of the fields ; or where the fields are large, forming
one or more leading ditches fufficiently large to receive the
wetnefs from feveral of the fmaller ones, which are fo con-
trived as to fall into them. In order to make thefe ditches
of the moft permanent ufe, they (hould be cut perfeftly
ftraight, and the paffage for the wetnefs be made of an
equal depth throughout, otherwife it will be flopped in the
loweft parts, and occafion the fides to fall in and choak up
the ditch. In cafe the foil be adapted to it, this fort of
work will laft twenty years, but where there are fquails,
with fand or drift gravel, the paffages are liable to choak in
a fhort time. The ploughs, carts, waggons, and other car-
riages, go over thefe ditches without injuring them in the
leaft ; and in park grounds, and old paftures, it is not un-
common merely to turn the fod over the water-channel,
without ufing any other materials ; and the ditches are feen
to work, or dra-u;, as it is termed, as well after running
thirty years, as they did at firft. The improved appear-
ance and better ftate of the land are particularly evi-
dent after this method of ditching has been had recourfe
to, and fufficiently prove its utility and importance in
different cafes. The praftice is more fully explained in
the fecond volume of the Effex Report on Agriculture.
See this work, and SuKFACE-Z)ra(n. See alfo Surface-
Draining.

UNDER-DRAIN and Draining, terms fometimes
employed to fignify that fort of drain, or opening and drain-
ing, which is cut and made to fome confiderable depth in
the earth or foil, and calculated to convey and carry off in-
ternal water and wetnefs, or that proceeding from fprings,
in' contradiftiudion to that of furface-drain and draining.

See

U N D

U N D

See SPMSG-Drain and Snusc-Dralning. See alfo Drain-
INT. of Land.

UNDER-rURROW, a term ufed to figiiify any fort
of operation or thing that is done under the furrow-dice of
the plough which is juft turned down or over, fuch, for in-
ftance, as the putting in certain kinds of grain, feeds, or
other crops, in particular circumftances and lorts of foil or
land, the turning in particular forts of manure, green crops
and other things, and many other procefles of a fimilar
nature.

Under-furkow Sowing, a term applied to that mode
of introducing the feed into the ground, which is per-
formed by depollting it in the bottom of the preceding
furrow of the plough, and turning the next furrow-flice
upon it.

In all cafes of under-furrow fowing, however, great care
is to be taken that the feed be not depofited to too great a
depth in the foil, fo as by excluding it from the aftion of
the oxygene principle of the air, to prevent or retard its
germination and early growth, and thereby incur the rifl< of
its rotting and being deftroyed. The depth of three or four
inches, as the nature of the land may be, is, for the moft
part, fully fufBcient for this fort of fowing. See the next
article.

Under-furuow Sotiiwg- Plough, that fort of plough,
tool, or machine, which is particularly contrived for this
manner of putting feed into the ground. An imple-
ment of this kind was not long ago invented with feven
(hares, fo fet at fuitable diflances, as to correftly execute
the work in that number of furrows at the fame time. It
is conllrutled with a roller fomewliat on the fame principle,
and in the fame manner, as the fowing roller ; which is fup-
pofed to be an admirable mode of communicating motion in
fuch forts of machinery. See So\vi\u-Roller.

A plough of this nature has dill more lately been invented
and conllrufted, whicli is faid to be fimple and convenient, and
to aufwer well in prailice, but of the particular nature of its
conllruftion, or tiie manner of its operating in performing
the work, we are not informed.

A tool of this fort, which would execute the bufinefs
with fufficicnt accuracy, expedition, and cxaftnefs, would
be a matter of groat utility and importaiice to the farmer,
and prevent mucli injury and inconvenience in dilTcrent
relpeits.

UNDERGROWTH, in Rmnl Economy, a term ap-
plied to any furt of young wood of the fmall or brufh kind,
which grows under any kind of trees, or tall plants of the
wood fort. It is a defcription of wood which is conllantly
cut down, in what may be faid to be the feafon or ftage of
youth, fooner or later, as tlie nature of the fort, and the
purpofe for wliieh it is raifcd, may be. See Undkkwood.

UNDERBILL, in Geography, a town of America, in
the ftate of Vermont, and coujity of Cliittendcn, containing
490 inhabitants ; 24 miles N.N.E. of Newhaven.

UNDER-LEAE Ai'I'lk-tkki:, a fort of applctree
which is valuable, as producing good fruit for the purpofe
of cyder. It is faid to be an excellent bearer, and in wliich
the infide of the tree is mofliy full of fruit. Some, liow-
ever, think that the cyder afforded by it, though pleafant,
is inclined to be rather thin and weak. A good tree of this
fort is affertcd to often tarry twenty feam of apples. It is
common in th'' apple-grounds of Gloucellerfliire.

UNDERLETTING Land, in ylgncullure, the prac-
tice of reletting lands or farms, or the letting of them again
by the tenants. It is a matter of much importance to the
public, and to the advancement of hufhandry, that tenants
jjiowld have the power of underletting or afTigning the farms

they may hold, in different circumftances and fitnations.
And it has been remarked, in a late periodical work on
farming, that, by the law of England, leafes are not only
affignable, but tiie proprietor of the land or farm muft, on
the affignment of the leafe, declare his eleftion, whether he
inclines to hold the original leffee bound for his rent, or
trulls to the affignee, as he cannot have both ; and that, on
the whole, a leafe, whether granted for a long or a fhort
term of years, feems to be held there under as ample powers
as the proprietor could have poiTeffed the ground himfelf by,
for the period it has to run. But that in Scotland, from
the prefent interpretation of the laws, by the decifions of
the court of feffion, a leafe or tack of lands there does not
imply a power either to affign, or even to underlet or fub-
fet ; although, in the latter cafe, both the principal leffee
and fubtenant were always underftood to be bound for the
rent to the landlord.

It may be noticed, it is faid, that thefe leafes or tacks,
in general, are, by the commentaries of their lawyers, con-
fidered as unaflignable, from their bcmg fuppofed to imply
an election or choice of the perfon of the tenant by the
landlord ; yet it is admitted, that a life -rent leafe or tack is
afhgnable, which furely, it is thought, implies more of
fuch election or choice than any other. That all leafes or
tacks, too, that are to fubfift for a great length of time,
are alfo affignable, as well as fubfettable ; but that, rather
unfortunately, the length of indurance that is neceffary for
conferring this privilege has not been legally fixed. By a
late decifion, in one cafe, it was found, it is faid, that a
power of fubfetting was implied in a leafe of thirty-eight
years. With due fubmifTion to the opinions of others, how-
ever, there feems, it is contended, to be no folid ground for
any dillinftion, in judging a leafe or tack affignable or un-
affignable, as derived from the length of its duration merely.
It is faid in addition likewife, that, by the feudal law, this
riglit of tleftion or choice was carried fo far, that even an
heir was not permitted to enjoy the leafe or tack of his
father, unlcfs it was fo exprelfed in the leafe-deed. What
an obllacle was tliis to the improvement of the foil ! And
it is all<ed, does not the exchifion of affignees, in leafes or
tacks, flill remain an obflacle of the fame nature ? What
an incentive, on the other hand, would it be to induflry, if
a tenant, who had fucceffivily improved one farm, had it in
his power to afTigu his leafe or tack, and remove to another,
to a new and wider field for exercifing his talents ! Nor
does there feem, it is faid, to be any found reafon why a
tenant, who now-a-days generally buys his leafe or tack, as
the highefl bidder, at a public or private falc, fliould not
have it in his power to fell it again, to avoid lofs, or obtain
profit, to any perfon able to pay the rent, as freely as a
proprietor of lands fells his property, when he finds it does
not fuit liis views. This plan, it is thought, would be much
more reafonable, than that the law (houid force a tenant to
remain in a farm he cannot manage, until he is utterly
mined; as is but too often the cafe. And that, moreover,
if a tenant does become bankrupt, it is hardly to be cxpetU'd
that an adjudger, who enters to his farm from neceflity, and
ii accoiintal)le as a faflor, will do any thing for tlie improve-
ment of it : for it is iield as law, that a leafe or tack, which
bears no power to afligii, may yet be adjudged by a creditor
of the tenant. Expediency may, therefore, in every view,
be llrongly urged in favour of a more unliniiled power in
affigning leafes or tacks in tliat part of the country.

The notion of the right of ele(ftion, or choice of the

tenant by the landlord, leems, it is thought, to have arifeii

from circumflanccs of a tcmjiorary nature, which are now

uo longer of any confec[ucnce : from the rudencfs of the

Z z 2 age,

U N D

U N D

age, landlords then relying more on the fidelity of their
tenants and retainers than on the proteftion of the laws,
from the municipal regulations of the country, which ren-
dered proprietors of the land refponfible for the conduft of
thofe who refided upon their eftatcs ; and alfo from the na-
ture of the prejldt'wns then exigible from tenants, which,
confifting almoil entirely of perfonal fer\'ices, brought them
nearer the (late of menial fervants than that of modern
farmers. Hence it was, it is faid, that a leafe, during thefe
periods, was confidered as a contract JlriB't juris. If given
to a woman, it fell by her fubfequent marriage ; if to a man,
it became void by his death. It was alike incapable of vo-
luntary, as of judicial tranfmiffion. But, for more than a
century part, this contraft having been treated by the
legiflature, and wifely enforced by the judges there, in con-
formity to the fenfe of the country, has, it is afferted, re-
gained much of its original nature. It is no longer the per-
fonal fervices of the tenant, or his peculiar qualifications,
but the rent in money which he can afford to pay, which
a landlord has in view. Accordingly, the court of feflion
there has found, that the principle of law, regarding leafes
or tacks not bearing to affignees, being unadignable without
the confent of the heritor, does not apply to urban tene-
ments, and made decifions in conformity to it. And that
as to fubtacks or leafes, it has been obferved, that there was
not the fame reafon againft fuftaining them as againft fuf-
taining aflignations ; becaufe, by a fubfet or underletting
tliere, tjie principal tenant or tackfman is not changed. On
that principle, the power of granting them feems to have
been ever, until of late, recognifed as implied in a leafe, by
the law of Scotland, as it was by that of the Roman. This
power was, however, queftioned in the years 1686 and
1687. The hrft cafe was that of a leafe or tack of nineteen
years let to a perfon, fecluding his affignees. It was con-
tended, that the exclufion of aflignees implied the exclufion
of fubtcnants, or underletting ; but the court of feflion there
decided that the leafe or tack might be fubfet. And it ad-
hered to the fame judgment, in a fimilar cafe^ decided in the
following year.

It may be noticed, that this implied power in leafes or
tacks, of fubfetting or underletting, appears to have been
underftood to be a fettled principle of law there until lately ;
and that that material point of public policy was not altered
by any a« of the legiflature, but by a decifion of the above
court. It was firft confidered on general grounds, it is
faid, in the cafe of a miffive of a leafe or tack, to endure
nineteen years, which made no mention of aflignees or fub-
tenants, and was found by it neither capable of being af-
figned or fubfet. And there have fince been feveral decifions
to the fame purpofe ; but that as none of them have pro-
bably yet been appealed, and received the judgment of the
houfe of peers, until then it may be underftood that the law
is as interpreted in the above cafes.

Upon the whole, it can hardly be doubted that it would
be more conducive to the improvement of the country, and
its agriculture, if all reftriflions againft afligning and fub-
fetting or underletting were abohlhed and done away with,
than that the free difpofal of property of the farm kind
fliould receive, by implication, additional fetters. The ne-
cefllty and utihty of this muft indeed be evident in a great
many different points of confideration. See Farm, Lease,
and Tack.

UNDER-LOCKS, in Sheep Hujbandry, the locks of
foiled wool which hang under the bellies of the fheep, efpe-
cially about their udders and tails. The operation of re-
moving iuch locks is termed under-locking in mod fheep
diftrifts. See Sheep.

UNDERMINING. See Sap.

UNDER-RUN, To, in Sea Language, is to pafs under,
or examine any part of a cable or other rope, in order to
difcover whether it is damaged or entangled. It is ufual to
under-run the cables in particular harbours, as well to
cleanfe them with brooms and brulhes from any filth, ooze,
fhells, &c. coUefted in the itream, as to examine whether
they have fuftained any injury under the furface of the
water ; as from rocky ground, or by the friftion againft
other cables or anchors.

Under-run a Tackle, To, is to feparate the feveral parts
of which it is compofed, and range them in order, from one
block to the other ; fo that the general effort may not be
interrupted, when it is put in motion. Falconer.

UNDER-SAIL, denotes the fl;ate of a (hip when (he is
loofened from her moorings, and under the government of
her fails and rudder.

UNDER-SHERIFF, Suh-vke-comes. See Sheriff.

UNDER-SHOOT and Sprout, in Agriculture and
Gnrdening, that fort of (hoot or fprout which rifes from the
under-part of a tree or vegetable of any kind. The under-
(hoots of trees and (hrubs are often liable to be weak, and
to want vigour, unlefs they are kept well thinned in their
branches, and, of courfe, to be injurious and unlightly in
the growth of the plants. But in fome field and culinary
vegetables, under-fprouts frequently form a fweet, tender,
and ufeful food. See Shoot and Sprout.

UNDER-SHRUB. See Suffrutex.

UNDER-SITTER, an inmate. See Inmates.

UNDERSTANDING, Intellectus, is defined, by
the Peripatetics, to be a faculty of the reafonable foul, con-
verfant about intelligible things, confidered as intelligible.
They alfo make it twofold ; viz. active and paffive.

Understanding, Adive, IntelieSus Agens, they hold
that faculty of the foul, by which the fpecies and images of
intelligible things are framed, on occafion of the prefencc of
phantafms or appearances thereof. For, maintaining the
intelleft to be immaterial, they hold it impoffible it fliould
be difpofed to think by any difproportionate phantafm.i of
mere body ; and, therefore, that it is obliged to frame other
proportionate fpecies of itfelf ; and hence its denomination
affive.

Understanding, Pajfive, IntelleEtus Patiens, is that
which, receiving the fpecies framed by the aftive under-
ftanding, breaks forth into aftual knowledge.

The moderns fet afide the Peripatetic notion of an aft ive
underftanding. The Cartefians define the underftanding to
be that faculty, by which the mind, converfing with, and,
as it were, intent on itfelf, evidently knows v.hat is true in
any thing not exceeding its capacity.

The Corpufcular philofophers define the underftanding to
be a faculty, expreflive of things which ftrike on the ex-
ternal feiifes, either by their images, or their effefts, and fo
enter the mind. Their great doArine is, Nihil ejfe in inlil-
ledu, quod nan prius fuerit in fenfu ; and to this doftrine our
famous Mr. Locke, and moll of the lateft Englilh philo-
fophers, fubfcribe.

The Cartefians exclaim much againft it ; and between
thefe and the Corpufcularians there is this farther difference,
that the latter make the judgment to belong to the under-
ftanding ; but the former to the will.

Hence, according to the moft approved opinion of the
Corpufcularians, the underftanding has two oflSces, viz,,
perception and judgment ; according to the Cartefians, it has
only one, viz. perception.

Understanding is alfo ufed for the aft, exercife, or
4 exertion.

U N D

U N D

cicrlioii, of thio faculty ; or the aftion by wliich the mind
knows tilings, or reprt-fents them in idea to itfclf.

UNDERSTRATUM, in yl^riadture, a term fignify-
ing much the fame as fubfoil and fiibftratum. It is the bod
or layer of fome fort of material, upon which the furface or
upper foil or mould rails, or is placed. It is of much ufe
in many cafes of land to have an open underftratiim. See
Soil.

UNDERTAKERS were anciently fuch perfons as
were employed by the king's purveyors, and aftcd as their
deputies.

At prefent, the name is chiefly ufed for upholders, or
perfons who furnilh out funerals ; and alfo for fiich as
undertake any great work, as the draining of fens, &c.
Stat. 43 Eliz.

UNDER-TREASURER o/En-/^nr/, Vice -the faurarhs
Anglia, an officer mentioned in ilat. 39 Eliz. c. 7. and
whom feveral other ftatutes confound with treafurer of the
Exchequer.

He chelled up the king's treafure at the end of every
term, and noted the content of money in each cheft, and
faw it carried to the king's treafury in the Tower, for the
cafe of the lord treafurer, &c.

In the vacancy of the lord treafurer's office, he alfo did
every thing in the receipt, that the lord treafurer himfelf
does. See Tkkanurer.

UNDERWALDEN, orUNXERWALDEX, in Geography,
a canton of Switzerland, bounded on the north by Lucern
and Waldfl alter lake, on tiie eaft by mountains which fepa-
rate it from Uri, on the fouth by Bern, and on the wefl by
Lucern. It meafures about eiglit leagues each way, and is
divided into two valleys, Upper and Lower, by a foreft
called " Keniwald," which crofTes the canton from north
to fouth. Thefc valleys are called in German " Unterwald
ob dem Wald," and " Unterwald nid dem Wald ;" that
is, " Underwald over the Forcll," and " Underwald under
the Forelt." Each of them forms a feparate regency. The
canton itfclf is fmall, but abounds in fruit and cattle. The
mountains are covered with ricli pallures, and the fields in
the fertile valleys, in one year, yield feveral advantages : for
in fpring time, when the fnow is off the ground, they are
^ full of cattle ; afterwards, the cattle being driven up the
Alps, the herbage fhoots again in fuch a manner as often to
be mowed twice in the fummcr ; and in autumn, the cattle,
on their return from the Alps, meet again with plenty of
fodder in them, till the fnow fets in a-new. All the lower
parts of the country produce an exuberance of very fine
fruits ; and with wood this canton is fo well provided, that
without any detriment to it, feveral fpots might be alForted
and improved into meadow or arable land. Of wheat it has
little or none, and grows no wine. The Underwalders are
univerfally Roman Catholics, and have ever enjoyed the like
liberties with the people of Un and Schweitz. In conjunc-
tion alfo with them, in the year 1308, they (hook oft" the
Auftrian yoke. Arnold de Melchtal, a native of this
canton, was one of the four heroes who iirtl reared the
Uandard of Swifs liberty ; and in 1315, they entered into a
perpetual alliance with the faid Hates. At the conclufion of
the war with Charles the Bold, Friburgh and Soleure hav-
ing contrafted an alliance with Zuric, Bern, and Lucern,
the treaty was confidered by Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden,
Zug, and Glarus, as a breach of the former union. After
various difputcs and fruitlefs conferences, the deputies of
ihc eight confederate cantons affembled, in 1481, at Stantz,
III order to compromifc the differences. When the deputies
(ailed to effeft a reconciliation, and a civil war appeared to
be inevitable, Nicholas dc Flue, a celebrated faint and

patriot, born at Saxelon in 141 7, quitted the hermitage to
which, in his 50th ye.nr, he had retired, and in his 64th
year, after having travelled during the night, arrived at
Stantz juft at the moment when the deputies were departing.
The conference was renewed by his perfuafion, and all dif-
ferences were adjufted. Among the confederate body, they
are reckoned the fixth ; but among the fix landern or lefler
cantons, the third. The government of this canton is purely
democratical, the landefgemeind being the depofitary of the
whole fupreme power, and in which all males above fixteen
have a right of admittance. As the country, however, con-
fills of two vales, Ws. Oberwald and Underwald, each of
them forming a feparate republic, fo they have both their
own particular landefgemeind and officers ; but in the ge-
neral afl^airs of the thirteen cantons they form only one. Of
ail the people of Switzerland, thofc of Underwald are the
mod honoured and moil loved by the other cantons ; their
courage and love of liberty being joined by a ftrift concord,
and an amiable fimplicity of manners. In the late conteil
with the French, the inhabitants of Schweitz and Under-
walden manifeited a noble fpirit, and an ardent defire of in-
dependence ; and at length fubraittcd with great rejuftance.
(See Schweitz.) Same or Sarneii (which fee) is the
capital burgh of the Upper Vale, or Oberwalden ; and
here the land-rath, as fupreme court of judicature, ailemblcs,
for the purpofe of deciding civil and criminal procefles.
This tribunal is compofed of fifty-eight judges, cliofen by
the people, and continued in office for life. Stantz or
Slanz (which fee) is the capital of the Lower Vale, or
Underwalden, and is the feat of civil and criminal judi-
cature ; and it is worthy of notice, tliat every male, of the
age of thirty years, is permitted to give his vote for the
acquittance or condemnation of a ciiininal. This town is
fituated in a beautiful plain of pafture, about two or three
miles in breadth, at the foot of the Stantzberg, and at a
little diftance from the lake of Lucern. The town and
environs, which are delightfully fprinkled with cottages,
are extremely populous, containing perhaps not lefs than
5000 perfons.

UNDERWICK, a town of Sweden, in HeUlngland ;
30 miles W.S.W. of Hudwickfwall.

UNDERWOOD, in Rural Economy and Planting, a
term applied to fmall coppice, or any fort of low wood that
is not accounted timber. It is moftly ufed for that which
rifes and grows under fome fort of wood of the tree kind,
and which is capable of being ufed for a great variety of
little purpofes, fuch as hoops, faggots, and many others,
as will be feen below.

In'Suffex, where wood is well known to grow remarkably
well, the mode of managing the underwoods is, according
to the Correfted Report on Agriculture for that county,
to cut them at from eleven or twelve to fifteen or fixteen
years' growth ; as, upon favourable well-growing foils,
from eleven to thirteen ; and upon poor grounds, on whicli
wood rifes more imperfc^ttly, from fifteen to eighteen. But
as the age of cutting materially depends upon the qualities
of the foil, and the application of the crop or product?, no
fixed rule can evidently be laid down, other than the .ibovc
ilated general one. The underwoods of fome, as thofe of
the earl of Egremont, arc cut at from twelve to fixteen
years of age, in cafes where the growth confills of oak,
beech, alder, and willow : the underwood is then, it is fald,
the moil valuable part of the converfioii, except in the vi-
cinity of hop-pl.intations, where the poles afford a much
better price ; tut In the cafes where the underwoods abound
with birch, afli, hazel, and willow, of which hoops are
■ dually made, at from ten to twelve years of age. Newly

planted

UNDERWOOD.

planted grounds are always earlier cut ; the (hoots are more
rapid and ftrong.

It is noticed as worthy of remark and deferving of atten-
tion, that underwoods, at twelve or thirteen years' growth,
are as valuable upon fome foils, as they would be, if cut
down or over at a later age, efpecially if they are advan-
tageoufly planted in the neighbourhood of hop-grounds ; as
yoles of that age and fize are equally as good, and anfwer
all the purpofes of larger : as when underwood has exceeded
the fize of poles, its utility, it is faid, is there not otherwife
effentially ferviceable than as it is valuable for fuel. The
younger, therefore, it is cut there, if fit for the market, the
more productive it will turn out, and the fooner the fuc-
ceeding crop will be ready for fale ; for when underwoods
are left too long before they are cut, befides growing flower,
the intereft of the money is loft for which they might have
been fold. The under or fmall wood upon the nioft grow-
ing foils, as the difference that exifts is confiderable in this
refpeft, is worth from eight to ten or eleven pounds the
acre ; but that to gain fuch a produft, the land, it is ob-
ferved, muil be exceedingly kindly for the growth of
wood.

The beech underwoods of the county of Oxford moftiy
confift of trees or plants growing on their own flems, pro-
duced by the faUing of the beech maft ; as very little is there
permitted to grow on the old itools, which are commonly
grubbed up. They are occafionally drawn out, but never
felled all at one time, except in particular inftances of con-
certing the land into tillage, which is lately become more
common. The beech underwood drawn in this manner is
moftiy either fold in long lengths, called poles, or, when
cut fhort in billet lengths, for fuel. It requires confiderable
judgment, it is faid, to thin thefe underwoods in fuch a way
that the prefent ftock may not hang too much over the
young feedlings ; at the fame time, too, in a foutliern af-
peft, an injury may take place, by expofing the foil or
fufface of the land too much to the fun : for it is to be
obferved, that the north fide of a hill will produce a better
growth of beech than the fouth fide ; the very reverfe of
which is the cafe in regard to corn. In beech underwoods
alfo, the fuccefTion of young trees is greatly injured by ad-
mitting fheep or other cattle into them ; and though it is
fuppofed by fome, that fheep do no damage in winter, when
the leaf is off, but find confiderable feed from the grafs and
other plants abounding in fuch underwoods, yet it is the
opinion of others, that the wool which is left hanging on
the young ftocks is prejudicial to their growth, allowing,
what is doubtful, that the flieep do not crop them. Some
improvement might probably be produced by keeping
better fences, efpecially againft commons, where a wide
ditch is often an effential part of the mound ; and alfo by
tranfplanting the young beech from thofe parts of an under-
wood where they are too thick, fo as that they would be
deftroyed, by the ftrongeft overpowering the weakeft, to
thofe places where they may not ftand fufficiently thick,
there being moftiy fpots of both thefe forts to be found in all
underwoods of this kind.

In Cornwall and fome other fouthern counties, the under-
woods are moftiy of the common oak, and are ufually cut
at from twenty to thirty years' growth, feUing at from
twenty to fixty pounds the .acre, the chief profit depending
upon the bark. Some of the wood is converted into poles,
for farm and other purpofes ; but the greateft part is com-
monly charred, for the ufe of the blowing-houfes, and do-
meftic purpofes ; the brufhwood being fold for fuel. Such
are the advantages of this fort of wood for different ufes in
the/e places, that inftances of the grubbing up of under.

woods are very rare. In the felling of underwoods, in thefe
fituations, a great advantage has lately been foimd, in more
attention being paid to the refervation of faplings as ftand-
ards, than was formerly the cafe. The land producin"-
underwood of this kind, in thefe diftrifts, is found to be
more valuable than that in the ftate of tillage, in many
cafes.

In fome of the more northern counties, much advantage
is derived, in different cafes, from underwoods of the afh
kind, when cut at about fourteen years' growth, for va-
rious ufes.

It may be noticed that underwoods, in many fituations,
are greatly neglefted, and managed in a very indifferent
manner ; but they require a good deal of attention in dif-
ferent refpefts, to have them in good perfeftion ; and it is
neceffary, in many cafes, to grub up the old decayed
ftubs at every time of felling the wood, when frefh plants
will come forth of the different kinds, before the next
felling, which will keep the underwood in a perfeft and
proper ftate of cultivation and growth.

The proper foils for the growth of underwood muft ne-
ceffarily vary with the nature of the plants ; but for the oak.
and afh, thofe of a rather ftrong ftift quality are found the
moft fuitable. In Suffex, the former rifcs with aftonifhing
rapidity in a fort of red clay. The chefnut, hazel, and
fome others, require a more light and free foil ; and the
willow, one that inclines to nioifture. But they all allow of
confiderable variety in the qualities of the foils on which
they grow.

Underwoods in many cafes rife naturally from the ftubs
and feeds of the old wood, and they are formed and planted
in different ways, according to circumftances, and the na-
ture of the plants. For raifing chefnut underwood, which
is the beft and moft lafting wood for ftakes, hop-poles, and
fome other ufes, Mr. Forfyth advifes the following method
as the moil advantageous. To prepare the land well by
ploughing or trenching, and fummer-fallowing, planting the
young trees in the quincunx order, in rows tix feet apart,
and at the diftance of fix feet from plant to plant in the
rows. In forming large extents of fuch underwoods, it is
the moft expeditious way to plant after the plough, tread-
ing the mould firmly about the roots of the plants. Bafins
fliould be formed round the plants on the furface, in order
to mulch them, in cafe the firft fummer feafon after put-
ting them in be dry. It may fave time, too, to put the
plants in loofely at firft, in order to keep up with the
plough, returning afterwards to tread the earth about them,
and form the bafins for mulching. When the trees arc be-
come fit for poles, every other one is to be cut down nearly
clofe to the ground, throughout the whole, conilantly cut-
ting them in a Hoping manner, and as near to an eye or bud
as may be. Thofe intended to ftand fhould be left in every
other row, which will leave them twelve feet apart every
way : if the foil be, however, rich and deep, they may be
left twenty-four feet apart. As in many counties, particularly
Hertfordfhire, the underwood is more valuable than the
other ; in that cafe it will be moft judicious, it is faid,
to leave but few ftandards ; in the meantime the under-
wood will amply repay the expence of planting and other
things, as well as the rent of the ground, while at the fame
time a fufficient produce of timber-trees is had upon the
land. In the county of Kent, it is remarked, they com-
monly plant out chefnuts and afh for hop-poles at three
years old, and cut them fourteen years afterwards, wliich
makes in all feventeen years before they are fit to cut ; and
they bring from one guinea and a half to two guineas the
hundred ; but if they were raifed from large itools, it is

faid.

U N D

U N D

luid, properly cut and prepared, tliey would be fit for cut-
ting in k'fs than onc-lhird of tliat time ; and confequcntly
the value of the land be tripled.

In Sullex, it is remarked, that in the newly planted under-
woods of the firft cuttings, which are made at feven or
eight years' growth, the profit is little or nothing : that
in the iecond it is Hill inconliderable ; fo that for fourteen
or fixtecii years the return from young planted underwoods
is but trifling, which is not very encouraging to the planter
of fuch wood : the third is the moft profitaljle cutting,
as the underwood has now reached its ultimate perfeftion :
the fourth often equals the third ; but after this the under-
wood advances no more. The elfeft of the young ftandard-
trees is now viiibly apparent to the prejudice of the under-
wood, which in fixty years, if the trees be left to ftand fo
long, it is faid, is deftroyed.

The application and ufes to which underwood is converted
in the above, and fome other diftrifts, are various ; as poles
.for hop-grounds, bavins, fpray-faggots for lime-kilns,
cord-wood for coaling, and hoops for the ufe of the
coopers, befides affording large fupplies of wood for fuel
and other purpofes of that kind. Afh is fuppofed, of all
the various fpecics of underwood, with the exception per-
haps of alder, to be the mofl profitable ; the fmalleft pieces
being of ufe in fome (liape or other, and fuited to a greater
number of purpofes than mofl other forts. But the point
of view in which this fort of wood is confidered as fo par-
ticularly valuable, is the ufe to which the fliiverers convert it
in quartering it into middlings, long and fliort hoops, as
its value in thefe ways is perfeftly well known. Birch is
rapid in its growth, and pays well on poor moill foils ; but
on all foils, where the alder is in plenty, as it forms the bcft
charcoal for the gunpowder-makers, it is the moft valuable
underwood, being converted to patten poles and powder-
wood. Cutting of the former is paid two fhillings for the
hundred in the above county ; tliey meafure in common
from tliree-fourths to a foot each, and tell for five-pence the
foot. The cutting and ftripping of the powder-wood are
moftly three fhillings and fixpencc the load, which is fold
for twenty-four fliillings.

The value of underwoods, as in the cafe of moft other
produfts, has increafed here, as well as in moft other
places, confiderably in their price of late years. In fome
parts they have doubled their value in twenty years. Va-
rious new demands for them have been created ; fo that
fome think underwood lands are the moft profitable of any
whatever. See Woods.

Undekwoor, Shilling of. See Larceny.

UNDERWRITERS are perfons who fubfcribe their
names to policies of infurancc, and become anfwerable for
the funis annexed, in cafe of lofs or damage of the fhip,
goods, &c. thus infured by them to the owner.

Serjeant MarfliuU obferves, that there are many rcafons
why an agent or broker ought not to be an infurer. He
becomes too much iiitereftcd to fettle with fairnefs the rate
of premiimi, the amount of partial lofTes, Sec. And though
lie ftiould not, himfelf, create any unneceftary delay or
obftacle to the payment of a lofs, he will not be over
anxious to remove tlie doubts of others. Befides, he ought
not, by underwriting the policy, to deprive tiie parties of
his unbiaffed teflimony, in cafe of difpute. For though
there may be no legal objedtion to his competency, as a witnefs
for the other underwriters, it is impoftible that his cnJit
fhould be altogether tree from fufpicion. The principal, in
ftiort, can never place any reliance in one who makes himfelf
an advcrfe parly, and who is, at tlie fame time, above all
others, in a capacity to abufc hia coiifiJcuce.

It has been determined in general, that an underwriter
cannot be a witnefs in an aftion on a policy ; but if the
broker, who effcfts a policy, fubfcribe it himfelf, after the
other underwriters have fubfcribcd it, he may be a witnefs
for the other underwriters, if they rcleafe him from all con-
tribution for cofts, though an aftion be depending againll
him, and he has joined in a bill of equity againil the inuired,
for a difcovery. Marfliall on the Law of Infurance.

UNDETERMINED, in Maihemailcs, is fometimes
ufed for indeterminate.

UNDIMIA, in Surgery, the name of a kind of adc- •
matous tumour, the matter contained in which is glutinous
and ropy, like the white of an egg.

UNDIVIDED, in Botany, applied to leaves, or other
parts of a plant, means that they are not lobed, cloven, or
branched, this term having no reference to the margin of a
leaf, which, when deftitute of all notches or indentations, is
called entire, inttgcrrimus ; the leaf itfelf being either undi-
vided or lobed, as it may happen. The earlier tranflators
of Linnaeus, fuch as Mr. Rofe, rendered folia integra, by
entire, and folia inlegerrinia, by very entire; which, though
eorrcft in language, is not the true meaning, the former
being fynonimous with undivided, and the latter regarding
tlfe margin only.

UNDRET, in Geography, a town of Baglana ; 45 miles
S. of Tolnani.

UNDULAGO, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by
Mr. Lhuyd to a fpecies of fungites found foffile, and ufually
of a fort of undulated figure. See Fuxoir,?:.

UNDULATED Leaf, among Boianifls. See Leaf.

UNDULATION, in ^coupes. Mechanics, Optics, &c.
is nearly fynonimous with Vibration; which fee.

Dr. Young, in the illuflration and eilabhfhmcnt of his
theory of light and colours, ufes the term undulation in
preference to vibration ; becaufe vibration is generally un-
derftood as implying a motion which is continued alternately
backwards and forwards, by a combination of the mo-
mentum of the body with an accelerating force, and which
is naturally more or lefs permanent ; but an undulation is
fuppofed to confifl in a vibratory motion, tranfmitted fuc-
cefiively through different parts of a medium, without any
tendency in each particle to continue its motion, except in
confequenee of the tranfmifliou of fucceeding undulations,
from a diftuift vibrating body ; as, in the air, the vibrations
of a chord produce the undulations conftituting found.

Dr. Young commences the explanation of his theory with
premifing a number of hypothefes, and with fhewing how
far they agree with the fyftem of Newton, and m what re-
fpedls they difl'er from it. He -affumes, I ft, with Newton,
(fee our article jEtiier,) that a luminiferous ether pervades
the univerfe, which is in a high degree rare and claftic.
2dly. Undulations arc excited in this ether, whenever a
body becomes luminous. 3dly. The fenfation of different
colours depends on the diflerent frequency of v.brations,
excited by light in the retina. The three hypothefes above
recited, and which, according to Young, may be called
efTential, are literally parts of the more complicated fyftem
of Newton. 4tlily. All material bodies are to be con-
fidered, with refpedt to the phenomena of light, as confift-
iiig of particles to remote from each other, as to allow the
ethereal medium to pervade them with perfeft freedi m, and
either to retaia it in a ftate of greater deiifity and of equal
elaftieity, or to conflilute, together with the medium, an
aggregate, which may be coi.fid red as denfei, but not more
elallic. Our author next proceeds to unfold and eftabhlb
his theory by a feries of propofilipjis, which our limits will
allow us merely to tranfcribe.

Pitor.

U N D

U N D

Prop. I.
All impulfes are propagated in a homogeneous elaftic
medium with an equable velocity. In different mediums,
the velocity will vary in the fubduplicate ratio of the force
diredlly, and of the denfity inverfely. From the phenomena
of elaftic bodies and of founds it appears, that the undula-
tions may crofs each other without interruption.

Prop. II.

An undulation, conceived to originate from the vibration
of a Tingle particle, muft expand through a homogeneous
medium in a fpherical form, but with different quantities of
motion in different parts.

Prop. III.

A portion of a fpherical undulation, admitted through an
aperture into a quiefcent medium, will proceed to be further
propagated reftilinearly in concentric fuperficies, terminated
laterally by weak and irregular portions of nearly diverging
undulations. This propofition, though the principle of it
is objefted to by Newton, is, according to our author, per-
feftly confiftent with analogy and experiment.

Prop. IV.

When an undulation arrives at a furface which is the
limit of mediums of different deniities, a partial reflection
takes place, proportionate in force to the difference of the
denfities.

Prop. V.

When an undulation is tranfmitted through a furface ter-
minating different mediums, it proceeds in fuch a direftion,
that the fines of the angles of incidence and refradlion are
in the conftant ratio of the velocity of propagation in the
two mediums. The demonftration of this propofition will
prove the equality of the angles of reflexion and incidence.

Prop. VI.

When an undulation falls on the furface of a rarer
medium, fo obliquely that it cannot be regularly refrafted,
it is totally reflefted, at an angle equal to that of its
incidence.

Prop. VII.

If equidiftant undulations be fiippofed to pafs through a
medium, of which the parts are fufceptible of permanent
vibrations, fomewhat (lower than the undulations, their ve-
locity will be fomewhat leflened by their vibratory tendency ;
and in the fame medium, the more, as the undulations are
more frequent.

Prop. VIII.

When two undulations, from different origins, coincide
either perfedlly or very nearly in direfiion, their joint effeft
is a combination of the motions belonging to each.

Prop. IX.

Radiant light confitls in undulations of theluminiferous
ether. For the illuflration and proof of thefe propofitions,
the corollaries deducible from them, as particularly appli-
cable to the colours of ilriated furfaces, thin and thick
plates, and thofe by infleftion, and a reply to the objec-
tions that may be urged againft the author's theory, we
refer to Young's Philofophy, vol. ii. See alfo Phil. Tranf.
for 1800.

UrfDULATIOK, in Phyfics, a kind of tremulous motion
or vibration, obfervable in a hquid ; by which it alternately
rifes and falls, like the waves of the fea ; and hence it is
that the term takes its rife, from xinda, luave. See Wave.

This undulatory motion, if the hquid be fmooth, and at
reft, is propagated in concentric circles, as moft people
have obferved upon throwing a ftone, or other matter, upon
the furface of a ftagnant water, or even upon touching the
furface of the water lightly with the finger, or the like.

The caufe of thefe circular undulations is, that, by
touching the furface with the finger, there is produced a
deprefiion of the water in the place of contaft. By this de-
preffion, the fubjacent parts are moved fuccefllvely out of
their place, and the other adjacent parts thruft upwards,
which, lying fucceffively on the defcending liquid, follow
it ; and thus the parts of the liquid are alternately raifed
and depreffed, and that circularly.

When a ftone is thrown into the liquid, the reciprocal
vibrations are more confpicuous : here the water in the place
of immerfion rifing higher, by means of the impulfe or re-
bound, till it comes to fall again, gives an impulfe to the
adjoining liquid, by which means that is likewife raifed
about the place of the ftone, as about a centre, and forms
the firft undulous circle ; this falling again, gives another
impulfe to the fluid next to it farther from the centre, which
rifes hkewife in a circle ; and thus, fucceffively, greater and
greater circles are produced.

Undulation, in Medicine, the term ufed by fome to
exprefs an uneafy fenfation in the heart, of an undulatory
motion, which may fometimes be perceived externally.

Undulation, or Beat, in Miific, is ufed for that rat-
tling or jarring of founds, which is obferved, chiefly, when
difcordant notes are founded together. See Beats.

The phenomenon is more fully defcribed thus, by Dr.
Smith. In tuning mufical inftruments, cfpecially organs,
it is a known thing, that while a confonance is imperfcdl, it
is not fmooth and uniform, as when perfcft, but interrupted
with very fenfiblc undulations or beats ; which, while the
two founds continue at the fame pitch, fucceed one another
in equal times, and in longer and longer times, while either
of the founds approach gradually to a perfeft confonance
with the other, till at laft the undulations vanifli, and leave
fmooth, uniform confonance. Smith's Harmonics, p. 107.
See Harmonics.

This learned author obferves farther, that quicker undu-
lations are beats, and are remarkably difagreeable in a con-
cert of ftrong, treble voices, when fome of them are out of
tune ; or in a ring of bells ill tuned, the hearer being near
the fteeple ; or in a full organ badly tuned. Nor can the
beft tuning wholly prevent that difagreeable battering of the
ears with a conftant rattling noife of beats, quite different
from all mufical founds, and deftruftive of them, and chiefly
caufed by the compound ftops called the cornet and fefqui-
alter, and by all other loud ftops of a high pitch, when
mixed with the reft. But if we be content with compofi-
tions of unifons and oftaves to the diapafon, whatever be the
quahty of their founds, the beft manner of tuning will render
the noife of their beats inoffenfive, if not imperceptible.

The dodor has with great ingenuity deduced the theory
of thefe undulations from his principles, and has applied his
doftrine to the tuning of inftruments ; by which he has
ftiewn, that a perfon of no ear at all for mufic may foon
learn to tune an organ, according to any propofed tempera-
ment of the fcale, and to any defired degree of exaftnefs,
far beyond what the niceft ear, unaffifted by theory, can
poffibly attain to. This may be done by counting the
number of undulations in a certain time, fuch as fifteen

feconds.

U N G

feconds. See the treatife before cited, prop. xv. p. 215.
a;id the Table, p. 244. plate 20.

From this ingenious theory the learned author has de-
monftrated feveral errors in what monfieur Sauveur has
dehvered concerning thefe undulations or beats. See Har-
monics, Scholium 2. p. 115.

In the fame treatife we find fome curious obfervations
relating to the analogy of audible and vifiblc undulations.
See p. 128. 273.

Undulation is alfo ufed in Surgery, for a motion en-
fuing in the matter contained in an abfcefs, upon fqueezing
it. A tumour is faid to be in a condition for opening,
when one perceives the undulation.

UNDULATORY Motion is applied to a motion in
the air, by which its parts are agitated after the like manner
as waves in the fea ; as is fuppofed to be the cafe when the
rtring of a mufical inftrument is ftruck.

This undulatory motion of the air is fuppofed the matter
or ca\iie oi found ; which fee.

Inftead of the undulatory, fome authors choofe to call this
a vibratory motion.

UNDULATUM Folium, in Botany. See Leaf.

UNDULLEE, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 5
miles S. of Doefa.

UNDY, in Heraldry. See Waved.

UNEDO, in Botany, the name of a fruit, fo called, ac-
cording to Pliny, book 25. chap. 24, becaufe one only was
to be eaten. He gives /Irbutus as a fynonym. The mean-
ing of the above name feems to be, that the fruit in queftion
might, by its beauty, tempt any perfon to eat it once, but
that its infipidity would prevent any further inclination to
tafte it. We have, neverthelefs, found this fruit gratefully
refrefhing and wholefome in our fatiguing botanical excur-
fions in the fouth of France, and have eaten it plentifully.
(See Arbutus Unedo.) This tree, figured in Engl. Bot.
t. 2377, is found about the lake of Killarney, in Ireland, in
a naturahzed, if not a wild, ftate. The Comaron of the
Greeks, mentioned by Pliny, is not this, but /Irbutus An-
drachne ; fee Prodr. Fl. Gnc. v. I. 274.

UNELLI, or Venelli, in Ancient Geography, a people
mentioned by Caefar among other inhabitants of Armorica,
and not belonging to Brittany. Ptolemy defcribcd their
capital under the name of Crociatonum, the pofition of which
is that of Valognes. In the Notitia of the provinces of
Gaul, Civitas Conftantia, from which the appellation of Co-
tentin is derived, was the capital of the canton occupied
by the Unelli.

UNEQUAL, in Botany, applied to a leaf, means that
the two halves, feparated by the mid-rib, ai'e of evidently
different dimenfions, and efpecially that their bafes are not
parallel. Inftances occur in the Elm, (fee Ulmus,) as well
as in the fine exotic genera of Begonia and Eucalyptus. The
fiirface of a leaf or Jlem is termed unequal, when it is rugged,
not even or fmooth, without any reference to the pubefcence.
An unequal corolla has fome fegments, or petals, alternately
fmaller than the others, fo as not to interfere with the regu-
larity of its figure. This may occur in fome fpecies of a
genus only, nor does it ncccfTarily mark a generic difference.
— Stamens are unequal in the clafles Didynamia and Tetrady-
namia, with refpedl to their proportion only.

Unequal Courfes. See Masonrv.

Unequal Hours. See Houn.

UNEVEN Number. See Number.

UNG, in Geography, a river of Hungary, which rifes in
the Crapack mountanis, and runs into the Latoreza, 7

miles N. of Zemplin Alfo, one of two fmall ftreams

which form the river Laubach, in Carniola.

Vol. XXXVII.

U N ^

UNGELD, compounded of the negative m, and gildan,
to pay, in our Ancient Cujloms, a perfon out of the proteAion
of the law ; fo that if he were murdered, no geld, or fine,
was to be paid in the way of compenfation by him that
killed him. See Geld, and ^Estimatio capitis.

Si Frtthman, i. e. homo pads, fugiat et repugnet, et fe nolit
indicare ; ft occidalur, jaceat ungeld, i. e. no pecuniary com-
penfation (hall be made for his death. Skinner.

Ungilda akere, mentioned in Brompton, has much the
fame iignification ; vi%. where any man was killed, attempt-
ing any felony, he was to he in the field unburied, and no
pecuniary compenfation was to be made for his death.

UNGHA, in Geography, a town and caftle on the eail
coaft of Tunis, furrounded by moraffes, but without a har-
bour, or road ; 76 miles S. of Cairoan.

UNGVAR, a town and fort of Hungary, on the Ung.
This town was feized by the malecontents ; but, in 1685,
recovered by the Imperialifts, with count Tekeli's treafure
and jewels ; 22 miles N. of Munckacz.

UNGUENT, Unguentum, Ointment, in Surgery, a to-
pical remedy, or compofition, chiefly ufed in the drefllng of
wounds and ulcers.

Unguents, liniments, and cerates, are external forms, ap-
plied on divers parts of the body, both to cure, and to
eafe and relieve them. They only differ from each other
in their confiftence ; with regard to which, unguents hold
the medium ; being ftifFer than liniments, but fofter than
cerates.

Oils are ordinarily the bafes of all three ; to which are
added wax, axungia, and feveral parts of plants, animals,
and minerals ; both on account of the virtues they furnifti,
and to give a confiftence to the oils, and to Iteep them longer
on the part, that they may have more time to aft.

Many extravagant encomiums have been beftowed on the
efScacy of different preparations of this kind in the cure of
wounds, fores, &c. and yet it is unquellionable, tliat the
moft proper apphcation to a green wound is dry lint. But
though ointments do not heal wounds and fores, they fcrve,
however, to defend them from the external air, and to retain
fuch fubftances as may be necffiary for dr^ang, deterging,
deftroying proud flefh, and fuch purpofes.

We (hall here enumerate and defcribe the principal cerates.

The common cerate of the Lond. Pharm. is formed by
adding four fluid-ounces of olive oil to four ounces of yellow
wax, and mixing them.

For the calamine cerate of the Lond. Ph. fee CEBATin#
epuloticum.

The cerate of impure carbonate of zinc, formerly cerate of
calamine ftone, Edinb. Ph., is compounded of five parts of
fimple cerate, and one part of prepared impure carbonate of
zinc. Thefe cerates, long known \n praftice under the name
of " Turner's cerate," are ufeful dreflings in excoriations
and ulcers ; and as they are in a certain degree deficcative,
they are applied to burns after the inflammation is abated,
and to the eye-hds in ophthalmia tarfi.

Tot cerate of blijlering flies, ceratum Lytti, or ceratum
cantharidis, fee Ceratum. This cerate is intended to pro-
mote a purulent difcharge from a bliftcred furface, and it
generally anfwers this purpofe without much irritation. But
m fome habits it occafions ftrangury, great pain ot tlic part,
fwtUings of the lymphatics, and fuch a degree of general
irritation, as to produce ocdematous fwellings, and crj'fi-
pelas of the neighbouring parts. It is obfcrvcd, that cerates
or ointments for keeping open iffucs are bcft fprcad on lint ;
and that the dreffiogs fliould in all cafes be renewed once in
twenty-four hours.

Cerate of fuperaeetate of lead of the Lond Ph. is prepared
3 A of

UNGUENT.

of two drachms of fuperacetate of lead in powder, two
ounces of white wax, and half a pint of olive oil, by melting
the wax in feven fluid-ounces of the oil, then adding gra-
dually the fuperacetate of lead, feparately rubbed down
with the remaining oil, and ftirring with a wooden fpatula,
until they be thoroughly incorporated. This is an excel-
lent cooling cerate for burns, excoriations, and other in-
flamed fores.

For the compound cerate of lead, fee Ceratum Uthargyri
acclati compofitum. This is a mode of applying lead in the
form of ointment, long known under the name of " Gou-
lard's cerate," and is ufed in the fame cafes as the former
cerate. The name, fays Mr. B. T. Thomfon, is very im-
proper ; and ought to have been ceraium plumbi acetatis, as
the virtue of the compofition altogether depends on the
acetate of lead.

For the mercurial cerate, fee Cebatum mercuriale.

The refm cerate of the Lond. Ph. is formed by mixing a
pound of yellow refm and the fame quantity of yellow wax
together by a flow fire, and then adding a pint of olive oil,
and ftraining the cerate while it is hot through a linen cloth.
See Ceratum rejxmejiavie.

Cerate of fav'ine of Lond. Ph. is obtained by melting two
pounds of prepared lard and half a pound of yellow wax to-
gether, and boiling a pound of the frefli leaves of favine,
bruifed, in the mixture, and then ftraining through a linen
cloth.

The fimple cerate of the Edinb. Ph. is prepared of fix
parts of ohve oil, three parts of white wax, and one part of
fpermaceti.

For the foap cerate, fee Ceratum /a/on/j. The efficacy
of this cerate depends on the acetate of lead, which is
formed in the firft ftage of the procefs ; the foap anfwering
fcarcely any other purpofe than that of giving confiftence
and adhefivenefs. It is occafionally ufed as a cooling
drefling.

For cerate of fpermaceti, fee Ceratvm fpermalis ceti. This
and the fimple cerate are foft cooling dreffings.

Liniments are, in general, more aftive remedies than ce-
rates or ointments ; and aft as local ftimulants, relieving
deep-fcated inflammations and pains. For an account of the
hniments of the Lond. Ph., fee Liniment. See alfo
OxYMEL aruginis.

The ammoniated oil, commonly called volatile liniment of
Edmb. Ph., is prepared by mixing two ounces of olive oil
vnth two drachms of water of ammonia.

The liniment of ammonia of the Dub. Ph. is obtained by
mixing two fluid-drachms of cauftic water of ammonia with
two fluid-ounces of olive oil.

The liniment of lime-ivaier, or oleum lini cum calce, Edinb.
is prepared by mixing equal parts of linieed-oil and lime-
water.

Liniment of lime of Dub. Ph. is formed by mixing lime-
water and olive oil, of each three fluid-ounces. Thefe are
folutions of earthy foap, refulting from the chemical union
of the lime and oil ; and being devoid of acrimony, they
are beneficially applied to burns and fcalds. As the^ foapy
matter feparales from the water when it is kept for fome
time, it is always bcft to prepare this mixture when it is
wanted.

The camphorated oil of the Edinb. Ph. is obtained by mix-
ing two ounces of ohve oil and half an ounce of camphor,
fo as to diflblve the camphor.

The camphorated oil of the Dub. Ph. is had by rubbing
together half an ounce of camphor with two fluid-ounces of
oHve oil. (^ee LiNlMENTUM fawi/iW^. ) Thefe folutions
of camphor in fixed oil are very ufeful embrocations to glan-

dular fwellings, fprains, bruifes, and to joints affefted with
rheumatic pains. The late Mr. Ware recommended it with
the addition of half an ounce of the folution of fubcarbonate
of potafs, to be applied to the eye-bds night and morning,
in incipient amaurofis. The compound hniment of cam-
phor is an ufeful ftimulant application to fprains, bruifes, and
rheumatic pains. It is alfo an excellent vehicle for intro-
ducing opium into the habit by means of friftion. An em-
brobation compofcd of fjjfs of this liniment, and f 3fs of
tinfture, warmed and rubbed over the furface of the abdo-
men, very quickly allays the pains of flatulent colic.

The liniment of foap, or tinfture of foap of the Edinb.
Ph., is prepared by digefting four ounces of foap fliccd in
two pounds of alcohol for three days, then adding two
ounces of camphor, and half an ounce of volatile oil of
rofemary, frequently fliaking the mixture.

Tlie anodyne liniment, or tinfture of foap and opium, is
made in the fame manner, and of the fame ingredients as the
other tinfture of foap, only adding, at the beginning of the
procefs, an ounce of opium.

The principal unguents, or ointments, are enumerated in
the fequel of this article. Pomatums are alfo ranked in the
number of unguents. See Pomatl'M.

In the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia we have the following
general rule for the preparation of unguents, applicable alfo
to cerates : let the fatty matters and the refin be melted by a
gentle heat, and then conftantly ftirred, fprinkhng in the dry
ingredients, if there be any, reduced to very fine powder,
until the mixture, by cooling, becomes firm.

Unguentum acidi nitrofi, ointment of nitrous acid, Edinb.
Ph., is obtained by mixing fix drachms of nitrous acid gra-
dually with one pound of melted hog's-lard, and beating the
mixture afliduoufly as it cools. The Dub. College direfts
a pound of olive oil to be melted in a glafs veflel, and an
ounce by weight of nitrous acid to be added to it ; then
to expofe them to a medium heat in a water-bath for a
quarter of an hour ; then to remove them from the bath,
and to ftir them conftantly with a glafs rod until they become
firm. This ointment is faid to have been invented by Alyon,
who found it ufeful in fyphilitic and herpetic ulcers. It has
been occafionally ufed in this country for the fame purpofes ;
but it is lefs effeftual than the ointment of nitrate of
mercury.

U. album. See U. oxidi plumbi albi, infra.

U. ex arugine. See Verdegrease.

The ointment of fubacetate of copper, formerly ointment of
verdigris, Edinb. is compounded of fifteen parts of refinous
ointment, and one part of fubacetate of copper. The U.
leruginis, or ointment of verdigris of Dub. Ph., is formed by
making one pound of ointment of white wax and half an
ounce of prepared verdigris into an ointment. Thefe oint-
ments are efcharotic and detergent ; they are occafionally
ufed as dreffings to foul, flabby ulcers, and as an apphca-
tion to fcrophulous ulcerations of the tarfi. In the undi-
luted ftate they can fcarcely be ufed, unlefs to aft as a cauf-
tic for taking down fungous flefti.

U. arciti. See Elemi and Linimen'TUM arciti.

U. bajtlicum viride, a form of medicine prefcribed in the
late London Pharmacopeia, and ordered to be made thus :
Take of yellow bafihcon, eight ounces ; oil of olives, three
ounces ; verdigris, in fine powder, one ounce ; mix the
whole into an ointment.

U. bafiiicum flavum, or yellow bafilicon ointment, may be
made by melting yellow wax, white refin, and frankincenfe,
of each a quarter of a pound, over a gentle fire ; and then
adding of hog's-lard prepared, one pound ; ftrain the oint-
ment while warm. This is employed for cleanfing and heal-

Mng

UNGUENT.

ing wounds and ulcers. See Basilicon, Ceratum Re-
Jlnn, and U. refine, &c.

U. calambiare, or epvloticum, commonly called Turner's ce-
rate. See Calamine cerate, fupra, and Ceratum epuloticum.

U- cent Jla-va, ointment of yellow wax of Dub. Ph.,
confifts of a pound of purified yellow wax, and four pounds
of prepared hog's-lard, formed into an ointment.

U. cer<e alia, ointment of white wax of Dub. Ph., is
prepared in the fame manner as the former, with the fublli-
tution of wliite for yellow wax. Thefc are ufeful dredings
to benign ulcers and excoriations.

U. celacei, or fpermaceti ointment of the Lond. Ph., is
prepared by mixing together fix drachms of fpermaceti and
two drachms of white wax, over a flow fire, and ftirring them
continually till they be cold. The U. fpcrmal'u ceti of
the Dub. Ph. is compofed of half a pound of white wax,
a pound of fpermaceti, and three pounds of prepared lard,
mixed into an ointment. Thefe ointments form the ordinary
dreffings for healing bliftered furfaces and excoriations.

U. citrinum is a mercurial ointment. See U. nitrath
hydrargyri fortius, infra.

U. dialthiea. See DlALTH/EA.

U. elemi compofitum, compound ointment of elemi of the
Lond. Ph., is compofed of a pound of elemi, ten ounces
of common turpentine, two pounds of prepared fuet, and
two fluid ounces of olive oil. The elemi is melted with
the fuet ; then removed from the fire, and mixed immediately
with the turpentine and the oil ; and then the mixture is
drained through a linen cloth. The U- elemi of the Dub.
Ph. confifts of a pound of elemi refin, half a pound of white
wax, and four pounds of prepared hog's-lard : thefe are
formed into an ointment, which is to be llrained through
a fieve while it is hot. Thefe ointments are ftimulant and
digeftive : they are ufed to keep open iifues and fetons ;
and as a dreffing to ulcers whicli do not admit of the appli-
cation of the adhefivc {traps.

U. emoUiens, or emollient ointment, may be ma<le by taking
of palm oil, two pounds; of olive oil, a pint and a half;
of yellow wax, half a pound ; and of Venice turpentine,
a quarter of a pound ; melting the wax in the oils over a
gentle fire, then mixing in the turpentine, and flraining the
ointment. This fupplies tlie place of althaea ointment, and
may be ufed for anointing inflamed parts, &c.

U. epifpaflicum. See U. veficaiorium, infra.

U. hydrargyri fortius, or ftrong mercurial ointment of the
Lond. Ph., is prepared by firll rubbing two pounds of pu-
rified mercury with an ounce of prepared fuet, and a fmall
quantity of twenty-three ounces of prepared lard, until the
globules difappcar, and then adding the remainder of the
f.it and mixing. Two drachms of this ointment contain one
drachm of mercury.

U. hydrargyri, or vulgarly, U. caruleum, Edinb., mer-
curial ointment, is compounded of one part of mercury,
one part of mutton fuet, and three parts of hog's-lard ; and
it is formed by rubbing the mercury diligcritly in a mortar
with a little of tlie hog's-lard until the globules difappear,
then adding the remainder of the lard. One drachm of this
ointment contains twelve grains of mercury. It may alfo
be made with double or triple the quantity of mercury.
The Dublin College dircAs equal parts of purified mercury
and prepared hog's-lard to be rubbed together in a marble
or iron mortar, until the globules difappear. One drachm
of this ointment contains thirty grains of mercury.

£/. hydrargyri mitius of the LonJ. and Dub. Ph., milder
mercurial omtment, is prepared by taking of the llrongcr mer-
curial ointment, a pound ; and prepared lard, two pounds ;
and mixing them. One drachm of this ointment conlaiiib

ten grains of mercury' ; but prepared according to the
Dub. Ph., with two parts of lard to one of mercury, one
drachin contains a fcruple of mercury. The preparation
of the ftronger mercurial ointments requires much labour,
care, and patience.

When newly prepared, mercurial ointment has a liaht
grey or blueifli colour, owing to its containing fome unox-
idized metal, which feparates in globules when it is liquefied
by a gentle heat : wlien kept for fome time, the colour is
much deepened, and lefs metallic mercury fubfrdes, owing
to the more complete oxidizement of the metal. It is pro-
bable, therefore, that long kept mercurial ointment contains,
befides the oxyd, a febate of mercury.

The fi;rong mercurial ointment rubbed upon the (kin is
the ordinary mode of introducing a large quantity of oxyd
of mercury into the fyftem. About 5j is rubbed upon the
infide of the thighs, or any other part of the body where
the cuticle is thin, every night and morning until the fyftem
is affefted. The oxyd contained in the ointment is ab-
forbed during the friftion, and carried into the habit ; where
it produces the fame effefts as arife from taking the remedy
by the mouth, without the unpleafant affeftion of the bowels
that very commonly follows the introduflion of preparations
of mercury into the ftomach. In order, however, to pro-
duce the full effeft of the friction, it muft be continued until
every particle of the ointment difappears ; and the operation
(hould be performed by the patient himfelf. The ftronger
mercurial ointment is ufed in this form as an antifyphilitic,
as a deobftruent in hepatic affeftions, and to excite the abforb-
ents in hydrocephalus. The weaker ointment is ufed only
as a topical dreffing in venereal fores. During a courfe of
mercurials the patient (hould be kept in a moderately warm
and dry, but airy chamber ; and his diet (hould be chiefly
weak broths, milk, and gruel.

The following table, extradled from Thomfon's Difpen-
fatory, exhibits the quantity of mercury contained in each
of the dilFerent ointments ordered by the Britifh colleges.

r i_ T 1 fftronsfer oint. contains of mere,
ot the Lond. < ,°

(^weaker oint.

of tlie Edin. common oint.

f ftronger oint.

^weaker oint. ■

of the Dub.

30 grs.

10

12

30
20

U. oxidi hydrargyri cinerei, or ointment of grey oxyd of
mercury, Edinb. is prepared by mixing one part of grey
oxyd of mercury with three parts of hog's-lard.

U. hydrargyri nitratis, or ointment of nitrate of mercury
of the Lond. Ph., is compofed of an ounce of purified mer-
cury, two fluid-ounces of nitric acid, fix ounces of pre-
pared lard, and four fluid-ounces of olive oil ; and ia pre-
pared by firft diflolving the mercury in tlie acid, then
mixing the folution, while it is hot, with the lard and oil
melted together.

U. nilralis hydrargyri fortius, vulgo U. citrinum of Edinb.
Ph., is obtained by diftolving one part of purified mercury
in two parts of nitrous acid ; then beating up the folution
ftrongly with the lard and oil previoufly melted together,
and nearly cold, in a glafs mortar, fo as to form an
ointment.

U. fupernilralis hydrargyri of Dub. Ph. is prepared by
diffolving an ounce of purified mercury in two ounces by
weight of nitrous acid ; then mixing tlie folution vvith the
oil and lard previoufly melted together, and forming an oint-
ment in the fame manner as the ointment of nitrous acid.

U. nitratis hydrargyri mitius, or milder ointment of nitrate

of mercury of Edinb. Ph., is made in the fame manner as llio

ftronger ointment, with a triple proportion of oil and lard.

3 A 2 Thii

UNGUENT.

This ointment it ftimulant and detergent. When moderately-
diluted with lard, it is a local remedy of great efficacy in
herpetic eruptions, tinea capitis, and other cutaneous erup-
tions. The weaker ointment may alnioft be regarded as a
fpecific in pforophthalmia, in the purulent ophthalmia of in-
fants producing eftropium, and in ulcerations of the tarfi.
It is applied by taking a little on the finger, liquefying it
by the fire or the flame of a candle, and applying it along
the inner part of the eye-lids.

U. hydrargyri nitrico-oxidi is obtained by melting together
two ounces of white wax and fix ounces of prepared lard,
then adding to the mixture an ounce of the nitric oxyd of
mercury in very fine powder, and mixing.

I/, oxidi hydrargyri ruiri, ointment of red oxyd of mer-
cury of Edinb. Ph., is compounded of one part of red
oxyd of mercury by nitric acid, and eight parts of hog's-
lard.

U. fulnitratii hydrargyri confiUs of half a pound of
white wax and half an ounce of fubnitrate of mercury,
which are formed into an ointment. Thefe are excellent
ftimulant ointments, well adapted for giving energy to in-
dolent foul ulcers. They are alfo very beneficial in inflam-
mation of the conjunftiva, with a thickening of the inner
membrane of the palpebrae : and to fpecks of the cornea.
They Ihould be applied in the fame manner as the ointment
of nitrate of mercury.

U. hydrargyri prxcipitati alii of Lond. Ph. is formed by
adding a drachm of white precipitate of mercury to an
ounce and a half of prepared lard, previoufly melted by a
gentle heat, and mixing.

U. fuhmuriatis hydrargyri ammoniaii of Dub. Ph. is ob-
tained by forming one pound of ointment of white wax, and
an ounce and half of amraoniated fubmuriate of mercury, into
an ointMient. Thefe ointments are ftimulant and detergent.
They are recommended by fome German authors as a re-
medy for the itch, which may be fafely ufed on infants : but
they have not been employed in this country.

U. ejapanica terra. See Japan Earth.

U. linarie. See Antirrhinum.

U. mercuriale, or mercurial ointment. See U. hydrargyri,
fnpra.

U. infuji meloes vejicatorii, ointment of infufion of blif-
tering flies of Edinb. Ph., is prepared of bhftering flies,
refin, yellow wax, of each one part ; Venice turpentine,
hog's-lard, of each two parts ; and boiling water, four parts;
by macerating the flies in the water for a night, and ftrain-
ing the liquor, ftrongly exprefling it ; then adding the liquor
to the fat, and boiling until the water be evaporated ; after-
wards adding the wax and the refin, and when thefe are
melted, removing the mixture from the fire and adding the
Venice turpentine.

This ointment is fufficiently mild, but does not always
keep open a bliftered furface, fo that it does not anfwer the
purpofe for which it is defigned. The acrimony of the
flies is nearly deftroyed by the heat employed for the eva-
poration of the water.

U. nardinum. See Nardinum unguentum.

U. nutritum is the name of an ointment of lead, made
by grinding two ounces of litharge, and adding alter-
nately, and by little and little, two ounces of vinegar, and
fix of oil. This unguent, though now expunged from our
Difpenfatories, is an excellent application in many cafes.
It {hould not be long kept, but made frefli as wanted.
Lewis. See U . Ji-Uuninum.

U. oculi, or eye-ointment. See U- oxidi zinei impuri, &c.
infra.

U. oxidi plumM alii, vulgo, U. album, ointment of white

oxyd of lead of Edinb. Ph., confifts of five parts of limplc
ointment, and one part of white oxyd of lead.

I/, cervjfa, five fubacelatis plumbi, ointment of cerufTa, or
fubacetate of lead of Dub. Ph., is compounded by forming
a pound of ointment of white, wax and two ounces of cerufla,
reduced to a very fine powder, into an ointment. Thefe are
cooling, deficcative ointments, chiefly employed as drefEngs
for burns.

U. oxidi ainci impuri, olim, U. tuti<e, Edinb., ointment
of impure oxyd of zinc, formerly ointment of tutty, is
compounded of five parts of fimple liniment, and one part
of prepared impure oxyd of zinc.

U. tutia, ointment of tutty of Dub. Ph., is prepared by
forming ten ouncesof ointment of white wax, and two ounces
of prepared tutty, into an ointment. Thefe ointments were
formerly much uftd in ophthalmia tarfi, but they are now
feldom employed.

U. picii arida, pitch ointment of the Lond. Ph., is pre-
pared by melting together pitch, yellow wax, and yellow
refin, of each nine ounces, and a pint of olive oil ; and
ftraining the mixture through a linen cloth.

U. picis liguida, tar ointment of the Lond. Ph., is ob-
tained by melting together tar and prepared fuet, of each
a pound, and ftraining the mixture through a linen cloth.

I/, picis, tar ointment of the Ednib. Ph., is compounded
of five parts of tar, and two parts of yellow wax.

I/, picis liquidtc, tar ointment of Dub. Ph. confifts of tar
and mutton luet, of each half a pound, which are melted to-
gether, and then the mixture is ftrained through a fieve.
The pitch and tar ointments are applicable to the fame pur-
pofes ; being ufed with advantage as detergents in fcabby
foul eruptions and tinea capitis.

U. piperis nigri, ointment of black pepper, is obtained
by formmg a pound of prepared hog's-lard and four ounces
of black pepper in powder, into an ointment.

U. popuUum. See PoPULEUM.

U. pulveris meloes vefuatorii, ohm, U. epijpajlicum fortius ,
ointment of the powder of bliftering flies, tormerly fijong
iflue ointment, confifts of feven parts of refinous ointment,
and one part of powdered bhftering flies.

U. cantharidis, ointment of bliftciing flics of Dub. P*h.,
is compounded of half a pound of ointment of yellow wax,
and one ounce of bliftering flies in powder, formed into an
ointment. Thefe ointments anfwer the purpofe of promot-
ing a purulent difcharge from bliftered furtaces, when the
irritation excited by them, which is fometimes intolerable,
can be endured. The flies ftiould be very finely pulverized,
and very intimately mixed with the ointment.

U. rejin<t albtc, ointment of white refin of Dub. Ph., is
compofed of a pound of yellow wax, two pounds of white
refin, and four pounds of prepared hog's-lavd, which are
made into an ointment, and this is to be ftrained, while it is
hot, through a fieve.

U. rejtnojum, refinous ointment of Edinb. Ph., is
compounded of eight parts of hog's-lard, five parts of
refin, and two parts of yellow wax. (See Ceratum re-
fwit. ) Thefe omtments are ftimulant, digeftive, and cleanf-
ing ; and therefore form an excellent dreffing for foul and
indolent ulcers. See Basilicon.

U. fabirtx, favine ointment of Dr.b. Ph., is obtained
by taking frefti leaves of favine freed from the ftalks and
bruifed, half a pound ; prepared hog's-lard, two pounds;
yellow wax, half a pound ; boiling the leaves with the lard
until they become crifp, then ftraining with expreffion, and
laftly adding the wax, and melting them together. (See
Ceratum ^i;W.) This ointment is very difficult of pre-
paration. The frefti leaves are preferable to thofe that are

dry,

U N G

dry, bccaufe by irjing their acrimony is impaired. When
good, the colour of the ointment is a beautiful deep green,
and its odour is that of the frefh bruifed herb. It fhould
be kept in clofcly covered pots, as it will foon lofe its virtue
by expofure to the air. Savine ointment, which is faid by
Mr. Thomfoii to have been firft d^cribed by Mr. Crow-
ther in his " Obfervations on White Swcllinfr," ferves
for keep-ng up a purulent difcharge from a bliltered fur-
face ; and this it does as effectually and with much lefs ir-
ritation than the ointment of bliftering flies.

U. fambuci, elder ointment of Load. Ph., is formed by
boiling two po\inds of elder flowers in two pounds of pre-
pared lard, until they become crifp, then ftraining the oint-
ment through a linen cloth. The Dublin College direfts
three pounds of frefli elder flowers, four pounds of prepared
hog's-lard, and two pounds of mutton fuet, in the manner
prefcribed for the favine ointment.

Thefe oinlmjnts are fimply emollient, and poflefs no ad-
vantages fuperior to thofe of the fimple ointment.

U. Jatununum. See Compound cerate oj l:ad, fupra.

U. Jtmplex, fimple ointment of Edin. Ph., is formed of
five parts of olive oil and two parts of white wax. This is
an ufeful emollient ointment for foftening the flcin.

U. Jimplex is alfo a name given to llie compofition com-
monly called pomatum ; wliich fee.

U. fubacetilis cupri, ollm, U. dru^inis of the Edinb.
Ph., is formed of fifteen parts of refinous ointment, and one
part of fubacetate of copper. See Verdegrease and

LiVIMEXT.

U. fulphuris, fulphur ointment of the Lond. Ph., is
obtained by mixing three ounces of fublimed fulphur, with
half a pound of prepared lard. The Edinb. Ph. direds to
take of hog's-lard four parts, and one part of fublimed ful-
phur ; and to add to each pound of the ointment, of volatile
oil of lemon or volatile oil of lavender, half a drachm. The
Dub. College orders four pounds of prepared I")g's-lard,
and a pound of fublimed fulphur, to be formed into an
ointment.

Thefe ointments are fpecific in itch. They fhould be
rubbed on the body every night until the difeafc be cured ;
but not more than one-fourth of the body fhould be rubbed
with it at a time.

U. fulphuris compojitum, compound ointment of fulphur
of the Lond. Ph., is a compofition of fublimed fulphur, half
a pound ; white hellebore root in powder, two ounces ; nitrate
of potafs, a drachm ; foft foap, half a pound ; and prepared
lard, a pound atid a half; wliich ingredients are to be mixed.
This ointment is employed like tlie limple one, and in the fame
cafes ; it is fuppofed to derive additional efficacy from the
•white hellebore ; but it often excites too much irritation.

U. Irlpharmiicum, is prepared by boiling and flirring
over a gentle fire four ounces of the common plafter, with
one of vinegar, and two of oil, where a thick unguent is re-
quired ; or four of oil, for a fofter hniment.

U. verairi, ointment of white hellebore of Lond. Ph., is
obtained by mixing two ounces of white hellebore root
powdered, eight ounces of prepared lard, and twenty
minims of oil of lemon.

U. heUebori all'/i, ointment of while hellebore of Dub.
Ph., is compounded of a pound of prepared lard, and three
Ounces of white hellebore root in powder, which are made
into an ointment.

Thefe ointments are fometimes ufed for the cure of pfnra,
when there is an objeftion to the fmell of the fulphur ; but
as remedies, they are lefs certain.

U. ivficatorlum, bliftering ointment. See the appropriate
Articles, fupra.

U N G

U. viride, the green ointment, a form of medicine pre-
fcribed in the late Lond. Ph., and ordered to be made by
melting ten ounces of yellow wax in three pounds of the
oleum viride, or green oil of the fame Pharmacopeia.

U. zinei, zinc ointment of the Lond. Ph., is formed by
mixing an ounce of oxyd of zinc, with fix ounces of pre-
pared lard. See Zinc. Thomfon's Difpenfatory.

UNGUICULI, in Botany, is ufed for the ends of the
petals of rofes, or other flowers, where they adhere to the
plant.

UNGUIN, a name given by the people of Guinea to a
plant, of which tliey are very fond, on account of its
medicinal virtues : they boil it in water, and give the decoc-
tion in large draughts for pains in the back. The leaves of
this plant grow alternately on pedicles of an inch long, and
have the exaft fliape and iize of thofe of the common bav-
tree ; but they have neither its tafle nor fmell, nor any thing
approaching to either. Phil. Tranf. N°232.

U.VGlUN, or Ungar, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the
W. coaft of Alaflika, in the North Pacific ocean ; about 20
miles long, rifing in the interior into lofty mountains, but
near the fea more level, and covered with brufliwood,
producing no vegetable food, except berries, and a root from
which th.- RufTians make the liquor called quals. The ifland
abounds with deer. The fettlemeiit confilts of one Ruflian
and about thirty Indian families, which latter occupied huts
confh u<5lcd of mud, in the form of bee-hives, with a hole at
the top inftead of a door. They have no fire-places, but
warm themfelves by means of lamps made out of flat hollow
ftones, with rufh wicks, which they placed under their
frocks. This ifland is feparated from the main land by a
ftrait nearly ten miles wide at high water.

UNGUIS, a Latin term, fignifying a nail of the hand or
foot.

U.s'GUl.s, in Botany, the claw, is the elongated bafe of a
petal, confpicuous in the Pink, Dianlhus, and in the Wall-
flower and Stock, Cheiranthus, being diftinguiflicd by its
taper form, and pale colour, from the border, lamina, which
it fupports. The claws of petals arc, for the mod part,
inclofed in the perianth of the flower, though not
invariably.

Un'gui.s Cati, Cat's-claw, the nameof a fpefies o{ Mimo/a,
Linn. Sp. PI. 1499, alluding to its fliarp liooked thorns.

Unguis Ofa, in Anatomy, a fmall bone on each fide of the
head, fituated in the inner corner of the eye. See Cra-
nium.

Unguis, in Surgery, an abfcefs of the cornea, or of the
anterior chamber of the eye, fhaped like a nail.

Unguis, in Natural Htjlory, a name given by authors to
a genus of fhells, more ufually called yb/tn.

Unguis Odoratus, in the Materia Medica, a thin, flat,
teftaceous tub fiance, of an oval or oblong figure, rounded at
both ends, and marked on the furface with three or four
concentric circles, or oval lines. Its colour is a dufky
brown, with fome mixture of the orange, fometimes of a
purplifli tinge. Its ufual fi/.e is that of a full grown nail
of a man's thumb ; and its thicknefs rather lefs than that of
the nail. It is tough, flexile, and elallic ; and has no pecu-
liar fmell or talle.

The want of Imell might fecm to argue this to be a dif-
ferent fubdance from the unguis odoratus of llie ancients,
but the truth is, that their's owed all its fweet flavour to its
being brought over among aromatic drugs.

There were two kinds of it, the !art;ell of which they
had from the Red fea, and the other from Babylon ; and
both were the opercula of two fpecies of murcx fliells.

Diofcorides tells us, that this ungu'u was the operculum
II or

U N G

U N G

or poma of the (hell, which ftopped the mouth at pleafure,
and from under which the creature thruft out its tongue to
feed ; and he adds, that the fliell-fifh to which it belonged
was taken in the marfhes of India, when the waters were
dried away ; and that the Indian fpikenard growing in great
abundance in thefe marfhes, the creature became fweet-
fcented in every part, by feeding on it. However, he con-
cludes with telling us, that there were only two kinds
brought into Greece in his time, the one from the Red fea,
the other from Babylon.

The truth is, that fpikenard grows neither in the Red
fea, nor any where about Babylon, but only in India, be-
yond the Ganges, or about its banks. The fpikenard alfo
does not grow in the water, but only in marfhy places, and
therefore can never be in the way of feeding fhell-fi(h.
Avicenna, perceiving the abfurdity and contradiftion of
Diofcorides's account, fays that the (hell-fi(h was found in
an ifland in the Indies, on which iflaiid the fpikenard alfo
grew in great abundance. But this account fuppofes that
the fliell-tifh, to which the unguis odoratus belongs, may be
found on dry land ; whereas it is certain, that no (hell-fi(h,
living in the water, can fubfift without fome means of
clofing up its cavity, fo as to keep out the water at plea-
fure ; this is done in the bivalve kinds, by clofing the two
valves ; but in the ftromboide ones, by drawing down this
operculum, which is the unguis odoratus, to the mouth of
the (hell. A land-(hell, therefore, can have no occafion for
fuch a part as the poma or operculum, and no fuch drug as
the unguis odoratus can be found about it. But it is to be
obferved, that Avicenna did not know that the unguis
odoratus was a covering or operculum of the mouth of a
(hell, but thought that it was only a fragment cut or broken
indeterminately from any part of the (hell. This therefore
might appear no abfurdity to him ; and the thin and flat
ungues he faw mis^ht appear fragments artificially cut from
fome of the thin-(lielled kind of land-fnails. See Blatta
Byzantma.

UNGULA, in Geometry, is the feSion of a cylinder, cut
off by a plane paiTing obliquely through the plane of the
bafe, and part of the cylindric furface.

Or, more generally, an ungula, or hoof, is a part cut
off a folid by a plane oblique to the bafe. — To find the
curve furface of the ungula D E A G D of a cylinder
(Plate XY. Geometry, Jg. 19.) put h = the height AD,
■v = the verfed fine of A E, J — the diameter A B, a =
the arc E A G of the bafe, s = the right fine F G, and

I K = — X (> ~ f ) ; and hence the fluxion of the fur-

c = the cofine of the half arc ; then

X A is the

V

face, or z X I K, is
c z)

X {yi

cz) = — X

01

h

cz) =. (when

convex furface : /'. e. from the produft of the diameter and
fine, fubtraft the produft of the arc and cofine, and multi-
ply the difference by the height, and divide by the verfed
fine.

Note I . — When F is the centre of the bafe, then i; = j
=: ^ (/, and c =z o ; in which cafe the theorem becomes dh,
viz. the produil of the diameter and height equal to the
curve furface.

Note 2. — When A F exceeds ^ A B, then a c muft be
added.

For the demonftration of this theorem, draw H I, I K
parallel to F A and A D refpeftively, and join the points
H, K ; fince it is evident that the furface is generated by
the motion of I K along the arc A I G, K I x the fluxion
of I A will be the fluxion of the furface. Therefore put
2 := A I, » ::=z its fine I L, and y = its cofine ; then H I
■^ y — c ; and, by fimilar triangles, FA : AD : : HI

the fluent of which is =: — x [\dK

1}

A I = A G ) — X {\ds — \ac); the double of which is

ds — ac) = the whole convex furface DEAGD
1 . — If F be the centre ; then v = s = ^ d, and

V

Cor.

c := o ; and then the theorem becomes barely dh ■=■ \ times
the triangle FDA.

Cor. 2. — When A F exceeds \d, f is negative, and then

— ac becomes -\- ac.

Cor. 3. — If F coincide with B ; then j = o, and c =

— \-v ; and the theorem becomes \ah ^ the furface of the
half cyhnder.

Example I. — Let the diameter A B (^) be 100, the height

Then

!</

AD (/>) 140, and the verfed fine A F [i;) 10.

— 1) — 50 — lO = 40 = ir; and ^' \dd — cc = '>/ i^oo — l6oo

= "k^ 900 = 30 =

^"^P =

.6 is the fine

reduced to the radius I, to which, in a table of fines, belong
36' 52.268' — 36.87113 degrees. Then by the rule given
under Arc of a Circle, tlie length of the arc a wiU be
.01745329 X 36.87113 X too = 64.352252. Whence

ds — ac , , „,

X b= (3000 — 2574.09008) X 14 = 425.90992

X 14 = 5962.73888 = the convex furface required.

Ex. 2. — If the diameter and height be 1 00 and 140, as
before, ahd the feftion be made through the centre of the
bafe, or 11 = -1 (/ = 50 ; what is the convex furface ?

Here, by note i, dh = 100 x 140 = 14000 = the con-
vex furface required.

Ex. 3. — Suppofing d and h Hill the fame, and 1; = go;
to find the convex furface.

Here i</— •i; = 50— 90 = — 40 = *:, j = 30, the fame
as before, but it is here the fine of the fupplemental arc,
which therefore is 180 — 36.87113 = 143.12887 degrees.
Hence .01745329 x 143.12887 x 100 = 249.807013 =
the arc a. Or, the arc may be fooncr found by only fub-
trafting the arc in the firft example, rra. 64.352252, from
314.159265, the whole circumference.

Then, by note 2,

ds + ac

h = V ( 3000 + 9992.28052 )

= V X 12992.28052 — 20210.21414, the convex furface
required.

To Jind the Solidity of ihe Hoof of a Cylinder. — From -J
of the cube of the right fine, fubtraft the produft of the
bafe and cofine of half the arc of the bafe ; then multiply
the difference by the height, and divide by the verfed fine,
the quotient will be the fohdity required. That is, putting,
as before, h = the height A D, "u — the verfed fine A F,
s — the right fine F G, <r = the cofine = 5 A B — A F,

's^ — be
b = the bafe or area of the feg. G A E G ; then ^

X /6 = the folidity.

Note I. — If F be the centre, that is, if the bafe be equal
to the femicircle, then u = j, and r =: o ; and therefore
^ h s 1 = i d d h n ihe fohdity in that cafe.

Note

U N G

Note 2. — If V exceed \ J, tliat is, if llie bafc exceed the
femicircle, then c is negative, and b c mull be added.

This theorem may be demonftrated in the following man-
ner. The fluxion of the folid is =: the A H I K drawn
into the fluxion of L I, which fluxion will, therefore, be

XX — X H I • ( ufmg the fame charafters as in the de-

monftration of the lafl; problem) =: — x [y — cV =■ — X

2<V 2V

h

2cy + cc) = — X

2V

(■5 J J — .\- .V — 2 c y -\- c c) =.

X {^dd— XX — dc + 2cx A L

^ hx
cc) = — X
2V

( J J- — XX-

he

hx

2c X FL); whofe fluent, — x {ss — i;xx)
2 V

X area F A I H, when I coincides with G, is — x

V 2-V

(tJ'' — ic), the double of which

iis^-lc)

the content of tlie folid D E A G D required.

Cor. I. — If F fall in the centre of the bafe, then r rr o,
and J = 1) z= i ^, and the rule will be ^ ddh.

Cor. 2. — If A F exceed ¥ B, c wiU be negative, and then
— ic will bfcome + lie.

Cor. 3. — If F fall in B, s = O, and c = —

and

then the theorem becomes ^bh ^ half the cylinder.

Ex. I. — If the diameter A B be 50, the height AD
120, and the vcrfed fine A F lo ; what is the folidity of
the hoof?

Or, fuppofnig a cylindric vefTel A BCD, containing a
fluid, to be placed in fuch a pofition that the furface of the
fluid, difpofing itfelf parallel to the horizon, may cut the
bafc in G E, leaving 40 inches of the diameter dry, and
the fide of the cylinder in D, 120 inches dill ant from the
bafe ; to find how many ale gallons are in it, the diameter
of the bafe being 50 inches.

Here i = 120, d — 50, and v = 10. Then ^d — v

and \' \dd — c c = V 2^"- — 15'

= 25

15

•^40 X lo = 20 =

And, to find the bafe by the table of fegments, — t- =

d

4S = .2 ; this being found in the column of verfed fines,

oppofite to it is the area .1118238: hence 50 x 50 x

.1118238 = 279.5595 = ^ is the fegment or bafe.

T'L ' i' — b c

Ihen 6=12 X (J X 8000— 15 X 279-5595)

= '2 X (5333 ; - 4193.3925) = 12 X 1 139.9408 =
13679.2896 = the folidity in inches; which, divided by
282, the inches in a gallon, give 48.50939 ale gallons for
the content.

Ex. 2 — Suppofe the cylinder fo placed, that the furface
of the liqucr may biftft the bafe, and rife up the iidc to the
fame diftance of 120 inches from the bafe: to find the
content.

Here, by note I, we have iddh = 50 x 50 X 20 =
50000 folid inches = 177.3049645 gallons, for the content
in this cafe.

Ex. 3 — Suppofe, now, the fame vcfftl fo placed, as that
the furface of the liquor may leave only 10 inches of the
diameter dry, dill rifing to the fame diftancc of 1 20 inches
along the fide ; to find the content.
9

U N I

Here the part of the cylinder's bafe left dry, is equal to
the bafe in the firll example, viz. 279.5595, "'I'lch, there-
fore, taken from 50 x 50 x .78539816= 1963.4954, the
whole circle, leaves 1683. 9359 = b, the bafe of the ungula
in this example.

Now v — 40, c = — 15, and s — 20.

Whence /. = ( 5 x 8coo + 25259.0385) v."

= 30592-3718 X 3 = 917-7.1154 folid inches = 325.45076
gallons, the content in this cafe.

For the method of finding the folidity of the unguis or
hoofs of other fohds, we mull refer to Hutton's Menfura-
tion, part iii. § 1.

Ungula, in Natural Hijlory, the claw, or hoof, of a
quadruped.

Ungula Aids, the elk's claw. See Elk.

Ungula, a technical name formerly applied to an abfcefs
of the cornea, when the difeafe was fancied to referable a
hoof in its fhape.

Ungula, or Hamus, among Surgeons, a fort of hooked
inftrument, with which to extraft a dead fcetus out of the
womb.

UNGULUS, in Antiquity, ?L remarkable kind of bracelet.

UNHACA, in Geography, a fmall ifland m the Indian
fea, at the entrance of the bay of Lorenzo Marques. N.
lat. 26° 5'.

UNH ALTER, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to
unhalter himfelf that turns off his halter.

UNHOST, or AuNHOST, in Geography, a town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan ; 8 miles S. of Schlan. N.
lat. 50° 6'. E. long. 14° 15'.

UNIA, a fmall ifland in the Adriatic, W. of Ofero.
N. lat. 44° 52'. E. long. 14° 26'.

UNIAK, or Unimak. See Oonemak.

UNIA R A, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Rantampour ; 18 miles S. of Rantampour.

UNICORN, in AJlronomy. See MoNOCEROS.

Unicorn, in Geography, a poit-town of Pennfylvania, in
Lancafter county ; 124 miles from Wafliington.

Unicorn, in Natural Hijlory, an animal famous among
the Greek authors, under the name of j/ovoxs^i'; ; and among
the Latins, under that of unicorn.

Both thefe names it takes from its diftinguifliing charac-
terillic, the having one horn only. Sec RHlNOCEnos.

The firll author who wrote of the unicorn, wa8 one
Ctcfius, whom Ariftolle mentions as a very fufpicious
author. vElian fpcaks of it in very doubtful terms. The
other writers on the fubjeft are Philoftratus and Solinus ;
iEueas Sylvius, who is pope Pius II ; Marcus Paulus,
Aleofius, Gefiier, Garcias ab Orta, And. Marinus, &c.
Of thefe, fome fay it refenibles a horfe, others an afs, others
a goat, by its beard ; others an elephant, others a rhino-
ceros, others a greyhound, &c.

Munfter and Thcvet will have it an amphibious animal,
and its horn to be moveable at pleafure. Others make -•dl
its (Irength to confift in its horn ; and add, that whea
purfued by the hunters, it precipitates itfelf from the lops
of the highell rocks, and pitches upon its horn ; which fuf-
tains the whole effort of its f.ill, fo that it receives no
damage thereby. In reality, the feveral authors do all give
different accounts of the figure and colour, both of the
animal and of its horn, and all its parts. And hence many
.tmoiig the moderns have fuppofed it to be a merely fabulous
animal.

The legend adds, that it is wonderfully fond of challe
perfonsj and therefore, iu order to tike it, a virgin is placed

U N 1

U N.I

in its way ; whom when the unicorn fpies, he lies down by
her, and lays his head on her lap, and foon falls aOeep ; upon
which the virgin makes a fignal, the hunters come in, and
take the beaft ; which could never be caught any other
way, becaufe it would either caft itfelf headlong from the
rock, or die. For an account of the animal to which the
appellation of the unicorn has been applied, fee Rhino-
ceros.

What ordinarily pafTes among us for unicorn's horn, and
ie (hewn for fuch in the coUeftion of curiofities, and ufed
for fuch by feveral phyficians, we are allured by Pereyra,
in his account of Greenland, &c. is the tooth of a large fifh
of the whale kind, called by the idanders narwal ; frequent
enough in the icy fea. The tooth or horn, turned, chan-
nelled, and terminating in a point, as it is, fprings out of the
middle of the fore-part of the upper iaw, where it has a root
a foot long, as thick as the horn itfelf : it is the only tooth
the animal has in the upper jaw, and ferves it as a weapon of
defence, with which it dares to attack the largeft whale.
There is a fine horn of this kind preferved in the repofitory
of ^t. Denis at Paris, given by And. Thevet, and pretended
to have been a prefent to him from the king of Monomo-
tapa, who carried him to hunt the unicorn ; which is fre-
quent in that country : this horn fome have fufpefted to be
an elephant's tooth, carved in that manner. At Strafburgh
there is another between feven and eight fe?t long. In the
repofitory at Venice there is a good number ; all different
from each other.

The ancients held the unicorn's horn to be a counter-
poifon ; and that the animal ufed to dip it in the water, to
purify and fweeten it, ere it would drink : it is added, that
for the fame reafon other beafts wait to fee this creature
drink before them. Thence, as alfo from the rarity of the
thing, people have taken occafion to attribute divers medi-
cinal virtues to it.

But Amb. Pare has proved it a mere piece of charleta-
nery, and all the virtues attributed to it to be falfe ; and
yet the price it has borne is almofl: incredible. Andrea
Racci, a phyfician of Florence, affirms the pound of fixteen
Qunces to have been at one time fold, in the apothecaries'
(hops, for fifteen hundred and thirty-fix crowns, when the
fame weight of gold was only worth one hundred and
forty-eight crowns. See Rhinoceros.

The unicorn is one of the fupporters of the arms of Eng-
land. This beaft is reprefented, by heralds, paffant, and
fometimes rampant. When in this laft aftion, as in the
Englifh arms, it is properly faid to he fail/ant. Argent, an
unicorn fejant fable, armed and unguled, or, borne by the
name of Harding.

Unicorn, Sea, the name of a fifh of the whale kind,
called alfo narhual, or narwal, remarkable for having a horn
growing out at its nofe, in the manner of the fuppofed
unicorn's horn, as defcribed by many too credulous authors.
It is the only fpecies of monodon in the Linnxan fyftem.

This fifh feeds on flefh, or other fifh, and is not only found
in the main fea, but fometimes gets up into large rivers.
In the year 1736 there was a large one caught in the river
Ofte, near its difcharging itfelf into the Elbe, in the duchy
of Bremen ; this place is four German miles from the fea.
The fkin of this fifh was fpotted with dark-brown fpots
upon a white ground ; the epidermis was tranfparent ; and
under it was another lliin very thin and fpotted ; but the
true (kin was brown, and near an inch in thicknefs. On
the top of the head there is only a femi-lunar hole, as in
the porpoifes ; this hole opens into the two channels,
which run through the /kull to the palate, and are called
the duftus hydragogi. The people who examined this

creature were not able to find any aperture in the body
for tlie difcharge of the excrements ; whence it has been
generally believed, that the creature voids them through
t.iis paffage in the head.

Authors have differed in the name of the procefs iffuing
from the head ; fome calling it a horn, others a tooth ;
fome are of opinion that it ferves to break the ice for air ;
but oihers pretend that it is an offenfive weapon, with
which it wounds the common whale, and otlier large fifh ;
and that when it has plunged it up to the head in the
whale's body, it fucks the juices of that animal.

The fifh was near twenty feet long, and about four feet
in diameter. The horn ftood on the fore-part of the head,
jufl above the mouth, and was fix feet long, white like
ivory, and curioufly wreathed or twilled. The body was
fmooth and flippery, like that of an eel ; the head, in pro-
portion to the body, was fmall, not exceeding fixteen inches
in length, and the fame in diameter ; the eyes not larger
than a fixpence. It had, on each fide of the neck, two
black fins, one above another at a fmall dillance ; thefe
were two feet long, of the breadth of a hand, and about
half an inch in thicknefs. See the account of this filh by
Dr. Stcigertahl, and Dr. Hampe, in Phil. Tranf. N°447.
p. 197, and p. 149. or Abr. vol. ix. p. 71, &c.

This unicorn's horn has been fo common in the Danifli
and neighbouring feas, that there was a magnificent throne
built only of them in that kingdom ; the horns are from ten
to fifteen feet in length, and are all white, and furrowed
with a fpiral line.

Unicorn's hern has the fame medicinal virtues with hart's
horn and ivory ; but at prefent is only kept as an ornament
in druggifts' fhops.

Unicorn, Sea, is alfo a name given to two forts of fmall
fifh caught in the American feas, and known among authors
under the name of Monoceros pifcis.

Unicornu Fojftle, Foffile Unicorn's Horn, the name of a
fubflance much uled in medicine in fome parts of the world,
but which feems to have been verv little underftood by
many who have written of it. Dr. Hill, from the examin-
ation of the feveral varieties of fhapes it is found in, and
trying it by the feveral tefts which fix the criterions of
folfils, has determined it to be no other than a terrene cruf-
taceous fpar, not very different from the ofteocolla, and
other bodies of that genus, which he has called the cibdelo-
placia ; and has diftinguilhed this peculiar fpecies by the
name cibdeloplacium alLido-fubcinereum, friabile, fuperjicie /irvi,
or the whitifh-grey friable cruftaceous fpar, with a fmooth
furface.

It differs principally from the ofteocolla in its foftnefs,
and the fmoothnefs of its furface ; but from its having,
like many other of the cruftaceous terrene fpars, the pro-
perty of encrufting, and fometimes even permeating the
pores of bodies, and in a manner petrifying them, it has
obtained the names of the things it thus lodges itfelf in
and about, which being ufually bone, and fome of them
bones of an extraordinary fize and figure, have been taken
for the bones and horns of unicorns ; and the name and
nature of the body itfelf wholly loft and neglefted, and that
of the horn, y/iih that of its imaginary animal, only pre-
ferved.

They are, however, now fenfible in Germany, that it is
not the horn, but this fubftance, which is lodged about it,
which is the medicine ; for they never ufe the foffile bones
which are petrified in the common way, but only fuch as are
impregnated with this fparry fubftance ; and even ufe all
fubftances whatever, which are impregnated with this,
whether bones or wood, under the fame name, calling the

natural

U N I

U N I

nntural tubular pieces of it, which are very common, and
alfo the pieces of branches of tj-ces impregnated with it,
by tlie common name of unicorn's horn, tvhil^; they allow
plain bones, petrified in the common way, no fuch name.
So that the word is now become a mere technical term, and
fignifies cither this fpar in its pure ftate, or arty fubllance
whatever which is impregnated with it.

It is a lax and fpongy terrene fpar, and is naturally of a
regular form, in fome degree like that of the ofleocoUa,
being always found, where it has concreted pure, and not
been in the way of any extraneous fubftance, an oblong
and moderately thick, cylindric, tubular body, frequently
narrower at one end than the other, and approaching to a
conic form. Ufually its hollow is empty, but fometimes
it is found filled up with a fubftance of the fame nature
with itfelf, only compofed of a larger proportion of earth
with lefs fpar, and therefore more crumbly and foft. Thefe
are found of various fizes, from an inch to three feet long.
The larger fpecimens are nioft frequent ; and it is very
probable, that the ignorance of the firft ages, vi'hich brought
it into ufe in medicme, might take thefe natural concretions
for unicorns' horns.

It is found in other parts of the world befides Germany,
and is in great efteem in many places as a fudorific and
ailringent ; and is given in fevers, attended with diarrhoeas,
with great fuccefs. Hill.

Dr. Ebreiis, in his Natural Hiftory of Hartz Foreft, in
Germany, gives a particular account of tkis foffile. He
fays that it is dug up of different fhapes ; fometimes like a
ftraight horn, ilcull, jaw-bone, (houlder-blade, back-bone,
rib, tooth, thigh-bones, or other bones of men and beafts ;
and fometimes like an unfhaped lump or mafs of ftoue,
having no refcmblance to bone. Conriglus, and Otto
Guerick, have maintained that this foflile is petrified bone ;
others, as Sennertus, Sclira;der, Baufchius, &c. not being
able to comprehend how bones of fuch fize and in fuch
quantities fhould be colledled together, and diffatisfied with
the account given by naluralifts of the manner of their
petrifaftion, reckon it among the minerals. Some think,
with Labavius, that it is a bituminous earth ; others fay
that it is a kind of agate ; but Dr. Ebrens apprehends,
that it is formed of a clayey or fattilh earth, called
marga or marie, common in that country, hardened by petri-
fying water, and alFuming different fhapes and fizes, accord-
ing to the (ituation in which this cartli lies under ground.
It is commonly of a light grey, black, or yellowifh colour,
and feldom perfeAly white ; fometimes it is as hard as a
ftone, and fometimes foft as clay, and hardens by being
fxpofcd to the air. It lias commonly neither fmell nor
taUe ; though in fome cafes it has been found with a fceiit
like that of quinces, which Dr. Ebrens afcribes to a bitu-
minous fubftance mixed with the petrifying water. The
wliiteft and melloweft is reckoned the bell for medical pur-
pofes. It operates, he fays, like the terra figillata, abforb-
ing, aftringing, and promoting perfpiration ; and is one of
the ingredients ot the bezoaidic powder, defcribed by Ludo-
▼ici in his " Pharmacopoeia Moderno fxculo applicanda,"
and produces a very good effcft, unlcfs a fymptomatic cof-
tivcnefs forbids the ufe of it. Externally It ferves in puf-
tulary eruptions and erofions about the pudendum and fun-
dament in cliildrcn, and in eye-waters. Hoflman advifcs
people to try the foflile unicorn firft upon a dog, before
it is ufcd in medicine; bccaufc he thinks it is fometimes
of a poifonous nature, but this is never obferved in any
foflile of this kind found in or near Hartz Foreft.

UNICZOW, or Maiuu-ju NiiUSTADT, in Ciography,
Vol. XXXVll.

a tov/n of Moi-ana, in the circle of Olmutz ; 12 miles
N.N.W. <.f Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 42'. E. long. 17".

UNIEGOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 18
miles S.W. of Lenczicz.

UNIEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 40
miles E. of Samfoum.

UNIEJOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 15 miles
N.N.E. of Siradia.

UNI ENOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 20
miles E.S.E. of Kalifch.

UNIFOLIUM, in Botany, Dill. Nov. Gen. 138. t. 7,
is fo called, not becaufe it bears a fingle leaf only, which
is not the cafe, but becaufe it fprings out of the ground
with a folitary leaf, and is fome timt before it acquires more.
The plant in queftion is Convallarta HfoUa of Linnseus,
whofc flowers are four-cleft, or rather have four petals and
four ftamens only.

UNIFORM, Unifokmis, denotes a thing to be fimilar,
or confiftent either with another thing, or with itfelf, in
rcfpeft of figure, ftrufturc, proportion, and the like. In
which fenfe it ftands oppofed to diffbrm.

Uniform, in a Military Saife, fignifies the ornamental
parts of a foldier's drefs, by which one regiment is diftin-
guiftied from another. Sec Regimentals.

Uniform or Equable Motion. See Motion.

Uniform Floivers of Plants. See Polypetalous Flatuers.

Uniform Matter, in Natural Philofophy, that which is all
of the fame kind and texture.

Uniform Temperament. See Temperament.

UNIFORMITY, Regularity, a fimilitude or refcm-
blance between the parts of a whole. Such is that we meet
with in figures of many fides, and angles refpeftively equal,
and anfwerable to each other.

A late ingenious author makes beauty to confift in uni-
formity, joined or combined with variety.

Where the uniformity is equal in two objefls, the beauty,
he contends, is as the variety ; and where the variety is
equal, the beauty is as the uniformity. See Beauty.

Uniformity is particularly ufed for one and the fame
form of public prayers, and adminiftration of facramcnts,
and other rites, &c. of the church of England, prefcribed
by the famous ftat. i Eliz. and 13 & 14 Car. II. cap. 4.
called tha " Aft of Uniformity." See Liturgy.

Ahhough it is declared in the Aft of Uniformity, " that
nothing coiiduceth more to the fettling of the peace of the
nation, nor to the honour of our religion, and the propaga-
tion thereof, than an univerfal agreement in the public wor-
Ihip of God," it has been contended, that ftrift uniformity
with regard to points of doftrine and forms of worftiip is
not effential to the peace of fociety, and to the honour and
prevalence of true religion ; and that fuch an uniformity is
inconfiftent witii llie prefcnt ftate of mankind, pofleiring
different faculties and talents, and different opportunities
and means of inquiry ; and that it is, therefore, altogether
unattainable. It has been alfo maintained, that, in the pro-
vince of religion, evtry man has a right to cxcrcife his own
judgment, and to fatisfy his own conlciencc, under the bell
illumination which he is able to obtiin ; and that the civil
magiftr.ite, however exalted his rank and cxttnfive his in-
fluence in the community over which he prefides, ought not
to interfere in controuling this riglit, and obftrufting the
cxcrcife of it. It has been alleged, that every attempt to
enforce uniformity of rehgious f.aith and worfhip by priva-
tions and penalties of a civil and fecular nature, is a mifap-
plicatiou of the authority witli which he is tnvcfted, and an
extenfion of it beyond its proper province, inconfiftent with
3 fi the

UNIFORMITY.

the doSrines and fpirit of Chrittianity, and injurious to the
rights and claims of peaceable and loyal fubjccls. Thofe
perfons to whom we now refer objed to' the fundamental
principle and profefTed defign of the A& of Uniformity, and
they concur with many others in difapproving and con-
demning the mode and time of its introduftion, its per-
nicious influence in caufing a fchifm or feparation among
Britifh Proteilants, and the indigence and diftrefs to which
it reduced a great number of meritorious perfons, whofe
confcientious fcruples, exemplary charafter, and ufeful fer-
vices, entitled them to proteAion and encouragement. To
this purpofe it has been faid, that the conditions of exer-
cifino- the ChriHian miniftry, which the Aft of Uniformity
impofed, are fuch as no civil authority can juflifiably enjoin ;
and that it requires fubfcription to articles of faith, which
Ghrift, who, as they fay, is the fupreme head of the
Chriftian church, never eftablilhed ; and unfeigned aflent
and confent to rites and forms of worlhip, which neither he
nor his apoftles ever ordained. Befides, this Aft required
the clergy to fubfcribe and declare, " that it is not lawful,
upon any pretence whatfoever, to take arms againft the
king, or any commiffioned by him ;" a pofition, as it has
been conceived, abfolutely fubverfive of the Britifh confti-
tution, and which the nation, foon after the aft of king
Charles 11., openly acknowledged to be traitorous, de-
tellable, fcandalous, and falfe ; and which, if admitted,
would have precluded us from enjoying the benefits of the
glorious revolution, and our prefent happy government.
By tliis Aft the Puritans, extolled even by Hume as a feft,
though their principles appear, in his view of them, fo fri-
volous, and habits fo ridiculous, to which the Enghfh owe
the whole freedom of their conilitution, were lamentably
feparated from the Englifh church ; and many of them were
thus recompenfed by Charles II. for their aftivity and zeal
in rpftoring him to the Britilb throne.

When Charles II. came to Scotland, fays lord Clarendon,
(Hift.of the Rebellion, vol. vi. p. 374, 375. 733, 734.)
expcfting force from that kingdom to reftore him " to his
father's throne, and the parliament of England refolved to
fend an army againft him, all the Prefbyterian party greatly
oppofed it : they were bold in contradifting Cromwell in
the houfe, and croffing all his defigns in the city." See
Rapin's Hift. of England, vol. xiii. p. 227. 241, 242.

Bifhop Burnet fays, " thefe five following perfons, all
Prcfbyterians, had the chief hand in the relloration : fir
Ant. A Alley Cooper, afterwards earl of Shiiftefbury ;
fir Arthur Amiefley, afterwards earl of Anglcfey ; Denzil
HoUis, created lord Holhs ; the earl of Mancheftcr ; and
lord Roberts." — " The Preftyterians and the Royalills,"
fays Hume, " being united, formed the voice of the nation,
which called for the king's reftoration."

Moreover, the Prelhyterians, (whom the king, with too
much truth perhaps, ufed to call Gocfsjilly people, ) trufting
to his declaration from Breda, folemnly promifing " liberty
to tender confciences, and that no man (liould be difquieted
for diffei-ences of opinion in matters of religion, which did
not difturb the peace of the kingdom ;" and, relying upon
the fair fpeeches and alFurances of his friends, and fome of
them perhaps duped by the low cunning of the king, who
(a committee of their minifters being fent to him at Breda)
ordered them to be in waiting whilft he hypocritically with-
drew to perform his private devotions, in which his heart
was fo enlarged, that his voice was dillinftly heard, as he
intended it fhould be, by the minifters in the ante-chamber, de-
voutly thanking God that he was a covenanted king, (allud-
ing to the folemn league and covenant, to which he had bound

12

himfclf by the moll facrcd of oaths, ) and that he hoped the
Lord would give him a humble, meek, and forgiving fpirit.
Whether the Prefbyterians were deluded by the fair promifes
of the king and his treacherous friends, or were preffed by
the civil difcord which at that time fubfifted, and alarmed at
the dreadful diforders into which they apprehended the na-
tion was again running, — be this as it may, they were fo in-
fatuated as to truft to the honour of Charles II., and, vrithout
previoufly fettling any conditions, they were highly inftru-
mental in relloring him to the throne. Their folly was only
equalled by the bafe ingratitude with which he requited them.
Two years had fcarcely elapfed before the Aft of Uni-
formity was, by a fmall majority, paffed into a law, which
not only caft out of their livings two thoufand minifters,
fome of whom had helped forward his reftoration, but ex-
pofed them and their diftrcfied families to numerous fuf-
ferings. The gaols were foon filled with the unhappy
reftorers of this ungrateful king ; their houfes were pillaged ;
their families reduced to beggary and want. An eftimate
was publiflied of near eight thoufand Proteftant diftenters,
who periftied in prifon by their fufferings on a rehgious ac-
count, in the reign of this perjured, perfidious prince ; and,
by the fevere penalties inflifted on tliem, for no other crime
but that of affembling to worihip God, they fuffered ia
their trades and eftates, in the compafs of a few years, at
leaft, it is faid, two millions. Crit. Hift. of England.
Neal's Hill, of tlie Puritans, vol. iv.

This was thp king who had himfelf three feveral times
taken the Scots covenant, declared folemnly his deteftation
of Popery and Prelacy, vowed never to tolerate them in any
part of his dominions, and, in the moll folemn manner,
fwore, by the eternal and almighty God, who liveth and
reigneth for ever, that he would not only enjoin the cove-
nant, but fully eftablifli Preftjytcrian government, and their
direftory for wordiip, and obferve them in his own praftice
and family, and never oppofe them, nor endeavour any
change.

Befides, we may here adduce the hiftorical faft, that the
Puritan or Prefbyterian clergy were the only body of men
in the whole kingdom, who had the courage to oppofe and
to protcft openly againtl the trial and condemnation of
Charles I. Their long and fpiritcd proteft was figned by
above fifty of the principal Prefbyterian minifters in and
about London, and prefented Jan. 18, 1648-9. See Bur-
net's Hift. of his own Times, vol. ii. p. 31. Echard's
Hift. of England, p. 654. 708. See alfo the hiftories of
Clarendon, Rapin, &c. &c.

" Bartholomew day," fays Mr. Locke, " was fatal to our
church and rehgion, by throwing out a very great number
(about two thoufand) of worthy, learned, pious, or'*hodox
divines, who could not come up to this oath, and other
things in that aft. And fo great was the zeal in carrying
on this church affair, and fo bhnd in the obedience required,
that if you compute the time of palling this aft with that
allowed for the clergy to fubfcribe the book of Common
Prayer thereby eftabliflied, you will find it could not be
printed and diftributed fo as that one man in forty could
have feen and read the book they did fo perfeftly affent and
confent to." — " The matter was driven on," fays bifliop
Burnet ( Hift of his Times, vol. i. p. 21 2, 8vo. ) " with fo
much precipitation, that it feemed expefted the ckrgy
fliould fubfcribe implicitly to a book they had never feen.
This was done by too many, as the bifhops themfelves in-
formed me." Among thefe were feveral, who, according
to Mr. Locke's defcription of them, were " taught rather to
obey than to underftand."

It

U N I

It has "been much lamented by many, eminently learned
and ftriftly confcientious, members of the church, both
clergy and laity, that the obligation to fubfcribe affcnt
and confent to a variety of articles of faith and forms of
worfhip, of doubtful and difputable evidence and utihty,
enjoined and enforced by the AA of Uniformity, (lioiUd
ftill remain as an indifpenfable condition of obtaining
honourable and ufeful offices both in the church and (late,;
more cfpecially at a period when liberal fentiments, with
regard to controverfial fubjefts, are generally eritertained
both by clergy and laity ; when the right of private judg-
ment and free inquiry is univcrfally acknowledged ; and
when the governors of the church and the legiflature of the
ftate feem difpofed to uphold and promote the interefts of
religious liberty. Attempts have been made to widen the
door of admiffion into the church, and to remove the im-
pediments that lie in the way of advancement to civil offices
of truft and profit. Hitherto they have proved ineffeftual ;
but when it (hall be perceived that neither the eftablithed
reHgion of the country nor the fafety of the ftate can fuffer
any detriment from a greater latitude in this refpeft, fcru-
pulous confciences will be reheved, the church wiil gain an
acceffion of ornament and fupport, and an union of many
interefts and fervices give ftrength and ilability to the
conftitution and government of the country. On the ge-
neral fubjcft which has now engaged attention, different
opinions have been maintained ; and the Editor hopes that
the candid reader will find them impartially ftated, as far as
the limits of this work allow, under the articles Church,
Clekgy, Liturgy, Religion, Subscription, Test, To-
leration, &c. &c.

UNIGENITUS, called alfo the Confttutlon^ in Ecchft-
aflkal H'ljlory, a famous bull, deriving its denomination from
the firft word of it, wiiich was iffued in 17 13 by pope Cle-
ment XI., and in whi-ch Quenel's book, entitled " Moral
Refleftions on the New Teftamcnt," was condemned, and
a hundred and one propofitions contained in it were pro-
nounced heretical. This bull gave a favcMrable turn to the
affairs of the Jefuits ; but it was highly detrimental to the
interefts of the Romifh church, as many of the wifer mem-
bers of that community candidly acknowledge. For it not
only confirmed the Proteftants in their feparation, by con-
vincing them that the church of Rome was refolved to ad-
here to its ancient fuperftitions and corruptions, but alfo
offended many of the Roman Catholics, who had no peculiar
attachment to the doctrines of Janfenius, againft which this
bull was levelled, and were only bent on the purfuit of
truth, and the advancement of piety. See Jansenism.

Tlie diffcnfions and tumults excited in France by this
edift were in the higheft degree violent. A confiderable
number of bifhops, among whom was the cardinal de No-
ailles, archbifhop of Paris, and a large body, compofed of
perfons eminently diftinguifticd for their piety and nrudition,
both among the clergy and laity, appealed from the bull to
a general council ; and hence ihofe who rcjeft the authority
of the bull are called appellants ; which fee. However, the
iffue of this famous conteft was favourable to the bull, which
was at length rendered valid by the authority of the parlia-
ment, and was regiftered among the laws of llie ftate. Mo-
Ihcim's Eccl. Hill. vol. v. 8vo.

UNJIGAH, or Peact River, in Geography. See Peace
Rhvr.

UNILOCULAR Capsule, among Botanlfis. Sec
Capsule.

UNIOLA, was fo named by Linnzus, as he himfelf
informs us, Phil. Bot, 166, from the union, or rather the
aggregation, of feveral glumes in the calyx ; of which, in

U N I

Hort. CWff. 23, he fpeaks as the very remarkable charatler
of this genus of graftes, one fpecies only of which had thea
come under his notice. — Linn. Gen. ^55. Am. Acad. v. 7.
195. t. 3. f. 40. Schreb. 49. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 406.
Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 159.
Pur(h 82. Juff. 32. Beauvois Agroft. 7<\. t. 15. f. 6.
Poiret in Lamarck Dift. v. 8. 183. (Bri/.a; Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 45. f. 3. ) — Clafs and order, TrianJria Digyn'ui.
Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Glume many-flowered, of from three to
fix nearly awl-ftiaped, compreffed, boat-like, minutely-
keeled valves, alternately imbricated in two rows, each
valve clofely embracing the next, the upper pair largeft,
fubtending the many-flowered, ovate, greatly comprclTcd,
fharp-cdged fpikelet. Co, ■ of two lanceolate, compreffed
valves, refembhng the calyx, but larger, cloven, acute,
without awns. Neftary of two wedge-ftiaped cloven fcales.
Stam. Filaments three, rarely but one, capillary ; anthers
oblong, linear. P'tfl. Germen fuperior, conical ; ftyles
two, ereft, fimple ; ftigmas downy. Perk, none, except
the permanent corolla. Seed folitary, ovate-oblong, fome-
what cylindrical, unconnefted with the corolla.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of feveral valves, many-flowered.
Spikelet ovate, awnlefs, keeled. Seed fomewhat cylin-
drical, unconnefted.

1. \J . pankulata. Panicled Spike-grafs. Linn. Sp. PI.
103. Willd. n. I, excluding Caleftjy's fynonym. Piirlh
11.2. Muhlenb. Cat. 12. (U. maritima ; Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. V. I. 71. Uniola ; Linn. Hort. Cliff. 23. Gramen
Ij.vXoiKo^o^ov o|uf uXXov carolinianum ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 32. f. 6.)
— Panicle repeatedly compound ; partial ftalks ftiorter than
the fpikelets. Calyx of fix valves. Keel of the florets
fmooth. Leaves involute. — Native of the fandy fea-lhores
of North America, from Virginia to Florida, perennial,
flowering in June and July. Purjh. One of the largcft
and moft magnificent of graffes. The Jkm is from four to
fix feet high, ereft, round, jointed, fmooth, leafy in the
lower part, terminating in an ample panicle eighteen inches
long, whofe drooping, fmooth, compound branches fpread
in every direftion, and bear innumerable, pendent, light
brown, or ftraw-coloured, fliining, ovate, very flat fpikelets,
full an inch long, half an inch broad ; fome of them nearly
feffile. Florets about fourteen ; the inner valve of their
corolla a little downy at the edges ; keel of the outer fome-
times, though rarely, a little rough, not fringed.

2. U. lati/olia. Broad-leaved Spike-grafs. Michaux
Boreal. -Amer. v. i. 70. Muhlenb. Cat. I2. Purfli n. i.
(U. paniculata; Ait. n. i. Gramen myloicophoron oxy-
phyllon carohiiianum; Catefb. Car. v. I. t. 32.) — Panicle
loofe, with capillary ilalks, moftly longer than the fpikelets.
Calyx of three valves. Keel of the florets fringed. Stamen
folitary. Leaves lanceolate, flat. — Native of fhady woods
among rocks, on the Allegany mountains, perennial, flower-
ing in June. Mkhaux, Piirjl. Near Lancafter, Penn-
fylvania, flowering in Auguft. Mtihlenburgh. One ol
Catcftjy's original Ipccimens, now in our hands, fettles hh
fynonym, hitherto always apphcd to the foregoing, and is
iiifcribcd, in his hand-writing, as follows. " This odd
plant or grafs growed in a rich bottom, by a creek-fide up
the weft branch of Sufqueannah river. I obfcrvcd but a
little fpot of it in .ill my journey." Nothing can be more
diftinft from the real pankulata above defcribed, which is a
fea-fide plant. The fpecific charaAers are abundantly clear.
The prefcnt is of more flcndcr and lefs elevated growth,
with broad, many-ribbed ler.ves, glaucous beneath. Panulg
capillary, much lefs branched. Spikclels green or glaucous,
of fewer and broader Jleftts, wliicb, aecording to Michaux,

3 B 2 ire

U N I

U N 1

are monandrous : their keel is rough witli fhort hairs, as
well as fringed more or lefs with longer ones. The calyx
confifts of three unequal valves.

3. U. racemofa. Jamaica Spike-grafs. — Clufter cylin-
drical, compound- Spikelets nearly feflile. Calyx of
about four valves. Keel of the florets minutely downy.
Leaves involute, taper-pointed — Gathered in Jamaica by
Mr. Maffon, one of whofe fpecimens was communicated,
probably by fir Jofeph Banks, to the younger Linnaeus.
We know not how fo line a fpecies of this elegant genus
efcaped the notice of Dr. Swartz. It has the afpeA of a
fea-fide grafs, having a very ftout Jlem, leafy to the very
fummit. Tlie leaves are involute, rigid, with a long very
flender point, and broad Iheathing bafe, crowned with a
hairy Jl'tpula : the upper ones, two feet in length , rife high
above tlie flowers. The panicle is terminal, foUtary, cylin-
drical, fix inches long, with numerous, fliort, toothed,
fimple, downy, many-flowered brunches, each bearing fix
or eight alternate, nearly feflile, flat, ovate fpikclets, half an
inch long, variegated with green and white. The Jlorets
are about twelve, ovate, comprefled, finely downy at the
edges and keel, having three green ribs at each fide extend-
ing half way down from their point.

4. U. mucronata. Pointed Spike-grafs. Linn. Sp. PI.
104. Willd. n. 2. — " Spike two-ranked. Spikelets ovate.
Calyx fomewhat awned." — Native of the Eaft; Indies.
£urmann. Stem a foot high, fmooth. Leaves narrow,
fmooth, with ftriated (heaths. Spiie of eleven or twelve
/pikelets, which are alternate, in two rows, nearly feflile,

ovate, fmooth, feven-flowercd. The calyx is fo much
pointed as to be aimed awned. Liniiiius. We have feen
no fpecimen. The defcription was probably made from
Burmann's herbarium.

5. U. fpicata. Two-ranked Spike-grafs. Linn. Sp.
PI. 104. Willd. n. 3. Bigelow Boft;. 23. Ait. n. 2.
( Feftuca diftichophylla ; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. i. 67.
Purlh 84, excluding the reference to Plukenet. ) — Spike
unilateral, denfe. Spikelets tumid, feflile, fmooth. Leaves
involute, pointed, rigid. — Native of fait meadows in North
America ; common along the coaft from Canada to Florida ;
perennial, flowering in July and Auguft. Purjh. The

Jlem is much branched, and thickly clothed with rigid, pun-
gent, fmooth, Iheathing, alternate leaves, two or three
inches long, rifing above the f pikes, which are terminal,
folitary, feflile, about an inch in length. Each /pikelet
confiits of four or five broad clofe Jlorets, and the two prin-
cipal calyx-valves are fometimes accompanied by one or two
fmaller external glumes, which may excufe Linnxus for
placing this fpecies here, but we confefs it to be a bad
Uniola. Plukenet's t. 33. f. 4, cited doubtingly by Purfli,
bears much refemblance to our plant, but is an Englirti
Triticum !

6. U. gracilis. Slender Spike-grafs. Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. V. I. 71. Purlh n. 3. (Holcus laxus ; Linn. Sp.
PI. i486. Willd. Sp. Pl.'v. 4. 934.)— " Panicle elon-
gated, fomewhat fpiked, with Ihort clofe-prefled branches.
Spikelets nearly feflile. Florets monandrous, divaricated,
pointed, fmooth. Calyx of three valves. Leaves flattifli ;
tlieir flieaths fmooth and comprefled, like the ftem." — In
fliady rocky fituations, from Virginia to Georgia ; perennial,
flowering in July. Pur/h. Linnaeus compares the habit of
the grafs to ^ira, or Melica, ciirulea. The /lems are weak,
two feet high, a Httle drooping.

Labillardiere, Nov. HoU. v. I. 21. t. 24, has an U.
d/lichophyUa, very nearly related to our /picata, but referred
to Poa by Mr. Brown, Prodr, Nov. Holl. v. i. 182.

UNION, a junction, coalition, or afleniblage of two or

more diflTercnt things in one. Philofophers are nluch pei'-
plexed in accounting for the manner of the union of foul and
body, or by what medium it is that two fuch heterogeneous
beings are kept clofely together.

It is one of the great laws of this union, that fuch and
fuch an impreflion on the brain be followed by fuch and fuch
a fenfation, or perception, in the foul.

Union, in a philofophical fenfe, is ufed by Dr. Grew
for one of the three ways of mixture ; being the joining to-
gether of atoms, or infenfible particles, fo as to touch in a
plane ; as is fuppofed to be the cafe in the cryftallizations
of falls and the hke bodies.

Union, among Painters, exprefles a fymmetry and agree-
ment between the feveral parts of a painting ; when, e. gr.
there is a confiderable degree of relation and connexion be-
tween them, both as to the figuring and llie colouring ; fo
that they appai-ently confpire to form one thing.

Union, in ArchiteSure, may denote a harmony between
the colours in the materials of a building.

Union, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, denotes a Combining or
confolidating of two or more churches into one.

This is not to be done without the confent both of the
bifliop, the patron, and the incumbent.

The canonifts diftinguifh three kinds of union ; that of
accej/ion, that of con/u/ion, and that of equality.

Union 0/ Accej/on is the moft ufual ; by this the united
benefice becomes a member, and acceflbry of the principal.

Union by Con/ujion, is that where the two titles are
fupprefled, and a new one created, including both.

Union 0/ Equality, is that where the two titles fubfift,
but are equal and independent.

The union or conlolidation of churches ought to be
founded upon good canonical reafons ; and the principal
reafons affigned by the canon law are, for hofpitality, near-
nefs of the places, want of inhabitants, poverty or fmallnefs
of the living. Thefe feveral circumftances mufl be inquired
into before the union ; and fome, or all of them, are recited
in the preamble to the aft of union.

In fuch cafe, by the common law of the realm, the or-
dinaries, patrons, and incumbents, may make a confolidation
or union of the two churches into one. (i Salk. 165.
Hughes, c. 28.) Moreover, in fuch cafe, it is faid, that
the confent of the king is not at all neceffary, although he
hath an intereft in the churches in the cafe of lapfe. For
by the ancient canon law, the licence of the pope was not
neceflary ; nor has the hcence of the king been thought ne-
ceflary fince the reformation. In fome inftances, however,
it has been defired and obtained for the greater caution.
Cro. Eliz. 500. Gibfon. Watfon.

By llat. 37 Hen. VIII. c. 21. it is enafted, that an
union or confoUdation of two churches, or of a church and
chapel, into one, may be admitted, pro\nded the annual value
of one of them, in the king's books, doth not exceed 6/.,
and the diftance between them be not above one mile.

This union fuppofes the aflent of the ordinary and or-
dinaries of the diocefe where fuch churches and chapels
fl;and, and the alfent of the incumbents of them, and of all
fueh as have a juft; right, title, and intereil to the patronage
of the fame churches and chapels, being then of full age.
This union fliall be available in the law, to continue for
ever ; provided that where the inhabitants of any fuch poor
parifli, or the more part of them, within one year next after
the union or confolidation of the fame parifli by their writing
fufficient in the law, fliall affure the incumbent of the faid
parifli, for the yearly payment of fo much money as with
the fum that the faid parifli is rated and valued at in the
court of firil fruits and tenths, fliall amount to the full fum

of

U N 1

of 8/., to be levied and paid yearly by the faid inhabitants
to the faid incumbent and his fuccefl'ors ; all fuch unions
or confohdations made of any fuch poor parifh as aforefaid,
Ihall be void and of none effcft.

By the fame ilatute, it is provided, that all unions and
confolidations, to be made of any church or chapel within
any city or town corporate, without the aflent of the mayor,
ftieriffs, and commonalty ot fuch city, or without the aflent
of the body corporate of other towns corporate, by the
names of their corporations in writing under their common
feal, (hall be void.

By 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. C 9. if any pcrfon having one
benefice with cure, of the yearly value of 8/., or above, take
any other with cure, and be indufted in poifenion of the
fame ; then immediately after fuch pofTefriDn, the firft bene-
fice (hall be void. And by f. 10. it (hall be lawful for the
patron to prefent ; any licence, union, or other difpenfation,
to the contrary thereof notwithftanding. By which word
?inion there is meant not a perpetual, but a temporary union
during the life of an incumbent. ^ Gibf. Cod. 970. art. 7.)
And this is there clearly proved, firil by the words of the
union, and alfo by tiie cafe of Page v. Bp. of London.
Cro. El. 719, 720.

And by another'ftat. 17 Car. II. c. 3. it is cnafted, that
tlie union of two churches, or chapels, in any city or town,
by the bifhop, patron, and chief magiftrate of the town,
(hall be valid, unlefs the value of the churches fo united ex-
ceed 100/.

By the union the two churches are become fo much one,
that a fecond benefice may be taken by difpenfation within
the ftatute of pluralities. (Cro. Eliz. 720. Gibfon 920. 1
If any queflion arife concerning the union, after it is etla-
bliflicd, this may not be tried in the temporal, but only in
the fpiritual court ; unlefs it be fuch union as is retrained
by the aforefaid ftatutes. Watf. c. 16.

Union, Hypojlatical. See Hvi'ostaticaj,.

Union, or 'The Union, by way of eminence, is more par-
ticularly ufed, among us, to cxprefs the adl by which the
two feparate kingdoms of England and Scotland were in-
corporated into one, under the title of the Kingdom of Great
Britain.

The kingdom of Scotland, notwithftanding the union of
the crowns on the accefllon of tiieir king James VI. to that
of England in 1603, continued an entirely feparate and dif-
tinft kingdom for above a century more, though an union
had been long projeAed ; which was judged to be the more
eafy to be done, as both kingdoms were anciently under the
fame government, and flill retained a very great refemblance,
though far from an identity, in their laws. By an aft of
parliament ( i Jac. I. cap. i.) it is declared, that there two
mighty, famous, and ancient kingdoms, were formerly one.
And fir Edward Coke obfcrves, how marvellous a con-
formity there was, not only in the religion and language of
the two nations, but alfo in their ancient laws, the detcent
of the crown, tlieir parliaments, their titles of nobility,
their officers of flate and of juflice, their writs, their cuf-
toms, and even the language of their laws : upon which
account he fuppofes the common law of e.icii to have been
originally the lame. However, fir Edward Coke, and the
politicians of that time, conceived great difficulties in carry-
ing on the projefted union ; but thefe were at length over-
come, and the great work was happily effeftcd in the year
1707, by the general confent of the queen, and the cllatcs
of each realm.

The aft or treaty of union confiftg of twenty-five arti-
cles ; which eleven Englifh commiflloncrs, and eleven Scotch

U N I

ones, examined, approved, and figned on the 3d of Auguft
1 706. The parhament of Scotland approved it on tiae 4th
of February 1707, and the parliament of England on the
10th of March in the fame year. On the 17th following
the queen went to parliament, where (lie approved the fame
treaty, with the aft of ratification.

The purport of the moft confiderable articles is as fol-
lows : I. That on the ill of May, 1707, and for ever after
the kingdoms of England and Scotland (hall be united into
one kingdom, by the name of Great Britain. 2. The fuc-
ceflion to the monarchy of Great Britain (hall be the fame
as was before fettled with regard to that of England.
3. The united kingdom (hall be reprefented by one parlia-
ment. 4. There (liall be a communication of all rights and
privileges between the fubjefts of both kingdoms, except
where it is otherwife agreed. 9. When England raifes
2,000,000/. by a land-tax, Scotland fliall raife 48,000/.
16, 17. The ftandards of the coin, of weights and meafures,
(hall be reduced to thofe of England throughout the united
kingdoms. 18. The laws relating to trade, cufloms, and
the excife, (hall be the fame in Scotland as in England,
But all the other laws in Scotland fhall remain in force, but
alterable by the parliament of Great Britain ; yet with this
caution, that laws relating to pubhc policy are alterable at
the difcretion of the parliament ; laws relating to private
right are not to be altered, but for the evident utihty of the
people of Scotland. 22. Sixteen peers are to be cliofen to
reprefent the peerage of Scotland in parliament, and forty-
five members to fit in the houfe of commons. 23. The
fixteen peers of Scotland fhall have all privileges of parlia-
ment ; and all peers of Scotland fhall be peers of Great
Britain, and rank next after thofe of the fame degree at the
time of the union, and (liall have all privileges of peers,
except fitting in the houfe of lords, and voting on the trial
of a peer.

Thefe are the principal of the twenty-five articles of
union, which are ratified and confirmed by ilatute 5 Anne,
cap. 8. in which flatutc there are alfo two afts of parliament
recited ; the one of Scotland, by which the church of Scot-
land, and all the four univerfities of that kingdom, are
cllablilhed for ever, and all fucceeding fovereigns are to
take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame ; the other of
England, 5 Anne, cap. 6. by which tiie afts of uniformity
of 13 Eliz. and 13 Car. IT. (except as the fame had been
altered by parliament at that time), and all other afts then in
force for the prefervation of the church of England, be
declared perpetual ; and it is ftipulated, that every fubfe-
quent ki[ig and queen fliall take an oath inviolably to main-
tain the fame within England, Ireland, Wales, and the town
of Berwick-upon-Tweed ; and it is cnafted, that thefe two
afts (liall for ever be obferved as fundamental and effential
conditions of the union.

The great officers of the crown of Scotland, before the
union, were, the lord high chancellor, lord high treafurer,
or treafurer, lord privy feal, and lord rcgifter, or fecrctary.
Their lefs officers of (late were, the lord rcgifler, lord ad-
vocate, lord treafurer depute, and lord juflice clerk.

Since the union, the officers of (late in Scotland are the
keeper of the great feal, lord privy feal, lord rej^>;iller, lord
vice-admiral, lord juflice general, lord prefident, lord cliief
baron of the excliequer, lord advocate, lord juflice clerk,
lord high conflable, heretable royal flandard bearer, knight
marcfchal, heretable keeper of the king's houfhold, heretable
carver, and heretable ufher of the wliite rod. The privy coun-
cil of Scotland is funk in the parliament and privy council of
Great Britain, and tlie civil and crinuiiol caufes are cliiefly

2 cognizable

UNION.

cognizable by two courts of judicature, n/lz. the college of
juitice, or the court of feflion, and the judiciary court,
under the direAion of the lord juftice general, the lord
juftice clerk, iive commiffioners, his majefty's advocate,
three deputy advocates, a folicitor-general, &c. Befides
thefe two great courts of law, the Scots, by the articles of
union, have a court of exchequer, under the direftion of a
lord chief baron, and four barons. The court of admiralty
in Scotland is a fupreme court in all cafes competent to its
jurifdidtion, and under the direftion of the lord vice-admiral,
a judge, procurator fifcal, &c. The courts of commiffaries
in Scotland anfwer to thofe of the Englifh diocefan chan-
cellors ; the higheft of which is kept at Edinburgh, in
which, before four judges, aftions are pleaded concerning
wills, the right of patronage to ecclefiaftical benefices, tithes,
divorces, and fuch caufes. The office of privy feal is under
the direftion of the lord privy feal, a deputy writer to the
privy feal, and his deputy. The great feal office is under
the direftion of the lord keeper, and deputy and king's
writer. The lord regifter's office is under the fuperin-
tendance of the lord regifter, and fix deputies. The chan-
cery is under the adminiftration of a direftor, deputy,
*nd principal clerk. See College of Heralds, and Uni-

VERSITV.

Under this article of union we may obferve, with refpeft
to Wales, that very early in our hiftory, we find its princes
doing homage to the crown of England ; till at length, in
the reign of Edward I. the line of its ancient princes was
abolifhed ; and the king of England's eldefl. fon became, as
a matter of courfe, their titular prince ; the territory of
Wales being then entirely annexed (by a kind of feudal
refumption) to the dominion of the crown of England.
( 10 Edw. I.) By 12 Edw. I. and other fubfequent ftatutes,
their provincial immunities were farther abridged ; but the
finiihing ftroke to their independency was given by the fta-
tute 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 26. which at the fame time ad-
mitted them to a thorough communication of laws with the
fubjefts of England. By this ftatute it is enafted, i. That
the dominion of Wales fhall be for ever united to the king-
dom of England. 2. That all WeKhmen born Ihall have
the fame liberties as the other king's fubjefts. 3. That
lands in Wales (hall be inheritable according to the Englifh
tenures and rules of defcent. 4. That the laws of England,
and no other, fhall be ufed in Wales ; befides many other
regulations of the police of the principality. And the lla-
tute 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 26. confirms the fame, adds
farther regulations, divides it into twelve fhires, and, in
fhort, reduces it into the fame order in which it Hands at
this day ; differing from the kingdom of England in only a
few particulars, and thofe too of the nature of privileges
(fuch as having courts within itfelf, independent of the pro-
cefs of Weflraintler-hall), and fome other immaterial pecu-
liarities, hardly more than are to be found in many counties
of England itfelf.

The town of Berwick-upon-Tweed was originally part
of the kingdom of Scotland ; and as fuch was for a time
reduced by king Edward I. into the pofTeffion of the crown
of England ; and during its fubjeftion, it received from
that prince a chartei", which (after its fubfequent ceflion by
Edward Baliol, to be for ever united to the crown and
realm of England) was confirmed by king Edward III.
with fome additions, pai-ticularly that it (hould be governed
by the laws and ufages which it enjoyed before its reduftion
by Edward I. Its conftitution was new-modelled, and put
on an Englifh footing by a charter of king James I. ; and aU
its liberties, franchifes, and cufloms, were confirmed in par-

liament by the ftatutes 22 Edw. IV. cap. 8. and 2 Jac. I.
cap. 28. Though, therefore, it has fome local peculiarities,
derived from the ancient laws of Scotland, yet it is clearly
part of the realm of England, being reprefented by bur-
geffes in the houfe of commons, and bound by all afts of
the British parliament, whether fpecially named or other-
wife. Accordingly it was declared by ftatute 20 Geo. II.
cap. 24. that, where England is only mentioned in any aft
ot parliament, the fame notwithftanding hath and ftiall be
deemed to comprehend the dominion of Wales, and town of
Berwick-upon-Tweed. And though certain of the king's
writs or procefles of the courts of Weftminfter do not
ufuallyrun into Berwick, anymore than the principality of
Wales, yet it hath been folemnly adjudged, that all preroga-
tive writs (as thofe of mandamus, prohibition, habeas cor-
pus, certiorari, &c.) may ifTue to Berwick, as well as to
every other of the dominions of the crown of England ;
and that indiftments, and other local matters arifing in the
town of Berwick, may be tried by a jury in the county of
Northumberland.

Union, LegiJIalive, between Great Britain and Ireland.
Amongft the important events which will in future timet
diftinguifh the reign of George III. and the adminiftration
of William Pitt, is the legifiative union which this ftatefman
eflFefted between Great Britain and Ireland ; a meafure
which, in the opinion of its advocates, has confolidated the
ftrength of the empire, and thus contributed to its pro-
fperity ; wliilft by others it is fuppofed to have deftroyed the
independence of one country, and to have added to the in-
fluence of the crown or its minifters in the other. To pafs
over fuch a meafure without fome account of the circum-
flances which attended it, would be a defeft in a work of
tliis nature ; yet to treat it fo as to give general fatisfaftion
cannot be expefted, whilft many who took an aftive part in
promoting or oppofing it are flill alive, and whilft all the
meafures likely to refult from it have not yet taken effeft.

The firft confideration in forming an opinion on this quef-
tion, is the previsus ftate of legiflation in Ireland, and the
nature of the conneftion between the two countries. Under
the article Ireland there is a brief hiftorical detail of the
manner in which Ireland became connefted with England,
and of the fucceeding events, to which the reader is referred.
From this account it is evident that Ireland was always con-
fidered as a dependent country ; and whether the right was
derived from voluntary fubmiffion, from conqueft, or from
colonization, it has been long regarded as an axiom in Irifh
politics, that whofoever is king of England, the fame is
ipfofaHo king of Ireland. It was entitled the dominion, or
lordfhip of Ireland, ftat. Hiberniae, 14 Hen. III. and the
king's ftyle was no other than dominus Hibernitt, lord of
Ireland, till the 33d year of king Henry VIII. when he
affumed the title of king, which is recognized by aft of par-
liament 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 3. With a view to fecure this
authority in its fulleft extent, Poynings' law was eftablifhed
in the reign of Henry VII. by which no law could be enafted
in Ireland, which had not been previoully fubmitted to the
king and his council in England, approved by them, and
certified under the great feal of the realm. ( See Poynings'
Law.) This was found necelfary at firft to check the
king's reprefentatives, who had often a private intcreft at
variance with that of their matter ; and it was afterwards
thought expedient to prevent the defcendants of the Englifh
colonifts from purfuing their own intereft at the expence of
that of the mother-country. But though the dependance
of Ireland, in a political point of view, was thus apparent,
it was referved for the reign of George I. to alTcrt legifiative

authority,

UNION.

Rutliority, wliich was done firll by the reverfion of a fen-
teiice of the Irifli houfe of lords by the Eiigh(h houfe, as
a fuperior court of judicature, and then by a folemn declara-
tion of a right, not only to make fuch reveriions in all cafes
of appeal, but alfo that the king's majefty, with the con-
fent of the lords and commons of Great Britain in parlia-
ment, had power to make laws to bind the people of Ire-
land. When the prefent king, George III., afcendcd the
throne in 1760, two-thirds of the people of Ireland, de-
prefTed by fevere penal laws, not only were not reprefented
in the parliament by which they were taxed, but were con-
fidered as aliens, undeferving of any proteAion. The re-
maining third was reprefented by three hundred members,
of which about one hundred were chofen by counties or
large towns, and the remainder by boroughs, moft of which
had been conftituted in the time of the Stewarts, to create
a Proteftant majority of the houfe of commons, and had
become the property of a few individuals. The members
thus chofen fat for their own lives, or that of the fovereign ;
110 general cleftion taking place except on the demife of the
crown. The executive government was committed nomi-
nally to a viceroy, but elTentially to lords juftices, felefted
from the principal Hate officers of the country, who were
cntrufted with the condudl of what was called the king's
bufinefs, but which might with more propriety have been
called the bufinefs of the lords juftices. The viceroy came
to Ireland for a few months only in two years, and the
lords juftices in his abfence had the means of confolidating
an ariftocratic influence, which made them the neceftary in-
flruments of the Englifti government. As no afts could
pafs without the previous approbation of the king in his
Englifti council, it was ufual to agree with fome of the Irilh
leaders on a compromifc that die minifter would forward
their local objefts, provided they undertook to carry through
parliament thofe bills which he required. What could be
expcfted from fuch a fyfteni of government ? What but a
fyftem of peculation and opprcflion, fuch as perhaps was
fcarcely ever witncfted in any other country ? The objeft,
it may be faid the miftakcn pohcy of the Britifli govern-
ment, was, in the words of Mr. Pitt, " to debar Ireland
from the enjoyment and life of her own refources, and to
make her completely fubfervient to the intcrefts and opu-
lence of Britain ;" and whatever ivfiftanee might be occa-
fionally lliewn, the general tenor of conduft of the Irifti
parliament was to promote the deftruflive views of Britain,
which the members made conducive to their own individual
intcrefts. " The inevitable final refult of this unpropitious
combination," to ufe the words of Mr. Neweiiham in his
View of the Natural, Political, and Commercial Circum-
ftances of Ireland, publiflied in 1809, "was a very fcanty
and difproportionate acquifition of commercial wealth on
the part of Ireland, and an almoft utter extindion of a
fpirit of induftry therein. To cramp, obftruft, and render
abortive the induftry of the Irifti, were the objefts of the
Britifti trader. To gratify commercial avarice, to ferve
Britain at the expence of Ireland, or to facilitate the go-
vernment of the latter, were the varying objefts of the Bri-
tifti minifter. To keep down the Papifts, coft what it
would, and to augment their own revenues by the public
money, inftcad of urging tlie adoption of wife, liberal, and
patriotic meafures calculated to (luadrupl-- the rents of their
cftates, were the objedls of the reputed reprefentatives of
the Irifti people ; and to fecure themfclvcs from retaliations
on the part of the Roman Catholics, whom they were en-
couraged to perlecute and taught to dread, was the general
objeft of the Iridi gentry." To this deplorable lliitc of Ire-

land, wc have to add the non-refidcnce of the principal lande4
proprietors, and the frequent diilurbances which under va-
rious pretences were raifed in difl'erent parts of the country.
In ftioit, Ireland was in a (late which could hardly be ren-
dered worfe, and which required fome fptpdv melioration.

The meafure of a leglflative union had occurred to fe-
veral as the beft mode of rendering Ireland a valuablu part
of the Britifti empire. Oliver Cromwell, during the period
of his ufurped power, adually carried it into effedt : in the
reign of queen Anne, the Irifh houfe of lords petitioned for
fuch an incorporation ; and the great earl of Chatham is
faid to have regarded it as a favourite objeft. Now, though
he and others might have had the intereft of England imme-
diately in view, yet it is an undoubted faft, that the intcrefts
of both countries are fo clofely united, that it is impoflible to
make Ireland contribute to the welfare of Engla.nd without
promoting its internal profperity. The a-voiued objeft, it
is faid, was an objeft of taxation ; but he muft be a ftatcf-
man of a very different caft from lord Chatham, who could
expeft to derive revenue from an impoveriftied country like
Ireland, until he had awakened a fpirit of induftry, had civi-
lized, improved, and enriched the people. Thofe, how-
ever, who derived benefit from the fyftem then afted on,
fuch as the parliamentary leaders, were not backward in
exprefting their diflike of a union, and they were fupported
by thofe whofe vanity was pleafed by the name of an inde-
pendent legiflaturc, as well ashy thofe unfriendly to Britifti
conneftion. So odious was the meafure, that in 1759, at a
time when Ireland was threatened by a French invafion, the
bare fufpicion of its being in contemplation caufed a fpirit
of diftatisfaftion to break out with extraordinary violence
among the populace of DubHn. It was reprefented that
Ireland would be deprived of its parliament and independ-
ence, and be fubjefted to the fame taxes that are levied
upon the people of England. On this occafion both houfes
of parliament, cfpecially the lords, were grofsly infulted ;
the members were compelled to take an oath that tliey would
never confcnt to fuch a meafure ; and, at laft, military in-
terference was found neceffary to the reilor.-ition of order.
This mode of influencing parliament.iry proceedings by the
threatenings of a mob, which was not unufual at a much
later period in the Irilli capital, proves the neceffity of
fome change in the fyftem of legiflation. In the reign of
George III. many meafures were adopted which contri-
buted to give weight to the anti-union party, and which
certainly promoted the improvement and profperity of the
country. Parhaments were rendered oftennial, and their
feflions annual ; many penal laws were repealed or modified ;
agriculture was encouraged ; and a fpirit of induftry ex-
cited. In the mean time, Britain was weakened by its con-
teft with its American colonies ; and the demands of the
Irifti parliament, backed by 40,000 volunteers, procured a
liberation of trade from unjuft reftriftions, and the eft.iblifti-
nient of legiflative independence. This iudependerxe, how-
ever, was merely nominal ; the influence of the Britifti
miiiiller ftill direfted the meafures of the Irifti parliament
at a greater expence to the nation, and there were many
dillicuhies from the want of fome regular mode of con-
iidering the commercial intcrefts of both countries : " fome
general fuperiiiteiiding authority," as Mr. Fox faid, "to
embrace and comprehend the wiiole fvllein of the naviga-
tion of the empire." In 1785, Mr. Pitt .ittempted to re-
medy this evil by a commercial arrangement, which, wliilft
it held out great advantages to Ireland, ftipulated that fo
long as Ireland continued to trade wilii the Britilh colonies
and plantations, flic would adopt the r-gnlations of traiit:

UNION.

and navigation impofed by the Britifh parliament on BritiHi
fubjefts in carrying on the fame trade. This interference
with the independence of Ireland defeated the meafure of
the Britifti minifter, though he was aflifted on this occafion
by the talents ond knowledge of Mr. Fofter, then chan-
cellor of the iriih exchequer. On this occafion, lord
Sackville, better known perhaps as lord George Germamc,
the title he bore when in office, earneftly recommended a
legidative union as the only mode of fettling the jarring in-
terefts of the two countries ; and it is thought that from that
time the meafure became a favourite objeft of the Britifli
miniftry. Several pohtical writers had indeed warmly re-
commended it. Dean Tucker obferved, that " to incorpo-
rate both the Britidi ifles together, and make one kingdom,
in all refpefts, as to parliament, trade, and taxes, had long
been the wifh of every generous difmterefted patriot of both
kingdoms :" and in 1785, after the rejeftion of the com-
mercial propofitions, he faid, " refpefting Ireland, one or
other of the fame confequences (union or feparation) muit
inevitably follow. For after tropes and figures have been
let off without number, after torrents of eloquence have
been poured forth, much paper blotted, and much ink
fpilled, — recourfe mud be had, at lail, either to 3. feparation,
or to a union ; for plainly there is no other alternative ; no
other medium to be difcovered, or cement which can laft for
any length of time." The refult of Arthur Young's ex-
amination into the ftate of Ireland, feems to have been a
fimilar conviction ; and the diftinguiftied author of the
Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of
Nations, book v. chap. 3, after fpeaking of the commercial
advantages refulting from a union, fays, that Ireland would
gain other advantages much more important. " The greater
part of the people of all ranks would gain a complete deli-
verance fi-om an ariftocracy, not founded in the natural and
refpeftable diftmftions of birth and fortune, but in thofe of
rehgious and pohtical prejudices : diftinftions which, more
than any other, animate both the infolence of theopprclTors,
and the hatred and indignation of the opprefled ; and which
commonly render the inhabitants of the fame country more
hoftile to one another, than thofe of different countries ever
are. — The fpirit of party prevails lefs in Scotland than in
England. In the cafe of a union, it would probably pre-
vail lefs in Ireland than in Scotland. Without a union with
Great Britain, the inhabitants of Ireland are not likely for
many ages to confider themfelves as one people." From an
anecdote recorded by fir Jolin Dalrymple, and quoted by
Mr. Goold, one of the many writers againlt the union, it
appears that in 1776, the earl of Rochford being offered the
lord lieutenancy of Ireland, was willing to accept the office
if he could do fome great good there, and get fome great
fame, and that two objetts occurred to him, the one to pro-
cure a repeal of the penal laws againft Roman Catholics,
and the other to bring about a union with England. He
fent to confult lord Harcourt, then lord heutenant, and his
intimate friend, about thefe meafures ; and though lord
Rochford had at firft deemed them vlfionary, and lord
Harcourt pointed out fuch difficulties as prevented his
friend from undertaking them, ftill it is evident that both
noblemen regarded them as meafures calculated to promote
the general welfare. The oppofition to a union, which
lord Harcourt apprehended in 1776, would have been
greater in 1785. " To carry this into effeft," fays Mr.
Newcnham, " was an achievement which required much
time ; much addrefs ; much vigilance, with I'egard to op-
pertunities ; much difcernment, with regard to feleflion ;
much promptitude, and much energy d^iring the feafon of

eftion ; for the parliament of Ireland had become attaclied
to its ariftocracy ; and the people of Ireland had been ren-
dered enthufiartic in behalf of national independence, and
exemption from the paralyfing controul of Britain. Indeed,
as the writer well remembers, it was confidered as almofl.
amounting to treafon againft the nation, to utter a fyllablc
in favour of a union. The parliament was iludious to pre-
ferve independence, chiefly on account of its tendency to
enhance the fervices of individual members. The people
were ftudious to preferve it, becaufe it afforded them a
better profpeft of patriotic meafures than they had before.
But they were alfo anxious to reform the parliament, in
order to infure the adoption of thofe meafures which the
priv.ite interefts of a majority of the members induced them
to oppofe."

In 1785, then, all parties would have joined in rejeiEling a
union with abhorrence ; and the minifter found it necefTary
to give up his commercial fvftem, though beneficial to Ire-
land, becaufe it involved a partial funender of legiflative in-
dependence. Circumftances however occurred, which
rendered fome means of ftrengthening the connexion be-
tween the two countries abfolutely neceffary.

In 1788 it pleafed God to afflitt our good and beloved
king with a malady which difabled him from exercifing his
royal functions. The parliament of Great Britain deter-
mined, after long deliberations, to appoint the prince of
Wales regent, with reftriftions ; and whilft their deliber-
ations depended, the parhament of Ireland met, and almoft
inftantaneoufly refolved that an addrefs fhould be prefented
to the prince, requefting him to take upon himfelf the go-
vernment during his majefty's indifpofition, under the ftyle
and title of prince regent of Ireland. There was here a
choice of a regent before the Britifh parliament had come to
a decifion, and though the choice fell on the fame perfon-
agc, yet that perfonage would have had different powers in
the two kingdoms. It was a proof indeed of independ-
ence, but it was inconfiftent with the connexion ; for if
Ireland could choofe her regent, her choice might fall on a
different individual from the regent of Great Britain. The
convalefcencc of the king prevented any evil ; but the con-
duft of the Iriffi parhament fupplied the advocates of union
with a powerful argument : and if Mr. Pitt had been before
undecided, this would probably determine him to take the
firft opportunity of carrying it into effeft. In the meau
time many circumftances prepared the way. The dif-
turbances refpefting tithes contributed to religious diffen-
tions ; the Proteftants became alaimcd at the idea of a Popifh
parliament ; and the Catholics were irritated at what tiiey
conceived their juft rights being withheld. In 1792 the
Catholics prefented two petitions to the houfe of commons,
the firft of which was withdrawn, and the fecond was re-
jefted on a divifion of 228 to 25 ; and it was complained
that the Cathohcs of Ireland had not influence to induce
any one member of parhament to patronize their petition, fo
faint was the fupport given to it, even by thofe who voted
for receiving it. Yet in the next feffion of parliament,
without any change of circumftances in the country, the
fame houfe of commons, which had refufed to allow the
petition of three-fourths of their countrymen to lie on their
table, on the recommendation of the crown pafled a bill,
granting every privilege for which the Catholics had peti-
tioned, and even without the reftriftions on the right of
voting, which they had themfelves propofed. Could any
proceeding have tended more to deitroy the confidence of
the people in their reprefentatives ?

In 1795, during the viceroyalty of lord Fitzwilliam, the

Catholics

UNION.

Catholics were led by the friends of that nobleman in Ire-
land to bring forward their demand for a full emancipation
with a profpeft of fuccefs ; and foon after, in confequence
either of the Englifh cabinet having changed their opinion,
or of his lordfhip having gone beyond his agreement with
them, he was recalled, and a confiderable irritation of the
Catholic body was the confequence. This was taken ad-
vantage of by thofe who had revolutionary feelings, and
who well knew how to avail themfelves of the popular
ferment. Inftigated by the fuccefs of the French, and
maintaining a fecret communication with the republican
government, an organization of the people took place ; a
direiJlory was formed, which confifted of leading members
of the fociety of united Irifhmen ; and in 1798, a rebellion
broke out, which, though foon fubdued, was attended by
circumflances that left the country in a very diftrafted
ftate. If the firft French expedition, in 1 796, had not been
difperfed by a ilorm ; and the fecond, in 1798, been too
late to aft in concert with the rebels, Ireland would, in all
probability, have felt the evils of feparation from England,
and of French conneftion, and the people would have learned
from bitter experience to value the privileges of Britifli
fubjefts ; but difappointed of foreign aid, the rebels were
fhortly reduced, and it became the arduous taflt of govern-
ment, by a combination of vigour and of mercy, to reftore
tranquillity. It has indeed been aflerted, that government
could have fupprefled the rebellion without any effort, or
rather have entirely prevented it ; but that they facilitated
its growth, and accelerated its explofion, with a view to
bring about their favourite meafure of union. The con-
felTion of the members of the Irifli direftory, and other
leaders, afford ample proof to every candid perfon that fuch
a charge is unfounded ; and that if minillers had afted in
the manner recommended by their parliamentary opponents,
all exertion to fave the country would have been in vain.
Such a charge is equally the refult of party virulence, as
that which attributed to Mr. Grattan and his Whig friends
a participation in the rebellion. But though it would be
uncandid to fuppofe that government excited or facilitated
the rebellion with a view of bringing about the union, it is
certain, that when this aufpicious conjunfture did occur, the
minifter loft no time in bringing it forward. The rebellion
took place in 1798, and in the fuccccding fclTion of parlia-
ment the union was difcuffed.

Previous, however, to the meeting of parliament, a pam-
phlet pubhfhed in favour of the meafure, which was attri-
buted to Edward Cooke, efq. one of the under-fccretarics,
produced a controverfy, which was carried on with much
fpirit. The repugnance to the meafure was very great ;
lome of the principal officers of the crown declared their
determination to oppofe it, and loft their fituations in confe-
<}uence ; the majority of the gentlemen of the bar took the
fame fide, and feveral meetings of counties and large towns
were held for the purpofe of inftrufting their rcprefent-
atives to oppofe it. Some of thefe were mfluenced by the
utter incompatibility of the union with their private in-
tcrcfts, and otheiis by high notions of Irilh independence, as
fettled in 1782.

On the 22d of January, 1799, the queftion of union was
regularly brought before parliament by the marquis Corn-
wallis, the lord lieutenant, who concluded his fjiccch from
the throne in thefe words ; " The more I have reflcftid on the
Jituation and circumftances of this kingdom, confidering on
the one hand the ftrength and ftability of Great Britain, and
on the other thofe divifions which have fliaken Ireland to
its foundation, the more anxious I am for fomc permanent
adjuftmcnt, which may extend the advantages enjoyed by our

Vol. XXXVII.

fifter kingdom to every part of this ifland. The unremitting
induftry with which our enemies perfevere in their avowed
defign of endeavouring to en"eft a feparation of this kingdom
from Great Britain, muft have engaged your particular at-
tention ; and his majefty commands me to exprefs his anxious
hope that this confidcration, joined to the fcntiment of mu-
tual aftcftion and common intereft, may difpofe the parlia-
ments in both kingdoms to provide the moft effeftual means
of maintaining and improving a conneftion, eftontial to their
common fecurity, and of confolidatir.g, as far as poffible,
into one firm and lafting fabric, the ftrength, the power,
and the refourccs of the Britifli empire."

The addrefs, which was moved by the earl of Tyrone,
eldeft fon of the marquis of Waterford, the head of the
Beresford family, and feconded by colonel Uniacke Fitz-
gerald, one of the members for the county of Cork, only
intimated a readinefs to difcufs any meafure hkely to cement
and ftrengthen the conneftion, but the oppofcrs of it would
not allow even of this. An amendment was accordingly
moved by Mr. George Ponfonby, an eminent barriftcr, who
fince filled the high office of lord chancellar of Ireland during
the lieutenancy of the duke of Bedford, and on retiring from
it, became leader of the oppofition in the Brililh parliament,
a man of great talents united with great moderation and
judgment, and feconded by fir Laurence Parfons, now earl
of Rofs, and one of the poftmafters-gcneral. The amend-
ment was, that after the paffage which declares the willing-
nefs of the houfe to enter on a confideration of what mea-
fures may beft tend to confirm the common ftrength of the
empire, ftiould be inferted, " maintaining, however, the un-
doubted birth-right of the people of Ireland to have a refi-
dent and independent legiflature, fuch as it was recognifcd
by the Britifti legiflature in 1782, and was finally fettled at
the adjuftment of all differences between the two countries."
This amendment was fupported by fir John Parnell and
Mr. J. Fitzgerald, who had been juft removed from the
offices of chancellor of the exchequer and prime ferjeant, by
the friends of Mr. Fofter, the fpeaker, by Mr. Plunkct,
and many others, diftinguifhed for their talents, or their
influence in the country. A legiflative union was however
approved by feveral who could not be juftly fufpeftcd of
improper motives, and araongft others by the right ho-
nourable Thomas Conolly, who ufed the ftrong expreffion,
" that the conftitution of 1782 could not work, two inde-
pendent Icgiflatures in one empire being as abfurd and mon-
ftrous as two heads on one pair of fhoulders." This was
indeed a ftriking reafon for a union of Icgiflatures, or fome
other expedient, if any other could be devifed, which would
preclude all poffible future coUifions of fuppofed national
intercfts, efpecially with regard to commercial matters. In
this debate, however, the advocates for a union chiefly con-
fined themfelves to urging the propriety of difcuffing the
meafure coolly and impartially, when it had been recom-
mended by the crown. Tlie oppofcrs of it took a wider
range. Almoft all the lawyers who fpokc denied the
competence of parliament to entertain the queftion. In
1785, Mr. Grattan had maintained " th.it parliament w.is
not omnipotent to accomplifli their own deftruftion, and
propagate death to their fucceffiirs ; that they, the limited
truftees of delegated powers, born for a particular pur-
pod-, confined to a particular time, and bearing an invio-
lable relationfliip to the people who fcnt them to parliament,
could not break that rclationfhip, counteradl that purpofe,
or derogate from thofe privileges they lived but to prefervc."
This opinion was maintained by feveral, and Mr. Plunkct, one
of the moft eloquent fpeakers, as well as one of the ablcft
Jawycrs the country has produced, in exprefs terms denied
3 C the

UNION.

the competency of parliament. " I warn you," faid he,
" do not dare to lay your hand on the conftitution ; I tell
you, that if, circumftanced as you are, you pafs this aft, it
wDl be a mere nullity, and that no man in Ireland will be
bound to obey it ; I make the affertion deliberately, I re-
peat it, and I call on any man who hears me to take down
my words ; yoa have not been elefted for this purpofe ; you
are appointed to make laws and not legiflatures ; you are
appointed to aft under the conftitution, and not to alter it ;
you are appointed to exercife the funftions of legiflators,
and not to transfer them ; and if you do fo, your aft is a
didolution of the government ; you refolve fociety into its
original elements, and no man in the land is bound to obey
)-ou." Such is the ftrong language with which this gentle-
man is reported to have oppofed the union ; yet fince it has
taken place, he has not difdained to be a reprefentative of
Ireland in the imperial parliament, and has been heard with
that attention and admiration to which he is entitled. The
ableft advocate for the competency of parliament was Mr.
William Smith, fon of the mafter of the rolls, and fince one
of the barons of the exchequer, who maintained that a con-
trary " doftrine would not only impugn the exprefs autho-
rity of Coke and Blackftone, and other conftitutional writers,
but would fhake the fabric of our rights and liberties to
its foundation ; would go to cancel the title-deed of 1 706,
by virtue of which his majefty holds his Scottifh crown ;
would queflion the legitimacy of that mixed affembly, which
•was formed by the coalition of the Scotch and Englifh legif-
latures ; and impeach the force of every ftatute which has
been enafted fince their jimftion : and would confound and
violate the very elements of our conftitution, by transferring
the fupreme authority from the parhament to the people."
Whilli on this particular fubjcft it may be obferved, that the
competence of parliament was alfo maintained by that emi-
nent lawyer Barry, lord Yelvcrton, who had taken a lead in
the meafures of 1782. " Union," fays he, " is only a law
common to two ftates ; and to fay that the parliaments of both
are incompetent to frame fuch a law, is to fay that they are
incompetent to anfwer the ends of their inftitution. For a
diftinftion is to be made between the phyfical and moral
power of parhaments. They can do any aft, but there are
certain afts which they ought not to do ; and therefore every
queftion of competence, ultimately refolves itfelf into a quef-
tion of expediency. And furely it will not be argued, that
though Great Britain and Ireland fliould ftand on the preci-
pice of deftruftion ; that though their diftinftnefs muft be
produftive of mifery in the extreme, and union be ever fo
neceftary to their happinefs ; that they muft continue dif-
tinft for want of power to unite : in other words, that
thougli the meafure fliould be ever fo expedient, the parlia-
ments of the two countries are yet incompetent to enaft it.
It is a wretched argument, and fuch as no man in his fenfes
can contend for. ' The bare idea of ajlate,' fays judge Black-
ftone, ' 'without a poiuer fomeiL-here vejled to alter every part of
its laws, (and it is the laws of every country which make its
conftitution,) w the height of political abfurdity." When
men of the greateft knowledge and abilities have held fuch
oppofite opinions on this queftion, it would be prefump-
tuous in the writer of this article to do m.ore than record
their opinions ; but he may be permitted to inquire how it
has happened that fucli difference could exift. It appears
to him, that thofe who deny the competence, refer to fome
original compaft or conftitution, fuch as the National Con-
vention eftabhfhed in France, from which there is no power
of departing, without the confent of an aflembly, chofen for
this purpofe ; but where is fuch compaft to be found ?
Was there ever a period when the government of England

or of Ireland was to be fet up anew, and when it was referred
to any fingle perfon, or aflembly or committee to frame a
charter for the future government of the country, or when
a conftitution fo prepared and digefted, was by common
confent received and eftabliftied ? The advocates of the
competence of parliament, on the other hand, evidently con-
fider the conftitution to be founded on afts of parliament, on
decifions of courts of law, and on immemorial ufages. As
therefore parhaments had united Wales and Scotland to
England, and as the power of parliament to do whatever it
deemed expedient had not been queftioned in former times,
they faw no folid objeftion to the competence of the inde-
pendent parhaments of Great Britain and Ireland to form
a junftion for the common benefit. The conftitution of
England has grown out of occafion and emergency, from
the fluftuating policy of different ages ; from the contentions,
fucceffes, interefts, and opportunities of diff^erent orders and
parties of men in the community. There is no regular plan
to be referred to, and therefore Paine faid that we had no
conftitution. To return to the debate on Mr. Ponfonby's
amendment, after feventy-three members had given their
opinion for or againft it, a divifion took place, and it was
loft by a majority of one only. Encouraged by fuch a clofe
divifion, the oppofition ufed greater exertions ; and when, two
days after, the amendment was again moved on this report,
it was carried by 109 to 104. This prevented the further
dircft difcuffion of the queftion during that feflion, the
minifter declaring it would not be again brought forward
until its introduftion ftiould be juftified by public fentiment.
In the houfe of lords, feveral amendments were propofed,
but the original addrefs was carried by 52 to 17. In the
minority was James, earl of Charlemont, a nobleman whofe
conduft was ever guided by what he deemed the intereft of
Ireland, and whom no felfifti motives could fwerve. The
protcft he figned on this occafion was one of the laft afts of
his public hfe, as he died on the 4th of Auguft, 1799, before
the meafure could be again brought forward. As one of the
arguments in favour of a union was the conduft of the Irilh
parliament during the king's illnefs, which might have led
to two feparate and diftinft governments, Mr. Ponfonby
brought in a bill to regulate the appointment of a regent,
the difcuflions on which included the queftion of union.
This bill went to enaft that the regal power of the two
kingdoms fiiould refide in the fame perfon, and that the
regent of Ireland fliould be fubjeft to the fame reftriftions
as the regent of England, thus giving up the fupremacy of
the Irifii legiflature. The bill was oppofed by lord Caftle-
reagh, on the ground that it v/as incomplete, and that the
danger of feparation could not be cured by half-meafures,
and it was finally loft. In the committee on it, however,
the fpeaker, Mr. Fofter, had the firft opportunity of deliver-
ing his fentiments againft the union, which he availed him-
felf of in a fpeech which was publiihed, and which by its
able details contributed very much to confirm members in
their oppofition to the meafure. At the clofe of the feflion,
the lord lieutenant again introduced the fubjeft ; and, after
noticing the joint addrefs of the two houfes of parhament of
Great Britain, recommending a complete and entire union be-
tween Great Britain and Ireland, faid, "that his majefty, as the
common father of his people, muft look forward with eamefl
anxiety to the moment when, in conformity to the fenti-
ments, wifhes, and real interefts of his fubjefts in Great
Britain and Ireland, they may all be infeparably united in the
full enjoyment of the bleffings of a free conftitution, in the
fupport of the honour and dignity of his majefty's crown,
and in the prefervation and advancement of the welfare and
profperity of the whole Britifh empire."

The

UNION.

The proceedings in the parliament of Great Britain will
now demand our attention. On the 22d ot January, 1799,
the fame day on which it was brought before the Irifh par-
liament, a mcdage from the king was delivered to the houfe
of lords, by lord Grenvllle, one of the fecretaries of ftate,
and to the houfe of commons by Mr. Dundas, the other
f'cretary, recommending it to both houfes toconfidcr of the
moft effectual means of finally defeating the defign of fepa-
rating Ireland from England, and of fettling fuch a com-
plete and final adjuftment as would beft tend to improve and
perpetuate a conneftion effential for their common fecurity,
and to confolidate the ftrength, power, andrefources of the
Bntifh empire. In the lords, an addrefs exprefling a readi-
nefs to concur i"n any meafure which might be found nccef-
fary or expedient towards the confolidatioii of the general
interefts of the Britirti empire, was carried without oppo-
fition ; but in the commons, a fimilar addrefs was warmly
oppofed by Mr. Sheridan, who ufed arguments of the fame
nature as thofe of the Irifh oppofition. He particularly
dwelt upon its being a breach of what he called the final
arrangement in 1782, and it was much difputed, whether
this had been intended to be final or not. General Fitz-
patrielc, who had b^-en fecretary to the duke of Portland,
lord lieutenant at that time, as well as Mr. Grattan and
others, maintained that it was fo underftood ; whillt the duke
of Portland himfelf and lord Yelverton alTerted that further
meafures were in contemplation. It feem. a matter of httle
confequence in what manner it was regarded at that time,
but as the veracity of neither party can be called in queltion,
it affords a ftriking proof of the difficulty of afcertaining
the views by which public men are aftuated. Mr. Sheridan
moved an amendment, but it was feebly fupported, and
finally withdrawn. On the 31(1 of January, notwithftanding
the amendment adverfe to a union, which had been carried
in Ireland, Mr. Pitt brought forward eight refolutions in a
committee of the houfe, which were to form a ground-work
for articles of union. He did not difpute the competence
of the parhament of Ireland to accept or rejeCl any pro-
pofition, but he had a right, as a member of the parlia-
ment of Great Britain, " to exprefs the gener;d nature
and outhne of the plan, which, in his ellimation, would
tend to infurc the fafety and the happinefs of the two
kingdoms." In the courfe of a very eloquent fpeech, Mr.
Pitt faid, " in anfwer to the queftion, what are the pofitive
advantages that Ireland is to derive from a union, I might
enumerate the general advantages which Ireland would de-
rive from the effects of the arrangement, the protecfion
which the will fecure to herfelf in the hour of danger; the
mofl effcftual means of increafing her commerce, and im-
proving her agriculture ; the command of Englifli capital ;
the infufion of Enghfh manners and Englifh mdullry, nc-
ccflarily tending to ameliorate her condition, to accelerate
the progrefs of internal civilization, and to terminate tliofc
feuds and difl'enfions which now diftraC^l the country, and
which fhe does not pofTefs, within herfelf, the power either
to controul or to extinguifh. Slie would fee tiie avenue
to honours, to dillintlions, and exalted fituations in the
general feai of empire, opened to all thofe wliofe abilities
and talents enable them to indulge an honourable and lau-
dable ambition. But, iTidependent of all thefe advantages,
I might alfo anfwer, that the queftion is not what Ire-
land IS to gain, but what Ihe is to preferve ; not merely
how (he may befl improve her fituation, but liow fhe is
to avert a preffing and immediate danger. In this view,
what file gains is the prelervatioii of all thofe blefiings
arifing from the Britilh conlUiution, ami which are infepa-
rablc from her conncdion with Great Briiain."

The right honourable gentleman then proceedr;d to flate,
that a union would be the means of fecuring permanently
to Ireland the great commercial advantages which fhe then
held at the difcretion of Great Britain, while it would
open a more free and complete commercial intercourfe •
and intimated, that " if ever the overLoariuT power of
prejudice and paffion fliould produce that fatal confequence
( reparation), it would too late be perceived and acknow-
ledged, that all the great commercial advantages which
Ireland at prefent enjoys, and which are continually in-
creafing, were to be afcribed to the liberal conduft, the fof-
tering care, of the Britilb empire, extended to the filler
kingdom as to a part of ourfelves, and not to any thing
which had been done, or could be done, by the independent
power of her own fcparate legillature." After enlarging
upon fome other points, and replying to fome objeftions, he
concluded with moving that the refolutions be referred to a
committee of the whole houfe. Mr. Sheridan urged that,
" under the prefent circumflances of tlie convulfed and
difordered fyftem of pohcy and general goverimient of Ire-
land, it was not only impolitic, but even unfafe, to agitate
the difcufTiou of topics, the iffues of which were to lay the
moil hardy and flout-hearted proflrate at the feet of a
Britifh minifler." Tliis indeed feemed to be the principal
objection urged againfl the refolutions, that the difcufCon
would tend to inflame Ireland, already in a flate of
confiderable irritation. When the houfe divided on the
([ueflion of the fpeakcr's leaving the chair, the ayes were
140, the noes 15. On the 7th of February, the day fixed
for confidering the refolutions, Mr. Sheridan, after fome
prefatory remarks on the flate of Ireland, in the courfe
of which he allerted that all the advantages propofed
might take place without a union, moved the following
refolutions :

" That no meafures could have a tendency to improve and
perpetuate the ties of amity and conneftion, now exifling be-
tween Great Britain and Ireland, which have not for their
bafis the manifefl, fair, and free confent of the two countries.
That whoever fitall endeavour to obtain the appearance
of fuch confent and approbation, in either country, by em-
ploying the influence of government for the purpofcs of
corruption and intimidation, is an enemy to his majefly and
the conllitution."

In the latter rciblution, Mr. Sheridan particularly al-
luded to the difmiilal of the chancellor of the exchequer
and prime ferjeant, becaute they would not fupport the
union ; but Mr. Pitt maintained, that if many gentlemen
were connefted together with the fair intention of afting for
the fervice of their country, it would be neceffary, in order
to preferve a unity of aClion, that they fhould agree in their
fyllem. The previous queflion was carried by 141 to 25.
In the debate which followed on the motion for the fpeaker's
leaving the chair, Mr. Grey (now earl Grey 1 urged, that the
calamities of Ireland were not caufed by the independence of
her legiflature, but had been in great meafure owing to the
conduct of government. " Look," faid he, " at the liif-
tory of Ireland, and you will find, that if it had not been
fir the interference of Britilh councils, and of Dritilh in-
trigue, none, or but few of the evils which were felt would
ever have taken place : evils of which government was the
parent, and whicit were now made the reaton tor taking
away all the femblance of liberty among the Irifli people.
All the feuds ami religious aninioilties and dilieiilions which
had diltraCled lieiand had been caufed by government, and
yet government was making ule of thefe evils as a pretext
for taking away the liberty of the people of Ireland."
The motion was carried by 1 49 t" 24 ; but from the latenefs
3 C 2 of

UNION.

of the hour, ihe coulkleration of the rerolulioiis was de-
ferred. On the I ith of February another long debate took
place, in which the topics chiefly difcuffed were the con-
duft of the minifter to the Catholics in 1795, and the fet-
tlementof 1782, ,.hich rendered it neceffary to put off the
main fubiea til) the following day, on which the houfe «^nt
into a committee. The firll refolution, ftatmg the utihty
of uniting the two kingdoms, was oppofed by Mr. (now
fir B ) Hobhoufc, and Mr. Bankes, and fupported in a
very able fpeech by the fpeaker (now lord vifcount Sid-
mouth) The debate was not long, and all the reiolutions
were adopted without any divifion. On the 1 6th of Fe-
bruary, on the quellion being put that the report be brought
up, there was an animated debate, in which fevcral members
delivered their opinions, chiefly in favour of the meafure :
after which the refolutions were agreed to feriatim, and fent
to the houfe of lord?. The arguments ufed in that houfe
were fimilar to thofe in the commons ; the oppofition was
chiefly made by the earls Fitzwilliam and Moira, and lord
HoUand, but no divifion took place. Several able fpeeches
were delivered in favour of a union, fome of which, parti-
cularly thofe of lords Auckland and Minto, were printed fe-
parately, and circulated throughout Ireland. The marquis
of Lanfdowne, and the bifhop of LlandafF (Dr. Watfon),
though not in the habit of fupportmg minifters, were fa-
-^ourable to the meafure. On the refolutions being returned
by the houfe of lords, with an addrefs to his majefly, m
which the concurrence of the commons was requefted, Mr.
Pitt moved that concurrence on the 22d of Apnl, and after
a debate, in which nothing was advanced, the addrefs was

aoreed to. . ,

" The refolutions thus agreed to were, i. " That in order
to promote and fecure the effential interefts of Great Britain
:ind Ireland, and to confolidate the ftrength, power, and re-
fources of the Britifli empire, it will be advifable to concur
in fuch meafures as may beft tend to unite the two kingdoms
of Great Britain and Ireland into one kingdom, m fuch
manner, and on fuch terms and conditions, as may be efta-
bhfhed by afls of the refpedive parhaments of his majefty's
faid kingdoms. 2. That it would be fit to propofe, as the
firft article, to ferve as a bafis of the faid union, that the
faid kingdom.s of Great Britain and Ireland fliall, upon a
day to be agreed upon, be u.nited into one kingdom, by the
name of th: Ur.ittd Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
3. That for the lame purpofe it would be fit to propofe,
that the fucceflion to the monarchy and the imperial crown
of the faid united kingdom, (hall continue limited and fet-
tled in the fame manner as the imperial crown of the
faid kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland now Hands
limited and fettled, according to the exifting laws, and
to the terms of the union between England and Scot-
land. 4. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to pro-
pofe, that the faid united kingdom be reprefented in one
and the fame parhament, to be ftyled the Parliament of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; and that fuch
a number of lords, fpiritual and temporal, and fuch a num-
ber of members of the houfe of commons, as (hall be here-
after agreed upon by afts of the refpeftive parhaments as
aforefaid, Ihall fit and vote in the faid parliament on the part
of Ireland, and fliall be fummoned, chofen, and returned, in
fuch manner as fliall be fixed by an aft of parliament of Ireland
previous to the faid union ; and that every member hereafter
to fit and vote in the faid parliament of the united kingdom
(hall, until the faid parliament (hall otherwife provide, take
and fubfcribe the fame oaths, and make the fame declarations,
as arc by law required to be taken, fubfcribed, and made
by the members of the parhaments of Great Britain and

7

Ireland. 5. That for the fame purpoic it would be tit to
propote, that the churches of that part of Great Britain
called England, and of that part of Great Britain called
Scotland, and of Ireland, and the doftrine, wor(hip, difci-
plir.e, and government thereof, (hall be preferved as now by
law eftablilhed. 6. That for the fame purpofe it would be
fit to propofe, that his raajefl;y's fubjefts in Ireland fhall at all
times hereafter be entitled to the fame privileges, and be oii
the fame footing in refpeft of trade and navigation in all
ports and places belonging to Great Britain, and in all cafes
with refpect to which treaties (hall be made by his majedy,
his heirs and fucceflfors, with any foreign power, as his ma-
jelly's fubjefts in Great Britain ; that no duty fliall be im-
pofed on the import or export between Great Britain and
Ireland, of any articles now duty free ; and that on other
articles there fhall be eftablirtied, for a time to be limited,
fuch a moderate rate of equal duties, as fliall, previous to
the union, be agreed upon and approved by the refpcftive
parliaments, fubjeft, after the expiration of fuch limited
time, to be diminiflied equally with refpcft to both king-
doms, but in no cafe to be incre.ifed ; that all articles
which may at any time hereafter be imported into Great
Britain from foreign parts, (hall be importable through either
kingdom into the other, fubjeft to the like duties and regu-
lations, as if the fame were imported dircdlly from foreiga
parts : that where any articles, the growth, produce, or
manufaiflure of either kingdom, are fubjeft to any internal
duty in one kingdom, fuch countervailing duties (over and
above any duties on import, to be fixed as aforefaid) (hall
be impofed as (hall be neceffar)', to prevent any inequality in
that refpeft. And that all other matters of trade and com-
merce, other than the foregoing, and than fuch others as
may before the union be fpecially agreed upon for the due
encouragement of the agriculture and manufaftures of the
refpeiftive kingdoms, (hall remain to be regulated from time
to time by the united parhament. 7. That for the fame
purpofe it would be fit to propofe, that the charge arifing
from the payment of the intereft or finking fund for the re-
duftion of the principal of the debt incurred in either king-
dom before the union, (hall continue to be feparately de-
frayed by Great Britain and Ireland refpeftively. That for
a number of years to be limited, the future expences of the
united kingdom, in peace or war, (hall be defrayed by
Great Britain and Ireland jointly, according to fuch propor-
tions as fliall be eftabhflied by the refpeftive parliaments pre-
vious to the union ; and that after the expiration of the time
to be fo hmited, the mode of jointly defraying fuch expences
(hall be regulated according to fuch rules and principles as
(hall be in hke manner agreed upon previous to the union,
for the purpofe of eflablifliing gradually an uniform fyllena
of taxation through every part of the united kingdom.
8. That for the fame purpofe it would be fit to propofe, that
all laws in force at the time of the union, and all the courts
of civil or eccleCaftical jurifdiftion within the refpeftive
kingdoms, (hall remain as now by law eftabhlhed wi liii the
fame, fubjeft only to fuch alterations or regulations, from
time to time, as circumftaiices may appear to the parliament
of the united kingdom to require."

Such were the refolutions fubmitted by the lords and com-
mons of Great Britain to the king, as beft calculare J to form
the bafis of a ilnion, and which were afterwaros Lid before
the Irilh parliament. The fixth and fevepth p/opofitions
contain much matter for difculfion, in fettling tiie duties and
proportions ; but the general outhne appears to be founded
on equal and hberal principles. The next rbjeft was to fe-
cure fuch a majority in the Irilh houfe of commons, and
fuch declarations in favour of it, as would enable the Irifli

government

UNION.

jvovei'iiment to bring it before parliament in the eiifiiing fef-
lioii. During the fummer of 1799, the lord lieutenant
▼ifited many parts of Ireland, with a view to conciliate
jarring interelis, and was received with great marks of
refpeft.

This nobleman had, by his conciliating humanity, en-
gaged the affeftions, and by his exalted virtues and great mi-
litary talents, had attrafted the efteem and the confidence of
the nation. He was therefore peculiarly qualified for fuch
a purpofe. Addrefies were prefented to him by public
bodies, wherever he direfted his courfe, moft of which
expreffed or implied approbation of a union, and the
papers were crowded with declarations in favour of that
meafure, figned by the principal landed proprietors. The
fecretary, lord Caftlereagh, alfo, was not idle ; feveral who
had been adverfe to the union were induced either to change
their opinion, or to refign their feats ; and it was generally
fuppofed that the minifter would not be again in a minority.
Much has been faid of the corruption ufed on this occafion ;
it has been charged repeatedly in parliament, and but faintly
denied, yet charges of this kind are not eafily eftablifhed.
This is certain, that either from gratitude for their fupport, or
by a previous arrangement, the relatives of many gentlemen
who voted for this meafure were promoted in various ways ;
and that for years after, what were called union engagements
obftrufted almoft any other preferment at the bar, in the
church, or in the revenue and ftate offices. Some have vin-
dicated this as neceflary to the attainment of a great benefit,
but the true patriot will never admit that a good end will
juftify dilhoneil means ; and whatever pofterity may think of
the meafure itfelf, the impartial inquirer will be compelled to
acknowledge that it had not the unbiajfed fupport of a ma-
jority of the two houfes of parliament, and that it was re-
garded with abhorrence by the "Teat body of the people.
At the fame time, no exertions were fpared by the oppofers
of the meafure ; feats were vacated to bring hi aftive com-
batants ; money was faid to be fubfcribed to purchafe bo-
roughs ; and other means, perhaps not ftriftly conftitutional,
were reforted to. Forty-eight members were brought in by
one fide or the other, in place of gentlemen who retired,
and eight or nine were re-clcfted, on being appointed to lu-
crative places under the crown.

On the 15th of January, 1800, the lord lieutenant
opened the fi-fiion, by a fpeech from the throiie, in which
,10 mention was made of the union, and of courfe it was
unnoticed in the addrefs propofed by the friends of
adminillration ; but Mr. Ponfonby, having required the
fpeech of the lord lieutenant at the clofe of the lali fcffion,
in which he noticed the proceedings of the Critidi parlia-
ment, to be read, moved as an amendment to the addrefs,
" humbly to affurc his majefty, that this kingdom is infepa-
rably united with Great Britain, and that it is the fenti-
ments, wifhes, and real interefts of all his majefly's fub-
jefks, that it ever fhall continue fo united, in the full en-
joyment of the bleflings of a free conftitution, in the fup-
port of the honour and dignity of his majefty '3 crown,
and in the prefervation and advancement of the welfare and
profperity of the whole empire, which blefTings of a free
conftitution we owe to the fpirited affertion of tliis king-
dom of its birth-right to a free and independent parlia-
ment rcfident within it, and to the parental kindnefs of
your majclly, and the liberality of the Britifli parliament,
ratifying the fame in the year 1782, and which we have
at all times felt, and do now particularly feel it our bounden
duty to maintain." Ninety-fix members voted for this
amendment, and one hundred and thirty-eight againft it,
fo that the rainifter had a majority of foriy-iiuo, on that

queilion, on which, in the preceding fefllon, there wa« a
majority of fve aganiil him. On tiic 5th of February,
after a number of petitions agamR the union had been laid
on the table, the bufinefs was form.illy introduced by a mcf-
fage from the lord lieutenant, in wliic'i. his excellency Hated
that he had it in command from his majeftj to lav before both
houfes of legillature the refolutions of tht Britifii parlia-
ment, and to recommend to their confiderationthe gre.it ob-
jefts they embrace.

A long and fpirited debate took place, in confeqnence of
which the houfe did not adjourn till half paft tuclve on the
following day, when a motion for referring the lord lieu-
tenant's meffage to a committee was carried by a maji;rity
of 43 ; the ayes, including the tellers, being 158, and the
noes 117; fo that, reckoning the fpeaker, 276 members
were prefent at the divifion. The great abilities of Mr.
Grattan, which had been voluntarily call into obfcurity, by
his retiring from parhament, were once more brou'Tht before
the public on this interefting occafion. Mr. Saurin and
Mr. Buflie, who now fill the important fituations of attor-
ney and folicitor general, alfo diftinguifhed themfelves in
oppofition to the meafure, in addition to the gentlemen who
fpoke in the preceding felTion ; fo that lord Caftlereagh,
with very inadequate fupport, had to withftand a combi-
nation of men of talents, fuch as have feldom co-operated
on any other occafion. It feemed as if in this laft ftruggle
for independence, Ireland had united all her powers of elo-
quence, farcafm, and inveftive, to refift her fuppofed
enemies. In a debate which took place in the committee
of the whole houfe, on the firll article of the union, Mr.
Grattan oppoled the meafure with fuch a degree of vehe-
mence, that the chancellor of the exchequer (Mr. Ifaac
Corry ) accufed him of alTociating with traitors, and of dif-
affeftion to the government. The reply of Mr. Grattan
to this harlh and unwarrantable charge was fo pointed and
fevere, that Mr. Corry conceived himfelf under a necedity
of relenting it by a challenge. A meeting enfued, and Mr.
Corry was wounded. The queftion, however, was carried
by a majority of 161 againft; 1 1 j ; and as the difcufiion pro-
ceeded, the numbers of oppofition appeared to diminilh.
There was, however, no relaxation of the energy with
which the union was oppofed. The table of the houfe
was crowded with petitions, the debates were frequently
protrafted through the whole niglit, and the minifter was
harafied by frequent divifions. On the 13th of March, be-
fore the committee had gone through the refolutions, fir
John Parnell moved, " That an humble addrefs be prefented
to his majefty, praying that he will be gracioufly pleafed
to diflolve the prefent parliament, and call a new one,
before any final meafure ftiall be concluded refpedling a Ic-
giflative union between Great Britain and Ireland." This
motion was, of courfe, fupported by all the force of
the anti-unionifts ; but on the divifion it was loft by a
majority of 46. A fimilar divifion, after a very long de-
bate, took place on tlie queftion for receiving the report of
the committee, which was delivered on the 21ft of March,
and being agreed to by t!ie houfe, was fent to the lords for
their concurrence. On the 27th of March, the refolutions
were returned with fome amendments, the leading articles
hiving been carried in the upper houfe by a majority of 75
to 26. On the 2d of April, the refolutions, as they finally
paffed the Irifli parliament, were laid before the Britifh
houfe, in which, though there were feveral fpirited debate?,
the meafure was carried by a great majority. In the lords,
the principle was carried by 82 to 3, and the final divifion
was 75 for and 7 againft. In the commons, a motion of
Mr. Grey's for an addrefs to his majefty, " That he would

be

UNION.

be gracioufly pleafed to fufpend all proceedings on the
Irilli union till the fentiments of the Irifh people refpefting
that meafure could be afcerUmed ;" was rejefted by 236 to
io. The bill founded on thefe refolutions received the
royal affent in Englai--<i on the 2d of July, and in Ireland
on the lit of AufA) vvhen the lord lieutenant, on proro-
guing parliament', congratulated it on the accompliftiment
of tliis great »'ork.

As the general outline of the meafure, already dated in
the refolations of the Britifh parliament, was not departed
from snd as much of the detail muft be unintercfting, it will
be fafficient here briefly to ftate the articles, enlarging only
on thofe points which have not been before noticed. The
firft article was, That the two kingdoms (hould be united for
ever from lit Jan. 1801 ; the fecond, That the fucceffion
to the crown (hould continue as at prefent ; the third,
That the united kingdom (hould be reprefented in one
parliament ; the fourth, That four lords fpiritual, by rota-
tion of feflions, and twenty-eight lords temporal, elefted
for life by the peers of Ireland, fhould fit in the houfe
of lords of the parliament of the united kingdom ; and
that one hundred commoners (two for each county of
Ireland, two for the city of DubUn, two for the city of
Cork, one for the univerfity of Dublin, and one for each
of the thirty-one mofl confiderable cities, towns, and
borouo-hs,) (hould be the number to fit and vote on the
part of Ireland in the houfe of commons of the united
kingdom. Under the fourth article were contained pro-
vifions, that the Reprefentation Aft of the Iri(h parha-
ment (hould form part of the treaty of union ; that the
rotation and eleftion of the lords (Spiritual and temporal
(hould be according to a form prefcribed ; that Iri(h peers,
who are not elefted to ferve as peers, may ferve as Britilh
commoners, during which time they are not to have any
privilege of peerage ; that the crown may create new Iri(h
peers on the extinction of others, under certain regulations,
fo that one hundred may be kept up over and above thofe
entitled to an hereditary feat in the houfe of lords of the
united kingdom ; that peerages in abeyance (hall be confi-
dered as exifting peerages ; that queftions touching the
eleftion of Irifh commoners (hall be decided in the fame
manner as thofe touching Englilh ones, fubjeft to fuch
particular regulations as local circumllances may require,
and the united parliament deem expedient ; that quabfica-
tions as to property (hall be the fame in both parts of the
united kingdom ; that the king may conftitute the lords
and commons of the prefent parliament of Great Britain,
members of the refpeftive houfes of the firll parliament of
the united kingdom, on the part of Great Britain, to (it
writh thofe returned for Ireland ; that no more than twenty
Iri(h commoners holding places (hall fit in the united parlia-
ment ; that the lords of parliament on the part of Ireland,
fliall have the fame privileges as thofe of Great Britain, and
take precedency next to thofe of the fame rank ; and that
the peers of Ireland, not reprefentatives, (hall have all pri-
vileges of peerage, except the right and privilege of fitting
in the houfe of lords, and on the trial of peers. The fifth
article provided for the union of the churches of England
and Ireland, fo that the prefervatiou of the faid united
church (hould be deemed an effential and fundamental part
of the union. By the fixth article, his majefty's fubjefts
of Great Britain and Ireland are from the ill of January,
1 801, entitled to the fame privileges, and are to be on the
fame footing as to encouragements and bounties on tlie like
articles, and in refpeft of trade and navigation in all places
in the united kingdom and its dependencies ; there is to be no
duty or bounty on exportation of the produce of one country

to the other ; but there fnall be countervailing duties on fe-
veral articles enumerated, fomc for twenty years only, and
others as the united parliament may dircft, but never to ex-
ceed thofe paid at the time of the union. By the feventh
article, the charges for debts incurred by either kingdom be-
fore the union (hall be feparately defrayed ; for twenty years
the contribution towards the expenditure of Great Britain
and Ireland (hall be as fifteen to two, after which the ex-
penditure fliall be defrayed in fuch proportion as the parlia-
ment of the united kingdom (hall deem juft and reafonable,
according to a fyftem detailed in the article ; the revenues of
Ireland (liall be a confolidated fund, which (hall be charged in
the firft inftance with the intereft of the debt of Ireland, and
with the finking fund apphcable to the reduftion of the
faid debt, and the remainder (hall be applied towards defray-
ing the proportion of the expenditure of the united king-
dom to which Ireland may be liable in each year. Under
this head it is provided, that no article (hall be more highly
taxed in Ireland than in England ; that any furplus of the
revenues of Ireland (hall be applied to the peculiar benefit
of that country ; that all monies raifed after the union (hall
be a joint debt ; and that premiums for the internal encou-
ragement of agriculture or manufaftures, or for maintaining
inititutions for pious and charitable purpofes, (hall be con-
tinued for twenty years in Ireland. By the eighth article,
all civil and ecclefiaftical laws and courts (hall remain as
eftablilhed at the time, fubjeCt to future alterations ; all
writ;-, of error and appeals (hall be decided by the lords of
the united kingdom ; and there (hall be a court of admiralty
in Ireland, with an appeal to the court of chancery in
Ireland. Such were the provifions of the Aft of Union,
as it was finally paded. We (hall now add an addrefs
moved in the houfe of commons of Ireland on the 6th of
June 1800, the purpofe of which was to record the objec-
tions to this meafure on the journals of parliament. When
we conlider the great abilities of the members who drew up
and fupported it, a Grattan, a Fofter, a Ponfonby, a
Plunket, and many others of diftinguifhed talents, we may
fuppofe that every thing has been urged which ingenuity
could devife, or an acquaintance with the alfairs and interells
of Ireland could fugged ; and, therefore, it (hould be read
by every perfon wilhing to form an opinion on the fubjeft.
It was moved that the following addrefs be prefented to
his majeity.

" We, your majelly's loyal and dutiful fubjefts, the
commons of Ireland, at all times fenfible of the numerous
and elTential advantages which we, in comm.on with your
fubjefts in Ireland, have derived under your aufpicious
reign, beg leave to aflure you, that none have more impreffed
the hearts of your majefty's fubjefts, than the adjuftment, at
your majefty's gracious recommendation, entered into by the
parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland in 1782, thereby
forming the molt folemn compaft which can fubfift between
two countries under a common iovereign ; that the refult
of that compaft was the increafe of our trade .and of our
revenue, together with the harmony of the two parhaments,
and the fupport of the conneftion ; that the faid compaft
on the part of your majefty's parliament of Ireland has
been rehgioufly and beneficially adhered to, inlomuch that
a final tennination of all conltitutional queftions between
the two nations took place, and the commercial points
which at that time remained to be fettled, have fince, with-
out agitation or ferment, been gradually and fatisfaftorily
dilpoied of.

" Tliat under thefe circumftances, it is with the deepeft
concern and the greateft furprife we have feen a meafure
propounded, under the name of Union, to fet afide this

moll

UNION.

mod important and facred covenant, to deprive this country
of her parliament in time to come, and in lieu thereof to
introduce an innovation, confiding of a feparate Irifli go-
vernment without an Irifh parliament, whofe power is to
be transferred to a Britifh parliament without an availing
Irilh reprefentation therein, an innovation fuch as may
impair and corrupt the conftitution of Britain, without
preferving the liberties of Ireland, fo that this country (hall
be in time to come taxed without being duly reprefeiited,
and legiflated for by a body out of the realm, incapable of
applying proper remedies, and remote from the means of
knowing her wants, her wiflies, and her interefts.

" That giving the name of Union to the meafure is a de-
lufion ; the two kingdoms are already united to each other
in one common empire, one in unity of intereft, and unity
of conftitution, as has been emphatically pronounced from
the throne by your majefty's former viceroy ; bound toge-
ther by law, and, what is more effedlual than law, by
mutual intereft, mutual affeftion, and mutual duty, to
promote the common profperity of the empire, and it is
our glory and our happinefs that we form an infeparable
part of it.

" That this union has ftood the teft of ages, unbroken by
the many foreign wars, civil commotions, and rebellions
which have aftailed it ; and we dread the rafti and defperate
innovation which now would wantonly and unneceflarily put
it to the hazard, an innovation which does not affeft to
ftrengthen the unalterable intereft of each country in fup-
porting the revolution that placed your majefty's illuftrious
family on the throne, for that intereft cannot be increafed
by any law ; it is implanted in our hearts, it is interwoven
with our profperity, it grows with our growth, and
ftrengthcns with our ftrength.

" Neither does it profefs to create an intereft in cither
country to preferve their conneilion together, becaufe that
intereft already exifts, and we know and feel that fuch con-
neftion includes all that is dear to us, and is efTential to the
common happinefs, and to the exiftence of both nations.
We therefore do, with all humility, implore your majefty's
proteftion of that glorious revolution, and of that eftential
conneftion againft the perfevcrance of your majefty's mi-
nifters in their endeavours to force this ruinous meafure.

" Their avowed objedt is a union of the two nations, but
the only union they attempt is a union of the two parlia-
ments, and the articles which are to attend their partial and
defeiSive union are all fo many enumerations of exifting
diftinft interefts in the two kingdoms, which it cannot
identify, and which require feparate parliaments refident
in each duly to attend to them. In refpcft to taxes, the
purfe of each nation is vefted in its own houfe of commons
by the principles of the conftitution ; the fecurity of our
liberty, and the great conftitutional balance of the powers
of the ftate, lie in its being left tiiere ; but the articles ac-
knowledge a feparate purfe, and a feparate intereft in that
purfe, by providing for a feparate proportion of expence,
ieparate modes and laws of taxation, feparate debts, fepa-
rate finking funds, feparate treafury, feparate exchequer,
feparate accounts of revenue to be kept, and feparate arti-
cles of produce to be placed in the way of debtor and
creditor between the two kingdoms, as between two uncon-
ncfted parties ; and though they ftate, acknowledge, and
attempt to form regulations for all thcfe many diftinft in-
terefts, which no laws can identify or confolidate ; and
though even the legal intereft of money remains diff^erent
in the two kingdoms without their attempting to afllmilate
it, yet they take away the Irifti paijiament, which thefe
diftindtnelTcs ought rather to have fuggcfted the creation of,

if it did not exift, and they lay the foundation of diftrefs,
difcontent, and jealoufics in t\<k kingdom, if not of worfe
evils, and tend to familiarize ideai of feparation inftead of
union, to the utter ruin of this you. ancient kingdom, and
your loyal fubjefts therein.

" In regard to manufafturee, they acknowledge the inte-
refts in them to be fo diftinft, that they are foiled to provide
in exprefs terms againft a free interccurfe btjig allowed
between the two kingdoms, in more than twenv; general
denominations, and they eftablifh countervaihng duties on
the mutual import of at leaft twenty-four fpecies of goods,
on account of the neceflary difference in taxation, and the
diftinftnefs of revenue, which, from tlie feparate interefts of
the two kingdoms in them, will not admit of confolidation.

" On the mutual interchange of corn, that great neceflary
of life, they not only continue duties, but they provide for
retaining prohibitions and bounties, and inftead of even al-
leging an identity of intereft in fo important and general
an article, they avov,' fuch feparate interefts to exift in it as
law cannot remove ; and an interdift is neceflary to be laid
on its free communication between the two kingdoms, which
your majefty's minifters have at the fame time the hardinefs
to tell us, their projedl is to unite, identify, and confolidate,
throughout all their interefts.

" We fee with them that thefe interefts are diftind, and
we, therefore, raife up our voices to your majefty againlt
their imprafticable attempt to confolidate them ; an attempt
which they themfelves acknowledge to be fo, by their many
provifions, all intended to fecure a continuance of their
diftinAnefs.

♦' But however feparate thefe interefts are in taxes, in re-
venue, in trade, and in manufaftures ; and however incapable
of being identified, we have the happinefs of knowing that
in the great point of conftitution no difference exifts : both
nations have a full right to all the blefiings of the Britifh
conftitution ; and we have an identity, not a diftinftnefs of
intereft, in the pofleflion of it. Yet fuch is the ftrange
paflion of your majefty's minifters for innovation, that not
finding any fuch diftinftncfs, they do by thefe articles
create feveral highly alarming to us, and to all your ma-
jefty's fubjefls of this kingdom, who claim an equal right
with Great Britain in the full and free enjoyment of that
conftitution. All the Irifti temporal lords, except twenty-
eight, are to be incapacitated by this meafure from exer-
cifing their rights and duties as peers and hereditary coun-
fellors, while every Britifli temporal lord is to retain his full
funiSions. Four fpiritual lords only are to have a ftiare in
the legiflature, while all the Britifli fpiritual lords are to
continue theirs ; and two-thirds of the Irifli commoners are
to be difquahfied, while every Britifli commoner remains.
The articles further declare, that all Irifli peerages fliall
be confidered as peerages of the united kingdom, whereby
the Irifli peers, who are to be incapacitated irom Icgiflating
as peers, are to continue peers, and may legiflate as com-
moners, againft every known principle and ellablifhed prac-
tice of the conftitution : nay, even when chofen commoners,
they are not to reprefent any place in Ireland, the country
from which they derive their honours, although their voices
as commoners will extend equally with that of every other
commoner to all the concerns of this kingdom ; and thus the
Irifli purfe will be eventually put into tlie hands of the Irifli
peerage, in direft defiance of a great and fundamental
principle of the conftitution.

" All thefe degrading, dangerous, and unconftitutional
diftinftions arc not only created in the Irifli peerage, bnt are
to remain for ever, without power of alteration, by a pro-
vifion being made in the articles for a conftant creation of

peers

UNION.

peers for Ireland. That tlie Irill: peerage is to be kept for
ever a diftina body from tfct- Britifh, though the projeft
profeffes a union of the two kingdoms of Britain and Ire-
land, and attempts a ur'On of the two parliaments, of which
the peerage is a con-'iituent part ; and this continuance of a
feparate Iri(h pe-rage, ftripped as it will be of all parlia-
mentary funft-^nj perpetuates a diftinftion infnlting and
degrading t<- this kingdom, which our minifters, if they had
folely in /lew, without any regard to influence, a kfting
union c^'the parliaments, to which this continuance no way
contributes, would have avoided, by providing that the
Irifti peers, when reduced to the propofed number of
twenty-eight, fhould be declared peers of the united empire
equally with the Britifh ; and thus would have diflblved all
national diftinftions between them for tlie time to come.

" But it is not in trade, revenue, and manufadlures only
thit diftinft intcrefts are declared to exift, nor in conftitu-
tion alone that feparate intcrefts are to be created ; the fame
diftinftnefs is to be preferved in the adminiftration of juftice :
every difference of law, every variation of praftice and of
regulation which now prevails, is to be allowed to diftin-
guifh the civil and ecclefiaftical courts, with this one excep-
tion only, that, ia. the ultimate appeal, every Irilh fuitor is
to be again at the expence and hazard of going to Weft-
minfter, inftead of having a court in Dublin to refort to.

" We enlarge the more on thefe feveral enumerations of
feparate interefts, avowed or created by your m.ijefty's
minifters, becaufe the many provifions they propole for
their future regulation are fo many acknowledgments that
no force of law can identify them, fo as to admit of their
confolidation ; provifions all in themfelves prefumptuous and
infufBcient, inafmuch as it is not in the power of human
wifdom to forefee the events of time, and provide now, by
a fyftem declared immutable, for the varying changes which
muft naturally take place in the lapfe of years.

" Under the fame conviftion, though they profefs a union
of the two parliaments, they do not attempt to form out of
them one with equal and common powers for both king-
doms : it is to be free in all its fundtione in refpeft to Bri-
tain, but (hackled and bound up by reftriftions as to Ireland.
In this they deprive your majefty's Irifh fubjefts of a par-
liament, fuch only as the Britifti conftitution acknowledges,
free in its deliberations for every part of the empire it is to
legillate for ; fuch as we have a right to enjoy, equally un-
reftrained in its powers, and unfettered in its proceedings, as
to the- interefts of this your majefty's kingdom ; and fuch a
one, free and independent in all its functions, as we folemnly
claimed to be our birth-right in 1782, and as your majefty,
in your wifdom and juftice, did then gracioufly confirm to
this kingdom for ever ; but which claim and gracious con-
firmation your minifters now feek to take away from the
kingdom for ever.

" That having thus ftiewn to your majefty how very inef-
ficient the projeft of your minifters is to anfwer even the
purpofe it avows, and how very ruinous its operation muft
be, if you ftiall not be gracioufly picafed to interfere, we
feel it our further duty to expofe fully to your majefty's
view, not only the artful delufions which thofe minifters
have prefumed to hold out of fuppofed advantages in com-
merce, in revenue, in taxes, and in manufaftures, to deceive
the people into an approbation of their fcheme, but "the
■corrupt and unconftitutional means which tliey have ufed,
the undue manner in which they have employed the influence
of the crown, and the mifreprefentations which they have
made of the fenfe of your majefty's people of Ireland on the
/neafure. Were all the advantages, which without any
foundation they have declared that this meafure oifers, to be

its inftant and immediate confequence, we do not hefitate to
fay exprefsly, that we could not harbour the thought of
accepting them in exchange for our parliament, or that we
could or would barter our freedom for commerce, or our
conftitution for revenue. But the offers are mere impofi-
tions ; and we ftate with the firmeft confidence, that in
commerce or trade their meafure confers no one advantage,
nor can it confer any : for by your majefty's gracious and
paternal attention to this your ancient realm of Ireland,
every reftriftion under which its commerce laboured has.
been removed during your majefty's aufpicious reign, and
we are now as free to trade to all the world as Britain is.

" In manufaftures, any attempt it makes to off^er any be-
nefit which we do not now enjoy is vain and delufive ; and
wherever it is to have effeft, that eff^eft will be to our in-
jury. Moft of the duties on import, which operate as pro-
teftions to our manufaftures, are under its provifions, either
to be removed or reduced immediately ; and thofe which
will be reduced are to ceafe entirely at a limited time ;
though many of our manufaftures owe their exiftence to the
proteftion of thofe duties, and though it is not in the power
of human wifdom to forefee any precife time when they may
be able to thrive without them.

" Your majefty's faithful commons feel more than an or-
dinary intereft in laying this faft before you, becaufe they
have, under your majefty's approbation, rrjfed up and
nurfed many of thofe manufaftures ; and by fo doing, have
encouraged much capital to be vefted in them, the pro-
prietors of which are now to be left unprotefted, and to be
deprived of the parliament on whofe faith they embarked
themfelves, their families, and properties, in the under-
taking.

" In revenue we (hall not only lofe the amount of the
duties which are thus to be removed or lowered, and which
the papers, laid before us by the lord lieutenant, (hew to
amount to the immediate annual fum of 50,000/., but we
(hall be deprived of nearly as much more by the annihilation
of various export duties, which have fubfifted for above a
century on other articles of intercourfe, without being felt
or complained of by us ; and this whole revenue of 50,000/.,
which operated beneficially to our manufafture, and of near
50,000/. riKjre, which opprelTed no manufafture, is to be
wantonly given up, without the defire or wi(h of either na-
tion, at a time when our income is more than ever unequal
to our expences, and when the difSculty of raifing new
taxes to fupply its place is alarmingly increafed, by our
having been obhged, in this very feiTion, to impofe new
burthens to the eilimated amount of 300,000/. a year ; and
we cannot but remark, that in this arrangement, while we
give up this revenue of near loo.oco/. a year. Great Britain
is to give up one not amounting quite to 40,000/. ; an in-
equality no way confonant with the impartiality or juftice
profetTed by your majefty's minifters, nor any wife confiftent
wth the comparative abilities of the two countries to replace
the lofs.

" But the impofition of your majefty's minifters is ftill
more glaring, in their having prefumed to fix a proportion
of contribution towards the general future expences, to be
obferved by the two kmgdoms, in the ratio of one part by
Ireland for every feven parts and a half by Britain. If
they had any plaufible grounds whereon they calculated this
proportion, they have not deigned to lay them before your
parliament ; and the ufnal and eftabh(hed forms of com-
mittees, to inveftigate into matters of fuch intricate and
extended calculation, have been fuperfeded by them.
Your majefty's faithful commons are fatisfied that the cal-
culation is extremely erroneous, and that, on a juft and fair

inquiry

UNION.

inquiry into the comparative means rvf each country, tliis
kingdom ought not and is not able to contribute in any
thing like that proportion. They feel it a duty, too, to
protell mod folemnly againft any arrangement of taxation,
on which they have had no documents, or made any inquiry
to guide their judgment, and in which they underftaiid no
confideration whatever has been had to the different legal
intereit of money in this kingdom, which caufes a difad-
vantage of 20/. p(r cent, in procuring capital, nor to the
relative quantity of (hipping poffelTed and ufed by each
country, nor to the export trade in foreign articles, nor to
the extent of manufadure for home confumption, nor to the
balance of trade, which fhews the annual increafe of its clear
profit, and of courfe the annual increafe of the fund it
creates to contribute from ; in all of which, the means of
Britain very far exceed the foregoing proportion, and par-
ticiJarly in the balance of trade, which in Ireland amounts
to little more than half a miUion with all the world, but is
ftated bv authority to have amounted to fourteen millions
eight hundred thoufand pounds in Britain, exclufive of an
annual influx of money from the Eall and Weft Indies to
the amount of four millions to the proprietors refident in
Britain, and of two millions from Ireland to the proprietors
of Irifh eltates refident there, and of another million from
Ireland for the charges of her debt due in Britain ; whereas
the only known or vifible influx of money into Ireland is the
above balance of trade of half a million only : and thefe two
fums of two millions and one million, while they add to the
means and wealth of Britain, unfortunately take away in the
fame amount from the ability of Ireland.

" Thus, had a due inveltigation been made, and a fair in-
quiry gone into, with a view to obtain a true knowledge of
fails whereon to ground a juft calculation, it would have
appeared that this proportion for Ireland is not only unjuil,
but far beyond what it will be in her power to difcharge ;
and the raftinefs of your majefty's minifters, in hazarding
fuch a meafure, is the more to be lamented or wondered at,
becaufe (liould Ireland engage to pay more than (he is able
to anfwer, the necelTary confcqueiice muft be a rapid de-
creafe of her capital, the decline of her trade, a failure in
the produce of her taxes, and, in the end, her total bank-
ruptcy. But under fuch circumftances, (lie cannot be alone
a bankrupt ; and (liouid (he fatally become fo, by an inju-
dicious or avaricious apportionment of conftitution. Great
Britain muft fhare in her ruin, and our great and glorious
empire be brought to the brink of dcllruAion, by an inno-
vating attempt to take from Ireland its conftitution, and
fubftitute a theoretic, vilionary, and untried fyilem in its
room. We (hould, therefore, earneftly fupplicatc your
majefty to oblige your ininillers to defer the meafure, until
a full and fatisfat^ory invcfligatiou (hould be made, if we
did not feel that it ought to be entirely relinquifhed, and
that the injuries and dangers attending on it could not be
removed by any change of that proportion, or reconciled by
any modification of detail 'wliatfoever. Subordinate, how-
ever, as the confideration of it is, we cannot omit remarking
to your majedy, that there is cunningly and Infidioully an-
nexed to it a provlfion for its ccafing, even within the fhort
period of three years, fhoiild the war continue fo long ; and
that when wp (hall increafe our debt, fo as that it (hall bear
the like proportion to the permanent debt of Britain, all the
delufive benefit held out by this proportion is to ceafe, and
wc are to undergo common taxes with Britain. We lament
that fuch delufion fliould be rtforted to ; it is too palpable
not to be fcen ; and iiiltead of the confidence which ought
to attend every arrangement between the kingdoms, fuch
conduft mufl excite difiidenLC and diflruft.

Vol. XXXVII.

" This proportion of their refpeflive permanent debts is to
be attained by increafing our debt, which we muft do, and
by Britain lelTening lier's, which (he is in tlie aftual courfe
of reducing, as rapidly at leaft as that of Ireland increafes.
The abfurdity, therefore, of the pofition is felf-evident ; for
it fays, that Ireland by increafing her debt, and its annual
charges, will become more wealthy, and more able to bear
equal taxes with Britain ; but that Britain, by decreafing
her's, will be lefs able to defray her contribution, and can
only pay equal taxes. Another delufion (omitted, how-
ever, in the articles propofed) has been alfo plaufibly
offered, ftlll further to deceive your majefty's fubjefts of
Ireland into an approbation of this deftruclive meafure, and
a promife has been authoritatively announced or artfully in-
finuated by your minifters in this kingdom, that Ireland is
to fave by it, or that Great Britain is to give her a million
a year of revenue in time of war, and half a million a year
in time of peace. But we know that during a war like the
prefent, fuch a promife is imprafticable ; and both king-
doms muft ftrain every nerve, and draw forth every refource.
We feek not to load our filler kingdom urniecefiTarily, by
lelTening our own burden ; and our loyalty forbids us to
liften to arguments, which offer to lave our purfe at the ex-
pence of Britain. But it is all a delufion, for we fee
nothing in the uniting of the two parliaments, which can
change the courfe of the war, or leffen the total mafs of ex-
pence of both nations ; and we affert moft confidently, that
no gift can be made, or faving enfue in our expences, by
the union, however they may be attempted to be increaled
by the unfounded .ind unfair proportion afcertaincd for us
to bear of the general expenditure. But were the offer
founded, were it cffetlual and defirable, its advantages reft
on the misfortunes of war ; and we (hould feci ourfelves un-
worthy of the truft repofed in us, if we could fuffer a hope,
arifing from the continuation of fuch a dreadful calamity, to
direft our condudl in any meafure, much lefs in one which
calls on us to give up our conftitution for ever.

" Neither can we look forward to any propofed faving
from the union in peace ; for we are not told, nor could we
believe it, if your majefty's minifters did tell us, tliat a bill
profefting to unite the two kingdoms, infeparably united
without a bill, can have an influence on the fituation of the
affairs of Europe, or that it can allow us, during tlie next
peace, to difpenfe with keeping up the fame military force
as during the hill ; and we are further given to underftand,
that your majefty's royal court, and all its eflablilliments,
the courts of law, the exchequer, and all the revenue ex-
pences, arc to be continued without the parliament equally
as with it. But were the faving praAicable, we feel it is
our own duty to make it without a union ; and we know
that no parliament can do it for Ireland with the fame
knowledge, the fame efficacy, and the lame fafety, as the
refident parliament of Ireland.

" But it is not oiilv in refpeA to thefe delufions h?ld out
as to trade and revenue, that we feel it our duty to lay before
your majefty the condutl of your minifters on this meafure :
wc mufl ilate the means by which they have endeavoured
to carry it. That in the firfl inftance, admitting the ne-
cefTity of conforming to the fenfe of the parliament and the
people, they took the fenfe of the commons, and found that
fcnfe to be againft it ; that they then affeited to appeal
againft the parliament to the people, at the fame lime
endeavouring by their choice of (lHTifl"3 to obftrutl the re-
gular and conftitutional mode whereby tlie fenfe of the
people has been ufually coilefted : that, on the contrary,
they did ufc or abet and encourage tlie iifing of various arts
and ftrat.igcms to procure from individuals of the lovvetl
3 D order,

UNION.

order, fome of whom were their prifoners and felons, fcan-
dalous fignatures againft the conftitution : that, notwith-
ftanding thefe attempts to procure a fallacious appearance
of ftrength and mufter againft parliament, the people have
exprefled their fentiments decidedly againft the union ; and
twenty-one counties at public meetings legally convened,
and alfo many other counties by petitions figned by the
freeholders, and many cities and towns, have exprefled
either to your majefty, or to this houfc, or to both, their de-
cided and unalterable hoflility to this union; yet your minif-
ters have, as we believe, taken upon them to ftate to your
majefty and your minifters in Britain, in defiance of all thefe
fafts, that the fenfe of the nation is not adverfe to the mea-
fure : that if there could be any doubt that your majefty's
minifters in the appointment of (heriff^s did confider how
they might obftruA the people in delivering their opinion
regarding the union, that doubt is fully explained by their
continuing in of&ce the fheriff of the former year in more
than one inftance, whence it alfo appears how decidedly the
fenfe of the country is againft this meafure, when your
majefty's minifters found it difficult to procure any perfon
to ferve the office of flieriff who was properly qualified, and
was alfo a friend to the meafure : that, finding the fenfe of
the people as well as the parliament to be againft it, your
majefty's minifters attempted to change the parliament itfelf,
and refufing to take the fenfe of the nation by a general
eleftion, they procured a partial diflolution, and did io pub-
licly abufe the dilquahfying claufe in the place -bill (which
was enafted for the exprefs purpofe of preferving the free-
dom and independence of parliament), that by vacating feats
under its authority, very many new returns were made to
this houfe for the purpofe of carrying it ; and thus did they
change the parliament without reforting to the people : that
before the miniftry had perverted the place-bill, the fenfe of
parliament was againft their union ; and if that bill had not
been fo perverted, that fenfe had remained unaltered : that
of thofe who voted for the union, we beg leave to inform
your majefty, feventy-fix had places or penfions under the
crown, and others were under the immediate influence of
conftituents who held great offices under the crown : that
the praftices of influence above-mentioned, were accompa-
nied by the removal from office of various fervants of the
crown who had feats in parliament, particularly the chan-
cellor of the exchequer, the prime ferjeant, three commif-
fioners of the revenue, a commiffioner of accounts, a com-
miffioner of barracks, and the curfitor of the court of
chancery, bccaufe they would not vote away the parhament ;
alfo by their withdrawing their confidence from others of
your majefty's faithful and able counfellors for the fame rea-
fon : that they procured or encouraged the purchafe of feats
in this houfe to return members to vote for the union ; alfo
the introduftion of perfons unconnefted with this country
to vote away her parliament : that they have alfo attempted
to proftitute the peerage by promifing to perfons, not even
commoners in parhament, her facred honours, if they would
come into this houfe and vote for the union : and that,
finally, they have annexed to their plan of union an artful
device, whereby a million and a half of m6ney is to be
given to private perfons pofleffing returns, who are to re-
ceive faid fum on the event of the union, for the carrying
of which to fuch an amount faid perfons are to be paid ;
and this nation is to make good the fale by which ihe is
thus difinherited of her parliament, and is to be taxed for
ever to raife the whole amount, although, if your minifters
ffiall perfevere in fuch a flagrant, unconftitutional fcheme,
and the money is to be raifed, it is for the union, and being
therefore an imperial concern, ought to be borne in the pro-

portion already laid down for impenal expences, that is, two
feventeenths by Ireland, and fifteen feventeenths by Britain :
that under thefe unconftitutional circumftances your ma-
jefty's minifters have endeavoured, againft the declared fenfe
of the people, to impofe upon them a new conftitution, fub-
verting the old one.

" That when we confider the peculiar iituation of this king-
dom, with the annual drains of money from it by perfons
pofleffing property in it, who do not refide, to the ellimated
amount of at leaft two millions annually ; when we advert to
the further inevitable drain of a million a year by the public
revenue, to be remitted to Britain for the annual charges of
our public debt ; and that to countervail thefe great and tre-
meridous iffues of money, amounting to three millions, we
have only our general balance of trade, not 6oo,ocx)/. a year,
to fet againft them ; we look with dread at a meafure which
muft on the one hand neceflarlly add to thofe drains, by
adding a new and large portion of our wealthieft fellow-
fubjefis to the prefent abfentees, and which muft on the
other hand decreafe that balance, by encouraging and pro-
moting new imports of manufafture in the room of thofe
which will decline here. We look to it vnth the more
dread, becaufe, notwithftanding the great loans from Eng-
land, to the amount of fix millions in the laft three years, we
have not been able to counterbalance the exifting drains
from hence, and the exchange has been and ftill continues
regularly and uniformly againft us. And further, becaufe
our inability to raife the neceflary loans within this kingdom,
even to the fmall extent that has been expefted, is unfortu-
nately now too evident ; and the continuing to fupply our
treafury by loans from Britain, though it may afford fome
temporai-y relief, will regularly increafe the evil. Your ma-
jefty's minifters, therefore, if they promife to themfelves or
to the Britifh nation any eafement to their own taxes, from
the fuppofed acceffion of power over our wealth and over our
refources, will find themfelves moft thoroughly difappointed ;
and if the difficulty of remittance ffiall increafe, the manu-
fafturers of Britain, who have hitherto fupplied this king-
dom, will find the demand for their goods decreafe in pro-
portion as that difficulty ffiall rife.

" That we undcrftand one benefit which they hold out from
the propofed meafure is, what your minifters affecl to call
tranquillizing Ireland ; but that when we look to our parlia-
ment, and fee with what efficacy and promptnefs it has con-
tributed to put down the late unfortunate rebellion, how
inadequate a parliament not refident would have been ; when
we refleft that in a kingdom containing four and a half mil-
hons of people, a refident parliament muft poflefs the quick
and authoritative means of giving energy to the executive,
which a parliament in another country cannot have ; that
the removing of the parliament tends to remove with it
from the kingdom thofe men of large property and influence,
of talents and rcfpeftabihty, whofe prefence is at all times
eflential to tranquillity, and may at fome conjunfture be
alone capable of preferving it ; that their abfence will leave
room for pohtical agitators and men of talents, without
principle or property, to difturb and irritate the public
mind ; we tremble for the confequences of a meafure at once
the moft raffi and unnecefl'ary, that ever was brought for-
ward by any minifters, and at a time moft fitted to produce
every evil dreaded, and leaft fitted to promote any one be-
nefit held forth.

" That when we confider the time chofen to introduce fuch
a meafure, we feel additional repugnance, it being the mo-
ment of our weaknefs and diftrefs, when the country is of
courfe lefs free to deliver its full and heartfelt fentiments
againft the illiberality of fuch an attempt ; peculiarly mor-
tifying

UNION.

tifying to thofe of your majefty's fubjeAs who had recently
exerted themfclves in defence of that conftitution which they
are now called upon to furrender, and at a time too when
the fpirit of innovation is abroad, and likely to be much en-
couraged by the example of your majefty's minillers in this
their proceeding again ft the ancient liberties of the people,
who may be rendered an unprofitable or dangerous part of
the Britiih empire, whether in confequence of this union
they become flavifti and abjeA, or reftlefs and difTatisfied.

" That when we refleft on the greatvalue of the afts for
trying controverted eleftions, how eminently and effeftually
they have been framed for preforving the purity of eleftion,
without which the purity of parliament cannot exift ; and when
we fee that your miniiters, well knowing the value we fet on
them, have propofed various means to continue thofe bene-
fits to us in the few eleftions which will remain to be held
here after the union, and have withdrawn them all from their
inefficacy and infufficieiicy almoft as foon as they were pro-
pofed, and have now abandoned all hope of framing any ;
we forefee and dread the formidable power which the mea-
fure of union will give to the minifter in all Irifli eleftions,
by deftroying the beneficial operation of thefe acts ; for the
expence, trouble, and delay of trying controverted Irifh
eleftions in London, will deter many candidates entitled to
be returned from feeking redrefs ; the (lierifFs, who are all
appointed by the minifter, will in faft nominate the members,
and many of them having already obeyed the willies of the
minifter in endeavouring to ftifle the conftitutional voice of
the people, give us too fure an omen of the condudt which
may be expected from them in eleftions.

" That whether we reft on this incontrovertible and felf-
evident truth, that no parliament in another kingdom can
have the local information or knowledge of the manners,
habits, wants or wifhes of the nation, which its own parlia-
ment naturally pofTefTes, and which is ncceflary for beneficial
legillation, nor can be fupplied with the necefTary informa-
tion, either as promptly or accurately ; or whether we look
to the clear proofs of that truth which the progrefs of this
meafurc has afforded, by your minifters having called to
their affiftanre in London the great officers of this kingdom
moft likely from tlieir ftation to give full information for
framing their meafure, and though all their talents and all
their own information, and what they obtained by letters
while it was pending, were employed for months there, yet
when they brought it back, a few hours or rather a few mi-
nutes inquiry on the fpot in Dublin, forced them to alter
their projeft in very many articles, complete and perfeft as
they thought it ; we have ftrong additional reafon to feel
and to reprefent the manifeft and irreparable injuries whicli
this kingdom muft fullain by the want of a refident parlia-
ment, and the impoffibility of legillation being carried on for
it as it ought to be.

^' Therefore, inafmuch as the meafure of a union is an un-
neceffary innovation, and innovation at all times hazardous,
and rendered peculiarly fo now by the awful fituation of the
times ; inafmuch loo, as far from being an innocent experi-
ment, it is replete with changes injurious to our trade and
manufaftures and our revenues ; inafmuch alfo, as it dc-
ftroys our conftitution which has worked well, and fubfti-
tutes a new one, the benefits of whicli we cannot fee, but
the numerous evils and dangers of which are appareirt, and
which in every change it offers militates againll lome known
and eftablilhed principle of the Britifh conftitution ; inaf-
much alfo, as it fo far endangers the conftitution of Britain,
as not to leave us the certainty of enjoying a free conftitu-
tion there when our own fhall be deftroyed ; inafmuch as it
tends to impovcrifh and fubjugate Ireland, without giving

wealth or ftrength to Britain ; inafmuch as it tends to railc
and perpetuate difcontent and jealoufics, to create new and
ftrengthen old diftinftnefTes of interefts in our concerns of
trade, manufactures, revenue, and conftitution ; and inftcad
of increafing the connexion between the two kingdoms,
may tend to their feparation, to our confequent ruin, and to
the deftruAion or difmemberment of the empire ; inafmuch
as it endangers inftead of promoting or fecuring the tran-
quillity of Ireland, as it degrades the national pride and cha-
rafter, debafes its rank from a kingdom to that of a de-
pendant province, yet leaves us every expence and mark of
a kingdom but the great cflential one of a parliament ; inaf-
much as it has been propofed and hitherto carried againft the
decided and exprefled fenfe of the people, notwitlillanding
the improper means reforted to, to prevent that fenfe being
declared and to mifreprefeiit it when known ; inafmuch as
it is not grounded in all its intricate and momentous parts
on that folemn and full inveftigation which ought to attend
every meafure of great moment, and has been introduced
and condufted with various delufions and impofilions, and
with an unbecoming and fulpicious hafte ; inafmuch as it
provides for fending one hundred of the prelent reprefent-
atives to legiflate in another kingdom, though elected only
to fit in the parliament in this, and does not give the people
an opportunity, by a new eleclion, to exercile their difcre-
tion in a new choice of pcrfons for fuch a new altered and
increafed truft ; inafmuch as it leaves to the chance of draw-
ing lots the choice of thirty-two members to reprefent as
man)' great cities and towns with a L-vity which tends to
turn into ridicule the facred and ferious truft of a reprefent-
ative ; and while it commits to one perfon the olhce which
the conftitution commits to two, of fpeaking tiie voice of
the people and granting their money, it does not allow the
eleftors to choofe which of the two they will intruft with
that power ; and inafmuch ^s means the moll unconftitu-
tional, influence the moft undue, and bribes openly avowed,
have been reforted to, to carry it againft the known fenfe of
the commons and people during the exiftence of martial law
throughout the land ; — we feel it our bounden duty to our-
felves, our country, and our pofterity, to lay this our mod
folemn proteft and prayer before your majefty, that you
will be gracioufly pljafed to extend your paternal proteftion
to your faithful and loyal fubjedts, and to lave them from
the danger threatened by your majefty's minifters in this
their ruinous and deftruftive projcft, humbly declaring, with
the moft cordial and warm fincerity, that we are actuated
therein by an irrefiftible fenfe of duty, by an uufhaken
loyalty to your majefty, by a veneration for the Britilh
name, by an ardent attachment to the Britilh nation, with
whom we have fo often declared we will ftand or fall, and
by a determination to preferve for ever the coimeftion
between the two kingdoms on which the happinefs, the
power and the ftrength-of each irrevocably and unalterably
depend."

Such was the proteft which the Irifti parliamentary oppo-
fition had recorded on the journals of the houfe ; a proteft
which deft;-ves the attention of the political enquirer, a8
well on account of the objeftions it dwells upon, as on ac-
count of the weaknels of foiiie of its arguments, (hewing
how men of the firft talents and information may be biafled
by prejudice and paflion. To this it will be ntiful to add
an extradt from a work already referred to, ( Mr. Neweii-
ham's View of the Circumftaiices of Ireland,} a work which
may be fafely recommended, as containing much valuable
ftatiftical information refpe6\iiig the country, being the pro-
duitlion of a gentleman who fjiares no exertions to obtain
the moft authentic accounts, and whofc honourable charadter
3 D 2 places

UNION.

places him far above the fufpicion of wilful mifreprefent-
ation. Mr. Ncwenham was in parliament when the meafure
was broug;ht forward and difcuffed, and from his conneiftions
liad the beft means of knowing the fentiments of many-
leading perfons at that time. " Of thofe who fupported
the union," fays he, " few appeared to be duly impreffed
with the real expediency of that meafure ; which confifted,
rather in precluding all poffible future colhfions of fuppofed
national interefts, efpecially with regard to commercial mat-
ters ; and in the admiflion of the Roman Cathohcs to an
equal participation with the Proteftants of all the political
benefits of the oonftitution, without endangering the poli-
tical power of the latter, or even affording them the fmalleft
ground for apprehenfion, than in any other confiderations.
And yet that a legiflative union of the two kingdoms, or
feme compaft, involving a limited and occafional acqui-
efcence of the legiflature of one in the decifions of that of
the other, was requifite to preclude the hoftile effefts which
might very poffibly refult from thofe accidental colhfions ;
and that an incorporation of the Britifti and Irifh legifla-
tures was neceffary to remove thofe groundlefs, but prevail-
ing apprehenfions which operated in excluding the Roman
Catholics from parhament, and confequently had the efftft
of keeping them in a perpetu.il and dangerous ftate of dif-
content and irritation, were truths by which, it might reafon-
ably have been expefted, every unbiaffed man, after due re-
lleftion, would be fufficiently governed. In oppofing or
fupportiiig fuch a meafure, a man who had the welfare of
his country, and alfo that of the empire at heart, would
naturally liave been governed entirely by his perception of
the benefit or inconvenience likely to accrue from the dif-
ferent articles propofed as conltituent parts thereof. If
thefe articles did not appear equally beneficial to both of the
contrafting countries ; if they were not flriftly fuited to
the refpe6tive circumilances of each ; if they were not fuf-
ceptible of fuch modifications as future variations of thefc
circumilances might require ; if they appeared calculated to
create or continue diffatisfaftion in either country ; if they
were not fuch as to cnfure the permanence of the contract,
the difTolution whereof might occaiion much more extenf-.ve
and ferious mifchiefs than thofe which the projeftors of it
aimed at precluding, — the duty of every true Irifh patriot,
and of every fmcere advocate for the welfare of the empire,
certainly required him to oppofe it. On the contrary, if
thefe articles were evidently calculated to diifufe future
general fatisfaflion, by fecuring, under all changes and emer-
gencies, an equitable participation of commercial and poli-
tical benefits to the people of both countries, true patriotifm
unqueftionably required the facrifice of that ridiculous na-
tional pride which was to be outraged by a furrender of le-
giflative independence.

" Inflead of patiently and prudently difcufTing the pro-
pofed contraft, with reference to its conflituent flipulations,
which pofitively was the only method by which its real eligi-
bility could be afcertained, the Irifh houfe of commons pre-
pofleroufly entered, in the firft flage of the bufinefs, into
violent and declamatory debates on the meafure in the ab-
ftraft ; and fuffered themfelves to be governed more by na-
tional prJde, individual intereft, and fpeculative political
notions, than by confiderations of national benefit. Tlie
confequence of which was, that the miniller, having a ma-
jority in favour of the meafure in the abllraft, found it
eventually an eafy matter to fecure a fuflicient concurrence
in its feveral articles ; for thofe who had been fwayed to
fupport it at large, and had pledged themfelves to do fo,
would have been guilty of unufual tergiverfation by refill-
ing it in detail. Had the affent of parliament been fuf-

pended, until the different articles of the contract were
thoroughly inveftigated, in all their bearings and effefts ;
had each article been made the fubjeft of a feparate debate ;
it is not unreafonable to fuppofe that the union might have
been rendered much more advantageous to Ireland ; and,
in the end, more beneficial to the empire. For, fooner than
have his long meditated and indeed expedient projeft de-
feated, the minifler of Britain would probably have conceded
much to the defires of the Irifh parliament, as he had before
done to the Britifh oppofition, in the cafe of the commercial
propofitions. To the impatience and precipitancy therefore
of the parhament of Ireland, which the minifler ought, in
prudence, rather to have reflraiued than encouraged, we
mufl impute the defefts of the aft of union, and the pro-
bable future diffatisfaftion of the Irifh, confequent thereon."
Thtfe defefts, in Mr. Newcnham's opinion, are, i . That Ire-
land fliould have had fome appropriate advantages in com-
penfation for the lofs of a local legiflature. 2. That the
commercial arrangement between the two countries ought
to have been regulated by the confideratioii that much of
the wealth acquired in Ireland would neceffarily flow into
Britain and remain there, while none of that acquired bv
the latter would finally be fixed in the former. 3. That
Ireland fliould have had fome indemnification for the in-
creafed preffure of taxes from the increafe of abfentees.
4. That there fhould have been the fame proteftion to other
manufaftures as to the cotton manufafture. 5. That the
Catholics fhould by an article of the union have acquired the
right of fitting in parhament ; and lallly. That the number
of reprefentatives was not as great as it ought, on fair prin-
ciples, to have been. It is a melancholy faft that domellic
tranquillity has not hitherto been produced by the union, but
it would be unfair to attribute the continuance of dif-
turbance to that meafure, and it would be perhaps too foon
to defpair of thofe advantages refulting which many un-
biaffed men expefted from it, and which in a great degree
reconciled them to the objeftionable manner in which it was
carried. One effeft it has produced ; we fee Irifhmen filling
the highell departments of the united kingdom ; and we
mull allow that government has fhewn a general difpofition
to promote the interells of Ireland. It is to be defired that
Englifh members may not be prevented by f.ilfe delicacy or
indifference, from taking a part in the internal regulations
of Ireland, as it was a benefit which many looked for from
the union, that it would take legiflation out of the hands of
an Irifh party. On the whole, it may be faid that the union
might have been and ftill may be rendered extremely bene-
ficial to Ireland, confiflently with the welfare of Britain,
but that hitherto it cannot be confidered, even by its mofl
fanguine advocates, as having afforded matter of congratula-
tion to the people of Ireland. Journals of the Lords and
Commons of Ireland. Various Pamphlets refpefting the
Union. Newenham's View of the Natural, Pohtical, and
Commercial Circumftances of Ireland. Annual Regiiler.
Wakefield's Account of Ireland, &c. &c.

Union, in the Manege, denotes the aftion by which a
horfe draws together and affcmbles the parts of his body,
and his flrength, in diilributing it equally upon his fore-
legs, and in reuniting and drawing them together ; as we
ourfelves do when we are going to jump, or perform any
other aftion which demands flrength and agility. This pof-
ture alone is fufiicient to fettle and place the head of the
animal, to hghten and render his fhoulders and legs aftive,
which, from the ftrufture of his body, fupport and govern
the greatefl part of his weight. Being then, by thefe
means, made fleady, and his head well placed, you will
perceive in every motion which he makes a furprifing cor-

refpondence

UNION.

refpondence of the parts of the whole. The legs and
flioulders of a horfc fupport, as we have faid, the greatell
part of his weight ; and, therefore, his fore-part, either
when he is in motion, or in a ftate of reft, is always em-
ployed, a:)d confequently needs the afliftance of art to cafe
it ; and in this confifts the miion or putting together, which,
by fetting the horfe upon his haunches, counterbalances and
relieves his fore-part. Befides, the union not only helps
and relieves the part of the horfe that is the weakeft, but it
is fo ncceftary to every horfe, that no horfe that is difunited
can go freely : he can neither leap nor gallop with agility
and hghtnefs, nor run without being in manifeft danger of
falling, and pitching himfelf headlong ; becaufe his motions
have no harmony nor agreement with one another. The
trot is very efEcacious in bringing a horfe to this union ; ;'. e.
the trot, in which he is fupported and kept together, and
yet fuppled at the fame time : this compels the horfe to
put himfelf together, and to coUeft and unite his ftrength.
In order to fupport the horfe in this trot, the horfeman
fliould hold his hand near his body, keeping his horfe to-
gether a little, and having his legs near his fides. The
effeft of the hand is to confine and raife the fore -parts of
the horfe ; the effe£l of the legs is to pulh and drive for-
ward the hinder parts. Now, if the fore-parts are kept
back or confined, and the hinder parts are driven forward,
the horfe, in a quick motion, fuch as the trot, muft necef-
farily fit down upon his haunches, and unite and put him-
felf together. For the fame reafon, the making of your
horfe to launch out vigoroufly in his trot, and the quicken-
ing of his cadence from time to time, the putting of him
to make pefades, the Hopping of him, and making him to
go backward, will all contribute towards his acquiring the
union. If your horfe trots, prefs him a hltle ; in the in-
ftant when he redoubles and quickens his aftion, moderate
and fhorten the hurry of his pace ; and the more he preffes
to go forward, the more will his being checked and confined
tend to unite his limbs, and the union will be owing to op-
pofite caufes ; i)/'z. on the one hand, to the ardour of the
horfe who preftes to go forward, and to the diligence and
attention of the horfeman on the other, who, by holding
him in, flackens the pace, and raifes the fore-parts of the
creature, and at the fame time diilributes his ftrength equally
to all his limbs. The aftion of a horfe, when going back-
ward, is dircftly oppofite to his abandoning himfelf upon
his (houldcrs : by this he is compelled to put himfelf upon
his haunches ; and this Iclfon is fo much the more effeftual,
as the caufe of a horfe's being difunited is often owing to
the pain he feels in bending his haunches.

The pefades have not lefs effeft, efpecially upon horfcs
that are clumfy and hcavy-(houldercd ; becaufe they are
thus taught to ufe them and raife them up ; and when they
raife them up, it neceffarily follows, that their whole weight
muft be thrown upon their haunches. A light and gentle
hand, then, and the aids of the legs, judicioufly managed,
are capable of giving a horfe the union ; but before a liorfe
is put upon his haunches, his fore-part muft be lightened,
and he muft acquire that fupplenefs, which is the fource of
li-ght and free aftion. Nothing can fiipple the fhoulder
more than the working of a horfe upon large circles ; walk
him firft round the circle, in order to make him know his
ground ; afterwards try to draw his head in, or towards the
centre, by means of your inner rein and inner leg : e. gr. I
work my horfe upon a circle ; and I go to the right ; I
draw iiis head to the right, by pulling the right rein ;
I bring in his outward flioulder by means of the left rein ;
and I fupport him at the fame time with my inner leg,
'J'hus the horfe has his head in the centre, although the

3

croupe is at liberty. The right leg crofT^is over the left
leg ; and the right Ihoulder is fuppled, while the left leg
fupports the whole weight of the horfe in the aftion. In
working him to the left hand, and following the fame me-
thod, the left ftioulder is fuppled, and the right is prelfed
and confined. When this leflon, which tends not only to
fupple the (houlders, but likewile to give an appui, is well
comprehended by the horfe, let him be led along the fide of
the wall. Having placed his head, the horfeman is to make
ufe of the inner rein, which draws in his head, aid to bri^ig
in his outward fhoulder by means of the other rein. In tliis
pofture the horfeman fupports him with his inner leg, and
he goes along the wall ; his croupe being out, and at liberty,
and his inner leg paffing over and croffing his outward leg
at every itep he makes. By this his neck and (houlders are
fuppled, his haunches worked, and he is taught to know
the heels. The haunches are thus worked, though the
croupe of the horfe is at liberty ; becaufe it is from the
fore-parts only that a horfe can be upon his haunches. In
effeft, after having placed his head, draw it in, and you will
lengthen his croupe : if you raife him higher before than
behind, his legs come under his belly, and confequently he
bends his haunches. It is the fame when he conies down
hill, his croupe, being higher than his fore-parts, is puftied
under him, and the horfe is upon his haunches ; fince it is
evident, that the hinder fupport all the fore-parts ; there-
fore, in going along the fide of the wall, by means of the
inner rein, the horfe is put together and united. When a
horfe has acquired union, he becomes able to undertake and
execute, with juftnefs and grace, whatever the horfeman
demands of him, conformably to his ftrength and difpofi-
tion. Berenger's Art of Horfemanftiip, vol. ii. chap. 7.

Union by thcjirjl Intention, in Surgery, denotes the pro-
cefs by which the oppofite furfaces of recent wounds grow
together and unite witliout fuppuration, when they are kept
in contact with each other. It is obferved by profeftbr
Thonifon, that among the various powers inherent in living
animals, there is none more interefting to the furgeon, nor
more remarkable in the eyes of a philofophical obferver,
than that by which wounds are healed, or by which the dif-
ferent parts of animal bodies, that have been recently di-
vided, either by accident or defign, are made to reunite with
each other. This is a power, the effefts of which in the
human body are fo obvious and important, that it would not
fail at a very early period to attraft, in fonac degree, the at-
tention of every obferver of nature ; and accordingly we
find, from the records of medicine, that the various circum-
ilances which promote, retard, or prevent the healing of
wpunds, have at all times been more or lefs known to the
praftitioners of the healing art. A very fiight degree of
obfervation, however, muft foon have been furacient to con-
vince them, that the phenomena which the healing of
wounds exhibits, are neither fimple in their nature, nor uni-
form in the order of their appearance ; but variable accord-
ing to the kind of wound, and the mode of treatment,
which, in the diff^crent extcinal and internal conditions of
the body, is employed for its cure.

In fiight wounds, inflifted by the (harper kinds of inftru-
ments, fays the fame author, even the moft inattentive me-
dical praftitioners muft have feen, that a reunion is often
fpeedily etfefted merely by keeping the edges of the wound
in contaft with each other ; whereas in wounds in which the
divided furfaces are much torn or bruifed, or where, from
retraftion, or lofs of fubllance, they cannot be brought into
contaft, the healing is always accomplifhcd lu a much flower,
more uncertain, and more complicated manner. Thcfe Ji-
vcrfities in the proccfs of reunion (conliuucs Dr. Thomfon),

arc

UNION.

are taken notice of by the earliefl: writers upon phyfic and
furgery ; and diftinguifhed from one another by different
appellations or terms of art. Union by the firft intention
was the terra which Galen employed to exprefs that mode
of healing Grounds, in which the union is fpeedily produced
merely by keeping their edges in contaft : an operation of
nature, now frequently denominated healing by the procefs
of adhefion ; while union by the fecond intention was a term
employed by the fame phyfician to indicate the feries of
phenomena which occur in that flower mode of heahng
wounds, in which their edges coalefce more flowly ; pheno-
mena to which modern furgeons now ufually give the name
of heahng by the procefs of granulation. See Leftures on
Inflammation, p. 206, 207.

We have alfo examples of an union, very fimilar to that
by the firft intention, in bones which have been fraftured ;
in tendons which have been ruptured ; and even fometimes in
mufcles which have been wholly or partially torn afunder,
without any divifion having been produced in the Ikin which
covers fuch parts. In the fudden and violent divifion of
thefe textures, a greater or lefs quantity of blood is always
effufed into the line of feparation between the divided parts,
and a quantity of that fluid is at the fame time poured out
alfo into the cellular membrane contiguous to or immedi-
ately furrounding the folution of continuity. When the
blood which is effufed is not very conliderable in quantity,
and when the parts from which it has been effufed have not
been too feverely injured, it is obferved to be gradually ab-
forbed ; and in proportion as the effufed blood is abforbed,
the divided parts feem to approach nearer together. If the
divided furfaces be examined a few hours after the divifion,
or folution of continuity, has been produced, they will be
found to be covered with a fubftance, which, in its appear-
ance and other properties, refembles very exaAly the coagu-
lable lymph, or, as it is now often termed, the fibrin of the
blood.

This coagulable lymph appears to be effufed very foon
after the injury. Profeffor Thomfon found, that in animals,
a diftinft layer of it was effufed over their wounds in lefs than
four hours. (P. 209. ) But, fays he, whatever may be the
period at which it is firft formed, it is now well afcertained,
that in healthy fubjefts, when fraftured, torn, or ruptured
furfaces, to which the external air has not been admitted,
are properly covered with this layer of coagulable lymph,
and come into contacft, they fpeedily coalefce, and that, by
this lymph becoming a living intermedium, the continuity
of the divided part is at length reftored.

Appearances, precifely fimilar to thofe occurring in divi-
fions without communication with the external air, take
place in fimple incifed wounds, the edges of which have
been brought together before, or foon after the bleeding
from the divided veffels has ceafed. If a wound of this
kind be torn open foon after its reunion, the furfaces which
had been united are feen covered with a fubftance refembhng
an animal jelly. This is the coagulable lymph or fibrin of
the blood. It has been fuppofed, that the lymph is poured
out from the fmaller veflels which are divided ; but profeffor
Thomfon thinks it more probable that it is chiefly, if not
wholly, formed by the fecreting aftion of the capillary veffels
of divided furfaces.

The coagulable lymph, foon after its exudation, becomes
penetrated with blood-veffels, which proceed from the divided
furfaces, appear to join in the procefs of reunion by open
extremities, or, in other words, to inofculate with one an-
other. The blood now circulates freely through the newly
formed channels of communication eftablifhed between the
veffels which penetrate the lymph efifufed upon the furfaces

formerly divided. This is the ftate or ftage of reunion,
which Mr. Hunter has denominated the adhefive inflamma-
tion. The veffels which (hoot into the coagulable lymph
often acquire, in the courfe of a few hours, a fize rendering
them capable of being injeifted.

The precife manner in which the veffels are extended into
the coagulable lymph is ftill unknown. It has not been po-
fitively fettled, whether it is the divided veflTels which pene-
trate the lymph. The extremities of the larger branches,
are clofed with the effufed lymph, and removed by means of
it, and their natural elafticity, to a diftance from each other.
Dr. Thomfon conceives, that thefe circumftances are infur-
mountable bars to their immediate inofculation ; and he ob-
ferves, that if it be the clofed veffels which are prolonged
into the lymph, each fmall artery, it is obvious, muft have
its correfponding vein. And though the veffels from the
oppofite divided furfaces may by prolongation pafs each other
in a wound, it is not eafy to conceive the manner in which
they will join, or inofculate, nor how the artery becomes
afterwards connefted with the vein. But the inofculation,
or direct union of the fmall blood-veffels, from the oppofite
furfaces of wounds, however difficult to conceive or explain,
is a truth undeniably eftabliflied. Thomfon, p. 212.

Duhamel made an experiment, which fully proves, that in
the reunion of parts which have been divided, the blood-
veffels from the oppofite furfaces inofculate direftly, and do
not merely pafs one another. He broke the legs of fix
chickens, and after the bones had reunited, he cut through
about one-third of the foft parts, covering the callus, or
new bone. When the wound had healed up, he divided an-
other third part, and, in the fame manner, the remaining
third part, fparing neither blood-veffel, tendon, nor nerve.
Only one of the fix chickens furvived thefe cruel operations ;
but upon injefting the artery at the upper part of the thigh,
the injeftion was found to have penetrated to the loweft part
of the leg. " I cannot fay (Duhamel remarks) whether
the large veffels, filled bv the injeftion, were dilated capillary
veffels, or the large veffel of the leg itfelf, which had been
reunited ; but the experiment proves irrqfragably the inofcu-
lation of the blood-veffels." Later obfervations than thofe
of Duhamel (fays profeffor Thomfon) have (hewn that it is
by the fmall veffels, and not by the larger trunks, that the in-
ofculations are formed by which the divided parts in a limb
are fupplied with blood.

Mr. Hunter conceived that he had certainly fuccecded in
obferving inofculation on the tunica conjunftiva of the eye,
the veffels of which are frequently divided by furgeons in
cafes of ophthalmy. He ftates, that the two ends of the
cut veffel are feen to (brink ; but, after a little while, they
are perceived to unite, and the circulation is carried on as
before. (Hunter on the Blood, &c. p. 193.) Dr. Thom-
fon's experiments and obfervations lead him, however, to be-
lieve, that it is not the divided extremities of the arteries
that again unite, but the folds of fmall branches, that are
prolonged into the intermediate fpace, which become the
channels of communication between the larger trunks that
had been divided, but the extremities of which had been
previoufly clofed.

Mr. Hunter was of opinion that blood fometimes ferved
as a medium of reunion, or vital bond of conneftion between
parts which have been divided, and that blood-veffels formed
and inofculatcd with each other in this eff"ufed or extrava-
fated blood. The praftical furgeon, however, finds the inter-
pofition of this fluid between the furfaces of a wound difad-
vantageous, and if any material quantity be fo fituated, it
always becomes a certain impediment to union by the firft
intention. There are, it is true, fome inftances in which
1 1 this

UNION.

this procefs is Bot prevented by the prefence of inconfiderable
efFiifion of blood ; but even in thele cafes, profeffor Thom-
fon doubts vsrhether the blood b,e not abforbed before adhe-
fion takes place.

The lymph which is thrown out during adhcfive inflamma-
tion, profeffor Thomfon and the generality of modern fur-
gical writers confider to be invariably formed by a procefs
analogous to fecretion or exhabtion.

Our knowledge of the procefs of adhefion, or of union
by the firft intention, has been confiderably extended by the
attempts which have at different times been made to repair
and improve thofe parts of the human body which had been
cut off, or otherwife mutilated. Celfus treats profeffedly
of the method of repairing mutilations of the ears, lips, and
nofe ; but the only pradlice of this kind with which he was
acquainted, confifted fimply in paring off the callous edges
of mutilated parts, in raifing thefe edges by dilTeftion from
the parts below tlicm, in drawing them nearer to each other,
and retaining th;m together with futures and adhelive
plafters.

Early in the fixteenth century, a new mode of repairing
mutilated parts began to be firft praftifed in Italy. Alex-
ander Benedidus, who pubhfhed about the year 1527, par-
ticularly mentions, that fome ingenious men had difcovered
a way of corredling the deformities occafioned by the muti-
lations of the note. The plan confifted in raifing a flap of
(Icin from the arm, ftitching it to the mutilated part, and
after dividing this flap from the arm, modelling it as much
as pofllble into the (hape of the nofe. Thefe new nofes,
BenediAus remarks, bear ill the cold of winter, and he
gives fome wholefome advice about not rafhly or fevereljr
pulling them, left they yield and come away.

This curious fubjeci was afterwards noticed by Gourmelin
in 1566, by Vefaliusin 1569, and by Ambrofe Pare in 1582.
The two latter erred in fuppofing it a neceflary part of the
operation to cut out a portion of the biceps mufcle.

But, fays profeflor Thomfon, the beft, and by far the moll
interefting account that is any where to be found of this mode
of repairing mutilated parts, is that which is contained in the
elaborate and not inelegant, though certainly prolix work of
the celebrated Gafpar Tahacotius, entitled " De Curtorum
Chirurgia per Infitionem," printed at Venice I J97. He de-
fcribes mort minutely and circumftantially his manner of re-
ftoring, by engraftment, nofes, lips, and ears, which had
been cut off^. He gives a full account of the mode of pre-
paring the flap of (km upon the arm ; the manner in which
it was to be marked out, and a flip of cloth infcrted under
it for fome days ; of the divifion of the upper extremity of
this flap from the arm ; of paring the mutilated part, and
fewing, with mathematical precifion, the flap to the nofe ;
of the apparatus neceflary for retaining it in this pofition ; of
tlie divifion of the lower end of the flap from the arm, after
a union had taken place between the nofe and the flap ; of
the modelling, or configuration of the feptum ; of the plaf-
ters and bandages to be applied in this ftage of the procefs ;
and of the means to be ufed for fome time to defend the nofe
from accidental injury. He then treats, in fcparatc chapters,
of the repair of the upper and lower lips, and of the forma-
tion of new ears. The inftruments to be employed, and the
progrcfs of the artift in the different ftages of his work, are
likcwife illuftrated in twenty-two plates.

In the repair of the upper lip, this part was joined, like
the nofe, to the upper extremity of the flap ; but in that
of the lower lip, it became necefTary to divide the lower
rnd of the flap firft from the arm, and conneft it with the
lip, fo that the fltin of the engrafted part might always be
outermoft.

The occafions for imitating the mode of praAice fo fully
defcrlbed by Taliacotius, now feldom occur in Europe ;
but in India, where the punifhments are in fome places fimi-
lar to thofe which were inflifted in Europe in the time of
Tahacotius, the art of reftoring nofes is liill held in confi-
derable repute. The Indian method differs from the TaUa-
cotian chiefly in taking the flap of fl<in of which the new
nofe is to be formsd, from the forehead inftead of the arm.
See Gent. Mag. Oft. 1794. Alfo, An Account of Two
fuccefsful Operations for reftoring a loft Nofe from the In-
teguments of the Forehead, &c. by J. C. Carpue.

Boyer mentions, that the late M. Chopart had employed
a piece of the fkin of the neck to fill up a void fpace left
after an operation for a cancerous lip. The union took
place, and a tolerably well-formed lip was procured.

It has been a queftion, whether parts which have been com-
pletely feparated from the reft of the body can be again
united. This reunion, fays profefTor Thomfon, was long
conceived to be in every inftance impoffible ; but the fuc-
cefs which in fome cafes has attended the tranfplantation of
the teeth, has clearly (hewn, that in one inftance at leaft, in
the human body, this reunion is poffible. Of the poflibility
of this mode of reunion in brute animals, numerous exam-
ples are to be found in authors.

Duhamel mentions, that it was a very common praftice in
the poultry yards in France, to engraft the ipurs of young
cocks upon their combs, and that, in this fituation, the
fpurs were obferved to grow to a larger fize than when they
were allowed to remain on their legs. From a variety of ex-
periments and difTeftions, Duhamel deduces the following
conclufions. " We fee then (fays he) that an organized
part, detached from the leg of a cock, when it was not bigger
than a hemp-feed, and placed upon the head of the fame
aninrul, forms there an union fufficiently intimate to become
feveral inches in length, while it preferves in this new fitua-
tion its original organization in every refpcft, except in
the mere circumftance of becoming larger. This, there-
fore, is a true engraftment performed upon an animal. Se-
condly ; we fee a bony nucleus, covered firft with a periof-
teum, and then with a horny fubftancc ; in a word, a horn
fimilar to that of oxen, and which grows in the fame man-
ner, conneifled to the cartilaginous ring by the ligamentous
bands which have been already mentioned. Thirdly ; this
horn, by its fize, and by the continual motions of the head,
being prevented from uniting firmly, or, in other words,
from anchylofing with the cranium, forms a kind of joint,
furniflied with feveral hgaments fufiiciently ftrong to fupport
it. But thefe organs are not to be found in the natural
ftate, either under the comb of the cock, or in the neigh-
bourhood of their fpurs ; at leaft, I have never been able to
perceive them there. Nature in this manner chooles to fup-
ply her own wants by tlie dcvelopement of new organs."
Duhamel in Mem. dc I'Acad. des Sciences, 1746.

The experiments of Duhamel were repeated by Mr.
Hunter with fimilar refulls ; and he even profecutcd the
enquiry further. Amongft other points, he endeavoured to
afcertain whether parts peculiar to the male would grow on
the female ; and if the parts of the female, on the contrary,
would grow on the male. He took the fpur from the leg
of a young cock, and placed it in the fituation of a fpur in
the leg of a hen chicken ; it took root : the eliickcn grew
to a hen ; but, at firft, no fpur grew ; while the fpur which
was left on the other leg of the cock grew as iifual. " This
experiment (fays Mr. Hunter) 1 have repciled feveral times
in the fame fummer with the fame effefts, which led mc to
conceive, that the fpur of a cock would not grow upon a
hen, and that they wcr« therefore to be confidercd aa dif-

tincl

U N I

tinct animals, having very diftinft powers. In order to
alcertain this, I took, the fpurs of hen chickens, and placed
them on the legs of young cocks. I found that thoie which
took root grew nearly as fall, and to as large a fize as the
natural fpur on the other leg, which appeared to be a con-
tradiftion to my former experiments. Upon another exa-
mination of my hens, however, I found that the fpurs had
grown confiderably, although they had taken feveral years
to do it ; for I found that the fame quantity of growth in
the fpur of the cock, while on the cock, during one year,
was as much as that of the cock's fpur on the hen in the courfe
of three or four years ; or as three or four to one." Mr.
Hunter alfo infertcd a human tooth into the comb of a
cock, and there are preparations in his mufeum, fully proving
that a vafcular union was formed between thefe parts, as the
membrane of the cavity of the tooth is feen beautifully co-
loured with red injetlion. The fame diftingui(hed obferver
likewife undertook experiments, with a view of learning
whether the tefticles of the cock would unite to the inner
furface of the peritoneum of the abdomen of the hen. The
attempt often failed ; but four fpecimcns are prefcrved in his
mufeum, marked N° 54, 5, 6, and 7, in which a vafcular
union has aftually taken place ; and in which, though the fize
of the tefticles does not appear to have received any addition
after their attachment to the parietes of the abdomen of the
hen, ftill their vitality had been completely preferved by the
communication of blood-veflels which had been formed.

The experiment of engrafting the parts of one animal
upon another, has been frequently performed on the human
body in the well-known praftice of tranfplanting teeth.
That a vafcular reunion may take place between the velTols
of the tooth and thofe of the focket, feems proved by the
experiments of Mr. Hunter and Mr. A. Cooper, in which
the vefTels of the membrane lining the cavity of the tooth,
and probably the only veffels which the tooth has, were
filled from the veffels of the comb, into which the tooth had
been inferted.

From fome fafts related in the article Cranium, how-
ever, it appear?, that if a dead tooth, or, in other words, one
that has been for a long time pulled, be inferted into the
comb of a cock, it will adhere, as well as a living or recently
pulled tooth. The ingenious author of that article had
feen an example of a dead tooth adhering firmly in the
comb of a cock, where it had been placed by the late
Mr. Moore, a dentift and lefturer in London. It is known,
alfo, that a tooth dead in every refpeft may be fixed with-
out any external mechanical means in the hving focket, fo
as not only to remain there for months, or for years, but to
become fo firmly fixed as not to admit of being readily
pulled out, and to ferve very well for the purpofe of mafti-
cation. Profeffor Thomfon informs us, that this faft was
firft mentioned by M. Fauchard, and the obfervation has
been confirmed by cafes, related by M. Bourdet in his book
on the Art of the Dentil!, p. 199. The union of the dead
tooth to the living focket muft be effcfted in all probability
by the contraftion of the focket around the inequalities of
the fang and neck of the tooth ; for the art of fixing a dry
tooth principally confifts in making feveral notches on its
root with a file, before it is introduced into the focket.
Bourdet remarks, that though this operation often fuc-
ceeds, it does fo lefs frequently than the tranfplantation of
frefh teeth.

If we exclude from confideration the tranfplantation of
teeth, the inftances of the reunion of parts which have been
entirely feparated, are very rare in the human body ; fo
rare indeed, fays Dr. Thomfon, that moft practitioners flill
treat with difbelief and ridicule the few inftances which

U N I

have been put upon record. But, he properly obfervcs,
that the different fa£ts which have been learned refpecting
the tranfplantation of the teeth, together with the experi-
ments of Duhamel and Mr. Hunter, prove indifputably
the poffibility of parts being reunited, which have bee.T
completely feparated from the animal fyftem, to which they
belonged, and in which the circulation of the blood mull
neceffarily have ceafed for a time. The reader will find a
variety of cafes, proving the accuracy of this llatement, col-
lefted in profeffor Thomfon's valuable Lectures on Inflam-
mation, p. 239, &c. It is to be acknowledged, at the fame
time, that when furgeons have attempted to reunite parts
which had been entirely feparated from the body, they have
generally failed. But (liould the part retain the conneftion
of only a few fibres, before it is replaced for the purpofe of
union, the circumftance makes an important difference ; and
union is then more frequently accompliflied. The writer of
this article was lately informed of a cafe, m which an ear,
entirely feparated, with the exception of a very llender piece
of flcin, was fuccefsfully reunited to the head again.

For moft of the preceding obfervations, we are indebted
to profeffor Thomfon's Leftures, a work which difplays a
profound knowledge of all the moft important doftrines oi
furgery.

Some additional obfervations on union by the firft inten-
tion, and on the bell means of promoting it, will be founti
in the article Wounds.

Union, in Geography, one of the Grenadine iflands, in
the Weft Indies. N. lat. 12° 30'. W. long, 61° 20'.

Union, a town of America, in the diftritt of Maine and
county of Lincoln, containing 1 266 inhabitants ; 50 milei

N.E. of Brunfwick Alfo, a town of the ftate of Con-

nedicut, in the county of Tolland, containing 752 in-
habitants; 12 miles E. of Tolland. — Alfo, a village of
New York, in the townfhip of Naffau, and county of
Rcnffelaer, fituated on the turnpike road to New Lebanon,
ili miles about S.E. from Albany; with 50 houfes and
ftores, a church, and a poft-ofiice of the fame name, and in-
corporated as a village. — Alfo, a village of New York, in
Greenwich, Wafhington county, fituated on the Battenkill,
34 miles N. of Albany, and incorporated as a village ; con-
taining 48 houfes and ftores, two meeting-houfes, an aca-
demy, two extenfive cotton, and 12 woollen manufaftures,
feveral mills, a trip-hammer, a manufaftory of files and of
caft-fteel, and about 500 inhabitants. — Alfo, a village of
Albany county, in the townfhip of Bern, 2 1 miles from
Albany, on the road to Schoharie, from which it is diftant
14 miles. It contains about 26 dwellings, feveral ftores, &c.
and a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe. — Alfo, a village of New
York, in Chnton county, pleafantly fituated on a handfome
plain, in the townfhip of Para, 3 miles N. of the bridge
acrofs the Table river ; ijo miles N. of Albany ; in which
are a poft-office, 45 houfes and ftores, a Quaker meeting-
houfe, and fome other buildings. — Alfo, a town of Effex
county, in New Jerfey, containing 1428 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfhip of Berks county, in Pennfylvania, con-
taining 766 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Huntingdon
county, in Pennfylvania, containing 706 inhabitants. — Alio,
a townfhip of Fayette county, containing 1821 inhabitants.
— Alfo, a townfhip of Mifflin county, Pennfylvania, con-
taining 1 1 14 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Belmont
county, in Ohio, containing 1514 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
townfhip of Champaign county, in Ohio, containing 861 in-
habitants.— Alfo, a townfhip of Delaware county, in Ohio,
containing 165 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Fayette
county, in Ohio, containing 503 inhabitants. — Alio, a
townfhip in Gallia county, Ohio, containing 367 inha-
bitants.

U N I

UNI

thants. — Alfo, a townfliip of Highland county, Ohio,
containing 744 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip in Knox
county, Ohio, containing 431 inliabitants — Alfo, a town-
fhip in Licking county, Ohio, containing 375 inhabitants.
• — Alfo, a townfhip in Madifon county, Ohio, containing
ZCO inliabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip in Miam county, Ohio,
containing 683 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfliip in Muf-
kingum county, containing 430 inhabitants Alfo, a town-
fhip in Rofs county, Ohio, containing 2273 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfhip in Scioto county, Ohio, containing 541
.inhabitants. — Alfo, a diflrift of South Carolina, containing
10,995 inhabitants.

Union Borough, a town in Fayette county, Pennfylvania,
containing 999 inhabitants.

Union River, a river of the diftritl of Maine, which
runs into Penoblcot bay.

Union Springs, a poft-office in the fouth-weft corner of
Aurelius, in Cayuga county.

Union Fire-Office, See Insurance.
UNIONS, Uniones, in Phyftology, the fame with mar-
garita, or pearls. See Pearl.

UNIQUE is fometimes anglified, and ufed to denote a
thing which is the only one of its kind.

UNISETA, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a fpecies
of fly, found frequently fitting on the ammi or bilhops
weed, and diflinguifhed by having one long hair or briflle
growing out at its tail. See Henothrix.

UNISON, in Mufic, is the efFeft of two founds, which
are equal, in degree of tune, or in point of gravity and
acutenefs.

Unifon may be defined a confonance of two founds, pro-
duced by two firings, or other bodies of the fame matter,
length, thicknefs, and tenfion, equally ftruck and at the
fame time ; fo that they yield the lame tone or note.

Or it is the union of two founds, fo like each other, that
■the ear, perceiving no difference, receives them as one and
the fame found. See Sound.

What conftitutes unifonance is the equality of the number
of vibrations of the two fonorous bodies in equal times ;
where there is an inequality in that refpeft, and, of confe-
quence, an inequality in degree of tune, the unequal founds
conftitute an interval.

Since ifochronous vibrations produce founds that are
mufical, and that are faid to continue at the fame pitch, and
flower vibrations produce graver, flatter, or lower founds,
and quicker vibrations produce founds that are acuter,
fharper, or higher ; it follows, that if fcvcral firings, how-
ever different in length, thicknefs, denlity, and tenfion, or
other founding bodies, vibrate all together in equal times,
their founds will liave one and the fame pitch, however they
may differ in loudnefs, or other qualities, and are, therefore,
called unifons ; and, on the contrary, the vibrations of
unifons arc ifochronous. This obfervation reduces the
theory of all forts of mufical founds to that of the founds of
a fingle firing, with refpeft to gravity or acutenefs. Con-
fequeiitly, the wider and narrower vibrations of a mufical
firing, or of any other body founding mufically, are all
ifochronous very nearly : otherwifc, while the vibrations
decreafe in breadth till they eeafe, the pitch of the found
could not continue the fame as we perceive it does, if the
firft vibrations be not too large ; in which cafe, the found
is a little acuter at the beginning than afterwards. In like
manner, fince the pitch of the found of a firing or bell, or
other vibrating body, does not fenfibly alter, while the
hearer varies his diilance from it ; it follows, that the larger
and leffer vibrations of the particles of air, at fmaller and
greater dillances from the founding body, are all. ifo-
chronous ; and confcquently, that the little fpaccs defcribed
Vol. XXXVII.

by the vibratuig particles are every where proportional to
the celerity and force of their motions, as in a pendulum ;
and this difference of force, at different dillances from the
founding body, caufes a difference in the loudnefs of the
found, but not in its pitch. It follows alfo, that the har-
mony of two or more founds, according as it is perfeA or
imperfeft at any one diftancc, will alfo be perfeft or im-
perfcft at any other diftance ; and this is a known faft,
«. gr. in a ring of bells. If two mufical firings (fee String)
have the fame thicknefs, denfity, and tenfion, and differ in
length only, mathematicians have demonltrated, that the
times of their fingle vibrations are proportional to their
lengths. Hence, if a firing of a mufical inflrument be
flopped in the middle, and the found of the half be com-
pared with that of the whole, we may acquire the idea of
the interval of two founds, whofe fingle vibrations («'. e. the
times) are in the ratio of i to 2 ; and by comparing the
founds of -5, 4, f, \, |., 4, ,°„, &c. of the firing with the
found of the whole, we may acquire the ideas of the in-
tervals of two founds, whofe fingle vibrations are in the
ratio of 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 3 to 5, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, 8 to 9, and
9 to 10, &c. See Chord. .Smith's Harmonics, p. 2, &c.

Unifon is the firft and greatefl of concords, and the
foundation, or, as fome call it, the mother of all the reft ;
yet others deny it to be any concord at all, maintaining it to
be only that in founds, which unity is in numbers.

Thefc reftrain the word concord to intervals, and make it
include a difference of tune : but this is precarious ; for as
the word concord fignifies an agreement of founds, it is cer-
tainly applicable to unifons in the fiill degree.

But though unifonance, or an equality of tune, makes the
moft perfeft agreement of found, it is not true that the
nearer any two founds come to an equality of tune, they
are the more agreeable. The mind is delighted with va-
riety ; and the reafon of the agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs
of two founds muft be afcribed to fome other ciufe than the
equality or inequality of the number of their vibrations.

It is a famed phenomenon in mufic, that an intenfe found
being railed, either with the voice, or a fonorous body,
another fonorous body near it, whofe tune is either unifon,
or oftave to that found, will found its proper note unifon,
or oftave, to the given note.

The experiment is eafily tried by the firings of two in-
flrume nts ; or by a voice and an harpfichord ; or a bell, or
even a drinking-glafs.

This our philofopliers account for thus : one ftring being
ftruck, and the air put in motion thereby ; every other
ftring, within the reach of that motion, will receive fome
impreflion therefrom : but each ftring can only move with a
determinate velocity of recourfes or vibrations ; and all uni-
fons proceed from equal, or equidiurnal vibrations ; and
other concords from other proportions. The unifon ftring,
then, keeping equal pace with the founded ftring, as having
the fame mcafure of vibrations, mull have its motion con-
tinued, and Itill improved, till its motion become fenfible,
and it give a tlidinft found. Other concording ftrings have
their motions propagated in different degives, according to
the frequency of the coincidence of their vibr.it ions with
thofe of the founded ftring : the oftave, therefore, moft
fenfibly ; then the fifth ; after which, the crofTing of the
motions prevents any cffeCt.

This they illullrate (as Galileo firft fuggeftcd) by the
pendulum, which being fet a moving, the motion may be
continued and augmented, by making frequent, light, coin-
cident impulfcs ; as blowing on it when the vibration is juft
finifhed : but if it be touchid by .my crofs or oppofite mo-
tion, and this, too, frequently, the motion will be inter-
rupted, and ceafe altogether. So of two unifon ftrings, if
3E the

U N I

U N 1

the one be forcibly ftruck, it communicates motion, by the
air, to the other ; and both being equidiunial in their vibra-
tions, that is, finifhing them preeifely together, the motion
of that other will be improved and heightened, by the fre-
quent impulfes received from the vibrations of the firft,
becaufe given preeifely when that other has finiftied its
vibration, and is ready to return : but if the vibration of
the chords be unequal in duration, there will be a croffing
of motions, lefs or more, according to the proportion of the
inequality ; by which the motion of the untouched ftring
will be fo checked, as never to be fcnfible. And this we
find to be the cafe in all confonances, except unifon, oAave,
and the fifth. See Chohd.

UNISSONI, Ital. This word written at full length,
or abridged over an empty ftaff in a fcore, if over the fecond
violin, implies that it is to play in unifon with the firft ;
if over the firft viohn in vocal mufic, that it is to play in
unifon with the voice.

UNIT, Unite, or Unity, in Arithmellc, the number one,
or one fingle individual part of difcrete quantity. See
Number.

If a number confifts of four or five places, that which is
outermoft towards the right end, is called the place of units.

Number, in general, is by Euclid defined to be povaiVv
■TToo-oTn;, a multitude, or aggregate of units ; but, in this
fenfe, unity is not a number.

UNITARIANS, in Ecclefmpcal Hiflory, a name given
to thofe who confine the glory and attribute of divinity to
the One, only great and fupreme God, and father of our
Lord Jefus Chrift ; and who maintain, that this one fupreme
God is the only objeft of religious worfhip.

This denomination is fometimes applied to thofe that are
otherwife called Arians ; but it is now more commonly ap-
propriated to the Socinians, who maintain that the Father alone
18 the God of the univerfe, the only true Go3 ; that our Lord
Jefus Chrift was a mere man, with a reafonable foul and human
body, who had no cxiftence before he was born, either in the
ordinary courfe of nature, or by the immediate operation and
miraculous power of God, at Bethlehem, and who, in the
courfe of his hfe and niiniftry, death, refurreftion, and exalta-
tion, was honoured with pecuHar and extraordinary tokens of
the divine influence and favour ; and that the Holy Spirit was
not a perfon, or diftinft intelligent agent, but only the power,
influence, and energy of God. Some, in imitation of Socinus,
allow that Chrift is an objeft of worftiip ; but moft of the mo-
dern Unitarians reftritl prayer and divine worihip to God
alone : and this conftitutes the diftinftion between Unitarians
and other Cliriftians, though many of the modern Socinians,
renouncing that difcriminating diftin<ftion, have appropriated
the appellation, without fufficient reafon, to themfelves.

For an account of the progrefs of Unitarianifm in our
own country, fee an Hiftorical View of the State of the
Unitarian Doftrine and Worftiip from the Reformation to
our own Times, by Mr. Lindfey, 8vo. 1783.

UNITAS Fratrum, or United Brethren, a name dif-
tinguiftiing thofe Chriftians who are frequently called abroad
Hermhuters, and with us Moravians.

To thofe who are acquainted with the hiftory of this fcft,
it is well known, that their moft approved writers have
taken great pains to derive their origin from thofe formerly
diftinguiftied by the appellation of Moravian or Boliemian
Brethren, and who were afterwards denominated Huflites.

Moflieim, however, obferves, that they may be faid with
more propriety to imitate the example of that famous com-
munity, than to defceud from thofe who compofed it : for,
he adds, it is well known, that there ace very few Bohemians
and Moravians in the fraternity of the Hermhuters ; and it
is extremely doubtful, whether even this fmall cumber fliould

9

be confidered as the pofterity of the ancient Bohemian
brethren that diftinguifhed themfelves fo early by tlieir zeal
for the Reformation. But from the Moravian writers, and
from Crantz in particular, ubi infra, we are furnilhed with
a circumftantial account of the rife and progrefs of this feft
from the ninth century, when the Bohemians and Mo-
ravians, and the whole Sclavonian nation, were firft pro-
felyted to the faith of Ciiriftianity, to the revival of it by
count ZinzendorfF. To this purpofe they allege, that when
by the inftrumentality of Methodius and Cyrillus, two Greek
monks, Bogaris, king of Bulgaria, and king Suatopluck,
in Moravia, were converted, tliey and their refpetlive coun-
tries united with the Greek church ; Methodius being the
firft biftiop, and Cyrillus having tranflated the bible into the
Sclavonian language. After various ftruggles, the Greek
Chriftians were conftrained to fubmit to the fee of Rome.
Some few, however, ftill adhered to the rites of the Greek
church, who, in 1176, being joined by the Waldenfes and
inftrufted by them, alTociated in afts of worlliip, and fent
mifiionaries into many countries. In tliis ftate they con-
tinued for more than two hundred years, till a fevere perfe-
cution was commenced againft them in 1391. In the be-
ginning of the next century they acquired the denomination
of Huflites, and were alfo called at different periods Fratres
Legis Chrifli, or Brethren of the Law of Chrift ; Unitas
Fratrum, or the Unity of the Brethren ; or Fratres Unitatis,
United Brethren. .Notwithftanding very fevere treatment,
they maintained ftri6t church difciphne among themfelves ;
and, at the iynod of Lhota in 1467, chofe twenty, and out
of tliefe nine perfons, of whom they appointed three by lot
for elders.

Having, at this time, no bifhops of the Bohemian church
who had not fubmilted to the fee of Rome, they obtained
confecration for three of their priefts of Stephen, bifhop of
the Waldenfes in Auftria ; and thefe, on their return, or-
dained ten co-bifliops, or confeniors, from among the reft
of the preibyters. After many intervals of perfecution and
of peace, towards the beginning of the fixteenth century,
there were two hundred congregations in Bohemia and Mo-
ravia, which had the bible tranflated into the Bohemian
tongue, firft from the Vulgate, and afterwards another from
the original text.

In 1523, after the dawn of the Reformation, a friendly
correfpondence commenced between the Brethren and
Luther, and afterwards with Calvin, and others of the re-
formers. This correfpondence involved them in a fevere
perfecution, which greatly opprefTed and difpirited them.
The diffenfions alfo that prevailed amongll themfelves
threatened their ruin, which were, at length, happily ter-
minated at.the fynod of Scndomir, in 1570, when the three
Tropujfes, [i. e. thofe who held different tenets and rites with
regard to non-eflentials,) viz. the epifcopal brethren, the
Lutheran, and reformed, or followers of Calvin, agreed
that they would perform divine fervice and communicate to-
gether. In 1575 they obtained an edift for the public
exercife of their religion, which was confirmed in 1609,
when they obtained leave to ereft new churches. But, in
1612, a civil war broke out in Bohemia; and, in 1621, a
violent perfecution occafioned the difperfion of their mi-
nifters, and great diftrefs to the Brethren in general. AmOEg
the minifters was one John Amos Comenius, bifliop of the
church of the Brethren. Crantz has given the fucceffion
of the Bohemian, Moravian, and Polilh biihops from Ste-
phen, in 1467, to the renewal of the church of tlie United
Brethren in this century. In 1662, Comenius confecrated
Peter Figulus, commonly called Jabloniky ; and, in 1699,
his foil, l3aniel Erneft Jablonflty, was confecrated bifliop ;
and by him, it is faid, the epifcopal ordination has been

com-

UNITAS FRATRUM.

committed to the prefent Unity of the Brethren, adhering
to the Augfburg confeflion, renewed by the emigration of
many out oF Bohemia and Moravia. This emigration was
fo confiderable, and fuch numbers of others conformed to
the rites of the church of Rome, that, at the clofe of the
feventeenth century, it was apprehended that this ancient
church was become utterly extindl.

Several, however, it is faid, continued in Bohemia and
Moravia, and retauicd their principles in fecret ; and from
thefe the Moravian writers derive the prefent church, known
by the name of Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren,
which, they fay, is a renewal and continuation of the an-
cient church. About the year 1720, the revival com-
menced among the pofterity of the Brethren about Fulneck
in Moravia, and Leutom.ifchel in Bohemia. In Moravia,
one Chriftian David had been the chief inftrument of the
edification of his brethren, and the inflruftions which he
received from minilters, whofe names were Schoefcr and
Schwedler, he communicated, in 1717, to the defcendants
of the ancient Brethren. But being perfecuted in their na-
tive country, fome of them migrated under the conduft of
Chriftian David, and, in 1722, put themfelves under the
proteftion of Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorff, in
Upper Lufatia ; where they built houfes upon the hill
called the Huthberg, Huth des Herrn, i. e. the Watch Hill,
and hence the new fettlement was called Herrnhul, 1. e. the
Watch of the Lord, and the Brethren were denominated
Herrnhuters. The count foon after removed to Bertholf-
dorft, and fuperintended their rifing fettlement. Count
Zinzendorff fays of himfelf, that he had formed a defign,
when only ten years old, of coUefting a fmall fociety of be-
lievers, who (hould altogether employ themfelves in exercifes
of devotion under his direftion. Accordingly, when he
became of age, in the year 1721, he fettled at Bertholfdorff,
and was foon after joined by a number of profelytes. In
1724, more emigrants arrived at Herrnhut from Moravia,
juft as the Brethren were beginning to lay the foundation of
an edifice intended for the education of the children of the
noblelfe, for printing cheap bibles, and preparing medicines
for their neighbours, in which building was alfo to be a chapel.

It would far exceed our limits to recount the fucceffive
emigrations to Herrnhut, and the additions that were made
by the means of the preachmg of the Rev. Mr. Rothe,
minifter at Bertholfdorff, and the zeal of Chriftian David.
Among thefe fettlers there were perfons of different opinions,
which engaged the attention of count Zinzendorff, who en-
deavoured to eftablifti an union among them in the funda-
mental truths of the Proteftant religion, and, in 1727, formed
ftatutes for their government in conformity to thefe truths.

From this period in particular, when elders and wardens
were chofen, and an union eftablifhed between the Brethren
from Moravia, both among themfelves, and with their
Lutheran and reformed Brethren, the Moravian writers
date the renewal of the Unity of the Brethren. I'^e whole
congregation was divided into claffcs of married men,
married women, widowers, widows, maids, bachelors, and
children, called choirs ; and one of tiieir own fex and ftation
in life appointed to have the fpecial care of each choir, under
the infpeftion of the elders. The officers were appointed by
lot, which has continued to be the cafe to the prefent day.

Particular attcntiwi was paid by thefe fevcral claffes to
the inftruftion of youth ; and as a great part of their wor-
ship confifted in fmging', they propofed to inftruft their
children in their religion by hymns. There are fome per-
fons of both fexes appointed by rotation to pray for the
fociety, who are faid to be admoniftied of their duty by an
inward feeling ; and to determine the divine will in particular
cafes by caftmg lots. AU matrimonial contraAs are fubjeft

to the direftion and approbation of the elders. Such was
the origin of the new fed, denominated Herrnhuters ; or,
as others fay, the revival of that of the Moravian Brethren.
In procefs of time, however, it became very confiderable
and extenfive ; and it adopted tenets and pradtices of a very
fingular kind. Some have charged it with adopting very
pernicious notions, and with recommending very unwar-
rantable praftices ; fuch as disfigure the truths of the gofpel,
and fap the foundations of morality. The count is accufed
of fpeaking in very derogatory terms of the fcripture, and
with exprefsly afferting that the reading of the fcripture
appears to him to be more dangerous than ufeful to the
fociety. To avoid idolatry, he fays, people ought to be
taken from the Father and Holy Ghoft, and conduced to
Chrift, witli whom alone we have to do. The Holy Ghoft
is called by the Herrnhuters the eternal wife of God, the
mother of Chriil, the mother of the faithful, and of the
church. The language of their devotion has been charged
with obfcenity, and with exciting ideas not very chafte and
decorous. Count Zinzendorff has incurred juft cenfure by
declaring, that the law is not a rule of li'fe to a believer ;
that the word now belongs only to the Jews ; and that a
converted perfon cannot fin againft light. It has been faid,
that no example can be found of a fanaticifm more extrava-
gant, and a myfticifm more grofs and fcandalous, than thofe
of the Herrnhuters. Thefe charges principally depend
upon the authority of Rimius, in his Candid Narrative of
the Rife and Progrefs of the Herrnhuters, commonly called
Moravians, or Unitas Fratrum, &c. 1753, and Supplement,
&c. publiftied in 1755, fanftioned by the recitai of Mo-
fheim (Eccl. Hift. vol. v.), and biftiop Warburton, in his
" Dodtrine of Grace," vol. ii. We are perfuaded, how-
ever, by unqueftionable teftimonies communicated to us by
the Rev. B. Latrobe, a very refpeAable minifter among
the Moravians in London, that the irregularities in prin-
ciple and praftice that have been charged upon them are
much exaggerated ; and that the accufation has been shiefly
owing to fome unguarded expreffions introduced into their
difcourfes and forms of devotion, which, as Mr. Crantz,
their hiftorian, candidly acknowledges, " being not clear and
determinate enough, and in part unreftrained, proved offen-
five to many divines both in and out of their congregations."

From the year 1727 to 1731, deputations were fent from
Herrnhut to Denmark, Sweden, England, Livonia, Swit-
zerland, and other places in Germany ; and thus the re-
newed unity of the Brethren became more known.

In 1729, a deed was figned by feveral, and ratified by
the count and Mr. Rothe, in which they declare that they
are neither Separatifts, nor a new feft, but defcendants of
the Moravian Brethren, S:c.

We acknowledge, fay they, no vilible congregation of
Chrift, but where the word of God is taught in iimplicity
and purity, and the members lead a holy life ; yet we will
not leparate from any one of any other Chriftian denomina-
tion who truly believes in Chrift, though he gives a dif-
ferent expofition to this or the other text of Scripture, &c.

They guard againft latitudinarianifm in religion ; they
determine to maintain their ancient church difcipline, with-
out forfaking divine fervice in the Proteftant parifh church
at Bertholfdorff ; they agree to the confeflion of Augftiurg :
they will not be called Huffitcs or Lutliorans, but retain
their ancient name. The Brethren ; thus lioping for the pro-
tcAion of their fovereign, and that llicir whole cafe might
be examined by government.

The count's journey to Copenhagen to tlie coronation of
Chriftian VI. in 1731, whore he heard of the mifcrable con-
dition of the negroes in tiic ifland of St. Tliomas, was the
occafion of the firft miftion of the Bretlircn amotig the
3 £ 2 heathen.

UNITAS FRATRUM.

heathen, (o that two Brethren went thither in the year 1732,
and the miflion to Greenland commenced in 1733. In
1732, the count determined to devote himfelf to the mi-
niftry of the gofpel, and accepted the office of warden,
which he had held before, in 1733. In 1734, the firft
Brethren went to America. The count having been ex-
amined and received into the clerical order, by the theo-
logical faculty of Tubingen, correfponded with Jablon(l<y,
eldeft birtiop of the Brethren's unity, about the renewal of
epifcopal ordination ; and he confecratcd a bifhop for the
church of the Brethren of Berlin, with the concuiTence of
his colleague, the fenior, or bifhop of Liffa, in Poland, in
1735. And in 1737, the count himfelf was confecrated a
bifliop of the Unitas Fratrum by tliefe three bifliops ; hav-
ing previoudy obtained the opinion of Dr. Potter, arch-
bilhop of Canterbuiy, that the Moravian Brethren were an
apollolical and epifcopal church, not maintaining any doc-
trines repugnant to the thirty-nine articles of the church of
England : and he afterwards received a congratulatory letter
from the archbifhop on his confecration. From this time
the count is called the ordinary of the Brethren. The count
feems to have been zealous and indefatigable in his la-
bours; and it appears that, in 1739, the Brethren were
difperfed in about forty places, moil of which were mif-
Honaries among the heathen. New fettlements were made
in Europe and America ; inilitutions for the education of
children were e.tabhflied in many places ; and many regula-
tions were adopted for mutual edification, in conformity to
the conftitution of the ancient church of the Brethren. In
1748, a formal and very refpedable commiffion, confifting
of three counts, two doftors of law, and three divines, was
appointed to examine the charges that had been urged
againft the principles and praftice of the Brethren, the re-
fult of which was very favourable to them. In confequence
of the report of the commiffioners, the bailiwick and palace
of Barby, where the college and feminary of the Brethren
are now eftablifhed, were ceded in leafe to count Henry,
twenty-eighth Reufs, and his conforts, and the chapel of
the palace given to the Brethren.

In 1 749, a royal mandate was publiftied, importing, that
the congregations of the Protellant Moravian Brethren,
avowing the unaltered Auguitan confellion, Hiould be re-
ceived in all Saxony, in the fame manner as in Upper Lu-
fatia and the county of Barby.

An eminent divine of Saxony, dean of the king's chapel,
became this year, with the approbation of the fovereign,
honorary preiident of the Lutheran Tropus in the Unity of
the Brethren ; Dr. Cochins, dean of the king of Pruffia's
chapel, was, with the approbation of the king, introduced
as honorary prcfident of the reformed Tropus in the Unity,
to which he had been appointed in 1746, and after his
death, in 1 749, was fucceeded in that of£ce by Dr. Thomas
Wilfon, bifhop of Sodor and Man. After the Rate of the
Brethren's church had been deliberately examined by the
Britifh parhament, an aA pafTed on the 6th of Jime, 1749,
in behalf of the ancient epifcopal chiurch known by the name
of Unitas Fratrum.

In the mean time, as their number increafed, and their
local congregations became more numerous, men of different
conneftions and principles were introduced among them ;
fome of whom had imbibed extravagant notions, which they
zealoufly propagated. This occaiioned what they called a
time of lifting in doftrine and in condud. Their phiafeo-
k)gy in expounding divine truths often bordered upon error ;
and the paffions being warmed, a kind of joy took place,
which produced extravagant aftions. Crantz, however, ob-
ferves, that this fifting did not arife from irrehgious prin-
ciples, nor did it end in immoral praftices. Many among

the Brethren were offended, and their adverfaries took oc--
cafion to reproach them. The count, it is faid, interpofed
with fuch fuccefs, that in the years 1750 and 1751, ^moft
all that had been chargeable with thefe excelfes, in doftrine
and practice, acknowledged their error with fhame ; thofe
who did not retraft deferted them ; and thofe, whofe re-
lapfe was dreaded, were difmiffed from their offices. The
confequence of thefe exceffes was, indeed, in another re-
fpecf , more ferious and alarming ; for the count of Bue-
dingen was fo prejudiced againft them, that an edicl was
publifhed, requiring the inhabitants of Herrnhaag, who
would not renounce the count and the minifters of the
Brethren's church, to leave the country ; v/hereas thofe
who complied were allowed to remain in their habitations,
under the proteftion of the reigning count. On this occa-
fion, more than a thoufand perfons, from 1750 to i753»
left a beautiful village, which they had erefted at a great ex-
pence, and were difperfed in other congregations in Germany,
Holland, England, and America ; and the French reformed
Brethren and Sifters, who hved at Herrnhaag, formed a fettle-
ment at Neuwied, which is now in a flourifhing condition.

The increafe of the Brethren, their new fettlements, and
numerous journies and miffions, involved the fociety in a
great expence, and threatened ruin. Their debts were
many and great, difcouraged their friends, and gave their-
enemies occaiion for cenfure. The count, however, be-
came fecurity for their whole debt, which, at a ftipulated
time, was difcharged. As foon as they were extricated
from thefe difficulties, new regulations were adopted to
prevent future diftrefs of a fimilar kind. We can only add,
that the count lived to fee congregations and miffions fettled
in tlie four quarters of the globe ; and thefe, it has been
urged, were the moft effeftual apologies and defences of the
principles and pradice of the Brethren.

In 1 760 the count died, with a memorial among the Bre-
thren of having been their patron, and theinftrument by whom
God reftored and built up the church of the Brethren.

But though they counted him a diftinguifhed fervant of
God, yet they did not regard him as their head ; for they
acknowledged, from the beginning, no other head and elder
but the Lord Jefus Chrift, and no other father but the
Father in heaven.

At the firft fynod of the Unity, after his deccafe, in
1764, a number of Brethren were chofen to have coUeftively
the fuperintendency of the whole Unity ; and, in the fol-
lowing fynods, the arrangement then made was continued
with fome amendments. This company is called the Elders
Conference of the Unity, and confifts of thirteen Brethren,
who are chofen at every fynod of the whole Unity.

The Brethren appeal to their lives for a refutation of the
calumnies that have been circulated againft them, profeffmg
themfelves to be a people who walk in honefty and godlinefs
as followers of the Lord Jefus Chrift : and, as to doftrine,
they avowedly adhere to the Auglburg, or Auguftan confef-
fion ; and, with refpeft to this, the public, we are informed,
may read an expofition of Chriitian do&rine as taught
in the church known by the name of Unitas Fratrum.

In England, the congregations belonging to the Unitas
Fratrum are the following : -viz. two in London ; one at
Bedford, where are houfes belonging to the fingle Brethren
and fingle Sifters, to which belong their chapels and focieties
at Northampton, Rifely, &c.; one at Ockbrook, near
Derby ; one at Fuhieck, near Pudfey, in Yorkftiire, where
are houfes for the fingle Brethren, and Sifters, and widows,
and fchools for children ; to this the members of the fo-
cieties near Leeds and Bradford belong ; one at Wyke, near
Halifax, another at Merfield, and another at Little Gum-
jnerfal.j one' at Duckenfield, in Cheftiire, where they have

twu

U N I

UNI

two cKoir houfes, one for the fingle Brethren, and one for
tlie fingle Siilcrs ; one at Leoniinller, in Herefordshire ;
one at Briftol, where are houfes for the fingle Brethren and
aiders, to which belongs that at Kingfwood ; oiio at Bath ;
one at Tcthcrton, in Wiltfhire, to which the chapel at
Malmefbury belongs : a congregation was alfo coUefted, in
J 759' <•* Havcrfordweft, in Pembrokcfhire. Befides thefe
congregations, the Brethren have chapels in feveral parts of
England ; -viz. at Appcrly, in Gloucellerlhire ; Frome, in
Somerfetfhire ; Plymouth, in Devonfhire ; Eden and Cul-
worth, in Northamptonfliire.

The wild entluifiafm of this feft forms as Angular a con-
trail with the wifdom and perfeverance of their attempts to
convert and civilize the heathens, as the fmallnefs of their
own numbers does with the variety and diltant fcenes of
their miflionary undertaking?. Their numbers did not ex-
ceed 600, when they firft began their attempt to convert
the heathens ; and, in the period of eight or nine years,
they fent milfionaries to Greenland, to St. Thomas's, to
St. Croix, to Surinam, to the Rio de Berbice, to the In-
dians of North America, to the negroes of South Carolina,
to Lapland, to Tartary, to Algiers, to Guinea, to the
Cape of Good Hope, and to the ifland of Ceylon. We cannot
follow Dr. Brown {iil/i infra) through his details of thefe mif-
iions, which he has derived from the well-known works of
Crantz, and the periodical accounts. In Greenland, where
they have three fettlements, viz. at New Hernliuth, Lichten-
fels, and Lichtenau, the number of Chriftians, in the year
1 8 10, was 998 ; but it appears to be dimini(hing, not fomuch
from their defeftion to Paganifm, as from a general decreaie
in the population of this inhofpitable region. In St. Thomas's,
where their number, in 1812, was 2285, and St. Croix, where
they have three congregations, confiding in 1812 of 844.3 P^''"
fons, they have been favoured by the ruling powers, and have
been very fuccefsful ; in Jamaica, their undertaking has been
viewed with jealoufy, and they have made little progrefs ;
while in Antigua they have eftabliflied the mod flouriihing of
all their miflions, and reckon 1 i,824mcmbersof their different
congregations. Their efforts on the continent of y^merica,
both North and South, have been almoff- uniformly unpro-
fperous ; at Berbice the fettlement was broken up in 1 763, by
a rebellion of the negroes ; at Hope, on the river Corcntyn, in
Surinam, after feveral partial calamities, they were difperfed
in i8o8, in confcquence of tlieburningof their fettlement; and
at Bambey and Paramaribo their edabliffimcnts appeir to be
on the point of diffolution. The miffions to North America
have been almod without exception difadrous. However,
they have live fettlements among the Indians.

Their late miffions, excepting the one that went to the
Cape, appear to have been undertaken with very little pru-
dence, and attended with no fuccefs. In the year 1812,
according to an edimate by Mr. Latrobe, they had 33 fettle-
ments among the heathen, under whofe care were 27,000
converts. From the account given of their method of con-
verfion, it fhould feem that argument and evidence have no-
thing to do with it ; fince they never enter into any difcuf-
fions concerning the fever.nl truths or doftrints of religion,
till the favagcs appear to ielieve in Chrijl, and to feel the
transforming influence of the gofpel on their hearts r.iid
lives. Stripped of its technical language, tlie meaning of
this ftatement is that the paffions, and not tlic judgment,
are the channel by which conviftion is brought to tlie mind j
and that converfion muff begin by exciting terror or fym-
pathy, before any knowledge of the caufe of either can be
acquired. The ultimate cffeft, however, is good, though
the procefs is abfurd ; and perhaps no alternative prcfents
itfelf but that of beginning, like the Quakers in America,
with cultivating the underftajiding before the evidence of

Chriftianity is propofed to it ; or operating by impaflloned
oratory and awful denunciations, on thofe feelings and fyra-
pathies which man in every condition carries within him, and
which are even mod powerful where the lead of intelleftual
culture exids.

For other particulars relating to the fentiments, difcipline,
mode of worffiip, &c. of the Unitas Frntrum, we muft
refer to Crantz's Ancient and Modern Hidory of the
Brethren, 8vo. publidied in 1780, by the Rev. B. La-
trobe ; and to a Concife Hiitorical Account of the prefent
Conditution of the Unitas Fratrum, translated from a work
entitled Neuede Religions Gefchichte, by Dr. Walch, of
Goettingen, and publidied in 1775, by Mr. Latrobe. See
alfo Crantz's Hidory of Greenland, &c. pubhflied in 2 vols.
8vo. 1767. A Succind View of the Miffions edabliflied
among the Heathen by the Church of the Brethren, in a
I..etter to a Friend, by M. Latrobe, in 1771 ; and a Brief
Account of the Miffion edabliflied among the Efquimaux
Indians, on the Coad of Labrador, in 1774. Brown';
Hidory of the Propagation of Chridianity among the
Heathen, fince the Reformation, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1817.

UNITE, in the Manege. See Union.

UNITED Affection. See Affection.

United Floivers, in Botany and Vegetal!; Phyjiology, are
fuch as are furnidied wnth damcns and pidils 111 the fame
flower. This term has been thought more commodious and
unexceptionable, in Englirti, than any tranflation of the
Greek f^uc4(p^oJ.1o-, however jud and proper the latter may
be in fcientific or learned works. Mod flowers come under
the above defcription, the feparation of the damens and
pidils, either in didindt flowers on the fame plant, or upon
different plants, of the fame fpecies, being far lefs common.
Such a feparation, however, when it does occur, prefents
one of the drongcd evidences in favour of the Linnaean
doftrine of impregnation ; and decidedly refutes the opinion
of Tourncfoi-t, that the anthers were dedined to carry off
excrementitious matter from the germen and young feeds,
as the kidneys of animals fccrete urine. The reniform
drufture of the anthers, in many cafes, may offer an apology,
it ciimot be called a reafon, in favour of fuch a doArine.
See Fecuiv;hatio.<j of Plants.

The advantage of the union of both organs of impregna-
tion in the fame flower, as vegetables are not endowed witU
voluntary motion, is obvious. But nature fecms occa-
iionally under fome difadvantage in bringing both to per-
feftioii ; and one or other is rendered, by circiimdances^
deficient in its ufual power. Thus in Mentha and Lilium,
the increafe by root being inordinate, the damens become
imperfeft in fome flowers, the pidils in others. In Rhodiola,
which fcarcely differs in any material refpeA from Scdum,
they are always fo, on didinfl plants. Polygamous ftowei-s
(fee Polygamia) exhibit a fort of precaution in nature, tcy
guard againd any cafual imperfeftion, fioin darvation, in
either organ of united flowers. This is effefted by pro-
viding a fuperfluous dock of daraens, tor theie generally
predominate, in feparate individuals, whofe vigour is not
impeded by the maintenance of any piflil of their own, and
which are, therefore, at full liberty to fupply the dtficiencies
of their neighbours.

United Provinces, in Geography, a name given to the
fevcn Protfdant dates of tiie Netherlands, which threw
off the yoke of Si)niii, and became independent. (Sec
Holland and Nethiiilands. ) Thefe now form a didinft.
kingdom, and by an arrangement which ha.s taken place
fince the French revolution, William Frederick, grand
duke of Luxemburgli, and prince of Orange nnd Nafiau, is
king of the Netherlands. This prince married princefs
Frederica Sophia of Pruflia, Odobor 14* 1791, by whonv

he

UNI

he has iflue, William Frederick, hereditary prince, a general
in the Britifh army, married Feb. 21, 1816, to the grand
duchefs Anne, fifter to the emperor of Ruflia; and Frederick.

United States, comprehend an extenfive portion of
North America, fituated between 25° 50' and 49° 37'
N. lat., and between 10° E. and 48° 20' W, long, from
Wartiington. The moft northern part is bounded by a line
running due W. from the N.W. comer of the Lake of the
Woods, and the fouthern extremity is the outlet of the
Rio del Norte. The eaftern extremity is the great
Menan ifland, on the coaft of Maine, and the weftern is
Cape Flattery, N. of Columbia river, on the Pacific ocean.
The greateft extent of the country from N. to S. is 1650
miles, and from E. to W. 2700. The area is about
2,379,350 fquare miles, or 1,522,784,000 acres. The
population by the lad cenfus was 7,239,903, being lefs than
tliree to each fquare mile of territory, fo that every in-
habitant has nearly 200 acres of land. The United States
are bounded on the E. by the Atlantic ocean, and the
Britifh province of New Brunfwick ; on the N. by the
Britifh pofTeflions of Lower and Upper Canada, and the
large unfettled country to the weftward of thofe provinces ;
on the W. by the Pacific ocean ; on the S.W. by the
Spanifh internal provinces and the Rio del Norte ; and on
the S. by the gulf of Mexico and Florida. In the definitive
treaty of peace between the United States and Britain, exe-
cuted at Paris on the 3d of September, 1783, the northern
and eaftern boundaries are defcribed as follows, iiis.
" From the N.W. angle of Nova Scotia ; -u/z. that angle
which is formed by a line drawn due N. from the fource of
St. Croix river to the Highlands ; along the faid High-
lands which divide thofe rivers that empty themfelves into
the river St. Lawrence, from thofe which fall into the
Atlantic ocean, to the north-wefternmoft head of Con-
nefticut river ; thence down along the middle of that river,
to the 45th degree of N. lat. ; from thence by a line due
weft on faid latitude, until it ftrikes the river Iroquois or
Cataraquy ; thence along the middle of faid river into lake
Ontario, through the middle of faid lake until it ftrikes the
communication by water between that lake and lake Erie ;
thence along the middle of faid communication into lake
Erie, throiigh the middle of faid lake until it arrives at the
water communication between that lake and lake Huron ;
thence along the middle of faid water communication
into lake Huron ; thence through the middle of faid lake
to the water communication between that lake and lake
Superior ; thence tlirough lake Superior northward of the
ifles Royal and Pljilipeaux, to the Long Lake ; thence
through the middle of faid Long Lake and the water com-
munication between it and the Lake of the Woods, to the
faid Lake of the Woods ; thence through the faid lake to the
moft north-weftern point thereof, and from thence on a due
weft courfe to the river Miffiffippi. Eaft by a line to be
drawrt along the middle of the river St. Croix, from its
mouth in the Bay of Fundy to its fource, and from its fource
direftly N. to the aforef^aid Highlands which divide the
rivers that fall into the Atlantic ocean from thofe which
fall into the river St. Lawrence ; comprehending all iflands
within twenty leagues of any part of the Ihores of the
United States, and lying between lines to be drawn due E.
firom the points where the aforefaid boundaries between
Nova Scotia on the one part, and Eaft Florida on the other,
ftiall refpeftively touch the bay of Fundy and the Atlantic
ocean ; excepting fuch iflands as now are, or heretofore have
been, within the limits of the faid province of Nova Scotia."

As to the country weft of the Lake of the Woods, it is
evident that the commifBoners were of opinion, that it
ihould be part of the territory of the United States, as

UNI

high as a line to be run due W. from the N.W. corner of
that lake until it reached as far W. as the Miffiffippi ;
which was at that period the weftern boundary of the
United States. Subfequent events have annexed the whole
of Louifiana to the country, fo that the northern boundary
of it behoves to be afcertained, as it was poflefTed by
France ; but the country never having been fettled, the
boundary has not been accurately defined. The beft
courfe, fays Mr. Melifli, in the conftruftion of his map,
has appeared to be to run the boundary line due W.
from the N.W. corner of the Lake of the Woods
to the gulf of Georgia, and thence along that gulf,
and the ftraits of Juan de Fuco, to the Pacific ocean.
As die French were the firft fettlers in Louifiana,
maps founded on their claims furnifh evidence as to the
weftern limits of Louifiana of undifputable authority, and
fix the boundary line on the W. fide of the Rio del Norte,
to the Rio Salado, correfponding to the Rio Puerco of
more modern maps : and it is continued along that river
nearly to its fource. From thence it pafTes to the E. of
Santa Fe, to between the 37th and 38th degrees of N. lat.,
where it crolTes the Rio del Norte, and is fo continued to
about half a degree W. of that river ; then along that river
to its fource, where the limits of Louifiana are undefined.
Towards the Pacific ocean, we have no very correft data,
fays Mr. Melifh, for forming an opinion as to the bounda-
ries. The following view of the fubjeft, he fays, is the
refult of the beft information that can be obtained.

The Miffouri and its waters are unqueftionably part of
the United States territory, in virtue of the purchafe of
Louifiana ; and it is prefumed, that the title is equally un-
queftionable as to the Columbia and its waters, to a line
dravsm due W. from the N.W. corner of the Lake of the
Woods. This includes the Multnomah on the S., but
leaves the queftion undetermined in the unexplored country
between that river and the bay of St. Francifco. From the
lateft accounts, it appears that the Spaniards have no fettle-
ments above that bay, and probably will have none, fo that
the country may be confidered virtually a part of the
United States territory, provided they fhould confider it of
importance to take poffcffion, and fettle it.

The face of the country in the United States prefents
every variety. The north-eaftern part on the coaft is
broken and hilly ; and is remarkably indented with nume-
rous bays and inlets. Towards the S., and along the gulf
of Mexico, the land is level and fandy, interfperfed with
many fwamps, and numerous iflands and inlets. At the
outlets of many of the rivers, there is a large portion of al-
luvial land, which is particularly the cafe along the Mif-
fiffippi. Beyond the head of tide waters, there is a tole-
rably rich and agreeably uneven country, which extends to
the mountains. The mountainous diftrift, on the Atlantic
fide of the country, is about 150 miles in breadth, and 1200
miles in length ; extending in large ridges from N.E. to
S.W. Thefe ridges are generally known by the name of
the Allegany mountains, and are of various elevations, from
2000 to 4000 feet. The higheft point feems to be the
White Hills, in New Hampfhire, which rifes to the elevation
of nearly 90GO feet. Beyond the mountains we have a view
of the great valley of the Miffiffippi and its tributary
ftreams, prefenting a body of the fineft land in the world,
and poffeffing great natural advantages. To the weftward
of this valley are the mountains of Louifiana, prefenting
features Angularly bold and grand. The rocky mountains,
in particular, are very majeftic ; and the vaft variety pro-
duced by the ^reat mafs of waters forming the tributary
ftreams of the Miffouri and Columbia, muft render the fce-
nery in that region Angularly interefting. Beyond thefe the

principal

UNITED STATES.

principal fi-aturc is the great confluence of waters at the
outlet of the Columbia river, and the bold fliores of the
Pacific ocean.

The principal rwffj of the United States are the St. Law-
rence and its waters, the Columbia and its waters, the
St. Francifco, the Rio del Norte, and the MifTouri and
Mifliflippi, and the waters that flow into them. The river
St. Lawrence is formed by the waters that are collefted
about lake Superior, from which they ilTue into lake
Huron through the Itraits of St. Mary, and from it, by
the ftraits of that name about forty miles long, into
lake St. Clair. From this lake the waters pafs into
lake Erie, tlirough the ftraits of Detroit, an important and
beautiful palfage, about 30 miles long. (See Detroit.)
Between Buffalo on one fide and Fort Erie on the other,
the water is difcharged from the lake, and by a rapid courfe
runs towards lake Ontario, through the paflage called
Niagara river. About five miles below lake Erie, the
ftream is divided by Grand ifland, below which is Navy
ifland, where it expands to a confiderable breadth, above
the falls of Niagara ; which fee. Below the falls the
river runs very rapidly for nine miles, through a deep
chafm, and is navigable to lake Ontario, a diftance of feven
miles. From lake Ontario the river ilTues through a great
number of iflands, fituatod between Kingfton and Sackett's
Harbour. Here it affumes the name of St. Lawrence,
though from the lake to Montreal it is frequently deno-
minated Cadaraqui. In its progrefs it expands into a con-
fiderable lake, called St. Francis ; and when it reaches Mon-
treal, it receives the Utawas, or Grand river, which forms the
boundary between the two Canadas. Below Montreal, it
receives the Richelieu, or Sorel river, from lake Champlain,
and in fucceflion the St. Francis, St. Maurice, and Chau-
dierc, below which, at a fmall diftance, ftands Quebec, and
below this city the river is divided into two branches by the
ifland of Orleans. Beyond this illand it gradually expands
into the fpacious bay and gulf of St. Lawrence, which com-
municates with the ocean by the ftraits of Bellcifle, and
what is called the South Entrance. See St. Lawrence.

Columbia river is fuppofed to take its rife about 300
miles N.E. of the point at which it interlocks with the
head waters of the Unjigah or Peace river. It was firft
difcovered by the enterprifing Britifli traveller, Mr.
M'Kenzie, in N. lat. 54" 40'. W. long. 120° 25', from
London ; and he dcfcended it about ijo miles, and then
leaving it, traverfed the country to the ocean. From the
point where he left it, its courfe is unknown till it is joined
by Clark's river, where it is a large ftream. About feventy
miles below Clark's river, after receiving fome tributary
ftreams, the Columbia forms a juiiflion with Lewis's river,
formed of many branches, which rife in the Rocky moun-
tains, where, like Clark's river, they interlock with the head
waters of the Miftouri. Below Lewis's river, the Columbia
bends to the S. and E., and then pafles through the moun-
tains ; and about 300 miles below are the Great Falls.
About twenty miles below the falls, the river makes a con-
fiderable bend, and pafles through another chain of moun-
tains ; below which, about 60 miles, it receives from the
S.E. the large and important river called the Multnomah.
From the Multnomah, fuppofed to rife near the head waters
of the Rio del Norte, to tiie ocean, which is a diftance of about
90 miles, it is all tide-water, through good land, with many
Indian fettlements. The waters of the Columbia are clear,
and abound with every variety of fifli.

The St. Francifco river is a very large ftream, 270 miles
in the interior of the country ; a part of it being formed by
the Rio Buenaventura, and its waters, which interlock with
the waters of the Rio del Norte and La Platte, and open-

ing, in procefs of time, an excellent communication with the
fettlements on the W. coaft of America.

The Rio del Norte rifes among the mountains between
N. lat. 44° and 42°, and 33° and 34° W. long. Its head
waters interlock with thole of the Miftouri, Columbia, La
Platte, Arkanfas, Multnomah, and Francifco : and the
waters of the Rio Colorado of the weft, which fall into the
gulf of California, approach near it. In a progrefs of
about 300 miles to the point where the traveller Pike and
his party firft encamped upon it, it is prefumed to be the
S.W. boundary of Louiliana. About 100 miles below
this is Santa Fe, an interefting Spanifli fettlement : below
Santa Fe, the river runs about 4J0 miles in a direftion E.
of S., without any material augmentation, when the Rio
Conchos falls into it from the S.W. Below this it makes
a bend of about 100 miles, and receives the Rio Puerco
from the N. At this river the Rio del Norte again becomes
the S.W. boundary of Louifiana. Below this it purfues an
E. courfe of between jo and 60 miles, when it receives a
confiderable ftream from the N. ; and from hence, without
much increafe, its courfe is nearly S.E., about 400 miles, to
the gulf of Mexico. See Rio.

The Mifiburi and Miffidippi, with their numerous
branches, water the interior of the United States. The
higheft fourceof the Mijfourt (which fee) lies on Jefferfon's
river, a little above the 44th degree of latitude, and near
the 35th degree of W. longitude, 3000 miles from the
Miffifllppi. From this point, in defcending it, we arrive in
fucceflion at Philanthropy river, Wifdom river, Philofophy
river, Madifon's river, Gallatin's river, Ordway river.
Dearborn's river, and Smith's river, and then reach the falls
of the Mlflouri, which are perpendicular defcents, and
partly rapids, the river falling no lefs than 365 feet in the
courfe of 18 miles. The higheft pitch is 87 feet, the next
47, and the next 26. Pafling the falls, we arrive at
Portage river. Snow river, Maria's river. Stone-wall
creek, Slaughter river. Big Horn river, Judith river,
Turtle creek, Windfor creek. North Mountain creek,
others of lefs note, Bralton's creek. Milk creek. Porcupine
creek, and Martha's creek, and then come to the Yellow-
ftone river, which flows in from the S.W. The Yellow-
ftoiie is a large river, the main branch of which rifes in lake
Euftus, and after receiving numerous tributary ftreams, the
Big Horn, a river nearly equal to it in fize, which riies in
lake Biddle, falls in from the fouthward ; and the ftreams thus
united and augmented by others, particularly the Tongue
river, form a confluence with the MifTouri, in N. lat. 48'-\
W. long. 27°. Beyond this, at a fmall diftance, the Mif-
fouri reaches its northern extremity in N. lat. 48° 22', where
it receives the White-earth river, and beyond this the head
waters of the Moofe river approach within one mile of the
main ftream of the Miffouri. Below this, the river is aug-
mented by the Little Miffouri, and after pafling the Knife
river, we arrive at Fort Maniian. Between 43^ and 44%
there is a great bend in the river ; and below it the river
receives a number of pretty large ftreams, before we reach
the La Platte, a little above N. lat. 41". This is a very
large ftream, extending through feveral ridges of tlie rocky
mountains, the head waters of wiiich are higher than cither
the Arkanfas or Rio del Norte. Paffing the La Platte, the
Miflijuri receives many tributary ftreams, before it reaches
the Kanfes, a large river, which falls in from tlie W., a little
above the 39111 degne of N. lat. Below this it is aug-
mented by fome important ftreams from the N., and after-
wards the beautiful Ofage river f.ills in from the S.W.
B0I..W this river, about 120 miles, the Miftouri joins the
Milfiflippi, above St. Louis ; from whence the united
ftreams flow with majeftic rapidity to the ocean.

The

UNITED STATES.

The M'Jfiffipp'i (which fee) rifes, fays Mr. Melifli, in
Turtle lake, N. lat. 47° 47', and after receiving feveral
tributary itreanis, reaches the falls of St. Anthony in N.
lat. 44", which falls are 16 feet perpendicular, with a rapid
below of 58 feet. Below the falls, St. Peter's river forms
8 junftion with the Mifliffippi from the W., and a little
further, St. Croix river falls in from the E. About 15
miles below this, the river fpreads out into a beautiful (heet
of water, called lake Pepin, at the lower end of which it re-
ceives the waters of the Chippeway river. About 90 miles
below this river, the Ouifcoiiiin falls in from the eaftward,
which river approaches within if mile of the Fox river,
which falls into lake Michigan. At the mouth of the
Ouifconfin river is Prairie du Chien, where the United States
have lately formed a military eftablifhment, which will un-
doubtedly be very important to the fettlements of this part
of the country. After pafTmg the Ouifconfin river, the
Miffifiippi makes a confiderable bend to the eallward, and
meets the northern boundary of the Illinois territory ; then
bending weftward about 30 miles, it receives Stony river.
About 80 or 90 miles below this, the Riviere des Moines
falls in from the weftward, and then the Illinois falls in from
the eaftward, a little above the junftion of the MifTiffippi
and the Miffouri. The Illinois is a large river, the head
waters of which interlock fo clofely with thofe falling into
lake Michigan, that canoes, it is faid, have fometimes in the
wet feifon pafied from the one to the other. About 1 2
miles below the confluence of the Illinois with the Mif-
fiffippi, we arrive at the junftion of the Mifliffippi and
Miflburi : the former of which is, according to Mr.
Melifh, inferior in importance to the latter. The Miflburi,
he fays, is the main ftream, and the Miffifiippi only a tri-
butary branch. The former is in length double the latter,
and receives before its junftion with it, the waters of many
ftreams, one of which, the La Platte, is longer than the
Mifliffippi. The Arkanfas and Red river are alfo much
longer ; and the Ohio, allowing for its great bends, is aKo
longer ; and taken in conneftion with the Cumberland and
Tennaflije, is a river of much greater importance.

After leaving St. Louis, we pafs along the Miffiffippi
about 80 miles to Kalkafliia, where the Kafkadcia, a con-
fiderable ftream, falls in from the eaftward ; and about 90
miles further below this, the Ohio river, augmented by its
numerous branches, joins the Miffiffippi. About 350 miles
below the Ohio, the White river, a beautiful ftream, falls
in from the weftward : 14 miles below this river, the
Arkanf^, a very large and important river, having its
fources in the mountains above Santa Fe, falls in from the
weftward. Below the Arkanfas river, 190 miles, the Yazoo
falls in from the eaftward : the Big Black river alfo falls
into the Miffiffippi 63 miles by water, but only 30 in a
direft line by land, below the Yazoo. A few miles below
this, we pafs the 31ft degree of N. lat., which forms the
boundary between the ftate of Louifiana and the Miffiffippi
territory ; after which the river bends to the weftward, and
receives the waters of the Red river. The Red river rifes
in the mountains, E. of Santa Fe, between 57" and 38^ of
N. lat., and purfuiug moftly a S.E. courfe, makes feveral
bends, and receives no confiderable ftreams until it joins the
WacLitta, and its great mafs of waters, a few miles before
it reaches the Miffiffippi. The latter paffes to the fea by
New Orleans and the Red river, through the Atchafalaya.
As this river receives no ftreams of importance after paffing
the Atchafalaya, it may be confidered as having reached its
maximum ; and it may be viewed in its progrels from hence
to the ocean, as having an average breadth of 800 yards, its
depth about 1 20 feet, and the velocity of its current about
one mile per hour. Accordingly, it runs on with majeftic

fway, and pafles St. Frahcifville, Baton- Rouge, Donaldfon-
ville, Manchac, and, 250 miles below the Atchafalaya,
reaches New Orleans, where it makes a confiderable bend to
the S. and E. After paffing the Englifh Turn, a con-
fiderable bend in the river, 16 miles below New Orleans,
fituated on its northern bank, we next meet fort St. Philip,
or Placqueraines, diftant 54 miles. Below this, at the in-
terval of 19 miles, the river feparates into three grand divi-
fions, i>iz. the South-eaft or Main Pafs, the South Pafs, and
the South-weft Pafs. Four miles below the Forks, on the
Main Pafs, a ftream ifl'ues to the N.E., called Pafs a la
Loutre, and the Main Pafs is divided into two parts at the
outlet, one called the North and the other the South-eall
Pafs. The South-weft Pafs is alfo divided into two parts at
the outlet ; the weftern one being called the Weft Pafs.
On all tliefo pafles there are bars at the outlet, with the
water comparatively fliallow : the Main Pafs has about 13
feet; tiie South-weft Pafs 12 ; the Weft Pafs 9 ; and the
South Pafs 8. The courfe of the river may be traced to a
confiderable diilance from the ftiore, when it is finally lofl;
in the mafs of waters forming the gulf of Mexico.

Mr. Darby, in his valuable work on Louifiana, has given
the following calculation of the quantity of water difcharged
by the Miffiffippi. In one foot longitudinal feftion of the
river, it is eilimated that there are 141,372 cubic feet of
water, the mean velocity being one mile per hour ; and as
the mile contains 5280 feet, the river will of courfe dif-
charge 5280 times 141,372, or 746,444,160 cubic feet of
water every hour. This being reduced to gallons, gives
4,573,938,000, being upwards of 76 millions of gallons in
a minute, and of 1270 thoufand gallons in every fecond of
time. The magnitude and importance of this river are ex-
hibited by Mr. Melilh in anotlier point of view, thus : the
eaftern extremity of the waters of this river is the head
waters of the Allegany, which are fituated in Pennfyl-
vania, about 190 miles N.W. of Philadelphia: the weftern
extremity is the head waters of Jefferfon's river, about
540 miles from the Pacific ocean ; and the diftance between
thefe two extremities, in a direft line, is about 1700 miles.
The northern extremity is a branch of the Miffouri, in
50° 42' N. Idt., 550 miles W. by N. of the Lake of the
Woods : the fouthern extremity is the fouth pafs into the
gulf of Mexico, 29° N.lat., 90 miles below New Orleans ; and
the diftance between thefe two extremities, in a direft line,
is 1 680 miles. Hence it appears, by a fubjoined ftatement,
that the river and its branches fp read over nearly 1,500,000
fquare miles, or above two-thirds of the whole territory of
the United States.

The laics of the United States are fome of the largeft in
the world. The principal of thefe lie in a chain along their
northern boundary, upon the Canada line, and are, lakes
Superior, Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, Ontario,
Champlain, George, Memphremagog, Umbagog, Chilma-
cook, and Moofehead, &c. &c. The chief of thefe are
defcribed under their appropriate names, and others under
the account of the ftates to which they belong.

Of the minerals, foil, produce, and chmate of the United
States, it is needlefs to give in this place more than a gene-
ral ftatement, as they are mentioned under the appellations
of the refpeftive ftates and territories to which they
pertain.

As to minerals, iron, lime-ftone, and free-ftone abound
through the country. Coal is plentiful in the weftern terri-
tories, and is found in feveral diftrifts in the Atlantic ftates.
Lead abounds in the diftrift near St. Louis, where the mines
are extenfive and v,iluable. Copper mines are alfo found in
feveral places, and it is faid that gold and filver, in great
profufion, exift in Upper Louifiana. In this province mar-

ble

UNITED STATES.

ble is abundant, and forms the bed of the White river for
300 mik-s. In the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, and in
Other places, the benefit derived from the marble quarries is
ver)- confiderablf. Quickfilver, zinc, faltpetre, and fulphur,
are plentiful. Upper Louifiara affords great quanlities of
antimony, and the whole weftern territory abounds with falt-
fprings. The foil in this extenfive country is various. On
the Atlantic coalt, to the N. and E., it is ftony, and towards
the S. fandy ; but in both fituations, intermixed with much
alluvial land. Towards the mountains the foil improves,
and is in many places very fertile. On the mountains it is
light and thin, but in the valleys rich. Beyond the moun-
tains, in the valleys of Ohio, Miffiffippi, and MifTouri, feve-
ral trafls of land are exceedingly rich and firtile. Towards
the .S.W. parts of the Miffouri territory, the foil is light,
thin, and fandy. The mountainous region to the N.W. is
fimilar to the Allegany mountains, but the hills are more
lofty, and the foil more variable. Beyond thefe mountains
there is much good (oil, as far as the Pacific ocean.

The produce confills of every variety that can be named ;
wheat, maize, rye, oats, barley, rice, and other grain ;
apples, pears, cherries, peaches, grapes, currants, gooleber-
ries, plums, and other fruit, and a vait variety of vegetables.
Lemons, oranges, and fomc oth-r iropical fruits, are raifed
in Louifianaand fomeof the other fouthern countries. Hops,
flax, and hemp are abundant. Tobacco is an article of ex-
tenfive cultivation in Virginia, Maryland, and other dif-
triifls. Cotton is a ftaple commodity m the fouthern ftates.
Indigo is produced in Louifiana, and fugar is a commodity
much cultivated in that country, and in fome places along the
Atlanticcoafi. The northern and eaftern dates, and thenioun-
tains in the interior, are fine grazing countries, and furnifli a
great number of cattle and flieep, and abundance of butter
and cheefe. The Merino breed of fheep have been intro-
duced, and are faid to thrive as well as they do in Spain.
Horfes for draught and faddle abound, and fomeof them are
excellent, particularly in Pennfylvania. Other domeftic
animals, as ailcs, goats, hogs and dogs, are plentiful. Of
tame fowl, the United States have turkeys, geefe, ducks,
common poultry, pigeons, peacocks, and guinea fowls.
The wild animals arc numerous ; among which may be enu-
merated the billon or wild ox, moofc, deer, bear, wolf, fox,
lynx, panther, weafel, ermine, martin, mink, otter, opof-
fum, hare, fquinel, moufc, bat, rat, beaver, feal, &c.
The game and wild fowl peculiar to the country are turkeys,
phcafant?, partridges, woodcocks, fnipes, wild fwans, wild
geefe, wild ducks, pigeons, teal, plovers, widgeons, rail,
&c. The other birds are eagles, hawks, vultures, turkey-
buzzards, darlings, blue birds, red birds, humming-birds,
&c. Ot fifties, thefe ftates have the whale, dolphin, por-
poife, grampus, fl<atc, ftiark, fturgeon, cod, flounder, perch,
whiting, falmoii, trout, roach, ftiad, drum, black fifti, and
many others, with which the feas, interior lakes, and rivers
abound. Among the amphibious reptiles we may reckon the
tortoife, frog, lizards of various fpecies, the alligator, 3:c.
To the clnfs of ferpents belong the fnakes and vipers, which
abound in tiie United States. Of natural timber the United
States have various kinds ; but fomc of the mod ufeful are
the elm, cherry, locuft, oak, beech, pine, cedar, cyprefs,
willow, hick<iry, a(h, walnut, chefniit, birch, maple, &c.

The climate mud vary in the different parts of the United
States. In the N.E. parts the winters are very cold, and the
fummers hot, changing as you proceed fouthward. In the
S.E. and along the gulf of Mexico, the fummers arc very
hot, and the winters mild and pleafant. Among the moun-
tains it is cold towards the N., and temperate in the S. Be-
yond the mountains, in the rich v.iUcys of Ohio, Miffiflippi,

Vol. XXXVII.

and Miftburi, the cUmatc is temperate and delightful, till we
approach the Rocky mountains, when it is fubjeft to ex-
tremes, the winters being very cold. The climate muft be
chilled among mountains coiiftantly covered wi h fnow. Weft
of thefe mountains the climate chai.gts, uni . we reach the
ftiores of the Pacific ocean, where it relcmLltb that of the
wedern parts of Europe. The prevailii.g v.u.d; are from
the weft, and as they pafs over a wide expanle of water,
they cool the air in fummer, and in winter deluge the coun-
try with frequent rain.

The hijiory of the United States has been already given,
during the rife and progrefs, and to the termination of that
difpute which feparated them from this country, under
America. From the time of their firft. fettlement to July
1776, they continued to be Britifti colonies; but in that
month Congrefs declared them to be independent ftates. At
this period their number was thirteen, and they contained
about three millions of inhabitants. Since that time they
have increafed in an aftonilhing degree, and now amount to
nineteen dates, and five territories, containing, by the cen-
fus of 1810, 7,239,903 inhabitants: and it is faid by
Melifti (1816) that about 253,400 maybe added as the
annual increafe fince that year. This writer obferves, that
the progrefs of agriculture, mamifaftures, and the mechanic
arts, is more remarkable than that of the population. At
the period of the revolution the fettlements were almoft;
wholly confined to the eadward of the mountains, and prin-
cipally along the fca-board, depending on Britain for manu-
factures, and many of the necedaries of life. The fettle-
ments now extend acrofs the Miffiflippi, the interior being
duddcd with towns, villages, and farm-houfes ; and abound-
ing with grift-mills, fuUing-miUs, carding and roving raa-
ehines, paper-mills, cotton-mills, iron founderies and forges,
tan-works, glafs-works, in fuch profufion, and increafing
fo rapidly, that the internal manufaftures will foon be fuffi-
cient not only to fupply the demand at home, but to furnidi
vad quantities of cotton yarn and cloth, and of hemp arti-
cles, for exportation. The edimated amount of manufac-
tures in 1810, was 120,000,000 dollars. The increafe fince
that time has been fo great, that they may be now edimated
at upwards of 200,000,000. The United States have hereto-
fore exported flour, wheat, Indian corn, rice, aflies, cotton,
indigo, tobacco, timber, fi(h, live-ftock, tar, turpentine, &c.
In 1812, the amount was 45,294,043 dollars. They have
imported dry goods, groceries, tea, coffee, fugar, wine,
brandy, &c. In 181 2, the amoun*; 0; the m ports was
nearly equal to the exports. The date of commerce, it is
faid, is rapidly changing from external to internal trade.

The government of the United States is a federal repubhc.
Each ftate has a conftitution for the management of its in-
ternal affairs, and they are all formed into one united body
by the " federal conftitution." By this conftitution the Ic-
giflative power is veiled in a congrefs of delegates from the
feveral dates, divided into two diftindt bodies, the " fenatc,"
and " houfe of reprofentativcs." The nu mbers of the latter
are elefted every two years by the people, and the lenators
are eledled every fix years by the ftate legillatures. The
executive power is veiled in n prefident ^ which fee), cliofen
every four years, by a number of delegates in each ftate,
appointed in fuch manner as the ftate legillatures may ilireft,
and eqjialto the number of members which they refpeCtively
fend to both branches of congrefs. The ct)iidilution gua-
rantees for ever freedom of fpeech and liberty of the prefs.
In the eye of the law all the inhabitants are equal. All miift
bear arms, or pay an equivalent ; and all are equally intercfted
in the defence of the country. The military ftrcnglh of the
country is a wcU-difciplmed militia; and here is alfo an in-
3 V crcafing

UNITED STATES.

•creafina; navy, to tlie maintenance of which the fifliing trade
is peculiarly important. Trial by jury is to be preferved
inviolate. A republican form of government is guaranteed
to all the ftates, and hereditary titles and diftinftions are pro-
hibited.

With regard to the religion of the United States, it is fti-
pulalei that no law (hall ever be pafled to eilablilh any par-
ticular form of religion, or to prevent the free exercife of
it : and no rehgious teit (hall be required as a quahfication
to any oflice of public trult under the United States. The
following- denominations of Chriftians are more or lefs nu-
merous ; 11/5;. .Congregationalifts, Prefbyterians, Epifcopa-
liaiis, Dutch reformed church, Baptills, Quakers or Friends,
Methodifts, Roman Catholics, German Lutherans, German
Calvinifts, Moravians, or brethren of the epifcopal church.
The Congregationalifts arc faid to be the moft numerous,
particularly in New England, and alfo in the middle and
fouthern ftates. Next to thefe are the Prefbyterians, who
inhabit chiefly the middle and fouthern ftates, and they are
united under the fame conftitution. In 1796 thefe were di-
vided into five fynods, -viz. thofe of New York, Philadel-
phia, Virginia, Carolinas, each of which four meet an-
nually : and befides, they have a joint meeting, by their
commiffioners, once a year, in general aflembly at Philadel-
phia. The Prefbyterian churches are governed by congre-
ii-ational, prefbyterial, and fynodical aflemblies ; but thefe
aifemblies poffefs no civil jurifdiftion. The Dutch reformed
churches maintain the doftrine of the fynod of Dort, held
in 1618, and conllitute fix clafTes, which form one fynod,
ftyled " the Dutch reformed Synod of New York and New
.Terfey." The clafTes confift of minifters and ruling elders ;
each clafs delegating two minifters and an elder, to reprefent
them in fynod. The number of Proteftant epifcopal
churches is not afcertained. There are fome in New Eng-
land, but they are moft numerous in the fouthern ftates.
The Baptifts are chiefly upon the Calviniftic plan as to doc-
trines, and Independents as to church government and difci-
pline. The Friends or Quakers went to America about the
year 1656 ; the firft fettlers of Pennfylvania being of this
defcription. The Methodifts are Arminian and Calviniftic.
The Roman Cathohcs are principally fettled in Maryland,
where they have a biftiop. The German inhabitants in thefe
Hates principally belong to Pennfylvania and New York,
and are divided into a variety of fefts, the principal of
which are Lutherans, Calvinifts, Moravians, Tunkers, and
Mennonites. But the German Lutherans are the moft
numerous. The Moravians are difperfed over Pennfylvania,
at Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Litiz ; and they have alfo other
fettlcments in New .Terfey, North Carolina, Rhode ifland.
New York, &c. The Tunkers appeared in 1 7 19, and
landing in Philadelphia, difperfed themfelves in various parts
of Pennfylvania ; they ai-e General Baptifts, and believe in
liniverfal redemption and falvation. Their principal fettle-
ment is at Ephrata, called Tunker's-town, in Lancafter
county. The Mennonites are chiefly fettled in Pennfyl-
vania. The Univerfalifts, who maintain the doftrine of the
ultimate falvation of all men, are faid not to be numerous.
The Unitarians are an increafing body. The Shakers form
a fmall body. There are fome few Jews, and many Deifts.
Provifion is made for education and the improvement of the
mind throughout the United States.

Accounts in the United States were formerly kept in
pounds, ftiillings, and pence currency, which praftice is
llill retained on fome occafions ; but the value of the cur-
rency is not the fame in dift"erent ftates.

In Pennfylvania, New Jerfey, Delaware, and Maryland,
the ratio of currency to fterling is as 3 to 5 : and therefore
10

l/. fterhng = i/. 13X. 41/. currency ; or lA currency = izj.
fterhng. ,

In New Hampfliire, Maffachufetts, Connefticut, Rhode
Ifland, and Virginia, the ratio is as 3 to 4 ; and therefore
i/. fterling := i/. 6s. Sd. currency; or i/. currency = icx.
fterling.

In New York and North Carolina, the ratio is as 9 to 16 ;
and therefore i/. fterling = i/. 15J, 6^d. currency; or i/.
currency = lis. ^{/. fterling.

In South CaroUna and Georgia, the ratio is as 27 to 28 ;
and therefore i/. fterling = i/. os. 8^d, currency ; or i/.
currency = 191. 3f J. fterhng.

Hence the exchange between England and the United
States is at par, when, for every 100/. fterling, Pennfyl-
vania, Maryland, &c. give 166/. 13J. 4//. currency ; New
England and Virginia, 133/. 6j-. 8(/. do.; New York and
North Carohna, 177/. i^s. 6\d. do.; C orgia and South
Carolina, 103/. 14J. o^d.

Moit of the European coins pafs in the United States,
but Spaii'fti dollars are moft common : hence the value of
other European monies is conamonly exprefled in dollars, and
hundredth parts of u dollar, called cents.

The dollar is valued in the different ftates according to the
currency of each place. Thus in Pennfylvania, Maryland,
Delaware, and Jerfey, it pafles for 7J. 6d.; in ^«ew Eng-
land and Virginia, for 6j^.; in New York and North Caro-
lina, for 8j.; in South Carolina and Georgia, for 4!. 9id.

An uniform way of keeping accounts has been eftabliftied
in the United States (by an aft of Congrefs in 1789) namely,
in dollars of lo dimes, 100 cents, or lOOO mills ; and this
method is ufed in all public accounts.

The American government, at the fame time, eftabhftied
a mint, and ordered money to be coined, in gold, filver,
and copper, according to the following denominations and
values ; viz.

Eagles, each to be of the value of 10 dollars, or units, and
to contain 247^;- grains of pure, or 270 grains of ftandard,
gold, the ftandard being 22 carats, or J4 fine. Its intrin-
fic value in Englifti gold is, therefore, 2/. 3^. 9<d. nearly.
Half eagles and qnarter eagles were alfo ordered to be
coined in the fame proportion.

Dollars or units, each to be of the value of a Spanifti
milled dollar, and to contain 37 1^^ grains of pure, or 416
grains of ftandard, filver, the ftandard being 44|-|- fine, or
10 oz. 14 dwts. nearly. Its intrinfic value in Enghfh filver
is, therefore, 4r. 7,^d. nearly. Half dollars, quarter dol-
lars, dimes, or tenths of dollars, and half dinies, were alfo
ordered to be coined in the fame proportion. Hence the pro-
portion of gold to filver is as 4160 to 270, or as 1544- '" '•
Cents, each to be of the value of the one-hundredth part
of a dollar, and to contain 208 grains of copper. Half
cents were ordered to be coined in the fame proportion.
The remedy of the mint is one part in 144.
In the pubhc bank eftabliftied at Philadelphia in 1790,
chartered by Congrefs, and empowered to appoint branch-
banks in the different ftates, the capital was fixed at ten
millions of dollars, and divided into 25,000 fhares, of 400
dollars each ; none of the fubfcribers were to hold more than
1000 ftiares ; one-fourth of the fubfcription was to be paid
in fpe'cie, and three-fourths in public ftock. Thefe ftiares
are transferrable, and yield a dividend, payable half yearly,
of 7 or 8 per cent, per aim. The conilitution and govern-
ment of this bank are nearly on the plan of the bank of
England.

The bank difcounts, at 6 per cent per ann., bills and notes
tliat have no more than 6j days to run ; the tlu-ee days of
grace are included, and difcount allowed for them. Bills

or

UNITED STATES.

or notes intended to be offered for difcount muft be delivered
at the bank on the preceding day, inclofed under a cover,
and direfted to the calhicr, mentioning the name of the
holder of the bill.

Money dcpoiited in the bank may be drawn out again at
pleafure, free of expence ; but no money is paid to any
perfon beyond the balance of his account.

Other banks have been eftablifhed in Philadelphia, as well
as in Bollon, New York, Baltimore, Alexandria, and
Charleftown, fome of which were prior to the bank of Phi-
ladelphia, called the " United States' Bank ;" but they are
chartered only by their refpeftive ftates. Kelly's Cambift.
The United States comprife three grand diviiions : deno-
minated Northern, or more properly Eaftern, Middle, and
Southern ftates.

The firft divifion (the Northern or Eaftern States)
comprehends

Vermont, Maflachufetts Proper,

New Hamp(hire, Rhode Ifland,

Diftrid of Maine, Connecticut,

(belonging to Maflachufetts)

Thefe are called the New England States, and compre-
hend that part of America which, fince the year 1614,
has been known by the name of New England.

The fecond divifion (the Middle States] comprehends

New York, Ohio,

New Jerfey, Indi;uia Territory,

Pennfylvania, Michigan Territory.

Delaware,

The third divifion (the Southern States) comprehends

Maryland, Tenneffee,

Virginia, South Carolina,

Kentucky, Georgia,

North Carolina, Mifliffippi Territory.

To which we may now add Louifiana.

The ftates, diftrifts, and tetritories of the United States
are defcribed under their appropriate appellations : but the
area, extent, population, chief towns, &c. of each, are ex-
hibited in one view of them in the following

Topographical Table.

States and Territories.

Medium.

Area in
Square Miles.

■

Population
laft Cenfus.

Seat of
Government.

Memb.
to Con-

Lengtlj.

Breadth

N.and'S.

E. and W.

gress.

Maine

216

162

3J.750

228,705

Portland!

Maffachuftils

70

140

8,500

• 472.040

Bofton J "

20

New Hampfhire -

160

70

8,500

214,460

Concord

i 6

Vermont - . .

152

60

8,700

217,895

Montpellier -

1 6

Rhode Idand

48

42

1,500

76,93'

Providence

1

2

Connefticut

50

80

4,000

261,942

Hartford

7

New York -

198

2S6

46,000

959,049

Albany

27

New Jerfey - - .

J38

50

6,600

245,562

Trenton

6

Pennfylvania

>53

273

42,500

810,091

Harrift)urg

23

Delaware - . .

90

25

1,700

72,674

Dover .

2

Maryland ...

108

198

10,800

380,546

Annapolis

9

Virginia ...

220

370

64,000

974,622

Richmond

23

Ohio ....

204

210

39,000

230,760

Columbus

6

Kentucky ...

138

300

39,000

406,5 1 1

Frankfort

10

Tenneffee -

102

420

40,000

261,727

NafhviUe

6

North Carolina

120

345

45,000

555.500

Raleigh .

•5

South Carolina

162

216

28,700

4i5."5

Columbia

9

Georgia ...

300

240

58,000

252.433

Milledgevillc -

6

Louifiana ...

240

2IO

48,000

76,556

New Orleans -

1

Indiana ...

240

«38

34,000

24,520

Corydou*

0

DiftriA of Columbia .

10

10

100

24,023

Wafhington .

0

Miffiirippi Territory

3' 2

3H

89,000

40,352

Wafliington -

0

Illinois Territory .

306

210

50,000

12,282

Kafltalkia

0

Michigan Territory

234

'38

27,000 1

4,762

Detroit -

0

Nortli.vveft Territory

^60

456

147,000 1

Miffoiiri Territory

I3S0

1680

1,580,000

20,845

St. Louis

0

2.459.350

7.239,903

182

Each ftate f

ends two fenators
Total legiflaturc

36

218

* Iiiriiana i> about (;i Im

CnitlVuutt-(I i

mo a flaic, w

i-heii it will lend

two fcnators, ar

d one rt'prc'fcniutivf.

3Fi

From

UNITED STATES.

From this t:ible it appears, that if we refer the diftrift of
Maine to MalTachufetts, and admit Indiana, the number of
itates is now nineteen ; of dillrifts, two ; and of territories,
four. Their refpeftive topographical tables, extrafted from
Mr. Melifh's valuable publication, appear either in the fe-
quel of this article, or under the appellation to which we
refer.

The diftrift of Maine, according to the ftatement of
MeUfh, is fituated between 43° 5' and 47° 45' N. lat., and
5" 55' and 10° E. long, from Washington ; extending from
N. to S. about 216 miles, from E. to W. 162, and compre-
hending about 31,750 fquare miles, or 19,720,000 acres.
For other particulars, fee Maine.

Topographical Table.

Counties. Tovvofhiips.

Population.

Chief Towns,

Cumberland

24

42,831

Portland

7,169

Hancock

76

30,031

Caftine

1,036

Kennebeck

33

32,564

Hallowell

2,068

Lincoln

36

42,992

Wifcaffet

2,083

Oxford

37

17,630

Paris.

Somerfet

37

12,910

Norridgewock

880

Wafhington

24

7,870

Machias

1.570

York

21
288

41.877

York

3.046

228,705

The (late of Majfachufetts is fittiated between 41° 13'
and 42° 52' N. lat., and 3° 20' and 6° 55' E. long, from
Wafhington, extending from N. to S. 70 miles, from E. to
W. 140 miles, and comprehending 8500 fquare miles, or
5,440,000 acres. See Massachusetts.

Tnpogrtiphical Table.

Counties.
Barnftaple
Berkrtiire
Bfiftol
Duke's

Townflilps.

14
32
16

3

Effex

Franklin.*

Hampden.*

Hamprtiire

Middlefex

Nantucket

Norfolk

Plymouth

Suffolk

Worcefter

23

64
44

I
22
18

2

5'

Papulation,
22,21 I

35.907

37,168

3,290

71,888

76,275

52,789

6,807

3'.24S
35.169
34.381
64,910

Chiel Towns.
Barnftaple.
Stockbridge
Taunton.
Edgarton
f Salem

r,26i

•.365
12,612

1^ Newbury Port 1,634

Springfield

Concord

Sherburne.

Dedham

Plymouth

Bo.STON

Worcefler

2,767
1.633

2,172
4,228

33.250
2.577

290 472,040

* Ijaid out fince laft cenfus.

The ftate of Ne'w Hampjhire is fituated between 42° 42'
and 4.5° 13' N. lat,, and 4° 23' and 6° 10' E. long, from
Wafhington ; extending from N. to S. 160 miles, from E.
to W. 70, and comprehending 8500 fquare miles, or
5,440,000 acres. See Hampshire.

Topographical

Table.

Countlfs. To^

vnfliips

Population,

Chief Towns.

CheHiire

35

40,988

Keene tp.

Coos

24

3.99«

Lancafter tp,

Grafton

35

28,462

Haverhill tp.

Hillfborough

42

49.249

Amherfl tp.
'Concord tp,

Rockingham

46

50,T75

■ Portfmouth
Exeter tp.

Strafford

31
213

41.595

Dover tp.

214,460

1,646

717
1,105

1.554
2.393
6.934
1.759
2,288

For an account of the ftate of Vermont, fee Vermont.

The ftate of Rhode IJland M fituated between 41° 22' and
42° N. lat,, and 5° and 5° 50' E. long, from Wafhington ;
extending from N. to S, 48 miies, from E. to W. 42, and
comprehending 1500 fquare miles, or 960,000 acres. See
Rhode IJland.

Topographical Table.

C ountles
Briftol
Kent
Newport
Providence
Wafhington

Townfhips. Population.

3
4

7
10

7

5.972

9.834
16,294

30,769
14,962

Chief Tfjwns.
Briftol
Warwick.
Newport
Providence
S. Kingfton.

2,692

7.907
10,071

31 76,931

The ftate of Conneaicut is fituated between 41° and 42"^
N. lat,, and 3° 20' and 5° E, long, from Wafhington ; ex-
tending from N. to S. 50 miles, from E. to W. 80, and
comprehending 4000 fquare miles, or 2,560,000 acres. See
Connecticut.

Topographical Table.

Counties
Fairfield
Hartford
Litchfield
Middlefex
New Haven
New London
Tolland
Windham

Townlhips.

17
18

22

7

17

13
10

15

Population.
40,950

44.733
41.375
20,723
37,064
34.73'7
13.779
28,611

Chief Towns,
Fairfield.
Hartford
Litchfield.
Middletown
Newhaven
New London
Tolland
Windham

3.995

2,014
5.772
3.238
1,638

JOO

119 261,942

For an account of the ftate of New Tori, fee New
York.

The ftate of New Jer/ey is fituated between 38' ;6' and
41° 20' N, lat., and 1° 33' and 3° 5' E. long, from Wafh-
intfton ; extending 1 38 miles in length and 50 miles in breadth,
and comprehending 6600 fquare miles, or 4,224,000 acres.
See New Jersey.

Tofio-

UNITED STATES.

Topographical Table.

Counties. To<vn{hipi.

Fopuldiion.

Chief Tonns.

Bergen

7

16,603

Hackenfack tp.

1,958

Burlington

12

24.979

Burlington tp.

2.419

Cape May

3

3.632

C.H.

Cumberland

8

12,670

Bridgetown.

EfTex

10

25,984

Newark tp.

8,008

Gloucefter

lO

19.744

Gloucefter tp.

1,726

Hunterdon

lO

24.553

Tkenton tp.

3,002

Middlefex

8

20,381

N. Brunfwick tp,

• 6,312

Monmouth

7

22,150

Freehold tp.

4.784

Morris

10

21,828

Morriftown tp.

3.753

Salem

9

12,761

Salem

929

Somerfet

7

14,728

Boundbrook.

Suffex

'5
ii6

25.549

Newtown tp.

2,082

245,562

The ftate of Pennfyhania is fituated between 39^ 43' and
42^ N. lat., and 2° 20' E. and 3^ 30' W. long, from Waftiing-
ton ; extending from N. to S. 153 miles, from E. to W.
273, and comprehending 24,500 fquare miles, or 27,200,000
acres. See Pji^iNSYLVANlA.

Topographical Table.

Counties,

Adams

Alleghany

Armftrong

Beaver

Bedford

Berks

Bradford.*

Bucks

Butler

Cambria

Centre

Chefter

Clearfield

Columbia.*

Crawford

Cumberland

Dauphin

Delaware

Erie

Fayette

Franklin

Greene

Huntingdon

Indiana

JefFerfon

Lancafter

Lebanon.*

Lehigh.*

Luzerne

Lycoming

M'Kean

Mercer

Mifflin

Montgomery

Northampton

Northumberl.

Townfhips.
18"

15

7
12

•5
33

29

'3

3

1 1

40
I

•4
18

'5
21

'4
'9

'4
10
18

7
I

25

29
18

I
16

9
30
32
26

PoimUtion.
15,152

25.3'7

6.143

12,168

•5.746
43,146

32.37'

7.346

2,117 ■

10,681

39.596

«75

6,178
26,757
31.883
'4.734

3.758
24,714
23,083

i2,5H

14.778

6,214

161

53.927

18,109

1 1 ,006

142

8,277
12,132
29,703

38,'45
36.327

Chief Totvns.
Gettylburg.
Pittlburg
Kitaning
Beaver
Bedford
Reading tp.

Newton
Butler tp.
Ebenfburg
Bellefont
Wea Cliefter
Clearfield tp.

Meadville
Carlifle

4,768

309
426

547
3,462

790
458

75
303
47'

75

8

457
2,491

HAKRISBURGtp. 2,287

Chefter

Erie

Union

Chamberfburg

Greene tp.

Huntingdon

Indiana

Jefferfon tp.

Lancafter

1,056
394
999

2,000

1,708

676

200

161

5.405

Philadelphia 18 1 1 1 ,200

Wilkelbarre 1,225

Williamsport 344

Smcthport.

Mercer.

Lewillown 474

Norriftown '.336

Eafton.

Northumberl. tp. 627

fPhiladcl. City 92,866

\ Do. County 18,344

Counties. Townftiips,

, Population.

Chief Tonni.

Brought up 551
Potter 1
Pike* I

694,440
29

Cowdcrsport.
Milford

83

Schuylkill.*

Somerfet 15

11,284

Somerfet

489

Sufqiiehanna.*
Tioga 2
Union.*

1,687

Wellfborough.

Venango 8

3,060

Franklin

159

Warren 2

827

Warren.

Waftiington 23
Wayne 1 2
Weftmoreland 14
York 22

36,289

4.125
26,392

31.958

Wafhington
Bethany.
Greenfburg
York

i>3oi

685
2,847

651

810,091

* Laid out fitice laft cenfus.

The ftate of Delaware is fituated between 38° 29' and
39° 48' N. lat., and i« 18' and 1° 58' E. long, from Wafh-
ington ; extending from N. to S. 90 miles, from E. to W. 25,
and comprehending about 1700 fquare miles, or 1,088,000
acres. See Delaware.

Topograph'ual Tables
Counties. Hundreds. Population. Chief Towns.

Kent 5 20,495 Dover

9 24,429 Wilmington
II 37,750 Georgetown

New Caftle
SufTex

800

4,406

400

25

72.674

The ftate of Maryland it fituated between 38' and 39° 43'
N. lat., and 2° E. and 2° 30' W. long, from Wafhington ;
extending from N. to S. 90 miles, from E. to W. 198, add
comprehending 10,800 fquare miles, or 6,912,000 acres.
See Maryland.

Counties.
Alleghany
Ann Arundel -
Baltimore
Ditto City
E. precinfts of do.
W. do. -
Cecil

Calvert -
Caroline -
Charles - r
Dorchefter
Frederick
Harford -
Kent

Montgomery
Prince George -
Queen Ann's -
St. Mary's
Somerfet -
Talbot -
Wafliington
Worccflcr

Topographical Table ■

I'opulation.

6,909
26,668

29.2551
35.583 I

4,050 r
6,922 J
13,066
8,005

9,458
20,245
18,108

34.437
21,258
11,450
17,980
20,589
16,648

'2,794
'7.195
14,230
18,730
16,971

Cliief Tovi'iis.
Cumberland.
Annapolis

Baltimore

Elkton.

St. Leonard's.

Denton.

Port Tobacco.

Cambridge.

Fredericktown

Harford.

Chefter.

Unity.

Marlborough.

Centreville.

Leonard T.

Princcfs Ann.

Eafton.

Elizabeth-town.

Snow Hill.

,000

46,556

4,500

Carry up 551 694,440

380,546

For

UNITED STATES.

For an account of ihe dillridl of Columbia, fee Terri-
tory, Columbia, and Washington.

For an account of the (late of Virginia, fee Virginia.

The (late of Ohio is fituated between 38° 30' and 42° N.
lat., and ^° 32' and 7° 40' W. long, from Wathington ; ex-
tending fiom N. to S. 204 miles, and from E. to W. 210,
and comprehending about 39,000 fquare miles.or 24,960,000
acres. See Ohio.

Topographical Table.

Countits. To

'wnHiips,

Population.

Chief Towns.

Adams

9

9.434

Weft Union

224

Afhtabula.*

Jetferfon.

Athens

4

2,791

Athens tp.
St. Clairfville.

840

Belmont

II

11,097

Butler

9

11,150

Hamilton.

Cayahoga

4

1.459

Cleveland tp.

547

Champaign

9

6,303

Urbanna.

Clark.*

Greenville.

Clermont " •

8

9.965

Wilhamiburg tp.

1,251

Clinton

3

2,674

Wilmington.

Columbiana

•7

10,878

New Liibon.

Cofliofton.*

Coftiofton.

Dark.*

Delaware

7

2,000

Delaware.

Erie.*

Fairfield

15

11,361

New Lancaller.

Fayette

4

1,854

Wafhington.

Franklin

8

3.486

f Frankhnton tp.
(^ Columbus

916

448

Gallia

12

4,181

Gallipohs.

Geauga

8

2,917

Cliardon.

Guernfey

9

3,051

Cambridge.

Green

6

5,870

Zenia tp.

1,429

Hamilton

II

15,258

Cincinnati tp.

2,540

Harrifon.*

Highland

7

5.766

Hilllborough.

Huron.*

Jefferfon

15

17,260

Steubenville tp.

1,617

Johnfon.*

Knox

5

2,149

Mount Vernon.

Licking

7

3.852

Newark tp.

539

Madifon

6

1,603

New London.

Medina.*

Miami

6

3.94'

Troy.

Monroe.*

Montgomery

7

7.722

Dayton tp.

1,746

Muikingum

II

-10,036

ZanefviUe tp.

2,154

Pickaway

10

7.124

Circleville.

Portage

9

2,995

Ravenna.

Preble

7

3.304

Eaton.

Richland.*

Mansfield.

Rofs

16

^5^5^^

ChiUicothe tp.

1,369

Scioto

9

3.399

Portfmouth.

Stark

7

2,734

Canton tp.

846

Trumbull

•9

8,671

Warren tp.

875

Tufcarawa

3,045

New Philadelphia.

Warren

5

9,925

Lebanon.

Wafhington

12

5.991

Marietta tp.

1,463

Wayne.*

320

Woofter.

230,760

The ftate of Kentucky is fituated between 36" 30' and
39° 5' N. lat., and 4^48' and 12° 20' W. long, from
Wafhington ; extending from N. to S. 138 miles, from E.
to W. 300, and comprehending 39,000 fquare miles, or
24,960,000 acres. See Kentucky.

Topographical Table.

* Laid QUI finie tlie lall cenfus.

Couniies.

Population.

Chief Towns.

Adair -

6,01 1

Columbia

175

Barren -

11,286

Glafgow

244

Bath.*

Boone -

3,608

Bracken -

3.451

Augufta

255

Brcckcnridge -

3.430

Bourbon

18,009

Paris

838

Butler -

2,181

BuUet -

4.31 1

Clarke -

11,519

Winchefler

538

Cafey -

3.285

Liberty -

33

Campbell

3,060

Newport

413

Chriftian

11,020

Hopkinfonville

131

Cumberland

6,191

Burkefville

106

Clay -

2,398

Caldwell

4,268

EftiU -

2,082

Fayette -

21,370

Lexington

4,326

Franklin

8,013

Frankfort -

1,099

Fleming

8,947

Floyd -

3,485

Preftonville

32

Gallatin

3,307

Port William

120

Greenup

2,369

Green

6,735

Greenfburg

132

Grayfon

2,301

Garrard

9,186

Lancafter

260

Henry -

6,777

Newcaftle

125

Harrifon

7,752

Cynthiana

369

Henderfon

4,703

Henderfon

'59

Harden -

7,531

Elizabeth Town

181

Hopkins

2,964

Madifonville

37

Jeflaminc

8,377

Nicholafville

158

Jefferfon

•3.399

Louifville

'.357

Knox

5.875

Barbourfville

55

Lexington.*

Livingfton

3,674

Smithland

99

Lewis

2,357

Lincoln -

8,676

Logan -

12,123

Ruflelville

532

Mafon -

12,459

Wafhington

815

Mercer -

12,630

Danville -

432

Madifon

15,540

Richmond

366

Muhlenburg -

4,181

Greenville

15

Montgomery -

12,975

Mountfterling -

325

Nicholas

4,898

Nelfon -

14,078

Beardftown

821

Ohio

3,682

Hartford -

no

Pulaflii -

6,897

Pendleton

3,061

Falmouth

121

Rockcaftle

1.731

Scott

12,419

Georgetown

529

Shelby -

14,837

Shelbyville

424

Union,*

Wayne -

5.430

Monticello

37

Wafhington

13.248

Springfield

249

Warren

11.937

Bowling-green

154

Woodford

9,659
406,511

Verfailles

48?

* Laid out fince the laft cenfus was taken.

For

UNITED STATES.

For an account of the ftate of Teimejfes, fee Tennessee.

The ftate of North Carolina is fituated between 33° 45'
and 36° 30' N. lat., and 1° E. and 6° 50' W. long, from
Wafhington ; cxtendinjj from N. to S. 120 miles, and from
E. to W. 345, and comprehending 45,000 fquare miles, or
28,800,000 acres. See North Cauolina.

Topographical Table,

Counties,

Population.

Cliief Toiins.

Anfon -

8,831

Wadefborough.

Afh

3.694

Beaufort

7,203

Wafhington

Bertie -

11,218

Windfor.

Bladen -

5>67i

Eli/.abetlitown.

Brunfwick

4.778

Bninfwick.

Buncombe

9.277

Aniville.

Burke -

11,007

Morgantown.

Cabarras

6,158

Concord.

Camden

5.347

Jonefturg.

Carteret

4.823

Beauford.

Cafwell -

I '.757

Leaiburg.

Chatham

J 2.977

Pittfborough.

Chowan

5.297

Edenton

Columbus

3,022

WhitefviUe.

Craven -

12,676

Newbern

Cumberland -

9.382

Fayetteville -

Currituck

6,985

Indiantown.

Duplin -

7,863

Sarefto.

Edgecomb

12,423

Tarborough

Franklin

10,166

Louifburg.

Gates

5.965

C. H.

Granville

•5.576

Williamfboroug

Green -

4.867

C. H.

Guilford

11,420

Martinville

Halifax -

15,620

Halifax.

Haywood

2,780

Hertford

6,052

Wynton.

Hyde -

6,029

Germantown.

Iredel -

10,972

Statefville.

Johnfou

6,867

Smithfield.

Jones

4,968

Trenton.

Lenoir -

5.572

Kington.

Lincoln -

16,359

I.,incolnton.

Martin -

5.987

Williamfton.

Mecklinburg -

14,272

Charlotte.

Moore -

6,367

Alfordftown.

Montgomery -

8,430

Hcnderfon.

Nafh -

7,268

C. H.

New Hanover

11,465

Wilmington.

Northampton -

13,082

C. H.

Onflow -

6,669

Swanfborough.

Orange -

20,135

Hillfliorough.

Pafquotank

7.674

Nixonton.

Perfon -

6,642

Roxboro'.

Pitt

9,169

Greenville.

Perquimans

6,052

Hartford.

Randolph

IO,lIZ

C. H.

Richmond

6,695

Rocknigliam.

Robefon

7.528

Lumbcrton

Rockingham -

10,316

Danbury.

Rowan -

21.543

Salifbury

Rutherford

13,202

Rutherfordton.

Sampfon

6,620

C. H.

600

500

Counties.

Toptilatiun.

C'hi.f Towns.

Brought up

480,830

Stokes -

11,645

Upper Sara.

Surry

10,366

Salem

700

Tyrrel -

3.364

Elizabethtown.

Wake -

17,086

Raleigh

1,000

Warren -

11,004

Warrenton

300

Wafliiiigton -

3.464

Plymouth.

Wayne -

8,687

Waynefboro*.

Wilkes -

9.054

Wilkes C. H.

555.500

The ftate of South Carolina is fituated between 32° 6'
and 35° N. lat., and 1° 30' and 6° 25° W. long, from Wafti-
ington; extending from N. to S. 162 miles, from E. to W.
216, and comprehending 28,700 fquare miles, or 18,368,000
acres. See South Carolina.

Topographical Table.

1,000

Difirias.

Population.

Chief Towns.

Abbeville

21,150

AbbeviUe.

1,500

All Saints.*

Barnwell

12,280

2,467

Beaufort

25.887

Beaufort

1,800

Chai-lefton city

24,711

Charlefton diftricT;

38,468

Chefter -

H.479

Chefter.

600

Chefterfield -

Claremont.*

Clarendon.*

5.564

Colleton

26,359

Darlington

9,047

300

Edgefield

23,160

Fairfield

11,857

Fairfield.

Georgetown -

15.679

Georgetown

Greenvillf

•3.'33

Greenville.

Horry -

4.349

Kerftiaw

9.867

Camden

Lancaller

6,318

Laurens

14,982

Laurens.

Lexington

6,641

Liberty.*

Marion.*

Marlborough -

4,966

Marlborough,

Mafon -

8,884

Newbury

> 3,964

Newbur^'.

Orange -

13,229

Orangeburg.

1,689

Pend eton
Pinckney.*

22,897

Pendleton.

Richland

9,027

Columbia .

Spartan -

14.259

Spartanburg.

St. Peters.*

Sumpter

19,054

Statefburg.

Union -

10,995

Union.

Williamfburg -

6,871

Williamfburg.

York -

10,052

York.

?o8

4'5."5

* Laid out fince the hift cenfui.

2,000

1,000

1,500

Carry up

480,830

TIk

UNITED STATES,

The ftate of Georgia is fituated between 30° 30' and 35°
N. lat., and 3° 50' and 9° 5' W. long, from Wadiington ;
extending from N. to S. 300 miles, and from E. to W. 240,
and comprehending about 58,000 fquare miles, or 37,1 20,000
acres. See Georgia.

Topographical Table.

The ftate of Louiftana is fituated between 29"^ and 33° N.
lat., and 12° and 17° W. long, from Wafhington ; extend-
ing from N. to S. 240 miles, from E. to W. 210, and com-
prehending 48,000 fquare miles, or 30,540,000 acres. See
Louisiana.

Topographical Table.

Counties.
Baldwin -
Bryan
Bullock -
Burke -
Camden -
Chatham
Clarke -
Columbia
EfBngham
Elbert -
Emanuel.*
Franklin
Glynn -
Greene -
Hancock
Jackfon -
Jafper -
Jefferfon
Jones
Laurens -
Liberty -
Lincoln -
Madifon.*
M'Intofh
Montgomery
Morgan -
Oglethorpe
Pulaflci -
Putnam -
Richmond
Scriven -
Tattnal -
Telfair -
Twiggs -
Walton -
Warren -
Wafhington
Wayne -
Wilkes -
Wilkinfon

Population,
6,356
2,827
2,305
10,858
3.941

i3'54o
7,628

11,242
2,586

12,156

10,815

3.417
11,679

'3.330
10,569

7.573
6,111

8.597
2,210
6,228

4.555

3-739
2.954
8,369

12,297
2,093

10,029
6,189

4.477
2,206

744
3.4°5
1,026

8,725

9,940

676

14,887

2,154

254.433

Chief Towns.

MiLLEDEGVlLLE, I 257
C. H.

Statefburgh

Waynefborough 224

St. Mary's - 585

Savannah - 5,215

Athens - - 273
Applington.

Ebenezer - 19

Peterfburg - 3 32

Carnefville

Brunfwick.

Greenfborough

Sparta

Jefferfonton

Monticello

Louifville

Clinton -

Dubhn.

Riceboro'.

Lincolnton

Danielfville.

Darien

C. H.

Madifon -

Lexington

Hartford.

Eatonton

Augufta -

Jackfonborough

C. H.

C. H.

Marion.

Warrenton
Saunderfville
C. H.
Wafhington
Irwinton.

78

411

317

70

220

524
85

108
206

Paiifhes, Pnpulailon.

Afcenfion - 2,219

Affumption - 2,472

Avoyelles - 1,109

Baton Rouge Weft 1,463
Concordia - 2,875

Iberville - 2,679

Interior of Lai
Fourche J
Natchitoches -
Ouachitta
Ocatahoola
Orleans
Plaquemines -

Point Coupee

Rapides -

St. Bernard

St. Charles

St. John Baptifte

St. James

St. Landrel

Opeloufas J

St. Mary's and St.
Martin's Atta-
capas -

1,995
2,870
1,077
1,164
24.552
1.549
4.539
2,300
1 ,020
3,291
2,990
3.955
5,048

Chief Towns.

Donaldfonville

Concordia

Natchitoches

]

7,369

Alexandria

Opeloufas

St. Martin's

200

600

New Orleans 17,842

300

150

150

229

222

76,556

Add the four Pa-
rifhes from the

180

Miffiffippi Terri-

2,476

20

tory.
Baton Rouge E. 1

r Baton Rouge -

800

New Fehciana (

St. Helena f '°'°°°

J St. Francifville
Springfield

400
150

St. Tammany J

.C. H.

* Laid out fince the laft cenfus.

123 86,556

The ftate of Louifiana is divided into twenty-five paridies,
596 whofe natural pofitions are, fix north of 31" N. lat.; three
fouth of 31^ N. lat. and weft of Atchafalaya river; and
fixteen eaft of Atchafalaya. Their refpeftive extent in
fquare miles, and population in 1810, is exhibited by the
following table.

Statiftical

U N i UNI

Statiftical Table of the Ejctent of the- Pari/hcs of the State of Louifiana, and their Population in iSic.

P.ir;nie5.

Square Miles.

Acres.

Arpeiirs.

Population in
ISIO.

Plaquemines . - - - -

1,500

960,000

1. 134-300

J.549

Orleans . . . - -

1,300

832,000

983,060

24.552

St. Bernard

400

256,000

302,480

1,020

St. Charles

300

192,000

226,860

3.29'

St. John Baptifte - - - -

150

96,000

n3^3o

2,990

St. James

170

108,800

128,554

3.955

Afcenfion . . . - .

350

224,000

264,670

2,219

Affumption

500

320,000

378,100

2.472

Interior of La Fourche -

2,500

1,600,000

1,890,500

1.995

Iberville

350

224,000

264,670

2,679

Weft Baton Rouge ...

850

544,000

642,770

'.463

Point Coupee . . . -

60c

384,000

453.720

4.539

St. Mary's and St. Martin's Attacapas

5,100

3,264,000

3,856,620

7.369

St. Landre, Opeloufas

y,6oo

4,864,000

5.747. »2o

5,048

Natchitoches ....

10,600

6,784,000

8,015,720

2,870

Ouachitta .....

4,oco

2,560,000

3,024,800

1,077

Rapides

2,300

1,472,000

1,739,260

2,300

Ocatahoola

2,000

1,280,000

1,5:2,400

1,164

Concordia ......

2,100

1,344,000

1,588,020

2,875

Avoyelles

700

448,000

529,340

1,109

New Feliciana ....

1,050

672,000

794,010

Eaft Baton Rouge

St. Helena

500
1,300

320,000
832,000

378,000
983,060

- 10,000

St. Tammany ....

2,000

1,280,000

1,512,400

.

48,220

30,860,800

36,463,964

86,556

For an account of the ftate of Indiana, fee Territory
and Indiana.

For an account of the MiJJlJfippi Territory, fee Territory
and Mississippi.

For the Illinois Territory, fee Territory and Illinois.

For the North-JVeJl Territory, fee Territory.

For the Mijouri Territory, fee Territory and Mis-
souri.

For the Michigan Territory, fee Territory and De-
troit.

The territory of Orleans comprehends the county of Or-
leans, the German coaft, Acadia, Lafourche, Iberville,
Point Coupee, Concordia, Ouachitta, Rapides, Natchi-
toches, Opeloufas, and Attacapan ; and by the cenfus of
1810, its whole population confiftcd of 76,556 perfons.
(See Okleans and Louisiana). Mclilh's Geographical
befcription of the United States. Philadelphia. 1816.
Morfe's Geography.

To the preceding general account of the United States,
the Editor fubjoins the pleafing information with which lie
is furnifhed by the 13th report of the Britifli and Foreign
Bible Society (1817), that 130, or upwards, of fuch focie-
ties have been edablifhcd in thefe States, among which arc nu-
merous female inftitutions : and that, in confequence of a
convention of delegates from different Bible focicties, held in
the city of New York, in May 18 16, afociety was inikituied
under the name of " The American Bible Society," of which
the fole objeft fliould be to encourage a wider circulation of
the Holy Scriptures, without note or comment. Several of
the American focieties have received pecuniary aid from the
Brifilh and Foreign Bible Society.

United States' Saline, a towndiip of the Illinois terri-
tory, in the county of Randolph, containing 845 inha-
bitants.
Vol. XXXVII

UNITY, Unitas, the abftraft, or quality, which con-
ftitutes, or denominates a thing unum, or one.

The fchool philofophers generally define unity, by a
thing's being undivided in itfelf, and divided from every
thing elfe. Others, more accurately, define it, a mode of
being, by which it agrees to any particular being, once :
thefe make two kinds of unity, "viz.. unity of Jtmplicity,
which is both undivided and indivifible ; fuch as that of
God, angels, and human fouls : the other, union of compo-
Jltion, which, though undivided, is divifible in the being, as
confifting of divers parts ; fuch is that of man, &c.

Hence, unity is alfo divided into that ^.'ry^, which agrees
to any being whofe parts are collefted into one fubftratuni :
and imky per accidens, whofe parts are not united into one
fubftratum, as that of a flock of fheep, &c.

Some alfo make a fitigular, or numerical unity, andaii
univerfal unity ; a real, and an imaginary unity, &c.

It is difputed among mathematicians, whether or not unity
be a number ? The generality of authors hold the negative,
and make unity to be only inceptive of number, or the
principle of it ; as a point is of magnitude, and an unifon
of concord.

Stevinus is very angry with the maintainers of this
opinion : and yet, if number be defined a multitude of
units joined together, as many authors define it, it is evi-
dent that unity is not itfelf a number.

It is to be obferved in algebra, that unity itfelf has three
different expreffions of its cube root, one real, and the other
two impoffible, or imaginary. Thus the three cube roots of

- ' + ^^ - 3 , - ' - ^'- 3

I, are 1, , and •

2 4

This is fometimes of iifo in Iniding the cube roots 01
quantities, appearing under nnpoflible exprrflTions.

3 G The

U N I

U N I

The two impoflible cxpreffions of the \/ \ may be thus
found : let x = i, then x'^ = i, or k' — I = o, and x— \
= o. Divide k' — . i by j? — i, the quotient is «x + .v +
1 = 0, orx« + K= — I. Refolve this quadratic equa-

'3

■ 4»

tion, by adding \ to both fides. Then ;« x + a- + 5 :
and extrafting the fquare root, K + i= y — | =

V

Therefore x =:

- I + ^/

+ ^/-f =

» ± A^ - 3

That is,

, and X ^

— I

:iL__i. Sec Mac.

laiirin's Algebra, p. 128. 226.

Unity, among Divina. The Romanifts, and the re-
formed, iifpute, whether or not the church be one fingle
body, all the members of which are joined together, either
reaHy, or in inclination ; fo that whatever does not apper-
tain to that body, is no part of the church ; which is what
they call the unity of the church ; and which the Romanifts
maintain to be reftrained to one fingle fociety, or one com-
munion, under one vifible head ; and out of which the Pro-
teftants are excluded. Thcfe laft, on the contrary, hold,
that the unity of the church may Hill fubfift, without the
members being united under any one vifible head ; it being
fufficient, that all Chriflians be united by the bonds of mu-
tual love and charity ; and that they be agreed in the funda-
mental points of religion.

All the difficulty is, to fix what thofe fundamentals are ;
fome inclining to make the door of the church wider than
others. See Ukiformity.

Unity, in Poetry. In the drama there are three unities
to be obferved ; the unity of adlon, that of time, and that
of place.

In the epic poem, the great and almoft only unity is that
of the aftion. Some regard, indeed, ought to be had to
that of time : but that of place there is no room for. The
unity of charafter is not reckoned among the unities.

The unity of the dramatic aftion confifts in the unity of
the intrigue in comedy, and that of the danger in tragedy ;
and this not only in the plan of the fable, but alfo in the
fable extended and filled with epifodes.

The epifodes are to be worked in, without corrupting
the imity, or forming a double aftion ; and the feveral
members are to be fo connefted together, as to be con-
fiftent with that continuity of aAion fo neceffary to the
body ; and which Horace prefcribes, when he fays, " fit
quodvis fimplex duntaxat et unum."

The unity of the epic aftion, M. Dacier obferves, does
not con fill in the unity of the hero, or in the unity of his
charafter and manners ; though thofe be circumftances ne-
ceffary to it. The unity of aflion requires, that there be
but one principal aftion, of which all the reft are to be in-
cidents, or dependencies.

F. BofFu afligns three things requifite to it : the firft,
that no epifode be ufed, but what is fetched from the plan
and ground of the aftion, and which is a natural member
of that body : the fecond, that thefe epifodes and members
be well connefted with each other : the third is, not to finilh
any epifode, fo as it may appear a whole aftion ; but to let
each be always feen in its quality of member of the body,
and an unfiniihed oart.

The fame excellent critic examines the jEncid, Iliad, and
Odyfley, with refpeft to thefe rules, and finds them ftriftly
obferved. Indeed, it was from the conduft of thofe divine
poems, that he took the hint of the rules therafelves. In-

ftances in which thefe rules are all neglefted, ue gives us in
Statius's Thebaid.

To the unity of time, it is required, in the drama, that
the aftion be included in the fpace of a day. Ariftotle fays
exprefsly, it muft not exceed the time the fun employs in
making one revolution, which is a natural day, under pain
of irregularity : fome critics will even have it included in
the fpace of twelve hours, or an artificial day.

Indeed, the ancient tragic poets fometimes difpenfed with
this rule ; and many of the modern Englifli ones difallow
it : and \ery few of them praftife it.

In the epic poem, the unity of time is ftill lefs eftablifhed.
In effeft, there is no fixing the time of its duration ; in re-
gard, the warmer and more violent the aftion is, the lefs
muft be its continuance ; whence it is, that the Iliad, re- -
prefenting the anger of Achilles, only contains forty-feven
days at moft ; whereas the aftion of the OdyfTey holds
eight years and a half, and that of the jEneid almoft feven
years.

But the length of the poem Ariftotle gives us a rule for ;
which is, that it be fuch as that it may be read over in one
day : pretending, that if it exceeds that compafs, the ima-
gination will be bewildered in it, and that one cannot fee
the end, without having loft the idea of the beginning.

As to the unity of place and fcene, neither Horace nor
Ariftotle give us any rules relating to them. It were to be
wifhed, indeed, that what is prefented to the audience on
the fame ftage, whicli is never ftiifted, might be fuppofed
to have pafted in the fame houfe, and the fame apartment.
But as fuch a conftraint would cramp the poet too much ;
and as fuch an uniformity would fuit very ill with abundance
of fubjefts ; it has been agreed, that what paffes any where
in the fame town or city, (hall be allowed for unity of
place. At leatt, if two different places be unavoidable ;
yet the place is never to be changed in the fame aft.

Shakfpeare, it is well known, paid no regard to the
unities of time and place. On this fubjeft Dr. Johnfon
obferves, in the preface to his edition of Shakfpeare's plays,
that perhaps a nearer view of the principles on which they
ftand will diminilTi their value, and withdraw from them the
veneration which, from the time of Corneille, they have
very generally received, by difcovering that they have given
more trouble to the poet than pleafure to the auditor.

As nothing is efTential to the fable but unity of aftion,
and as the unities of time and place arife evidently from
falfe afiumptions, and by circumfcribing the extent of the
drama, lefiens its variety, Dr. Johnfon does not think we
need much lament their not being known or not obferved
by Shakfpeare.

He adds, as the refult of his enquiries, that the unities
of time and place are not eflential to a juft drama ; that
though they may fometimes conduce to pleafure, they are
always to be facrificed to the nobler beauties of variety and
inftruftion ; and that a play written with nice obfervations
of critical rules, is to be contemplated as an elaborate
curiofity, as the produft of fuperlluous and oftentatious
art, by which is Ihewn rather what is poilible than what is
neceffary.

He that, without diminution of any other excellence,
fhall preferve all the unities unbroken, deferves the like ap-
plaufe with the architeft, who fhall difplay all the orders of
architefture in a citadel, without any deduftion from its
ftrength ; but the pnncipal beauty of a citadel is to exclude
the enemy ; and the greateft graces of a play are to copy
nature and inftruft life.

Unity of Poffeffon, in Laiu, fignifies a joint pofTeflion
of two riglits, by feveral titles.

Thus,

U N I

TJius, if I take a leafe of land upon a certain rent, and
afterwards buy the fee fimple ; this is an unity of pofTefiion,
by which the leafe is cxtinguiflied : by reafon I, wlio before
had only the occupation for my rent, am now become lord
of the fame, and am to pay rent to none but myfelf.

Unity of poflellion amounts to the fame with what civi-
lians called confoUdation ; whicli fee.

The unity of a joint eftate is fourfold, -viz. unity of in-
tereft, the unity of title, the unity of time, and the unity
of pofTefiion ; or, in other words, joint-tenants have one
and the fame intereft, accruing by one and the fame con-
veyance, commencing at one and the fame time, and lield
by one and tlie fame undivided pofleffion. See Blackil.
Com. b. ii.

Unity of a Sentence, in Grammar and Rhetoric. See
Style.

Unity of Melody. This is an ingenious idea, which we
think merits a place among mufical deliderata : it was firft
fuggefted and recommended by Roufieau, in his Letter on
French Mufic, 1751, and afterwards enforced in his Mufi-
cal Diftionary, in the following manner. " There is in all
the fine arts fome objeft of unity, or fymmetry, the fource
of intellectual pleafure : for attention divided by two dif-
ferent objefts, has no repofe ; and when two objefts occupy
us at once, it is a proof that the mind is fatisficd with
neither. (Baretti ufed to fay that two misfortunes were
better than one, beccaufe they divided the attention. )
There is in mufic a fucccffive unity with refpeft to the fub-
jeft, by which all the parts well combined conftitute a
whole, whence we perceive the enfemble and all its relations.

" But there is another more refined and more fimultaneous
obje£t of unity, whence there infenfibly arifes the energy
of mufic and force of its expredions.

" When I hear our pfalms fung in four parts, I begin to
liften with great delight at tiie full and nervous harmony ;
and the firft chords, when they are perfeftly in tune, atfcft
me even to fliivering ; but before I have lillened many mi-
nutes to the reft, my attention diminifhes, till by degrees I
am ftunncd with the noife ; I become indiilerent, and, at
length, tired with hearing nothing but chords.

" This does not happen when 1 hear good modern mufic,
though the harmony is not fo vigorous ; and I remember at
the opera in Venice, a beautiful air well executed never
tired me, whatever was its length ; and if repeated, my at-
tention was renewed, and I heard it with more intereft the
fecond time than the firft.

" This difference arifes from the charattcr of the two
muCcs, of which one is only a fiiccclTion of chords, and
the other a ferics of fingle founds in melody. Now the
pleafure which we receive from harmony, is only that of
pure fenfation, and the enjoyment of the fenfcs is always
fhort. Satiety and fatigue follow each other very clofely ;
but the pleafure from melody, is an interefting pleafure of
fentiment which fpcaks to the heart, and which an artift
may always fuftain and renew by force of genius.

" Mufic ought therefore necefTarily to fing, in order to in-
tereft, plcafe, and fupport the attention. But in our fyf-
tems of chords and mere harmony, can mufic fing, or have
any interefting melody ? If each part has itr. own melody,
all thefe melodies heard at once, mutually dcftroy each
other, and annihilate all melody : if all the parts perform
the fame melody, we fhall have no harmony, and the con-
cert will be wholly in unifon.

"The manner in which a mufical inftinft, a certain im-
pulfe of genius, has vanquifhed this difficulty without feeing
it, and at the fame time turned it to advantage, is very re-
markable. Harmony, which, abufed, would fuffocate me-

U N I

lody, animates, enforces, and gives it a charafter: the dif-
ferent parts, judicioufly arranged, concur in producing the
fame effeft, and though each feems to have a melody of its
own, from all thefe parts united, wc hear only one and the
fame melody. This is what I call unity of melody.

" Let us now explain how harmony itfelf, far from iujar-
ing, concurs in fupporting this unity. Our melodies arc
chara6terifcd by our keys and meafures, and our keys are
governed by harmony. Whenever the harmony enforces
and determines the fentiment of the mode or key and the
modulation, it adds to the cxpreffion of the melody, pro-
vided it does not cover aad render it infignificant.

" The compofer's art, therefore, after rendering himfclf
a mafter of harmony and modulation, fliould be principally
pointed to the unity of melody. 1. When the key is not
lufficiently determined in the melody, to render it more cer-
tain by the harmony. 2. To fcledl and ufe his chords in
fuch a manner, that the moft interefting found ftiould be
always in the principal melody, and that its intereft ftiould
arife from the bafe. 3. To add to the energy of each
paffage by harfli chords, if the exprelTion is harfh, and
by pleafing chords, if the expreftion is fweet. 4. To pay
attention in the ftyle of the accompaniment to the piano
and forte of the melody : and 5. To contrive that the
melody of the parts of accompaniment do not counteraft
the principal, but fuftain, fecond, and give it a more lively
and marked accent.

" The unity of melody particularly requires that two me-
lodies equally interefting ihould not be heard at the fame
time, but not that the melody fhould never pafs from one
part to another. ( In the quartetu of Haydn, Mozart and
Pleyel, there is nothing more amuling to the hearers, or
more flattering to the performers, than giving the melody
alternately to the dift'erent parts, in tl>e way of dialogue. )
But a treatife would be necelTary to fliew in detail the appli-
cation of this principle to duos, trios, quartets, chorufcs,
and fymphonies. Men of genius will difcover its extent
and ufe, and their works will inftruft others. I therefore
conclude by afferting, upon the principle which I have been
trying to cftabhfh ; firft, that all mufic which does not fing
is tirefome, in whatever harmony it may be clothed ; fc-
condly, that all mufic in which many different fimultaneous
parts are diftinguiftied, is bad, and that there refults from
it the fame effeft as from two or more people fpeaking upon
different fubjefts at the fame time. From tliis opinion,
which admits of no exception, will be pointed out what we
ought to think of thofe wonderful compofitions, where one
air ferves for an accompaniment to another.

" It is from this principle of the unity of melody, which
the Italians have felt and followed without knowing it, but
which the French liave neither known nor followed ; it is,
I repeat it, from tliis grand priuciple, that the cffcntial dif-
ference of the two mufics arifes ; and it is, I believe, what
every impartial judge will allow, who ftiall hften to both with
equal attention, if however that is pofTible."

Unity, in Geography, a town of America, in the diftriifl
of Maine and county of Keniicbeck, containing 79'? inha-
bitants ; 60 miles N. of Brunfvvick. — AJfo, a town of New
Hampfliire, in the county of Clicfliire, containing 1044 in-
habitants : N.E. of Charleftown. — Alfo, a lownfhip of
Pennfylvania, in Weftmoreland county, containing 2174 in-
habitants.— Alfo, a townftiip of Ohio, in the county of
Columbiana, containing !S27 inhabitants.

Unity Bay, a bay on the E. coaft of Labrador. N.
lat. 57''8'. W. long. 61° 30'.

UNIVALVE, in Conehohgy, a genus of ftiells. See
CoNCHOLOGV and Suei-ls.

3 G 1 UNI.

UNIVERSALE.

UNIVERSAL, fomething that is common to many
things ; or, it is one thing belonging to many, or all things.

The word, according to fome, is compounded of unum
ver/tis alia.

There are univerfal inftruments, for meafuring all kinds
of diftances, as heights, lengths, &c. called alfo pantometers
and bolometers.

An univerfal dial is that by which the hour may be found
by the fun all over the earth ; or under any elevation of
the pole. See Univerfal T)i\l.

Several learned authors have had it in view to eftablifh
an univerfal charafter ; by which the different nations
might underftand each other's writings, without learning
their language. See Univerfal Character.

The Romanics are divided among themfelves about the
title of univerfal b'ifhop, which fome of the popes have arro-
gated to themfelves ; though others of them have declined
it. Baronius holds the appellation to belong to the pope
jure divino ; and yet St. Gregory, oppofing the fame qua-
lity given by a council in 586 to John, patriarch of Con-
ftantinople, afferted exprefsly, that it did not belong to any
bilhop ; and that the bifhops of Rome neither could, nor
ought to take it. Accordingly, St. Leo refufed to accept
it, when offered him by the council of Chalcedon ; for fear,
lell, giving fomething particular to one bifhop, they fhould
take from all the rell ; fmce there could not be an uni-
verfal bifhop, but the authority of the refl muft be
diminifhed.

Universal, Univerfale, in Logic, is either complex or in-
complex. A complex univerfal, is either an univerfal proportion,
as, " Every whole is greater than its parts ;" or whatever
raifes a manifold conception in the mind ; as the definition
of a reafonable animal.

An incomplex univerfal, is what produces one only con-
ception in the mind, and is a fimple thing, refpefting many ;
as human nature, which relates to every individual in which
it is found.

Now in an univerfal, two things are diflinguifhed ; the
matter, called the material univerfal, univerfale materiale,
which is the one nature multiphable into many ; as hu-
manity in Peter, Paul, &c. ; and the/orm, called the formal
univerfal, which is the unity of that nature.

Wherefore, to conftitute an univerfal, it is requifite the
nature be one, yet multipliable ; but what fuch a nature is
has proved matter of great controverfy, both among the
ancient and modern philolophers.

The Platonifls will have univerfals to be nothing but di-
vine ideas. By idea, they mean the pattern or form which
the artificer has in view when he makes any thing ; but as
this is twofold ; internal, which is a fort of image of the
thing to be done, which the artificer frames in himfelf ; and
external, which is fometlung out of himfelf, wliich the arti-
ficer imitates ; the philofophers have been infinitely per-
plexed to find which of the two Plato meant. The Peripa-
tetics infill he meant the external ; but the Platonills, and
moll of the Chriflian divines, were advocates for the
internal.

The Peripatetic fyflem of fpecies and phantafms, as well
as the Platonic fyflem of ideas, is grounded, fays Dr. Reid,
in his reafoning againll the ideal theory (fee Idea), upon
this principle, that in' every kind of thought, there mufl be
fome objeft that really exifts ; in every operation of the will,
fomething to work upon. Whether this immediate objeft
be called an idea with Plato, or a phantafm or fpecies with
Ariflotle ; whether it be eternal and uncreated, or pro-
duced by the imprefiions of external objects, 13, as he thinks,
of 110 confequence in the prefent argument.
9

The Stoics and Nominalitls maintain this in common with
the Platonifls, that univerfals are not in the things them-
felves, but out of them. The Stoics particularly, for uni-
verfals, put a kind of formal conceptions, or afts of know-
ing ; by reafon they reprefent many things at the fame
time ; e. g. knowledge, reprefenting all men, is, according
to the Stoics, an univerfal.

The Nominalifls make words univerfals ; becaufe the
fame word reprefents many things, as the word man repre-
fents all men ; but both Stoics and Nominalifls make uni-
verfals to be fomething extrinfic to things themfelves ; al-
leging that whatever exiils, or is produced, is fingular ; fo
that there is no univerfal really in things. See Nominals
and Realists.

The Peripatetics, however, contend, that there are uni-
verfal and common natures in tilings themfelves ; or that
things and natures like each other form a material univerfal.
But as to the manner in which they are univerfal, or whence
they derive their univerfality, that is, their unity and apti-
tude of being in many, whether from nature, or from our
underflanding, is great matter of difpute among them. If
they derive that unity in which their univerfal form is
placed from nature, then there is an univerfal a parte ret ;
which is the opinion of the Scotifts.

If they do not derive it from nature, but only from our
minds or underftandings, then the doftrine of the Thoraills
is allowed, who contend, that a formal univerfal has no other
exittence, but by an aft of the intelleft.

"As in all the ancient metaphyfical fyflems," fays the inge-
nious profefTor Dugald Stewart, " it was taken for granted,
tliat every exertion of thought implies the exiflence of an
object diilinft from the tliinking being ; it naturally oc-
curred, as a curious queflion, What is the immediate objeft
of our attention, when we are engaged in any general fpecu-
lation ? or, in other words, what is the nature of the idea
correfponding to a general term ?" — " In anfwer to this
queflion," fays the profefTor, "tlie Platonills, and, at an
earlier period, the Pythagoreans, taught, that although
thefe univerfal ideas are not copied from any objefts per-
ceivable by fenfe, yet that they have an exiflence independ-
ent of the human mind, and are no more to be confounded
with the underflanding, of which they are the proper ob-
jefts, than material things are to be confounded with our
powers of external perception : that as all the individuals
which compofe a genus, mufl pofTefs fomething in common ;
and as it is in confequence of this, that they belong to that
genus, and are diflinguifhed by that name, the common
thing forms the effence of each ; and is the objeft of the un-
derflanding, when we reafon concerning the genus. They
maintained alfo, that this common effence, notwithflanding
its infeparable union with a multitude of different indi-
viduals, is in itfelf one and indivifible." Our author fubfli-
tutes the term ejence for idea, as more inteUigible to the
modern reader, and more fuited to convey the true import
of Plato's exprefTions. ( See Essence. ) On mo ft of thefe
points, the philofophy of Ariflotle very nearly agreed with
that of Plato ; though they ufed different language in
developing their refpeftive opinions. Plato, fond of the
marvellous and myflerious, maintained the incomprehenfible
union of the fame idea or effence, with a number of indi-
viduals, without multiplication or divifion. Ariflotle, aim-
ing at greater perfpicuity, contented himfelf with faying,
that all individuals are compofed of matter and form ; and
that in confequence of pofleffing a common form, different
individuals belong to the fame genus. " But they both
agreed, th.it, as the matter, or the individual natures of ob-
jefts were perceived by fenfe ; fo the general idea, or effence,

or

UNIVERSALS.

or ioim, was perceived by the iiitelleft ; and that, as the
attention of the vulgar was chiefly engrofled with the
former, fo the latter furnifhed to the philofopher the mate-
riala of his fpeculations.

" The chief difference between the opinions of Plato and
Ariftotle on the fubjeift of ideas, related to the mode of
their exiftence. That the matter of which ;ill thint^s are
made, exifted from eternity, was a principle which both ad-
mitted ; but Plato farther taught, that, of every fpccies of
things, there is an idea or form which alfo exilled from
eternity ; and that this idea is the exemplar or model ac-
cording to which the individuals of the ipecies were made ;
whereas Ariftotle held, that, although matter may exill
without form, yet that forms could not exid without
matter.

" The doftrine of the Stoics concerning univerfals, differed
widely from thofc both of Plato and Ariftotle, and feems to
have approached to a fpeculation which is commonly fup-
pofed to be of a more recent origin, and which an eminent
philofopher of the prefent age has ranked among the dif-
coveries which do the greateft honour to modern genius."
See Hume's Treatife of Human Nature, book i. part i.
fedt. 7.

Our author's preceding ftatement of Ariftotle's doc-
trine, as far as it is commonly fuppofed to differ from
that of Plato, is founded on the authority of Bruckcr,
whom we have cited under the appropriate titles ; though
Harris, in his " Hermes," and the author of the " Origin
and Progrefs of Language," give a different account of the
difference fubfifting between them.

The opinion which generally prevailed among the Scho-
laflics in the dark ages was, " that univerfals do not exill
before things, nor ajtcr things, but in things ; that is, uni-
verfal ideas have not (as Plato thought) an exiftence fepa-
rable from individual objefts ; and, therefore, they could
not have exifted prior to them in the order of time ; nor
yet, (according to the doftrine of the Stoics,) are they
mere conceptions of the mind, formed in confcquence of an
examination and comparifon of particulars ; but thefe ideas
or forms are from eternity united infeparably with that
matter of which things confdl ; or, as the Ariftotelians
fometimes exprefs themfelves, the forms of things are from
eternity immerfed in matter."

This opinion concerning the nature of univerfals was ge-
nerally maintained till the eleventh century, when a new
doftrine, borrowed from the fchool of Zcno, waspropofed by
Rofcchnus, and propagated by Abelard. According to
thefe philofopliL'rs, there are no exillences in nature corre-
fpondmg to general terms, and the objcfts of our attention
in all our general (peculations, are not idea?, but words.
The SchoIafticB from this time formed themfelves into two
lefts, ixz. the Nominalifts and Realills : the former attach-
ing itfelf to the opinions of Rofcclinus and Abelard, and the
latter to the principles of Ariftotle. See No.minai.s and

RkA LISTS.

Our author's opinion coincides with that of the Nomi-
nalifts ; and from his elaborate ftatement of the proccfs of
the mind, in purfuing general fpeculations, he nifcrs, "that
idea, which the ancient philofophers confidered as the cffence
of an individnal, is nothing more than the particular quality
or qualities in which it refembles other individuals of the
fame clafs ; and in conlequence of which, a generic name is
applied to it. It is the poffefRon of this quality, that cn-
iitles the individual to the generic appellation ; and which,
therefore, may be faid to be elfential to its clalfification with
-that particular genus ; but as all clalTifications are to a cer-
tain dcrjrcc arbitrary, it docs not ncccffarily follow, that it

is more eilential to its exiftence as an individual, than various
other qualities which we are accuftomcd to regard as acci-
dental. In other words (if I may borrow- the language of
modern philofophy), this quality forms its nominal, but
not its real cft'ence." See Classification, Abstraction,
and Genkkalization.

After the death of Abelard, the Rcalifts began to revive ;
the left of the Nominalifts declined, and in the fourteenth
century was almoft completely extinft. Their doftrine was
equally reprobated by the two great parties which then
divided the fchools ; the followers of Duns Scotus and of
Thomas Aquinas. (See Scotists and Tiiomists. ) At
length, William Occam vindicated the long-abandoned phi-
lofophy of Rofcelinus. See Nominals.

Although the names of the contending parties no longer
exift, the lubjeft of controverfy between them has at a very
late period intereftcd the attention of philofophers. The
moft diftinguifhed advocates for the doftrine of the Nomi-
nalifts, fince the reviv.il of letters, are Hobbes, Berkeley,
and Hume.

" The univerfahty of one name to many things," fays
Hobbes (Tripos, chap. v. ^ 6.) " hath been tlie caufe that
men think the things themfelves are univerfal ; and fo fe-
rioufly contend, that betides Peter and John, and all the reft
of the men that are, have been, or fliall be, in the world,
there is yet fomething elfe that we call man, tn'z. man in
general ; deceiving themfelves, by taking the univerfal, or
general appellation, for the thing it fignifieth : for if one
fliould dcfire the painter to make him the pifture of a man,
which is as much as to fay, of a man in general ; he meaneth
no more, but that the painter ftiould chufe what man he
pleafeth to draw, which muft needs be fome of them that are,
or have been, or may be ; none of which are univerfal. But
when he would have him to draw the pifture of the king, or
any particular perfon, he limiteth the painter to that one
perfon he chufes. It is plain, therefore, that there is
nothing univerfal but names ; which are therefore called
indefinite, becaufe we limit them not ourfeives, but leave
them to be applied by the hearer : whereas a Angular name
is limited and reftrained to one of the many things it fig-
nifieth ; as when wc fay, this man, pointing to him, or giving
him his proper name, or by fome fuch other way."

Berkeley and Hume do not materially differ from one
another. " A very natural queflion," fays the latter, ( Trea-
tife of Human Nature, book i. jiart i. ^ 7.1, "has been
flarted concerning abitraft or general ideas ; Whether they
be general or particular in the mind's conception of them ?
A great philofopher has difputed the received opinion in
this particular ; and has afferted, that all general ideas are
nothing but particular ones annexed to a certain term,
which gives them a more extcnfive fignilication, and makes
them recall, upon occafion, other individuals, which are
limilar to them. As I look upon this to be one of the
greateft and moft valuable difcoveries that have been made
of late years in the republic of letters, I (hall here en-
deavour to confirm it by fome arguments, which, 1 hope,
will put it beyond all doubt and controverfy."

Leibnitz, has alfo declared himfclf a partifan of this feft,
in a difVcrtation entitled " De Stilo Philofophico Marii
Nizolii." Dr. Campbell, in his " Philofophy of Rhetoric,"
has founded an interefting fpeculation on the principles of
Berkeley and Hume. S.'e Absthaction.

Attempts have been made, fays our author, for reviving
the fyftem of the Realifts ; and he reckons among the
ableft of thefe that of the excellent Dr. Price, to whom he
pays a tribute of merited refpeft. This approved writer
employed, he fays, his ingenuity in fupport of fome of the

old

U N I

U N I

old tenets of the Platonic fchool, and lias even fjone fo far
as to follow Plato's example, in connefting; the fpeculation
about univerfals, with the {ublimi> queilions of natural
theology. His reafonings, he adds, " in proof of the ex-
iftence of univtrfals, are the more curious, as he acquiefces
in forae of Dr. Reid's conclufions with regard to the ideal
theory of perception. That there are in the mind images
or refemblances of things external, he grants to be impoi-
itble ; but ftill he feems to fuppofe, that in every exertion
of tho'.igb.t, there is fomething immediately prefcnt to the
mind, which is the objeft of its attention." To this pur-
pofe, Dr. Price reafons in the following manner : " The
word idea is fometimes ufed to fignify the immediate objeA
of the mind in thinking, confidered as fomething in the
iiiind, which reprefents the real objeft, but is different from
it. This fenfe of an idea is derived from the notion, that
when we think of any external exillence, there is fome-
thing immediately prefent to the mind, v.'hich it con-
templates diilinft from the objefl itfelf, that being at a dif-
tance. But what is this ] It is bad language to call it an
image in the mind of the objeft. Shall we fay then, that
there is indeed no fuch thing ? But would not this be the
fame as to fay that, when the mind is employed in viewing
and examining any objeft, which is either not prefent to it,
or does not exift, it is employed in viewing and examining
nothing, and therefore does not then think at all ? When
abftratt truth is contemplated, is not the very objeft itfelf
prefent to tlie mind i When millions of iritellefts contem-
plate the equahty of every angle in a femicircle to a right
angle, have they not all the fame objcA in view I Is this
objedl nothhig ? Or is it only an image or kind of Ihadow ?
— Thefe inquiries carry our thoughts high."

To the difficulty fuggefted by Dr. Price, our author
fays, " I have no anfwer to make, but by repeating the faft
which I have already endeavoured to eitablifh ; that there
are only two ways in which we can poffibly fpeculate about
clafles of objefts ; the one, by means of a word or generic
term ; the other, by means of one particular individual of
the clafs which we conlider as the reprefentative of the reft ;
and that thefe two methods of carrying on our general
fpeculations, are at bottom fo much the fame, as to authorife
us to lay down as a principle, that, without the ufe offigns,
all our thoughts muft have related to individuals. When we
reafon, therefore, concerning clalfes or genera, the objefts
of our attention are merely ilgns ; or if, in any inftance, the
generic word lliould recall fome individual, this circumftance
is to be regarded only as the confequence of an accidental
alTociation, vv'hich has rather a tendency to difturb, than to
allift us in our reafoning."

For the opinions of a feft that may be regarded as inter-
mediate between the Nominalifts and Reahfts, we refer to
CoNCEPTiONALiSTS. See Stewart's Elements of the Phi-
lofophy of the Human Mind. See alfo Mental Philosophy.

Universal Caufe, Characters, Confumptwn, Geography,
Gravity, Joint, Maps, Palfy, Propofition, Rheumatifm,
Ring-dial, Syjlem, and Theorem. See the fubftantives.

UNIVERSALISTS, in Polemical Divinity, an appel-
lation given to fuch as hold an univerfal grace ; in hke man-
ner as tlie denomination Particularifts is given to thofe who
hold ^particular and efficacious grace.

The Arminians are particularly denominated Univerfahfts.

Universalists, Hypothetical, in Eccleftajlical Hijlory, an
appellation given to thofe doctors of Saunnir, who attempted
to reconcile the doArine of predeftination, as it had been
taught at Geneva, and confirmed at Dort, with the fentiments
of thofe who reprefent the Deity as offering the difplays of
his goodnefs and mercy to all mankind. The firll perfon who

made this attempt was John Cameron (fee Cameronians),
whofe fentiments were fupported, and farther illuftrated, by
Mofes Amyraut, a man of uncommon fagacity and erudi-
tion. The latter applied himfelf, from 1634, with fuch
zeal to this work, that he produced no fmall changes in the
doftrine commonly received among the reformed in France.
The form of doftrine which he propofed with this view may
be fummed up in the following propofitions ; ii/z. that God
defires the happinefs of all inen, and that no mortal is ex-
cluded, by any divine decree, from the benefits that are
procured by the death, fuPtrings, and gofpel of Chrift ;
that, however, no one can be made a partaker of the blef-
fings of the Gofpel, and of eternal falvation, unlefs he be-
lieve in Jefus Chrill ; that fuch is the immente and univerfal
goodnefs of tlie Supreme Being, that he refufes to none the
power of believing ; though he does not grant unto all his
afiiftance and fuccour, that they may wifely improve this
power to the attainment of everlafting falvation ; and that,
in confequence of this, multitudes perifti through their own
fault, and not from any want of goodnefs in God. Thofe
who embraced this doftrine were called Univerfahfts, be-
caufe they reprefented God as willing to fhew mercy to all
mankind ; and hypothetical Univerfahfts, becaufe the condi-
tion of faith in Chrift was neceflary to render them objefts
of his mercv. Mofh. Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. 8vo.

UNIVERSALITY, the quality that denominates a
thing univerfal.

The Cathohcs aflert the univerfality of their church, both
as to time and perfons ; and maintain this to be a note or
mark of the true church, which diftinguifties it from all
other focieties that pretend to the name.

Universality, in the Schools. Logicians made two
kinds of univeriality, the one mctaphyjical, the other moral.

Universality, Metaphyfical, is that which excepts no-
thing ; as this propofition, " Every man is mortal."

Universality, Moral, is that which admits of fome
exception ; as, " All old men praife the times paft." In fuch
like propofitions, it is enough that the thing be ordinarily
fo ; it not b=-uig ftriftly required, that every old man (hould
be of that difpofition. See Predicable.

UNIVERSE, a collective name, fignifying the aflem-
blage of heaven and earth, with all things in them, called
by the Greeks o to », and by the Latins mundui.

Th^ ancients, and after them the Cartefians, imagine the
univerle to be infinite. The reafon they give is, that it
imphes a contradiftion to fuppofe it finite or bounded ;
fince it is impoffible not to conceive fpace beyond any limits
that can be affigned it ; which fpace, according to the
Cartefians, is body, and confequently part of the univerfe.
But that the univerfe is fiuit-. appears from the two follow-
ing confiderations : I. That /,'hatever confifts of parts can-
not be infinite, fince the parts that compofe it muft be finite,
either in number or magnitude ; which, if they be, what
they compofe muft be fo too : or, 2. They muft be infi-
nite, either in number or magnitude ; but an infinite num-
ber isacontradiftion; and to fuppofe the parts infinitely big,
is to fuppofe feveral infinities, one bigger than another ;
which, though it may pafs among mathematicians, who only
argue about infinities, in pojfe, or in imagination, will not
be allowed in philofophy.

UNIVERSITY, Uxiversitas, a coUeftive term, ap-
plied to an aflemblage of feveral colleges eilablifhed in a
city, or town, in which are profeflbrs in the feveral fciences,
appointed to teach them to ftudents ; and wiiere degrees, or
certificates of ftudy in the divers faculties, are taken up.

In each univerfity four faculties are ufually taught ; theo-
logy, medicine, law, and the arts a.id fciences.

They

UNIVERSITY.

They are called umiierjutes, or univerfal fchools, becaiife
the four faculties arc fuppofed to make the i^rand world, or
whole compafs of (ludy ; or rather, hecaufe they form one
whole out of many individuals.

In the eye of the law, an univerfity is held a mere lay
body, or community ; though, in reality, it be a mixed
body, compofed partly of laymen, and partly of eccle-
fiaftics. See Cohpokation.

The definition of the term un'tverptas, by foreign civi-
lians, anfwers nearly to our common law term of body po-
litic or corporate ; and fuch towns as had this appellation in
Germany, &c. might hold lands and rents in common, and
do all other afts as one aggregate body. And in this fenfe,
the word umverjittis came to be applied to fuch academics
for learning as were incorporated, which archbifhop Ulher
thinks began about the year 1250.

UnivL-rfities had their firft rife in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. Thofe of Paris and Bologna pretend to be the
firft that were fet on foot ; but then they were on a very dif-
ferent footing from the univerfities among us.

The univerfity of Paris is faid to have commenced under
Charlemagne, and to owe its rife to four Englifhmen, difci-
ples of Venerable Bede, who, going to that city, made a
propofal to fet up and fell learning, and accordingly held
their firft leftures in places affigncd them by that prince :
fuch is the account given by Gaguin, Gilies, De Bauvais,
&c. Though the authors who wrote in thofe days, as
Eginhard, Aimon, Rcginon, Sigebert, &c. make not the
leaft mention of this memorable faft.

Add, that Pafquier, Du Tillet, &c. declare openly
againft the opinion ; and affert, that the firft foundations
were not laid till the time of Lewis the Young, and Phihp
Augufte, in the twelfth century. The earliclt mention we
find made of the univerfity of Paris, is in Regordus, who
lived in that age, and who was contemporary with Peter
Lombard, the maftcr of the fentences, the great glory of
that univerfity ; in memory of whom an anniverfary has been
long obferved by that body in the church of St. Marcel,
where he lies buried.

But it is certain it was not eftablifhed all at once ; it ap-
pears to have been at firft no other than a public fchool in
the cathedral churcli ; from which it grew, by little and
little, under the favour and proteAion of the kings, into a
regular body.

Our own univerfities, Oxford and Cambridge, fecm inti-
tled to the greateft antiquity of any in the world ; and Uni-
verfity, Baliol, and Mcrton colleges in Oxford, and Peter's
in Cambridge, all made colleges in the thirteenth century,
may be faid to be the firft regular endowments of this kind
in Europe.

For though Univerfity college in Oxford had been a
place for (Indents ever fince the year 872, yet this, like
many of the other ancient colleges beyond fea, and Leyden
to this day, was no proper college ; but the ftudents, with-
out any diftinftion of habits, lived in citizen's houfcs, having
only meeting-places to hear Icftures, and to difpute.

In after-times, there were houfes built for the ftudents to
live in fociety ; only each to be at his own charge, as in the
inns of court. Thefe, at firft, were called inns, but now
halls.

At laft plentiful revenues were fettled on fcveral of thefe
halls, to maintain the ftudents in diet, apparel, &c. and
thefe were then called colleges.

The univerfities of Oxford and Cambridge are governed,
next under tiie king, by a chancellor, who is to take care of
the government of the whole univerfity, to maintain its
liberties, £cc,

Under the chancellor is the liigh-fteward, whole ofHce is to
afilft the chancellor, and other officers, when required, in
the execution of their offices, and to hear and determine
capital caufos, according to the laws of the land, and the
privileges of the univerfity. See Umveijtly Court.

Tfie next officer is the vice-chanco'llor, who officiates for
the chancellor in his abfence.

In the univerfity of Oxford there arc four pro -vice-chan-
cellors : in the univerfity of Cambridge, the vice-chancellor,
and five others, conftitute the caput, which every univerfity
grace mull pafs before it can be introduced into the fenate.

There are alfo two proftors, who affift in the government
of the univerfity, particularly in the bufinefs of ichool-exer-
cife, the taking up degrees, punifliing violators of the fla-
tutes, &c.

In the univerfity of Cambridge there are alfo two mode-
rators, two fcrutators, and two taxors. In this univerfity
there are nineteen profefTors, befides lady Margaret's
preacher : in that of Oxford there are twenty-one profef-
fors, including the readers in anatomy and chemiftry. Add
to thefe a public orator, keeper of records, librarians, regif-
ter, efquire and yeoman beadles, clerk, and verger. See
College. See alfo Camishidge and Oxford.

For the degrees taken up in each faculty, with the exer-
cifes, &c. requifite to them, fee Degree.

The univerfities of Scotland are four, -viz. that of St. An-
drew's; that of Glafgow, that of Aberdeen, and that of Edin-
burgh. See each place refpeftively, and alfo Scotland.

In noticing the different European univerfities, under the
names of the refpeftive cities and towns in which they are
eftabliflied, we have detailed tlie hiftories and prominent
events of each. Under the prefcnt head it was our intention
to have inquired into the progrefTive and prefent ftate of
claffical learning and fcience, as thefe have been oftenfibly
influenced by the univerfities ; and at the time of writing
the account of Oxford, for a previous volume, it was our
wiili to have inveiligated, with caution and candour, the
ftate of difciphne and tuition of the moft eminent univer-
fities of Europe. The fubjeft is certainly of intereft and
importance ; and it is rather fingular, that in the vaft range
of literary inquiry and difquifition which charaAerizes
the prefent age, we have not a work devoted to a compara-
tive view and impartial elucidation of the pradlical fyftems
of the national fchools. For fome centuries paft thefe have
been regarded as effential to complete the itudies of the
fcholar and gentleman : to thefe nearly all the national efta-
blifhments, and even the legiflative afferablies, have looked
with refpetl bordering on reverence. Laws have conferred
on them many important dignities, privileges, and immum-
ties ; their riches and influence have progrelfively incrcafed ;
and their powers of direftiiig the minds and talents of their
rofpettive pupils, and confequently the countries in which
they are placed, are of the higheft refpoiifibility. To elu-
cidate thefe fafts with any degree of fatisfaction, would oc-
cupy a large volume. We mull defpair of effecting it in a
work like the prefent, and therefore content ourfelves with
a few remarks and references. Dy examining the confti-
tutioiis of the Britifii univerfities, and the flatutes of the
different colleges, we fliall ohferve that a laudable and liberal
fpirit adlnated the original founders ; and we ni.ili alfo readily
perceive that they have produced great and good etieCls on
the morahs and literature of the louiitry. But it will .-Jfo
.ij)pear, that many of tlieir ordir unces an I laws, having been
adapted to an age and ftate of fociety very diffi-reiit from the
prefent, are now become either obfukte, ulelels, or, what
is much worle, injurious. Thefe (hould be remodelled : for
as the natural tendency of mankind is to advance in know-

10 ledge.

UNIVERSITY.

ledge, it fhould be the praAice of organized learned bodies to .
diredl the youthful mind in the bed and readieft way to learn-
ing ; to point out the path that (hould be purfued, rather than
follow in a beaten track. An univerfity has been long re-
garded as the fountain of fcience and literature, and hence
it becomes an imperious duty of its guardians to preferve its
ilreams frefh and pure.

Within the laft half century many great revolutions and
changes have been produced in the civilized world. Em-
pires, kingdoms, and fubordinate ftates, have been created
and have "fallen ; have been difmembered, torn afunder,
overrun with armies, and, in various degrees, affeCled by
political caufes. Univerfities and academies mail have been
materially influenced by thefe evunts : and hence it is not
the leaft difficulty of the hiftorian to afcertain their recent
and prefent ftates. In fome of the cities on the continent
they have been entirely altered. Their old foundations have
been either abrogated, or remodelled on a new and broader
bafiS. The revolution of France was not merely political,
but it produced extenfite effefts on the old eilabhfhments in
arts, fcience, and literature. Many pamphlets and eflays
were, foon after that event, publilhed on the latter fubjecls :
fome vindicating and recommending the old fyftems, others
urging the neceffity of modifications, and others contending
for the adoption of entirely new eilabhfhments. Thefe
controverfies produced the " National Inftitute," the confti-
tution and novelties of which have excited much general at-
tention, and produced great changes in the dilcipline of
pubhc fchools. (See Paris, Literary Injl'ttutlons.) Other
univerfities on the continent have been roufed by the fliock
of that revolution, and have endeavoured to adapt their
routine of ftudies, and the fubjefts of them, to the demands
of the age. " All the north of Germany," obferves baronefs
Stael, in her recent work on Germany, " is filled with the
moft. learned univerfities in Europe. In no country, not
even in England, have the people fo many means of in-
ftrufting themfelves, and bringing their faculties to perfec-
tion. Intelleftual education is perfeft in Germany ; but
every thing pafles into theory : praftical education depends
folely on things adlually exifting : it is by aftion alone that
the character acquires that firmnefs which is necefiary to di-
reft the conduft of life. The German univerfities polTcfs
an ancient reputation,, of a date feveral ages antecedent to
the Reformation. Since that epoch the Proteftant univer-
fities have been inconteftibly fuperior to the Cathohc, and
the literary glory of Germany depends altogether upon thefe
inftitutions. A fketch of thefe is prefented in a work juft
publifhed by M. de ViUers, an author who is always found
at the head of all noble and generous opinions. The Eng-
liih univerfities have fingularly contributed to diffufe among
the people of England that knowledge of ancient languages
and literature which gives to their orators and ftatefmen an
information fo liberal and fo brilHant. It is a mark of good
tafte to be acquainted with other things befides matters of bu-
finefs, when one is thoroughly acquainted with them ; and, be-
fides, the eloquence of free nations attaches itfelf to the hiftory
of the Greeks and Romans, as to that of ancient fellow-
countrymen. But the German univerfities, although
founded on principles analogous to thofe of Oxford and
Cambridge, yet differ from them in maoy refpefts : the
multitude of ftudents aflembled together in Gottingen,
Halle, Jena, &c. formed a kind of free body in the ftate :
the rich and poor fcholars were diftinguilhed from each
other only by perfonal merit ; and the ftrangers, who re-
paired from all parts of the world, fubmitted themfelves
with pleafure to an equality which natural fuperiority alone
eoulddifturb."

Although there are no univerfities in Belgium, yet tlie
college of Ghent is inftituted for the fame purpofe, and cal-
culated to produce very beneficial effefts. Its plan of edu-
cation, and general regulations, are worthy of imitation.
The funftionaries confift of a regent, two fub-regents, and
fix profeffors in Greek and Latin poetry, and in rhetoric ;
befides fix other profeffors in French, Euglifh, German,
drawing, and mathematics. Thefe have not only the charge
of educating the pupils, but of watching their morals and
manners. They are required to make monthly reports to
the mayor, and to the parents of the refpeftive children.
See a full and interefting account of this feminary in Mit-
chell's " Tour through Belgium," &c. 8vo. 1816; in
which work is alfo contained, a review of the fyftem of
education in the college of Bruffels, the central fchools of
France, the univerfity of Ley den, and the univerfity of
Utrecht.

In Great Britain, fome ufeful and effential improvements
have been adopted in the prefent century : but they do not
appear to have been produced fo much from rivalry with fo-
reign fchools, as by the general emulation excited by metro-
politan and provincial inftitutions. Within the laft twenty
years, London has prefented nearly all the advantages, with-
out any of the fetters, of eftablifhed univerfities ; for in this
vaft city, many hterary and fcientific inftitutions have been
formed, and many courfes of leftures delivered, all calcu-
lated to improve the rifing generation. ( See London, Li-
terary Injlitutions ; Liverpool, and Manchester.) Hence
the emulous mind has exhauitlefs fources of learning : and
hence a new era has been created in the annals of England.
In no one fubjeft, perhaps, is the advantage of a free
prefs more apparent than in that now under confideration.
But for this, many ufeful plans would never have been car-
ried into effeft ; many errors of the dark ages would have
continued and increafed ; many eftablilhments would have
defcended in utility, whilft they afcended in wealth and
power. Pubhc difcuffion on thefe fubjefts occafioiis a mi-
nute inveftigation into the principles and praftices of old
eftabhfhments ; places them in a ftate of comparifon with
new ; and caufes a deliberate enquiry into the utility and
prafticability of new theories, before they have gone
through the routine of experience. Many authors have
thus been induced to publifh their opinions and animadver-
fions on the difcipline and praftices of the old univerfities of
England ; and thefe have produced ufeful effefts. Still,
however, fome of the writers contend that the old cfta-
blifliments do not fufficiently attend to the demands and im-
provements of the age : but that they perfift in ftudies
which are ufelefs and obfolete, to the negleft of thofe which
are neceffary, and which are calculated to be praftically
ufeful. Gibbon, in his " Life and Opinions," fays, " The
fchools of Oxford and Cambridge were founded in a dark
age of falfe and barbarous fcience ; and they are ftill tainted
with the vices of their origin. Their primitive difcipline
was adapted to the education of priefts and monks ; and the
government ftill remains in the hands of the clergy, an order
of men whofe manners are remote from the prefent world, and
whofe eyes are dazzled by the hght of philofophy." The
fame learned and eloquent writer enters into a difquifition on
the prejudices, errors, and wrong difcipline of thefe fchools.
Dr. Knox alfo, in his " Moral and Literary Effays,"
the Edinburgh Review, vol. xvi. and other writers, have
publiflied their opinions on the fame fubjeft. In reply to
which, and in vindication of the prefent praftice, Mr. Cop-
pleftone of Oxford pubhfhed a pamphlet in 18 10. Other
members of the refpeftive univerfities have alfo come for-
ward in defence of their fchools : and hence the fubjeft is

brought

U N 1

brought before the public tribunal, the ultimate decifion of
which is generally- ju(t and found. See alfo Monthly Re-
Tiew, vol. Ixxviii. p. 277. The Oxford and Cambridge
Univerfity Calendars, for 1 816 and 1817. Chalmers's
Account of the Colleges and Halls of Oxford, 2 vols. 8vo.
Dyer's Hiftory of the Univerfity and Colleges of Cam-
bridge, 2 vols. 8vo.

The chief foreign univerfities are thofe of Abo, in Fin-
land, frequented by ftudents from Ruffia, and, in number,
equalhiig that of Upfal ; of Auftria, at Vienna, founded in
1237, and improved fince 1752 ; at Prague, founded in
1347 ; at Infpruck, dated from 1677 ; and at Gratz, from
IJ85 ; of Benares, in Hindooftan ; of Buda, in Hungary ;
and of Calcutta, eftablifhed by the marquis of WcUedey, the
plan of which is extenfive and liberal. Befides Hindoo,
Mahomedan, and Englilh law, and the local regulations, it
was defigned to have profeffors of civil jurifprudence, poli-
tical economy, geography, hiftory, &c. The languages to
be tauglit were Arabic, Perfian, Sanfcrit, Hindooftannee,
Bengal, Telinga, Maratta, Tamula, and Canara. But this in-
Ititution has declined. We may mention alfo the univerfities of
Coimbra in Portugal, of Copenhagen, of Debritzin, and of
Erlau. France formerly boafted of twenty-one univerfities ;
•viz. in the North Douay, Caen, Paris, Rheims, Nancy, Straf-
burgh ; in the middle provinces, Nantes, Angers, Poitiers,
Orleans, Bourges, Dijon, Befan^on ; and in tlie fouth, Bour-
deaux, Pau, Perpignan, Touloufe, MontpeUier, Aix,
Orange, and Valence. Of thefe, the Snrbonne of Paris
was the moft celebrated, though fomewliat degraded by its
tendency to prolong the reign of fcholaftic theology. The
univerfity of Georgia, in America, founded at Louifville
in 1 80 1, though Dr. Morfe fays it had its charter in 1785,
and poiFefling funds to the amount of 50,000 acres of land.
The univerfity of Gottingen, in Hanover, was founded by
George H. in 1734, folemnly opened in 1737, and has ac-
quired confiderable celebrity. Harward univerfity, in Cam-
bridge, MafTachufetts, founded in 1638, is the moft an-
cient literary eftabliftiment in North America. The uni-
verfities of Holland are thofe of Leyden, formerly much
celebrated and frequented, but fomewhat declined, on ac-
count of certain commercial regulations ; of Utrecht, of
Harderwyck, of Franche, and Groningen. Ingolftadt
has an univerfity, and fo has Kiel, in Denmark. The uni-
verfity of 6t. Mark, in Lima, was founded in 1576, and
is condufted on the plan of the Spanifli univerfities. The
univerfity of I^unden, in Sweden, accommodates r.bout
300 ftudents. The univerfities of Hefle, in Germany, are
thofe of Marburg and Rindcln, and that of Gicflien, belong-
ing to HelTe-Darmlladt. In Mexico an univerfity was
founded in 1551, and it is llyled royal and pontifical;
and the cloifter is compofed of 251 doftors, of all forts of
faculties. Its library was coUefted about forty years ago,
and confifts of many old books of divinity, but few modern
publications. The univerfities of the Netherlands were
formerly numerous, confidering the extent of the country.
Exclufive of Tournay (Dornick), which has been longfub-
jeft to the French, there were others at Douay and St.
Omer, much frequented by the Englifh Catholics ; and one
of ftill greater celebrity at Louvain, founded in 1425. Their
jlluftrious profeftbrs, though celebrated by Guicciardini,
nephew of the great hiftorian, have been long fince forgot-
ten. The univerfities of Parma and Placcntia need only be
mentioned. The univerfity of Pavia is in high reputation,
and is regarded as the firft in Italy. Its profeffors have dif-
tinguifticd themfelves in natural hiftory. The univerfity of
Pcnnfylvania was founded at Philadelphia during the war,

Vol.. XXXVII.

UNI

and having been fince united with the college, is become a
refpedable feat of learning. Roftock, in the duchy of
Mecklenburg, has an univerfity. In Portugal, befides the
univerfity of Coimbra ah-eady mentioned, there is that of
Evora, founded in 1553. Pruffia has feveral univerfities,
that of Frankfort on the Oder, founded in 15 16, and that of
Konigfberg, in 1544. Of tlie Polifti univerfities, Cracow,
founded in 1 364, has fallen to Auftria ; and Wihia, founded
in 1570, to Rulfia. Pofna or Pofen has become fubjed to
Pruffia. The univerfity of Peterft)urgh was founded by the
late emprefs Catharine II. The univerfities of Spain are
computed at upwards of 20 ; but the moft noted is that of
Salamanca, founded in 1200. The univerfities of Sweden
are thofe of Upfal, Lunden, and Abo. The univerfity of
Tubingen on the Neckar was founded in 1477 ; that of
Turin was founded in 140J ; that of Vienna has been already
mentioned. In the province of Yemen, in Arabia, there
are two univerfities or celebrated academies, one at Zebid,
for the Sunnis, and another at Damar, for the Zeidites.

University Courts. See Unlverftty Court, and Uw-
VERSITY, fupra.

UNIUM, the Odiel, in ylncUnt Geography, a river of
Hifpania.in BcEtica, which united with the Luxia.

UNIVOCAL, in the Schools, is applied to two or more
names, or terms, that have but one fignification : in oppofi-
tion to equivocal, which is, where one term has two or more
fignifications.

Or, univocal terms are fuch whofe name, as well as nature,
is the fame ; in oppofition to equivocals, whofe names are the
fame, but their natures very difi'erent.

For a thing to be predicated univocally of any others, it
is to be attributed to all of them alike, and in the fame pro-
per fenfe. See Predicate and Predicable.

Univocal Generation. The doArine of the ancients,
with refpedl to propagation, was, that all pcrfett animals
were produced by univocal generation, that is, by the fole
union, or copulation, of a male and female of the fame fpe-
cies, or denomination ; and that infefts were produced by
equivocal generation, without any feed, and merely of the
corruption of the earth exalted, and, as it were, impregnated
by the fun's rays ; but this is wholly erroneous.

Some philofophers make a kind of intermediate genera-
tion between equivocal and univocal, which they call ana-
logous generation. See Generation.

Univocal jlaion. See Action.

Univocal Caufe. See Cause.

UNIVOCALS, called by the Greeks fynonyma, are
defined by Ariftotlc to be thofe things whofe name is
common, and alfo the reafon correfpondmg to the name ;
that is, the definition of the idea affixed to it the fame.

Thus, under the name and definition of animal, man and
brute are equally included ; and circle and fquare, in the
reafon or definition of z figure.

Here, the word, ■!& figure, they ufo to call univocum uni-
vocans, or univocating univocal ; and the tilings included un-
der the univocal name, as circle and fquare, univoca univo-
cala, univocated anivocals.

UNIVOCATION, in Logic and Metaphyfies. The
fchoolmen have long difputed about the univocation of
being, i. e. whether the general idea of being agree in the
fame manner, and in the fame fenfe, to tlie lubftance, and
the accident, to God and the creature ?

UNIVOQUE, Fr., in Mi^ic. Univocal concords arc
the oftave, and its recurrences or repetitions above or be-
low, as they never change their name or c(Tc6t. Ptolemy
was the iirft who gave ihcm this appellation.

3 H UNKA,

U N O

U N S

UNKA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Smaland ; 85 miles N. of Calniar.

UNKEl-TENKY, atownof Hindooltan, in Baglana;
7 miles N.E.of Chandor.

UNKEL. See Unckel.

UNKENACH, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles W. of
Schwanaflatt.

UNLACING, in Sea Language, the afl of loofening and
taking off the bonnet of a fail from its principal part.

UNLAWFUL, Illegal, fomething prohibited by, or
contrary to the terms of a law, either divine or human.

L^NLAWFl^L AJfembly, the meeting of three or more per-
fons together, by force to commit feme unlawful aft ; as,
to affault any perfon, to enter his houfe, or land, &c. and
tlnis abiding together, whether they attempt the execution
or not. See Rebellious Ajfembly, Riot, and Rout.

By the flat. 16 Car. II. if five perfons, or more, (hall be
alTembled together, above thofe of the family, at any con-
venticle, or meeting, imder colour of any exercife of reli-
gion, it is unlawful, and punifhable by fines, and otherwife,
as in that llatutc is provided. See Conventicle.

UNLIKE Qiinnthles and Signs, in Algebra. See LiKE
Signs and Quantities.

UNLIMITED, or Indeterminate Problem, is fuch a one
as is capable of infinite folutions. As, to divide a triangle
given into two equal parts ; to make a circle pafs through
two points affigned, &c. See Diophantine and Inde-
terminate.

UNLUTING, in Chemi/iry, the taking away of the
lute, loam, or clay, with which a velTet was before clofed,
joined to another, or covered.

UNMOOR, To, in Sea Language, is to reduce a Ihip
to the ftate of riding by a fingle anchor and cable, after (he
has been moored or faftened by two or more cables.

UNNA, in Geography, a river which rifes in Bofnia, on
the borders of Croatia ; 28 miles S. of Bihacs, and runs
iito the Save, 16 miles N.W. of Gradifca. — Alfo, a town
of Germany, in the county of Mark. This place is in rank
the fecond town of the caunty, and hcs in a fine plain, on a
rivulet named the Kottelbecke. It has a Lutheran parilh-
church, and a hofpital church, which the Calvinifts ufe for
their worfhip, but in which alfo on Saturdays wor(hip is
performed by a Lutheran preacher ; as alfo a nunnery, to-
gether with a chapel, and a Lutheran fchool. This town
is pofleffed of a very extenfive and profitable territory.
Formerly it conftituted one of the Hanfe towns. So early
as the year 1032, Unna was a confiderable village, and, to-
gether with its extent of territory, belonged to the arch-
bifhop of Cologn. In the year 1250, it was environed
with walls, and endowed with the immunities of a town ;
23 miles S. of Munfter. N. lat. y i^ 33'. E. long. 7° 48'.

UNNAP-POUPPY, a town of Meckley ; 75 miles
S.S.E. of Munnypour.

UNNARY, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 43 miles W. of Wexio.

UNONA, in Botany, a name evidently contrived to pre-
Icrve an analogy with Annona, to which the genus which
bears it is nearly related. Perhaps Linnseus had in view the
union of the ilamens with the germen, in the formation of
this name — Linn. Suppl. 44. Schreb. Gen. 375, 834.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 1271. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. JufT.
283. — Clafs and order, Polyandria Polygjnia. Nat. Ord.
Coadunatif, Linn. Annonis, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of three fmall, acute,
dofe-prcffed leaves. Cor. Petals fix, lanceolate, felTile,
j:;ihboas at the bafe externally; and concave at thefame part

within. Stam. Filaments none ; anthers nnumerable, ob-
long, collefted into a denfe ball, within the hollow of the
bafe of the corolla. Pi/l. Germens feveral, clofely covered by
the anthers ; ftyles about ten, briftle-lhaped, crowded, rather
longer than the anthers ; ftigmas .... Peric Berries fe-
veral, (talked, ovate, gibbous, compofing a fpreading umbel.
Seeds two, one above the other, ovate, very fmooth, abrupt
at the bafe.

Elf. Ch. Calyx three-leaved. Petals fix. Berries feveral,
(talked, each with two feeds.

Obf. Linnasus fuggefts that this genus ought to be re-
ferred to Gynandria, and he has led the writer of the prefent
article into the fame miftake, concerning Nymphsa, in Prodr.
FI. Graec. v. i. 360, correfted in v. 2. 359, of the fame
work. We are now convinced, that no genus can be fafely
termed gynandrous, except the (lamens are inferted into the
piftil above the germen. Unona is clofely connected in cha-
rafter and habit with Uvaria, and perhaps ought to be
united therewith. Willdenow has referred hither two fpe-
cies of Defmos of Loureiro, and Uvaria zey/aniea of Au-
blet ; but having no original information relative to thefe
three plants, we prefer retaining the Linnaean Unona by
itfelf.

I. U. dlfcreta. Linn. Suppl. 270. — Gathered by Dahl-
berg in Surinam, where it is called Peyrieoboom. This is a
tree with (lender, flexible, round, alternate branches, clothed
when young with rufty down. Leaves alternate, willow-
like, on (hort ftalks, lanceolate, two inches long, taper-
pointed, bluntilh, entire ; fmooth above ; beautifully filky
beneath. Floiuers axillary, fohtary, on (hort ftalks. Pe-
tals externally filky. Fruit the fize of a large pea. In a
dried ftate it feems rather a capfule than a berrt.

UN POCO, in Italian Mufic, a little ; :x%j un poco piu alle-
gro, a little quicker ; un poco piu largo, a little (lower.

UNQUES Pkist, Always ready. See Uncore Prijl.
UNRECLAIMED Hawk, one that is untamed.
UNREEVING a Rope. See Reeving.
UNREST, in Geography. See Onrust.
UNRIGGING of a S'hip, is the taking away of the
ftanding and running rigging.

UNSEELING, in Falconry, a taking away of the
thread that runs through the hawk's eye-lids, and hinders
her fight. See Hawk.

Drawing the ftrings of the hood, to be in readinefs to
pull off, is called urt/lriiing the hood.

UNSER FRAU, in Geography, a town of Auftria;
I mile N. of Weitra.

UNS FRAU NAZARETH, a town of the duchy
of Stiria ; 10 miles S.W. of Windifch Gratz.

UNS FRAU WEISTEN, a town of the duchy of
Stiria ; 1 1 miles W. of Marburg,

UNST, is the moft northern of the Shetland ides, and
the moft northern territory of the Britifn empire, being
fituated in the latitude of 61°. Its form is of an irregular
oblong fquare, extending in length about ten miles, and in
breadth from two to four. In comparifon with the other
Shetland ifles, Unft may be confidered level, yet its fur-
face is diverfified by feveral extenfive ridges of hills ; the
moft remarkable are, Vallafield, which rifes to the height
of 600 feet, and Saxaforth, elevated 700 feet above the
level of the fea. The ifland is not interfered by rivers, but
contains feveral frefh-water lakes ; loch Cliff, the largeft, is
two miles long, and .about half a mile in breadth. The fea-
fliores are remarkably indented with bays and creeks, having
many fmall iflands and pafture holmes fcattered around.
Along the coaft arc feveral natural caves, of confiderable

extent i

U N X

V O A

extent ; one of whick, under a promontory of the hill of
Saxaforth, penetrates at lead 300 feet under ground. In
general, the foil is tolerably fertile, even under the word
modes of culture ; and the paihire -grounds are moflly co-
vered with a rtiort tender heath, which affords excellent
feeding for (heep, of which about 7000 are kept here, with
about 2000 cows, and 1000 horfes. Hogs are alfo fed in
great numbers ; and rabbits are very abundant. Fiftiing is
an important branch of the induftry of the inhabitants, and
about eighty tons of cured tirti are annually exported. Unll

abounds in iron-flone, and pofTefTes many large veins of Calyx of five leaves, fimple

Ihaped, in iive equal fegments ; thofe of the radius fiTC, or
more, female, fmall, lanceolate. Slam. Filaments, in the
florets of the diflc, five, capillary ; anthers united into a pen-
tagonal tube, rather longer than the corolla. Ptjl. in the
fame florets imperfeft ; in thofe of the radius, Germen
ovate ; ftyle fimple ; ftigma cloven. Perk, none, except
the permanent calyx. Seeds in the circumference only,
ovate, abrupt, hard, without any feed-down, or crown.
Rccepl. naked, flat.

Eir. Ch. Receptacle naked, flat. Seed-down none.

jafper : rock-cryftals have fometimes been found, and free
ilone is abundant. The parifh-church, which was built in
1764, ftandsat a place called Balcalla, at the diftance of three
miles from the minillcr's refidence. Formerly there were
twenty-four chapels on the idand, the remains of which may
ftill be dillinftly traced. Unil conftitutes aparifh ofitfelf ;
and according to the return of the year 181 1, contains a
population of 2288, occupying 385 houfes. Here is no
poft-office ; the only office in Shetland is forty miles diftant
from hence : fo that, from its remote fituation, and its little in-
tercourfe, efpecially during winter, with the mother coun-
try, the inhabitants of Unft are frequently ftrangers, for
many weeks, to t!ie greatefl national occurrences. In this
ifland, the longeft day is nineteen hours fifteen minutes, and
confequently, the fhorteft day is four hours forty-five

minutes Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Shetland, 1808.

Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806. Carlifle's Topographical
Diftionary of Scotland, 1813.

UNSTRUT, a river which rifes four miles W. of Din-
gcllladt, in the territory of Eichsfeld, and joins the Saal,
about two miles N. of Naumburg.

UNSUMMED, a term ufed by falconers for a hawk's
feathers before they have arrived at their full length.

UNTERART, or Art, in Geography, a town of
Switzerla?id, in tlie canton of Schwitz, at the fouthern ex-
tremity of the lake of Zug ; 7 miles N. of Schwitz.

UNTERBIRG, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland ;
1 mile S. of Plaucn.

UNTERMDORFF, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles N.
of Aggfpach.

UNTERSEE, a lake in the duchy of Carinthia ; 10
miles W. of Velach.

UNTERSEEN, a town of the duchy of Holftein ;
5 miles N.W. of Pinnenbcrg. — Alfo, a town of Switzer-
land, in the canton of Berne, purchaf -d of the counts of
Hohenzollern. This town is lituated between the lakes of
Brientz and Thnn ; 26 miles S.E. of Berne.

UNTOORAH, a town of Hindoollan, in Goondwana ;
60 miles W. of Nagpour.

UNTZINA, a t,>wn of Walachia ; 30 miles N.E. of
Bucharell.

UNUCA, in /tnc'tenl Geography, a town of Africa Pro-
pria, upon the route from Carthage to Cxfarea, between
Carthage and Sieihbra. Anton. Itin.

UNlIN(iE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Upland ; 2S mile:; E. of Upfal.

UNXIA, in Botany, from ungo, iinxi, to anoint, becaufe
of its falve-like oclonr, and its external, as well as internal,
ufe as a fidorific — Linn. Supjil 56. Schreb. Gen. 554.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 2339. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Jufl'.
186. Lamarck Illullr. t. 699. Ga;rtn. v. 2. 421. — Clafs
and Older, Syngenejia Polygam'ui-necejfaria. Nat. Ord. Com-
poftlre oppojilifoliie, l.mn. Corymbijera, .lulf.

Gen. Cli. Common Calyx roundifh, of five ovate, nearly
equal, concave leaves, in a fimple row. Cor. compound,
radiated ; florets of the dillc live, or more, male, funnel-

Obf. Schreber was led by the difagreement between the
defcription of this genus, and the place allotted to it by
Linnaeus in his fyftem, to make fome correftions, without
feeing the plant. The above, taken from the original fpe-
cimen, will be found nearer the truth. Unxia, in fact,
belongs, as truly as Calendula, to the order of Polygamia-
necejfaria, the florets of the diflc having no more of a gcr-
men than is neceffary to fcrve as a partial llalk.

I. L'^. camphorata. Camphorated Balfam-weed. Linn.

Suppl. 368. Willd. n. 1 Leaves lanceolate. Young

branches downy. — Gathered by Dahlberg, in fandy fitua-
tions in Surinam, where it goes by the name of Camphcrl-
plant, being remarkable for a ftrong camphor-like fmell. A
watery decoftion of this herb, taken internally, is elleemcd
an excellent and powerful fudorific, in the obilinate lumbago
which prevails at Surinam. The dry plant, applied out-
wardly, is fuppofed ufeful in reftoring perfpiration. The
root is probably annual. Stem herbaceous, two feet high,
round, (lender, (Iriated, forked ; the young branches
fhaggy, with foft hairs. Leaves oppofite at each fork of
the item, fefiile, lanceolate, an inch and a half long, fparingly
toothed, five-ribbed, clothed on both fides with foft hoary"
hairs. Flowers from the forks of the item, moilly fohtary,
on hairy llalks of various lengths. Calyx the fize of a pea,
nearly fmooth. Corolla yellow. Seeds tumid, angular, half
the length of the calyx, of a pale grey. Lamarck's figure
is ttie only one extant of this genus, and is fufficiently ex-
preffive of the original fpecies here defcribed. Witii the
following we are unacquainted.

2. U. hirfnta. Hairy Balfam-weed. Richard Acles dc
la Soc. d'Hilf. Nat.de Paris, v. i. 112. (not 105.) Willd.
n. 2. — " Leaves oblong, fomewhat heart-fhaped, hairy.
Stem villous." — Native of Cayenne. This is faid to be ex-
tremely hairy in every part. Leaves bluiitifh, iomewhat
ovate. Florets numerous. Root annual.

Tile habit and characters of Unxia approach EtLin'A i
fee that article.

UNZA, in Geography, a town of RufTia, in the govern-
ment of Koftrom ; and capital of a province on a river of
the fame name ; 92 miles E.N.E. of KoltrDin. N. lat. 57''
56'. E. long. 44° 14'. — Alfo, a province of Ruffia, form-
ing a part, and the largell part, of the government of Kof-
trom, 160 miles in length, and from 80 to 112 in breadth ;
bounded on the north by the government of Vnhnnia, on the
eafl by 'the government of Viatka, on the foiitli by the go-
vernment of Nizegorod, and on the weif by the province of
Koflrom. — Alio, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Volga, near Jurev PovoUkoi, in tiie government of
Kollrom.

VOAM-TCHIM HoTu.v, a town of Corca ; 642
miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 43° 3'. E. long.
129^44'.

VOAN-TSUSEN, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Pe-tciie-li ; 22 mihs N.N.W. of Sueu-hoa.

VOARCHADUMIA, a Idnd of cabala, or enigmatic

art relative to metals, which propofes the exaltation of gold

3 H 2 by

V o c

V o c

by cementations, aiid other methods ; among which, charms
made of the Hebrew letters have their place.

VOBARNO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Benaco ; 5 miles N.W. of Salo.

VOBERGA, or VoBiscA, in Ancient Geography, z town
of Hifpania Citerior, in a hunting country, according to
Martial, 1. i. epig. 52. v. 14.

" Przftabit illic ipfa fingendas prope,
Vobifca prandenti feras."

VOBERNA, or VoBERNUM, a town of Gallia Tranf-
padana, upon the banks of theriver Clufius (the Chicfa).

VOBRIX, a town of Africa, in the interior of Mauri-
tania Tingitana ; now faid to be Lcmpta, in the kingdom of
Fez, with confiderable ruins.

VOCA, a town of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the
Callaici Lucenfes. Ptolemy.

VocA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gaza, and fome
other writers, to the fi(h called ioops by the generality of
writers. It is a fpecies of the fpari, and is diftinguilhed
from the relt by having four longitudinal parallel lines of a
bright yellow and white colour, refembling gold and filver,
on its fides.

VOCABULARY, Vocabularium, formed of mca-
bulum, luord, in Grammar, denotes the collection of the
words of a language, with their fignifications ; otherwifc
called a didionary, lexicon, or nomenclature.

The vocabulary is, properly, a lefs kind of di£lionary,
wliich does not enter fo minutely into the origins, and dif-
ferent acceptations of words. Though the Itahan vocabu-
lary of the Academy de la Crufca feems to be an exception
from this diftinftion, as being a copious and exaft work, in
three volumes folio, faid to liave been forty years in com-
pihng. And the like holds of the Vocabulario Portugucz
of F. Bluteau, in ten volumes folio : in the titles of both thefc
books the word is ufed in a larger fenfe.

VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or fpeech.
Thus, vocal prayer is that which is fpoken out, or deli-
vered in words, in contradiftinftion to mental prayer.

In our ancient cuftoms, vocalis is frequently ufed for fo
called: " poll haec Merganus de tribu Walenfium, &c.
alter nomine Madocus vocihs princeps eorum." Matt.
Pai-is.

Vocal is fometimes alfo ufed fubRantively, in fpeaking
of matters of eleftion, to fignify a perfon who has a right
to vote. Tlius the Romanills fay, a man muft have been a
religious a certain number of years to be vocal.

Vocal Mufc, is mufic fet to words, efpecially verfes,
and to be performed with the voice : in contradiftinAion to
injlrumental mufic, compofed only for inftruments, without
fmging.

Poetry then makes a neceflary part of vocal mufic ; and
this appears to have been the chief, if not the only praAice
of the ancients, from the definitions which they give us of
mufic.

Their vocal mufic feems to have had fome advantage over
ours, in that the Greek and Latin languages were better
contrived to pleafe the ear than the modern ones. In effeft,
Voffius taxes all the later languages as unfit for mufic ; and
fays, " We (hail never have any good vocal mufic till our
poets learn to make verfes on the model of the ancients ;"
i. e. till the ancient metrical feet and quantities are re-
ftored.

But it is to be obferved, that the rhythmus of their vocal
mufic was only that of their poetry, and had no other forms
and mutations than what the metrical art afforded.

Theif changes were no other than from one kind of me-

trum or verfe to another, as from iambic to choraic. See
Measure and Rhythmus.

Their vocal mufic, then, confilted of verfes fet to mufi-
cal tunes, and fung by one or more voices, in chorus, or
alternately ; fometimes with, and fometimes without the ac-
companiments of inftruments.

As for inftrumental mufic, in the manner we have defined
it, it is not very clear that they ever had any. See Sy-
NAULIA, &c.

VOCANUS Acer, in Ancient Geography, a territory of
Africa Propria, in the vicinity of the town of AchoUa, and
of that of Thapfus. Livy.

VOCATES, a people of Gallia Aquitanica, of the
number of thofe who were fubjugated by Craffus, accord-
ing to Cxfar.

VOCATION, Calling, among Divines, the grace or
favour which God does any one in calling him out of the
way of death, and putting him into the way of falvation.

In this fenfe we fay, the •vocation of the Jezvs, the vocation
of the Gentiles, &c. There are two kinds of vocation, the
one external, the other internal. The firft confifts in a fimple
and naked propofing of objefts to the will ; the fecond is
that which renders the firft effeftual, by difpofing our facul-
ties to receive thofe objefts.

Vocation is alfo ufed for a deftination to any ftate or
profeffion. It is a rule that none are to enter the eccle-
fiaftic or monallic ftate, without a particular vocation, or
caU.

The Romanifts hold the vocation of the reformed divines
null and invalid. Among ourfelves, fome hold an uninter-
rupted fucceffion neceflary to the validity of the vocation of
a prieft.

VOCATIVE, in Grammar, the fifth cafe, or ftate of
nouns.

When we name the perfon we are fpeaking to, or addrefs
ourfelves to the thing we are fpeaking of, as if it were a
perfon, the noun or Tiame acquires a new -plation, which the
Latins and Greeks exprefs by a new termination, called the
•vocative.

Thus, of Dominus, Lord, in the nominative, the Latins
liave made Domine, 0 Lord, in the vocative ; of ytntonius,
Antoni, Sic. But as this was a thing not abfolutely necef-
fary, and as the nominative cafe might very well ferve on
fuch occafions, this new cafe, or termination, was not uni-
vcrfal : in the plural, for inftance, it was the fame with the
nominative ; and even in the fingular, it was only praftifed
in the fecond declenfion among the Latins ; and in Greek,
where it is the moft common, it is frequently negletled, and
the nominative ufed inftead of it ; as in that paflage in the
Greek Pfalms, quoted by St. Paul, ypr.»; c-k 0 ©so;, thy
throne, 0 God.

In Enghfti, and moft of the modern tongues, this cafe is
ordinarily exprefted in nouns that have an article in the no-
minative, by fupprelfing that article ; as, the Lord is my
hope. — Lord, thou art my hope! though on many occafions we
ufe an interjeftion.

VOCATORES, among the Romans, were fervants
whofe bufinefs it was to call the guefts, receive them, and
aflign every one a place according to his dignity.

VOCAYAMO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon ; 15 miles N.W. of Meaco.

VOCE Sola, in the Italian Mufic, denotes a piece
compofed for a fingle voice, generally accompar.icd with a
thorough-bafe on the harpfichord or organ, without other
inftruments. But if, befides that it is to be accompanied by
other inftruments, they add, con violini, with viohns ; due
violini, e violoncello, e bajfo per I'organo, i. e. with two violins,
12 a bafe

V O E

V O G

a bafc violin, and a ihorough-bafe oti the orgai) ; con v'tol'mi
a Jlromenti, i. e. with vioUns or inllruments ; parti con,parti
fen%a v'wlin't, i. e. part with, part without violins, &c.

VOCETIUS MoNs, m Jlnciiii! Geography, a mountain
mentioned by Tacitu?, in Helvetia, applicable to a branch
of mount Jura, which approaches the Rhine above Augufta
Rauracorum.

VOCHY, in Botany, Aubl. Giiian. v. i. i8. t. 6.
Poiret in Lam. Dift. v. 8. 68i, the Caribbean name of a
fine tree in Guiana. ( See Cucullaria.) It is fcarcely cre-
dible that JufTieu and Lamarck (hould have attempted to
render the above name admiffible, or have thought they
improved it, by changing it to Vochifia ; Juff. Gen. 424.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 11. The natural order of this genus
remains doubtful.

VOCIFE RATIO, in our old Law-Booh, the fame
with hue and cry.

" — Qui furem plegi turn dimiferit, qui ei obviaverit, et
gratis fine vociferatione dimiferit, &c." Leg. Hen. I.

VOCLADE, in Ancient Geography, a place of Gallia
Aquitanica, belonging to the Pittavii, celebrated by the
defeat of Alaric, flain by Clovis.

VOCOKIURA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
iflandof Ximo ; 33 miles N. of Nangafaki.

VOCONIAN Law, in Roman Antiquity, a teftamentary
law prepared by Q. Voconius, tribune of the people, which
prohibited every citizen from making any woman univerfal
legatee, not excepting an only daugliter, and enjoined a
daughter's fortune, after her father's death, to be propor-
tioned to his eftate, according to the eftimation of prudent
men ; and this proportion was ufually one-fourth of her
father's eftate ; and, moreover, that all the legacies of the
teftator fhould not exceed one half of his eftate. This was
intended as a fupplement to the Furian law ; the time of its
palling is fixed by Cicero, de Scneft. to the year of Rome
584, when Q. Marcius Philippus, and Cn. Servilius Caepio,
were confuls. It was revoked by Auguftus in favour of
Livia, to whom he was refolved to dcvife by will a great
part of his eltate. However, though, by the abrogation of
this law, married women were not reftrained from receiving
any legacies above a certain fum, yet Auguilus beftowed
on fuch women as had vowed perpetual virginity the fame
rewards and privileges as upon mothers.

VOCONTIl, ill Jncienl Geography, a people of Gallia
Narbonncnfis, N. of the Memini. According to Strabo,
they extended thcmfelvcs to the frontier of the AUobrogcs,
in valleys that were deep and difficult of accefs. Mela men-
tions them, and Valio their capital. The Vocontii were go-
verned bv their own peculiar laws. They appear to have
occupied not only tlie diocefes of Vaifon and of Die, but a
part of the diocefe of Gap and of that of Silleron.

VODABLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Puy de Dome ; 4 miles S.W. of Ifloire.
VODANA, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Oman, on the Moiefur ; 40 miles S.W. of Oman.

VODERKAMP, a town of the duchy of Holftein ;
31 miles E. of Lutkenborg.

VODLA, a river of RuHia, whicli runs from lake
Vodlo, and enters lake Onezlkoc, near Fudoga.

VODLITZA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into lake
Ladoga ; 16 miles N.W. of Olonctz.

VODLO, a lake of Rufiia, in the government of Olo-
nctz ; 16 miles N. of Pudoga.

VOECA, in AndrnI Geography, a town of Hifpania Ci-
terior, belonging to tlie Callaici Lucenfes. Ptolemy.

VOEGLARBY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
DalccarUfl ; 17 miles S. of Fahlun.

VOEN, a river of China, which runs into the Hoai, 10
miles E.N.E. of Ngan-kieou, in the province of Chan-
long.

VOERDEN. SeeVoRDEN.

VOET, GiSBERT, in Biography, an eminent Dutch di-
vine, was born at Heufden in the year 1589; and after
having purfued his ftudies at Leyden for fevcn years, and
fuperintending fome churches taken from the Catholics, he
fettled in 1617 in his native place, where he exercifed his
miniftry with exemplary diligence. In 1634 he was ad-
vanced to th? chair of theology and the oriental languages
in the univerfity of Utrecht, and became co-paftor .in one
of the churches. About this time the Cartefian pliilofo-
phy engaged attention, and its progrefs fo alarmed Voet,
that, in 1639, he made a public attack upon its principles,
charging them with an atheiftical tendency ; and in this at-
tack, though Des Cartes defended himfelf with acutenefs,
and not without treating his adverfary with fome degree of
contempt, Voet was fupported by the majority of the
Dutch clergy, and alfo by the States of Holland. Befides
his writings againft Des Cartes, he wrote alfo feveral theo-
logical works ; and continued in the exercife of his various
funftions at Utrecht till his death in 1677, at the advanced
age of eighty-eight years. His fon, Paul Voet, was born
in 1 61 9, and became profefTor of law at Utrecht, where he
publifhed various works in the department of his profeflion.
He died in 1667. John Voet, the fon of Paul, was a
profelTor of law at Leyden, and the author of a highly
valued " Commentary on the Pandefts," 2 vols, folio,
1698 — 1704. He died in 1714. Moreri. Motheim.

VOG, in Commerce, a weight in Denmark, containing
three bifmerpoiids, or thirty-fix pounds.

VOGEL, in Geography, a finall ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea. S. lat. 5° 12'. E. long. 130° 46'. — Alfo, a river
of Auilria, which runs into the Traun, 8 miles S.W. of
Wels.

VocEL Iflands, a clutter of fmall illands near the W.
coaft of Siam. N. lat. 7° 38'. E. long. 98^" 55'.

VOGELIA, in Botany, bears that name, doubtlcfs, in
memory either of Benedict Chriftian Vogel, profefFor at
Altorf, born in 1744, who publiflud in 1768, a fmall aca-
demical elTay, on the Generation of Plants ; or of Rudolph
Auguilin Vogel, profen"or at Gottingen, who died in 1774,
aged 50, having written on the lleep of plants, on the balfam
of Mecca, and on various mineralogic.il fubjefts. — Lamarck
Illuftr. V. I. 376. t. 149. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Mo-
nogynia.

EfT. Ch. Calyx inferior, of five ovate, folded, tranf-
verfely corrugated leaves. Corolla of one petal, tubular,
plaited, five-cleft. Stigma m five capillary fegments.

The figure rcprefents a branched plant, with fmall, al-
ternate, nearly feflile, inverfely heart-fliaped, entire leaves,
each tipped with a fmall point, and dotted on the furface.
Flowers in folitary terminal fpihts near two inches long.
Corolla an inch long. Stamens within the tube, equ.al, ca-
pillary. Germen ovate. Style capillary. — The letter-prcls
of Lamarck's work has not extended to this, liis 4C5th
genus, except fo far as to give its eftl'ntial charafter, nor
do we find any traces of Vogelia in his or Poiret's part
of their Diftionary. We are therefore in the dark as to
the number of fpecies of this genus, its native country, or
any other particular in its hiftory. The plate above quoted
is in Plumier's ftyle.

{■'ogelia is alfo a fynonymn of Tiuptehella ; fee that
article.

VOGELSANG, in Grograbhy, a town of Pruflia, on
the Frifch Nerunrr- ; 13 miUs N. of Elbing.

VOGESUiJ,

V O G

V O G

VOGESUS, or VosEGUS, Mons, in Ancient Geography, Kis advertifement in Holland, concerning an organ of
a chain of mountains, which commenced on the confines of his own conftriiftion, which he denominated an orchejlrior..

the Lingones ; and after having covered the northern part
of the country of the Sequani, prolonged itfelf towards
the N., between the Leuci and Mediomatreci on one fide,
and the Triboci and Nemetes on the other.

VOGHERA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Pavefe ; i 2 miles S. of Pavia

furpaffes the marvellous of all the magnificent mufical pro-
mifes that we remember.

" The abbe Vogler, dircftor of the Royal Academy of
Mufic to his Swedifh majtlly, has conllrufted, after his own
invention and defign, (and at his own cxpence,) an organ
with four rows of keys, fixty-three ftops, thirty-nine pedals.

VOGIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in and three fwells, with proper refources to modify the found :

the interior of Boetica, belonging to the Turduli. Ptol.

VOGLABRUCK, in Geography, a town of Aufliia,
on the river Vogel. This place enjoys the privilege of
granting proteftion to all (laves, and its burghers and mer-
chants, together with their wares, are toll free throughout
all the Aullrian countries; 27 miles S.S.E. of Paflau. N.
lat. 48=1'. E. long. 13° 35'.

VOGLAMARCK, a town of Auftria ; 3 miles S.W.
of Voglabruck.

VOGLER, George Joseph, the Abbe, in Biography,
honoured by the pope with the order of the Speron d'oro,
or golden fpur, was born at Murzburg in 1749. He llu-
died compofition at Padua under Padre Valotti, and became
early in his life a very learned and ingenious praAical mu-
fician. He travelled all over Europe, exhibiting in almoft
every capital and great city his talents on the organ, an in-
ftrument which he had made his pecuhar ftudy, particularly
in the ufe of the pedals, and in producing new cffefts by
the crefcendo and diminuendo, not by the ufual method of
a common fwell with pipes inclofed in a particular clieft,
but by boxing up the whole inilrument, and increafing and
diminifliing the tone, not only of fingle ftops, but of the
entire chorus or full organ.

In 1776, he opened a mufic-fchool at Manheim, for
organ-playing, for the harpfichord, and for compofition.
Ill 1780 he began his travels, went to Paris, performed to
the king, queen, and royal family at Verfailles, compofed
operas, and had feveral of his choral compofitions performed
at the concert fpirituel. In 1786 he was appointed maeftro
di capella to the king of Sweden at Stockholm. But in
1790, after vifi ting Denmark, Germany, and Holland, he
arrived in London, where he had pedals put to the organ in
the Pantheon, before that beautiful building was burned
down, and a general fwell contrived for the whole intlru

of which the firft opens and flints the general cafe of the
pipes ; the fecond, which is a pneumatic moafure, llops the
wind ; the third divides and reunites the refources propor-
tionably to the harmonic progreffion. The breadth, height,
and depth of this organ is nine feet ; the temperament of it
is beyond conception exaft. With refpeft to the body of
tone, when in full chorus, it is equal to a church organ of
fixteen feet. In depth of found, it furpaffes thofe of thirty-
two feet ; in fweetnefs, the armonica. Its crefcendo governs all
it plays ; its diminuendo is qualified by the moll minute gra-
dations ; and with refpeft to variety, the connoiffeurs have
declared, that a concert given by the abbe on his orchejlrion,
being a combination of all the inftruraents in Europe, and
the refult of thirty years' travelling, is the utmoft extent
of perfedlion poffible in the art of playing and cor.ftruding
oi"gans."

His theoretical works are the following: i. The Know-
ledge of Harmony, and its Ufe in Concert, Manheim, 1776,
8vo. 2. The Tuning Art, or Syilem of Temperament.
3. His Courfe of Lectures delivered in his Harmonic School
during three years. 4. A praftical work for the Catholic
church, entitled " Paradigma Modorum Ecclefiailicarum."
5. Ecce Panis, Chorus. 6. German Mafs for the Organ.
7. Sufcipit Ifrael, compofed for the Concert Spirituel at
Paris. 8. Four-part Fugues, upon the Stabat Mater of
Pergolefi. 9. Pfalmum Miierere decantandus 4 Vocib. cum
Organ, et Baffis. S.D. Pio VI. pontifici compofitus. Spire.
10. Vefpers Chorales. Spire. For the theatre, The Mer-
chant of Smyrna, an operette ; and fix more operas, ferious
and comic, to French words, at Paris. And works for
the organ and piano forte, publi.'hed throughout Europe,
innumerable.

We beheve that this aftive and indefatigable mufician has
at length become ftationary in Denmark, and in the capital

ment ; and in a feries of morning performances on that or- of that kingdom has been fome time projefting new plans for

gan, ftiewed his dexterity in the ufe of the pedals, not only the cultivation and improvement of mufic as a fcience, as

in the crefcendo and diminuendo, but in innumerable imitations, well as a liberal and praAical art.
many of which were thought imaginary, and but for the VOGOGNA, in Geography. See Ugogna.
ample promifes and defcription in his bills of fare, would VOGTLAND, a country included in the kingdom of

perhaps not have been difcovered. Saxony, Ctuated between the territory of Erzgebirg, Bo-

The fcience of this extraordinary mufician was thought hernia, the electorate of Saxony, and the principality of

by fome to degenerate into pedantry, and the fplendid pro- Culmbach. It is very hilly, and abounds in woods, but

niifes in his advertifements to border on charlelanerie ; fo the former cannot be faid to be altogether unfruitful, as

that his fuccefs was not equal in our country to his real producing either trees and plan's, or being improved by

merit. Had he promifed and attempted lefs, the public tillage. In fome parts likewife they yield copper, iron,

would have been more juft and even generous in the eftima- lead, and filver, with other minerals, fuch as alum. Here

tiou of his talents ; but having injudicioufly promifed feem- is alfo no want of any kind of pri)vifi»ns ; the fields afford-

ing impoffibilities, what was poffible, and what he really did
perform, was fnllenly heard with an unwillingnefs to be
pleafed. What he really did achieve was often uncommon
and well deferving of appLaufe, though perhaps not fo much
as he expefted.

His publications in different parts of Europe are innu-
merable ; but thofe in theory favour fo much of the mar-
vellous, that, on the continent, they are become proverbial.
So that when any thing extraordinaiy in mufic was propofed
or advertifed, muficians ufed to cry out, oh ! this is a la
Fogler!

ing grain and efculent herbs ; the fine pattures in the valleys
droves of excellent cattle, the woods plenty of venilon and
game, and the waters a variety of fiffi. The principal
rivers are the Elder and the Saal. The name of Vogtland
iignifies the country poffeffed by the ancient advocates of
the empire, who were predeceffors to the prefeiit counts of
Reuffen. But the counts of Reuffen at prefent enjoy only
a part of it. The greateil part of this country belongs to
the eleftoral houfe of Saxony. The margraves of Bran-
denburg Culmbach are poffeffed of the lordftiip of Hof,
and the lordffiip of Ronneburg is vefted in the houfe of

1 Saxo

V O I

Saxe Gotha. What the name and dignity of a vogt im-
ported in thofc ancient vogts of the empire is not yet agreed
among the learned. One of the moft probable conjeftures
is, that this dignity of a vogt was an hereditary office be-
longing to the empire, and the vogts themfelves fubordinate
to the palatine of the Rhine, as arch-vogt of the empire.
No lefs uncertainty exiils concerning the epocha of this title,
though it appears to have been ufed in the ilth century,
the ancient Itatutes of the town of Weyda having been
given to it in the year IC27, by Henry, vogt of Weyda.
Towards tlie middle of tiie 14th century this title was dif-
continued.

VOGULES, a tribe or nation of Finns, who inhabit
the wellern, and, in a greater degree, the eaftern part of the
northern Ural, and nomadize chiefly about the rivers which
unite with tlie Irty{h and the Oby to the Frozen ocean, or
with the Kama and the Volga into the Cafpian, and there-
fore piincipally in the governments of Perma and Tobolfl< :
they call themfelves Voguli, or according to M. Georgi
Manfi, and are denommated by the Ruffians VoguHtlchi.
They allege their traditions m evidence of their having
always refided where they are now found : and they came
under the Ruffian fovereignty previoully to the conqucll of
Siberia, at which time they were fo brave and warlike, that
they were with difficulty fubdued. For fome time they
were thought to be the fame with the Olliaks ; but in exift-
ing documents, which are more than 300 years old, they
are fpecified as a diltiniSt nation. All the ftems of the Vo-
gules, difperfed in various diftridls, taken colledUvcly, com-
pofe a numerous nation, of unafcertained population. The
Vogules nomadizing in the circle of Tfcherdyn, in the go-
vernment of Perma, amounted in the year 1783 to no more
than 1 1 1 pcrfons, compohng nine families, and fo nearly
related in confanguinity, that they were obliged to fetch

women to be their wives from other races. Tooke's Ruffia,

vol. i.

VOHBURG, a town of Bavaria; 10 miles E. of In-

goldlladt.

VOHEMARO Bay, a bay on the illand of Madagaf-

car. S. lat. 12=25'. E. long. 51° 8'.

VOHENSTRAUS, or Fohenstraus, a town of Ba-
varia, in the principality of Sulzbach ; 8 miles E. of

Weiden.

VOHIRIA, in Botany, Juff. Gen. 141, a barbarous

name, altered, if not improved, from Aublet's Voyria. See

JLlTA.

VOHL, or VoMl.n, in Geography, a town of Heffe
CaiTel ; 5 miles W. of VValdeck.

VOHLENBACH, a river which runs into the Lau-
chart, 2 miles N. of Voringen, in the principallity of Ho-
hen/.oUern.

VOICE, Vox, in Phyfwlogy, a found produced in the
throat and mouth of an animal, by an apparatus of inllru-
ments for that purpofe : or, it is the found produced by
the paflage of the air through the rima glottidis of the
larynx.

Voices are cither articulate or Inarticulate.

Voices, Articulate, are thofe of which leveral confpire
together to form fome affi;mblagc, or little fyllem of fo\inds.
Such are the voices cxpreffing the letters of an alphabet,
numbers of which, joined together, form words.

VoiCKs, Inarticulate, are fiich as are not organized, or
afTembled into words ; fiich is the barking of dogs, the
braying of affi'S, the luffing of ferpents, the finging of
birds, &c.

The formation of the human voice, with all its varieties
obfcrvcd in fpecch, mufic, &c. makes a very curious article

V O I

of invefligation ; and the apparatus and organifm of thf.
vocal parts which contribute to the formation of mufical
tones, conllitute a very complicated and furprifing anatomi-
cal article of enquiry.

The ftrufture and mechanifm of the larynx adapted to
this purpofe are defcribed under Lakvnx ; which fee. But
as the fubjcft is curious and important, we fhall here refume
it, and furuilh the reader with a connefted detail of fome
obfervations, that may ferve farther to elucidate this opera-
tion of nature. The human voice depends principally on
the vibrations of the membranes of the glottis, excited by
a current of air, which they alternately interrupt and fuffer
to pafs ; the founds being alfo modified in their fubfequent
progrefs through the mouth. The parts fubfervient to the
formation of found are, the trachea, or wind-pipe, through
which the air palTes and repaflies into the lungs ; and which
ferves, as it were, for a bellows ; the larynx, which is a
(hort cylindrical canal, at the head of the trachea, particu-
larly defcribed, with its cartilages, &c. under that article ;
and the glottis, which is a little oval cleft, or chink, ovec
which the epiglottis inclines backwards, as it afcends from
its origin at the upper part of the thyroid cartilage. Within
the glottis are extended its ligaments, contiguous to each
other before, where they are inferted into the thyroid carti-
lage, and capable of diverging confiderably behind when-
ever the aretynoid cartilages feparate. Thefe ligaments, as
they vary their tendon, in confequence of the motions of
the aretynoid cartilages, are fufceptible of vibrations of
various frequency, and as they vibrate, produce a continuous
found. Properly fpeaking, there are two ligaments on each
fide ; but this mode of operation is not fully underflood ;
probably one pair only performs the vibrations, and the
other affifts, by means of the little cavity interpofed, in
enabling the air to aft readily on them, and in communi-
cating the vibrations again to the air.

Thclong canal of the trachea, terminated at the top
with the glottis, appears fo like a flute, that the ancierts
made no doubt but the trachea contributed the fame to the
voice, as the body of the flute does to the found of that in-
flrument. Galen himfelf fell, in fome meafure, into the
miflake : he perceived, indeed, that the principal organ of
voice was the glottis ; but he flill allowed the trachea acon-
fiderable fliare in the produftion of found.

Galen's opinion was followed by all the ancients after
him, and even by all the moderns, before M. Dodart. But
that author obferves, that we do not either fpeak or fing,
when we infpire, or take in the air, but only when we ex-
pire, or expel it ; and that the air, coming out of the lungs,
paffes always out of the minuter veficlcs of that part into
larger ; and at laft into the trachea itfelf, which is the
largcil of all : that thus its patfage becoming Itill more free
and eafy, and this more than ever in the trachea, it can
never undergo fuch a violence, and acquire fuch a velocity
in that canal, as is required to the jiroduftion of found ;
but that, as the aperture of the glottis is very fmall, iit
comparifon with the width of the traciiea, the air can never
get out of the trachea by the glottis, without a vail con.-
preffion, and augmentation of its velocity ; and that, by
this means, in paffing, it communicates a bride agitation, to
the minute parts of the two lips of the glottis, and gives
them a kind of fpring, and occafions them to make vibra-
tions ; which, communicated to the paffing air, arc \\h;.t
really occalion the found.

Tiiis found, thus formed, proceeds into the cavity of iho
mouth and nollriis, where it is refledU-d and refounds ; anil
on this refonance, M. Dodart fliews, it is, that tha agree-
ablcnefs of the voice entirely depends. The different con,

fiflcncits,

VOICE.

fiftencies, forms, 5:c. of the divers parts of the mouth,
contribute to the refonance, each in their way ; and from
this mixture of fo many different refonances in their due
proportion, there refults a melody in the human voice f jpe-
rior and more affefting than it is in the power of the greatefl
mufician to equal upon inftruments. Hence it is, that
when any of thefe parts are difordered, e. gr. when the nofe
is Hopped, the voice becomes difpleafing.

The refonance in the cavity of the mouth does not feem
to confift ill a fimple refleftion, luch as that of a vault, &c.
but in a refonance proportionate to the tones of the found
fent into the mouth from the glottis ; and, accordingly,
we find this cavity to lengthen and (horten itfelf, according
to the depth, or acutenefs, of the tone.

Now, for the trachea to effeft this refonance, as it was
the common opinion it did, it would be required, that the
air, after its being modified, and turned into found, by the
glottis, inftead of continuing its courfe from within out-
wards, (hould return from without inwards, and thus ftrike
on the fide of the trachea ; which can never happen, except
in thofe who have a violent cough, and in ventriloquous per-
fons. Indeed, ;n moft river-fowl, which have a very (Irong
voice, the trachea does refound ; but the reafon is, that
in them the glottis is placed at the bottom of the trachea, and
not at the top, as in men.

The canal, then, which at firft parted for the principal
organ of voice, is now found not to be fo much as the fe-
condary one, i. e. not that which occafions the refonance.
It does not ferve the glottis, as the body of the flute does
its plug ; but, inftead of that, the mouth ferves the glottis,
as the body of fome other wind-inftrument not yet known
in mufic. In effeft, the ofBce of the trachea is no other
than that of the port-vent in an organ ; w'x.. to furnifli
wind.

The vowels and femivowels are •ontinuous founds, chiefly
formed by this apparatus in the glottis, and modified either
in their origin or in their progrefs by the various arrange-
ments of the different parts of the mouth. Of fimple
vowels, fixteen or eighteen may be enumerated in different
languages : in the French nafal vowels, the found is in part
tranfmitted through the noftrils, by means of the depreffion
of the foft palate : the perfeft femivowels differ from the
vowels only in the greater refiftance which the air under-
goes in its paffage through the mouth ; there are alfo nafal
and feminafal femivowels. The perfeA confonants may be
either explofive, fufurrant, or nmte ; the explofive confo-
nants begin or end with a found formed in the larynx, the
others are either whifpers, or mere noifes, without any vocal
found. By attending to the various pofitions of the organ,
and by making experiments on the effedls of pipes of dif-
ferent forms, it is poffible to conftruft a machine which
fliall imitate very accurately many of the founds of the hu-
man voice ; and this has indeed been adlually performed by
Kratzenftein and by Kempelen.

A kind of experimental analyfis of the voice may be thus
exhibited. By drawing in the breath, and at the fame time
properly contrafting the larynx, a flow vibration of the li-
gaments of the glottis may be produced, making a diftinft
choking found : upon ii'.creafing the tenfion, and the velo-
city of the breath, this chcking is loft, and the found be-
comes continuous, but of an extremely grave pitch : it may,
by a good ear, be diftinguiflied two oftaves below the lowell
A of a common bafc voice, confifting in that cafe of about
twenty-fix vibrations in a fccond. The fame found may be
raifed nearly to the pitch of the common voice ; but it is
never fmooth and clear, except perhaps in fome of thofe
perfons called ventriloquifts. When the pitch is raifed ftill

higher, the upper orifice of the larynx, formed by the futn-
mits of the aretynoid cartilages and the epiglottis, feems
to fuccecd to the office of the hgaments of the glottis, and
to produce a retrograde falfetto, which is capable of a Tety
great degree of acutenefs. The fame difference probably
takes place between the natural voice and the common fal-
fetto : the rimula glottidis being too long to admit of a
fufficient degree of tenfion for very acute founds, either the
upper orifice of the larj-nx fuppHes its place, or fome
other fimilar change is produced ; hence, taking a note
within the compafs of either voice, it may be held, with
the fame expence of air, two or three times as long in a
falfetto as in a natural voice ; hence, too, arifes the diffi-
culty of paffmg fmoothly from the one voice to the other.
It has been remarked, that the larynx is always elevated
when the found io acute : but this elevation is only necef-
fary in rapid tranfitions, as in a (hake ; and then probably
becaufe, by the contraftion of the capacity of the trachea,
an increafe of the preffure of the breath can be more
rapidly affefted this way, than by the aftion of the abdo-
minal mufcles alone. The refieftion of the found, thus
produced from the various parts of the cavity of the mouth
and noftrils, mixing at various intervals with the portions of
the vibrations direftly proceeding from the larynx, muft,
according to the temporary form of the parts, varioufly
affeft the laws of the motion of the air in each vibration ;
or, according to Euler's expreflion, the equation of the
curve conceived to correfpond with this motion, and thus
produce the various charafters of the vowels and femi-
vowels. The principal founding-board feems to be the
bony palate : the nofe, except in nafal letters, affords but
little refonance ; for the nafal paffage may be clofed, by
applying the finger to the foft palate, without much alter-
ing the found of vowels not nafal. A good ear may dif-
tinftly obferve, efpecially in a loud bafe voice, beCdes the
fundamental note, at leaft four harmonic founds, in the
order of the natural numbers ; and, the more reedy the tone
of the voice, the more eafily they are h-'ard. Faint as they
are, their origin is by no means eafy to be expL.ined. This
obfervation is precilely confirmed, in a late differtation of
M. Knecht, pubhfhed in the mufical newfpaper of Leipfic.
Perhaps, by a clofe attention to the harmonics entering into
the conftitution of various founds, more may be done in
their analyfis than could otherwife be expedled. Young's
Philofophy, vols. i. and ii.

Voice, For the Cauje of the different Tones of. As the
organs that form the voice make a kind of wind-inftrument,
we might expeft to find in this inftrument fome provifioii
anfwerable to that which produces the differences of tones
in fome other wind-inftruments. The tone, therefore, muft
be attributed either to the mouth and noftrils, which occa-
fion the refonance, or to the glottis, which produces the
found ; and as all the different tones are produced in man
by the fame inftrument, it follows, that the part which pro-
duces them, muft be capable of fimilar inftrumental changes.
Now, for a grave tone, we know there is more air re-
quired than for an acute one. The trachea, therefore, to
let this gre.iter quantity pafs, muft dilate and (horten itfelf ;
by which (hortening, the external canal, that is, the canal
of the mouth and nofe, reckoned from the glottis to the
lips, or noftrils, is lengthened. For, the (hortening of the
internal canal, t. e. of the trachea, brings the larynx and
glottis lower down ; and, of confequence, makes its dif-
tance from the mouth, &c. greater ; and there is a change
in the length of each canal, for every change of tone and
femitone. Accordingly, it is eafy to obferve, that the knot
of the larynx alternately rifes and falls in all divifions,

fhakes,

\

VOICE.

fhakos, or rapid changes of intervals in finging, however
fmall may be the difference of tone.

Hence, as the depth of the tone of an hautboi? is anfwer-
able to the length of the inllrumcnt ; the longelt fibres of
the wood, whofe vibrations make the refonance, making
always the floweft vibrations, and confequcntly the deepeft
tone, it may appear probable, that the concavity of the
mouth, by its lengthening for grave tones, and fhortening
for acute ones, might lerve very well for the production of
the divers tones ; but M. Dodart obferves, that in the ilop
of the organ called the human voice, the longeft pipe is fix
inches ; and yet, with all that length, it does not make any
difference of tone ; but the tone of the pipe is precifely that
of the plug : whereas tlie concavity of the mouth of a man
of the graved voice, not being above fii: inches deep, it is
evident that cannot modify, vary, and give the tone.

It is the glottis, then, that forms the tone, as well as the
found ; and the manner of forming the various tones is by
Tarying its aperture : a piece of mechanifm too admirable
not to be here particularly inquired into.

The human glottis, then, reprefented in Plate XXIV.
Mifcellany, fig. 9. is only capable of one proper motion ;
viz. that of an approach of its hps A D B, and A D B.
Accordingly, the dotted Unes A E B, A F B, A G B,
exhibit three different degrees of approach. Thefe different
apertures of the glottis anatomifts ufually attribute to the
aAion of the mufcles of the larynx ; but M. Dodart fficws,
from their pofition, direction, &c. that they have other
ufes ; and that the opening and fhutting of the glottis is
effeded by other means, wz. by two tendinous corda, or
firings, inclofed in the two lips of that aperture.

In effeft, each of the two femicircular membranes, whofe
interftice forms the glottis, is doubled back upon itfelf ;
and within each duplicature there is a corcI, or firing, which
is fattened at one end of the fore-part of the larynx, and to
the hind-p<urt at the other. It is true, they appear more
like ligaments than mufcles, as confifling of white and mem-
branous fibres, not of red and flefliy ones ; but the vaft
number of minute changes in this aperture neceffary to form
the vaft. variety of tones, make an extraordinary kind of
mufcle, by whofe contraftion they fhould be effeAed, ab-
folutely neceffary. Common flefhy fibres, in which the
blood is received in large quantity, had been infinitely loo
coarfe for fuch delicate motions.

Thefe ftrnigs, which, in their ftate of relaxation, make
each a little arc of an ellipfis, as they contrail more and
more, become longer, but lefs and Icfs curve ; and at lalt,
with the greateft, contraflion they are capable of, they de-
generate into two right lines, applied clofe to each other ;
io clofe, and fo firm, that an atom of air cannot efcape out
of the lungs, how full foever they may be, and how great
an effort foever all the mufcles of the lower venter may make
againft the diaphragm, and, by the diaphragm, againil tUefe
two little mufcles.

The different apertures of the lips of the glottis, then,
produce all the diftiTcnt tones in the fcveral vocal parts of
mufic ; "Ufz,. bafe, barilono, tenor, eounlcr-tcnor, and trebles ;
and the manner is thus :

The voice, we have fliewn, can only be formed by the
glottis ; but the tones of the voice arc modifications of the
voice ; and thefe can only be produced by the modifications
of the glottis. Now the glottis is only capable of one modi-
fication, which is tlie mutual appro.ich, or recefs of its lips :
H is this, therefore, that produces the different tones. Now
that modification includes two circumilances ; the firft and
principal is, that the lips are ftrotched more and moic, from

Vol. XXXVII.

the lowed tone to the highed ; the fecond is, that the more
they are dretched, the nearer they approach.

From the fird it follows, that their vibrations will be fo
much the quicker, as they come nearer their highed tone ;
and that the voice will be jud, when the two lips are equally
dretched ; and falfe, when they are unequally ; which agree*
perfeftly well with the nature of dringedinilruments.

From the fecond it follows, that the higher the tones are,
the nearer will they approach to each other ; which agrees
perfeftly well with wind-indruments governed by reeds or
pluffs.

The decrees of tenfion of the lips are the fird and prin-
cipal caufe of tones ; but their differences are infcnfible.
The degrees of approach are only confequences of that ten-
fion ; but their differences are more eafily afligned. '

To give a precife idea of the thing, therefore, we had
bed keep to that, and fay, that this modification confids in
a tenfion, from whence refults a very numerous fubdivifion
of a very fmall interval : which yet, fmall as it is, is capable,
phyfically fpeaking, of being fubdivided infinitely.

The doftrine is confirmed from the different apertures
found in diffefting perfons of different ages, of both fexes.
The aperture is lefs, and the exterior canal always diallower,
in the fex and ages fitted to fing treble. Add, that the
reed of a hautbois, feparated from the body of the inftru-
ment, being a little preifed between the lips, will yield a
tone fomewhat higher than its natural one ; and if prcffed
dill more, will yield another dill higher : and thus an able
mufician may run fucceflively through all the tones and femi-
tones of an oftave. They are different apertures, then, that
produce, ov, at lead, that accompany, different tones, both
in natural wind-inffruments and artificial ones ; and the di-
minution of the aperture raifes the tones both of the glottis,
and the reed.

The reafon why leffening the aperture heightens tlie tone
is, that the wind pafles througli it with the greater velocity j
and from the fame cauie li io, that if any reed or plug, of
an indrument, be too weakly blown, its tone will be lower
than ordinary.

Indeed the contradions and dilatations of the glottis muft
be infinitely delicate : by an exaft calculation of the iiv
genious autlior above-mentioned, it appears, that to per-
form all the tones and femitones of a common voice, which
is computed to reach twelve tones ; to perform all the par-
ticles and fubdivifions of thofe tones into commas, and other
minuter, though dill fenfible parts ; to perform all tht
diakes, or the difkiLnces in a tone when founded more or
lefs drong, withoi.l changing the tone ; the little diameter
of the glottis, which does not exceed one-tenth of an inch,
but wiiich varies within that extent at every change, muft
be aftually divided into 9632 parts ; which parts arc yet
very unequal, and, therefore, many of them much lefs than
the .,r^v, .nth part of an inch: a delicacy fcarcely to be
matched by any thing but a good ear, which has fo juft a
fenfe of found, as, naked, to perceive diftcrencca in all
thefe tones ; even thofe whofe origin is much lefs than the
963200111 part of an inch.

With refpeA to tlje organ of voice, Rouffcaii. in 176^,
when he publidicd his Mufical DiAionarv, was able to find
no more fatisfaftory account than that which he has given
from Duclos and Dodart ; nor have we fincc been able to
find that any further progrefs has been made into this my(-
tery of nature. We have converfed with the late I>r.
William Hunter, .ind his brother, the great anatomid, Mr.
.lohn Hunter, on the fubjed, who agreed that there was no
work of nature more fubtile and iiiexplicible than lj:e form-.
3 I M0<\

VOICE.

ation of a fine mufical voice ; and agreed, that it was im-
pofiible, from any external appearance or diffeftion, to
difcover the leall difference in the vocal organ gf an indi-
vidual who had been poffcffcd of a fine voice, and of one
who had no voice at all, but for fpeech ; of a voice of
high pitch or low ; of a voice of extenfive or coiitrafted
compafs.

The great Haller combated the fyilem of Dodart, and
gave a very fcientific and anatomical theory of his own ; but
not more intelligible and fatisfaftory to common readers
than that of Dodart.

Buffon was of opinion, that thofc who fung out of tune
heard better with one ear than the other ; that thofe who
fang in falfet clofed the larynx, and narrowed the paflage
of the voice ; by which means oftavcs were produced, as in
the flute and hautbois, by blowing with more force for the
high notes than the low, with the fame ventages open or
clofed.

The falfet voice is literally voce da tejla, and formed in
the throat ; never like the notes formed in the cheft, called
•ance di petto.

This fubjeft, one of the mod curious in phyfiology, has
tempted us to extend the article bevond our intention or
ufual liiViits : we mull not yet, liovvevcr, quit the fubjeft.

The organ of voice had been always regarded by ana-
tomifts and natural philofophers as a wind-inftrumcnt, till
the time of M. Ferrein, wlio, in 1 741, prefented a memoir
to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, to prove it to be a
ftringed inftrument, played on by the wind, which fcrves as
a bow. An aUulion, however, to the jEohan harp would
have been more happy, than to a viohn. The ^olian harp
(fee tEolus'j Harp) was well'known in England about this
time. An idea of it, too, might have been feen in Kircher's
Mufurgia, quoted by M. Ferrein for other purpofes ; and it
was thence tliat Thomfon the poet took it, who wrote an
ode on this aerial inftrument, which was fet to mufic, and
performed at a morning concert at vifcountefs Townfhcnd's,
mother of the prcfent marquis. The ode is in Dodfley's
ColleiSiion, and in Thomfon's Works. Ofwald, the cele-
brated player of old Scots tunes on the violoncello, and
compofer of many new, paffed for the inventor of the
^olian harp ; but as he was unable to read the account of
it in the Mufurgia, written in Latin, Thomfon gave him
the defcription of it in Enghfti, and let it pafs for his in-
vention, in order to give him a better title to the fale of the
inftrument at his mulic-(hop in St. Martin's Church-yard.

M. Ferrein was of opinion, that there are ftrings in the lips
of the glottis, capable of lengthening and fhortening, and
vibrating and founding, like thofc of ftringed inftruments.
His opinion furprifes at firft, and feems paradoxical ; but
he has fupported it by experiments, which cannot eafily be
eluded. According to him, the organ of voice is at once a
ftringed and a wind-inftrument. The air which comes from
the lungs, and which paftes through the glottis, performing
the office of a bow upon the tendinous fibres of its lips, M.
Ferrein calls vocal Jlrlngs or ribands of the glottis. By the
violent collifion of the air againft thefe vocal ftnngs, they
are put in motion ; and it is by their quick and flow vibra-
tions that they produce tones differing in gravity and acute-
nefs, in proportion as they are more or lefs extended, ac-
cording to the common and well-known laws of ftringed
inftruments.

M. Ferrein has made a thoufand experiments before the
Academy, and individuals, in confirmation of his doftrine,
as well upon the human fubjeft as upon different animals.
He took the trachea arleria from the dead body of a man

deftined for diffeftion, with his larynx, and blew into the
traihea, holding at the fame time the ribands, as he calls
them, of the glottis lengthened or {liortened, and the human
voice was heard to rife or fall in tone, or remain ftationary,
in proportion to thefe circumftances.

And it is very remarkable, that, contrary to the ex-
peftation of M. Ferrein, the different voices produced, in
the courfe of thefe experiments, were fo like thofe of the
particular animals upon whofe organs they were made, thai
they were always to be difcovered and diftinguiflied one
from the otlier. The roaring of a bull, the cry of a dog in
pain, &c. were conftantly dilcoverable, notwithftanding the
want of innumerable parts ufed in modifying thefe founds in
Hving animals, fuch as the palate, the teeth, hps, &c. The
larynx torn from the animal was ufually mutilated, and
fometimes without the epiglottis, as well as all the bits of
cartilages furrounding or covering the glottis and vocal
ftrings, which were removed in order to exhibit more plainly
the vifible play and vibrations of thefe ftrings ; and not-
withftanding all thefe defefts, the voice of each animal pre-
ferved almoft every peculiarity of found which diftinguifhes
it from that of other animals.

M. Ferrein fays, that the neceffary tenfion, or lengthen-
ing and fliortcning of the vocal ftrings, for the purpofe of
forming the whole extent of the human voice, is not above
two or three lines, or twelfth parts of an inch.

In common ftringed inftruments, lengthening a ftring
makes it flatter, or of a tone more grave ; and fliortening it
has a contrary effeft : but with refpeft to thefe vocal ftrings
it is quite different ; for they are rendered more acute by
being lengthened, as at the fame time their tenfion is in-
creafed.

Many have gone through M. Fcrrein's experiments with
fuccefs ; though Haller iays that he himfelf was not fo
happy, not having been able to produce different voices of
animals, as others had done, by blowing on the ribands.
(Sec Elogc de M. Ferrein, in the Hift. de I'Acad. Royal
des Scienres for the year 1769, pubUftied 1772, p. 15.)
M. Ferrein was a phyfician and profeffor of anatomy and
furgery, who died at Paris in 1769.

If a pipe could be formed to reiemble the vocal organ, as
defcribed by M. Ferrein, we might hope for a true and
exaft imitation of the human voice, which has never yet
been attained, owing perhaps to the miftaken notion of the
voice being a kind of flute or mere wind-inftrument.

Voice, in Grammar, is a circumftance in verbs, by which
they come to be confidered as either aftive or pafiive, i. e,
either as expreffing an aftion impreffed on another fubjeft ;
as, / beat : or receiving it from another ; as, / am beaten.

The Greeks have a third voice, called medial, becaufe it
has fometimes an aftive, and fometimes a paflive fignifica-
tion.

Voice, in matters of eleftion, denotes a vote, or fiiff rage.
In this fenfe, a man is faid to have a deliberative voice, when
he has a right to give his advice and opinion in a matter of
debate, and his fuffrage is taken ; an aflive voice, when he
gives his vote for the eleftion of any one ; and a pajfive
voice, when the fuffrages may fall on liimfelf to be elefted ;
an excitative voice, when he may aft to procure another to
be elefted ; a confultative voice, when he can only offer rea-
fons and remonftrances, on which the chief, or head, deter-
mines at his own difcretion : fuch the cardinals have, with
regard to the pope ; and the mafters in chancery, with re-
gard to the lord chancellor, &c.

Voice, in Oratory, is one of the parts of pronunciation,
upon the proper regulation of which much of the orator's

fuccefs

VOICE.

fuccefs depends. For this purpofe it will be right to ob-
ferve, in general, what nature does, when free and uncon-
ftrained. As perfons are differently affefted when they
fpeak, fo they naturally alter the tone of their voice : it
rifes, finks, and has various inflexions given it, according
to the prefent ftate and difpofition of the mind. When the
mind is calm and fedate, the voice is moderate and even ;
when the former is dejeCled with forrow, the latter is lan-
guid ; and when that is inflamed by paffion, this is raifed
and elevated. It is the orator's bufinefs, therefore, to
follow nature, and to endeavour that the tone of his voice
appear natural and unafFeftcd : and for this end, he niull
take care to fuit it to the nature of the fubjeft ; but ftill fo
as to be always grave and decent.

The principal affeftions or properties of the voice may be
referred either to quantity or quality. The quantity of the
voice confifts in its highnefs or lowncfs, fwiftnefs or flow-
ncfs, and the intermediate degrees between them. Every
perfon who fpeaks in public ihould endeavour, if he can, to
till the place where he fpeaks, without exceeding the natural
key of his voice ; in wliich cafe it will be either harfh and
rough, or too fhrill and fqueaking ; nor will he be able to
give every fyllable its full and diftinft found, and to inflefl
i: properly. He fliould alfo take care, that it does not
fink too low, which will give him pain to raife it again to
its proper pitch, and be no lefs offenfive to the hearers.
The lall word of a fentence ought, in a particular manner,
to be exprefied diflinftly, becaufe the meaning of the whole
fentence often depends upon it. The medium between thefe
two is a moderate and even voice, which every perfon mull
regulate by the natural key of his own voice. But this
equality of voice muft be accompanied wifh a variety of in-
flexions and changes within the fame pitch ; and the grada-
tions, whether higher or lower, mull be gentle and regular ;
the voice moving from one key to another, fo as rather to
glide like a gentle fl;ream than pour down like a rapid tor-
rent ; and the degree of thefe itiflexions and various tones
of voice fliould differ according to the nature of the fubjeft,
and defign of the fpeaker.

The next property of the voice is fwiftnefs ; and with
regard to this, care (hould be taken to avoid the two ex-
tremes of hurrying precipitately without paufing, which
deftroys not only the necelfary diftindlion between fentence
and fentence, but likewife between the feveral words of the
fame fentence ; and of fpeaking fo flowly, as to argue a
heavinefs in the fpeaker, and to render the difcourfe flat and
lifelcfs.

In order to avoid both thefe extremes, the voice ought
to be fedate and diRinft ; for w!;ich purpofe it is ncccffary,
not only that each word and fyllable fhould have its full and
juft four.d, both as to time and accent, but likev\>ife that
every fentence, and part of a fentence, fhould be feparated
by its proper paufe and interval. See Pause.

Thofe properties of the voice, that refpedl its qualities.,
are chiefly llrength or weaknefs, clearnels or obfturcncfs,
fuUnefs or fmallnefs, fmoolhnefs or roughnefs. Temperance
13 a great prcfervative of the voice in all thefe rcfpefts, and
all excefs is highly prejudicial to it. A llrong voice is very
ferviceable to the orator, becaufe, if lie wants fome other
advantages, he is however able to make himfelf heard ; and
if he IS forced to flrain it, he is lefs in danger of its falling
him, before he has finifhed his difcourfe. But he who has
a weak voice Ihould be careful not to llrai<i it, efpecially at
firfl : he ought to begin low, and rife gradually to fuch a
pitch, as the key of his voice will carry him, without being
obliged to fink again afterwards. Frequent inflexions of
the voice will hkcwifc relieve him ; and he fhould fpeak de-

liberately, and eafe his voice, by allowing due time for
refpiration at all the proper paufcs.

A voice is faid to be clear, when the organs of fpeech arc
fuited to give every fingle letter, and all the combinations
of them in fyllables and words, their proper and dilUnft
found. Such a voice is agreeable {o the hearers, and ad-
vantageous to the fpcaket- ; as by fpeaking moderately, he
may be diflinftly heard, and thus be able to modulate his
voice at pleafure.

An obfcure and confufed voice is fometimes owing to
a deficiency in the organ, but often it is the effeft of bad
habit, acquired either by mifplacing the accent, confounding
the found of the letters, or huddling the fyllables one upon
another, fo as to render what is faid unintelligible. When
this confufed voice aiifes from a natural defcft, it may be
remedied, as well as weaknefs of voice, in the manner pur-
fued by Demofthenes. See Pkonunciation.

But the mofl; likely way of mending faults proceeding
trom bad habit, is to fpeak deliberately.

A full voice is not the fame as a ftrong or a loud voice ;
it fills the ear, but it is often not pleafant ; and, therefore,
to render it fo, as well as audible, it Ihould be frequently
varied. Thofe who have the misfortune of a very fmall
voice, fliould be cautious of raifing it to too high a pitch,
efpecially at once ; becaufe the fudden compren"ure of the
organ is apt to occafion a fqueaking and very difagreeable
found. A foft and fmooth voice is of all the moil mufical,
efpecially if it be flexible ; and, on the contrary, nothing is
lefs harmonious than a voice that is harfli and rough.

Upon the whole, we may conclude that voice to be the
bell or fittefl for an orator, which is moderate, diflinft, firm,
clear, and fmooth, and alfo eafily flexible to the feveral
degrees and variations of found, which every part of the
difcourfe may require. The different parts of a difcourfe
require correfponding modulations of the voice. The
orator fliould fpeak low at firfl, becaufe this has the appear-
ance of modefty, engages attention, and is beil for the
voice. In the narration, the voice ought to be raifed to
fomewhat a higher pitch. The propofition, or fubjed of
the difcourfe, fhould be delivered with a very clear and
audible voice. The confirmation admits of great variety,
both of the voice and geftures : in reafoning, the voice is
quick and pungent, and fhould be enforced with fuitable
aftions ; and in dcfcriptioiis, whilll the orator is pointing
out the images of things, he Ihould fo endeavour to adapt
both his voice, and the motions of his body, particularly the
turn of his eyes, and aftion of his hands, as may bell help
the imagination of his hearers. Where he introduces ano-
ther perfon fpeaking, or addreflcs an abfent perfon, it fliould
be with fome degree of imitation ; and in dialogue, the voice
fliould alter with the parts. When he diverts from his
fubjeft by any digreflTion, his voice fhould be lively and
cheerful ; fiiice that is rather defigncd for entertainment
than iiillruftion. In confutation, the arguments of the
adverfe party ought firll to be repeated in a plain and dif-
tinft manner, unlefs they appear unworthy of a firious
anfwer ; and then a facetious manner, both of expreflion and
gellurc, may be the moll proper way to confute them. In
the conclufion, both the voice and gellure fliould be brifk
and fprightly.

There are fometimes certain words, which require an
emphafis and diftinttion of the voice : fuch are often pro-
nouns, as this is tht man ; and many words that denote the
ciicumllancea and qualities of a thing, fom? of which
heightening or magnifying the idea of the thing to whi^
they arc joined, elevate the voice, and others dcbafing or lef-
fcning it, dcprcfs the voice, or at Kafl protraft the tone.
3 1 z Some

V O J

V O I

Seme tropes likewife, as metaphors, and verbal figures,
which fOTifift in the repetition of a fingle word, fhould have
a particular emphafis.

la fentences, regard fhould be had to their length, and
the number of their parts, in order to difting\iifh them by
proper paufes. The frame and ftrufture of the period
ought likewife to be confidered, that the voice may be fo
managed, as to give it the moft mufical accent. Unlefs
there be fome fpecial reafon for the contrary, it ftiould end
louder than it begins. In an antithefis, one contrary muft.
be louder than the other ; in a chmax, or gradation, the
voice (hould rife with it.

As to the paffions, it is evident that each of them requires
a different voice and aftion. Love and efteem are expreffed
in a fmooth and cheerful tone ; but anger and refentment
with a rough, harfh, and interrupted voice. Joy raifes and
dilates the voice ; as forrow finks and contrafts it. Fear
occafions a tremor and helitation of the voice ; and affurance
gives it flrength and firmnefs. Admiration elevates the
voice, and fhould be expreffed with pomp and magnificence ;
the expreffion of it being often accompanied with an ele-
vation both of the eyes and hands : on the contrary, con-
tempt finks and protrafts the voice.

All exclamations fhould be violent. When we addrefs
inanimate things, the voice fhould be higher than when we
addi-efs animated beings ; and appeals to heaven mufl be
made in a loftier tone than thofe to men.

After all, it is impofiible to gain a juft and decent pro-
nunciation of voice and geflure, merely from rules, without
praftice, and an imitation of the beft examples. Ward's
Orat. vol.ii. left. 48. and left. 5c.

Voice, Part of the, in Mujic. See Part.

Voice of a Singer, Accidents and Diforders to ivhicb it is
lialh: The air received in the lungs, and expelled by com-
prefTion of the cheft, paffing through the aperture of the
larynx gently clofed, produces a found, which afterwards, by
the modulation of the tongue and other parts of the mouth,
form the voice of a linger ; and as many things concur in
this formation, fuch as the breafl, the diaphragm, the lungs,
the wind-pipe, the uvula, or palate,- the tongue, the teeth,
and the mucofity which lubricates the feveral parts, all fub-
jeft to a number of acute and chronical diforders, which,
though it may not be neceffary to fpecify here it feems ex-
pedient that vocal performers fhould be apprifed of the ac-
cidents to which the voice is liable, to put them on their
guard ; and the public, to incline them to pity and tolerate
what the utmoft care cannot always avoid.

Natural defefts in the voice are incurable, fuch as being
of a coarfe quahty, huflfy, inflexible, and out of tune.

VOID, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Meufe ; 10 miles W. of Toul.

VoJT), in Common Laiv. See Annulling.

Void Bajlion. See Bastiojf.-

VoiD Space, in Phyfics. See VACUUM, &C.

VOIDANCE, Vacancy, in the Canon Latv, a want of
an incumbent upon a benefice. See Vacancy, &c.

This is twofold ; either in law, de jure ; as when one holds
feveral benefices that are incompatible ; or defaSo, in deed ;
as when the incumbent is dead, or refigns, or is aftually
deprived.

VOIDED, VuiDF., in Heraldry, is underflood of an or-
dinary whofe inner or middle part is cut out, leaving
nothing but its edges to fhew its form ; fo that the field
appears through it. Hence, it is needlefs to exprefs the
colour, or metal, of the voided part ; becaufe it muft, of
courfe, be that of the field.

Voided, The Crofs, differs from the crofs Jimlriated, in

that this latter does not fhew the field through it, as the
other does. And the fame obtains in other ordinaries.

VOIDER, one of the ordinaries, whofe figure is much
like that of the fiafque, or flanch ; only that it doth not
bend fo much.

This armoury, they fay, is properly the reward of a gen-
tlewoman that has well ferved her prince. It is always
borne by pairs.

Voider, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied, in
fome inllances, to a fort of open-work fhallow baflcet
or fieve, in which different articles of farm produce are put,
in order to be out of the way.

VOIDING, EvAcuATiNG,in Medicine. (See Evacu-
ation. ) In the Philofophical Tranfaftions we have an ac-
count of one Matt. Milford, who voided a worm by urine,
fuppofed to nave come from the kidneys.

Dr. Lifler mentions true caterpillars voided by a boy of
nine years old. Mr. Jcffop faw hexapods vomited up by a
girl. Catharina Geilaria, who died in 1662, in the hofpital
of Altenburg, for twenty years voided, they fay, by vomit
and flool, toads and hzards. Ephem. German, tom. i.
obf. 103.

In the fame Ephem. is alfo a ftory of a kitten, bred in
the ftomach, and vomited up ; and others of whelps, frogs,
lacerts aquatics;, and other animals, bred and voided the
like way. Bartholine gives us an inftance of a worm
bred in the brain, and voided by the nofe of O. W. See
Worms.

VOIGTI A, in Botany, Roth in Roem. and Uft. Mag. fafc.
10. 17, ig6. Poiretin Lamarck Dift. v. 8.683 ! ^'^^ Rothia.

VOIGTSBERG, in Geography, a town and citadel
of Saxony, which gives name to a prefefturate in the Vogt-
laiid ; I mile N. of Oelnitz.

VOIR Dire, in La-w. When, upon a trial at law, it
is prayed, that a witnefs may be fworn upon a voir dire, the
meaning is, that he fhall, upon his oath, fpeak or declare the
truth, whether he fliall get or lofe by the matter in con-
troverfy. If he be unconcerned, his teflimony is allowed,
otherwife not.

VOIRE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Aube, near Chalette.

VOIRON, a town of France, in the department of the
Ifere ; 10 miles N.W. of Grenoble.

VOISENON, Claude Henry de Fusee du, in Bio-
graphy, a literary perfon of fingular charafter, was born at the
chateau of Voifenon, near Melun, in 1708, and educated for
the ccclefiaftical profeflion. He commenced his career of
advancement by being grand-vicar to the fee of Boulogne ;
but having fought a duel, he afterwards contented himfelf
with the abbacy of Jard, which was probably a family
benefice. He was of a lively, humorous difpofition, and
as he knew how to trifle agreeably, he was admitted into
fafhionable fociety. As a writer, he pubhfhed feveral ro-
mances, the befl of which is faid to be a kind of moral tale,
entitled " L'Hiftoire de la Felicite." His comedies of
"Marriages affortis," 1744, and "La Coquette fixee,"
1746, are reckoned to contain ftrokes of humour which
would not have been difavovi^ed even by Moliere. He was
alfo the author of many fugitive pieces. His literary re-
putation caufed him to be elefted into the French Academy ;
and the duke of Choifeul fettled on him a penfion of 6000
livres to write a French hiflory. He died m 1775, ?nd his
works were coUefted in 1782 by his friend, Mad. de Turpin,
in 5 vols. 8vo. Nouv. Dift. Hift.

VOISEY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Marne ; 6 miles S.E. of Bourbon
les Bains.

VOISHA,

V O I

VOL

VOISHA, a town of Servia; 48 iniles W. of Jeiii-
bafar.

VOISIN, Joseph de, in Biography, a theological writer,
was bom at Bourdeaux, of a family diftinguifhed in the de-
partment of law, but his difpofition being devotional, he
abandoned the legal for the ecclcfiaftical profeflion, and ob-
tained prieft's orders, and the degree of doftor in theo-
logy. He was a good Hebrew fcholar, and ver\- converfant
with Rabbinical literature. In 1635 he publifhod a Latin
trandation of a Rabbinical work on the foul ; and in 1647
he gave to the public " Theology of the Jews," in Latin,
4to., and afterwards a " Treatife on the Jewifh Jubilee,"
and other works of a fimilar kind. He was the editor, and
partly author, of the work of the prince of Conti againft
theatrical fpcftacles, 1666 ; and after the death of that
prince, of a defence of it againft the abbe d'Aubignac. His
tranflation of the Roman MilTal into French was printed in
1660; but at the inftigation of cardinal Mazarin, it was
condemned by an affembly of the French clergy, though it
had obtained the fanftion of fome bifhops and doftors in
theology. The plea urged againft it was its being an at-
tempt to prepare for the celebration of mafs in French,
and it was fupprefied by a decree of the council. The grand-
vicar of Paris fanftioned the printing and fale of the work ;
but the king enforced the pope's brief, which prohibited a
tranflation of the MifTal. Voifin afterwards obtained a royal
privilege for its impreflion. This learned and pious per-
ibn died in 1685. Moreri.

VOISINNES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Marn'.- ; 6 miles W. of Langres.

VOITEUR, a town of France, in the department of
the Jura ; 6 miles N. of Lons le Saunier.

VOITSBERG, or WoiTSSBERO, a town of the duchy
of Stiria, on the Kainach ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Gratz.
N. lat. 47° 4'. E. long. 15°.

VOITURE, Vincent, in Biography, born at Amiens
in the year 1 J98, was a lively French writer, and an agree-
able companion in the faftiionable circles. At the court
of Lewis XHL he was well received, whofe brother,
Gafton, duke of Orleans, made him mafter of the cere-
monies, and introducer of foreign ambafladors, and whom he
followed in his retirement to Languedoc. In 1634 he was
admitted into the French Academy, of which he was a dif-
tinguifhed member, as he was v/ell acquainted with the
Latin, Italian, and Spanilh languages. He held the office
of interpreter to the queen-mother, and was employed in
feveril court commiflions. At Madrid he ingratiated him-
felf with the count d'Olivares, and for the gratification of
his curiofity made a tour to Africa. His Spanilh verfes
were taken for thofe of Lopez de Vega ; and at Rome he
was elefted, on account of his Italian literature, a member
of the Academy degli Umorifti. On his return to France,
he was appointed maitre d'hotcl to the king ; and M.
d'Avaux, fuperintendant of the finances, gave him the fine-
cure place of his " commis." But all his preferments and
penfions were not a fufficient fund for fupplying him with
the means of gaming and of gallantry. Being naturally feeble
in his conftitution, his various indulgencies were the occa-
fion of terminating his life, in 1648, at the age of 50 years.
His heart was good, but he was vain and irritable ; and he
had the meannefs to be aOiamed of his defcent from a father
who was a wine-merchant, fo that he could not bear plea-
fantries that referred to his ori-^in : and it was therefore
faid of him, that " wine, whicii raifed other people's fpirits,
flattened his." Againft thofc whom he provoked by his
farcafms, he had not courage to defend himfelf ; and there-
fore, when he once ofTendcd a aourt lord, and ^as ordered

to draw his (word, he replied, " the match is not equal : you
are tall, and I am Ihort ; you arc brave, and I am a pol-
troon ; you want to kill me : well then ! I reckon myfelf
dead." By this kind of apology he difarmed his antago-
nifts. His peculiar excellence, like that of Balzac, con-
fifted in letter-writing, which he was very flow in exe-
cuting, and in which he dilplayed much wit and pleafantry,
often degenerating into affcftation, and fometimes into in-
delicacy. His letters, however, notwithllanding their im-
perfeftions and faults, were much admired, and ferved as a
pafiport into the politeft companies. His poems were of a
fimilar charafter to that of his letters. They confift of
epiftles, elegies, fonnets, rondeaus, ballads, and fongs. For
want of nature and correft tafte, his works have funk into
oblivion. The lateft edition is that of Paris, in 2 vols.
l2mo. 1759. Moreri.

VOIVRE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Vofges ; 9 miles E. of Remberviller.

VOJUSSA, a river of European Turkey, which runs
into the Adriatic ; 7 miles N. of Valona.

VOKINOSAMA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Ximo ; 1 8 miles N. of Funai.

VOKSA, a river of Rutfia, which runs from lake Saima
to lake Ladoga, in the government of Viborg.

VOKSCHA, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in the pro-
vince of Uftiug, and joins the Mezen, in the government of
Archangel ; 16 miles N. of Ok-nllcoi.

VOIX Celestine, in Mufic, a flop in the organ, an
oftave above the vox humana.

VOL, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
S. of Carthage, between the rivers Bagradas and Triton.
Ptolemy.

Vol, among Heralds, fignifies the two wings of a fowl

joined together, borne in armoury ; as being tlie whole that

makes the flight. Accordingly, a ^t-mi-i'o/ is a finglc wing.

VOLA, the palm, or infide of the hand, comprehended

between the fingers and the wrift.

VOLANA, in /Indent Geography, a river of Gallia
Cifalpina, called alfo Podi Volana. — Alfo, a town of Italy,
in S.imnium.

VOLANDUM, a fortified place of Afia, in Armenia,
and the ftrongeft in the country. It was taken by Corbulo
without the lofs of a fingle man, and all the inhabitants above
the age of fourteen years were configned to the edge of the
fword.

VOLANO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Italy, in
the Ferrarcfe, at the mouth of the fouthcrn branch of the
Po, which is called Po di Volano ; 23 miles E. of Ferrara.
VOLANS. See DuACO, and Piscis.
VOLANT, in Heraldry, is when a bird, in a coat of
arms, is drawn flying, or having its.wings fpread out.
Volant, Pafs. oce Pass-volant.
Volant, Pont. See Pont-volant.
VOLAR, in Geography, a town of Tranfylvania ; 4
miles S. of Hunyad.

VOLATA, Ital., in Mufic, a flight, rapid divifion, a
rapid extemporaneous pafTage at a dole, or paufe.

VOLATERRiE, in Mcient Geography, a town of Ita-
ly, in Etruria, at a certain diftancc from the lea, lituated
on a mountain, which, according to Straho, was fifteen ftadia
in height. It is placed by fome authors in the rank of the
twelv cities of Etruria. After its (ubjcrtion to the Ro-
mans, it remained faithful. In the time of Sylia's profcrip-
tions, it was unfuccefsfully befieged for two years. Its in-
habitants obtained the right of Roman eitizenfhip. At the
fall of the empire it pafl'ed under the power of the Vandals,
Huns, ami Goths ; but was retaken by Narfes, in the year

553-

VOL

553. Some authors fay that for a certain tune the Lom-
bards fixed their court there.

VOLATERRANA Vada, a town or borough of
Italy, in Etruria, with a port at the mouth of the Cecinna,
according to Pliny. It is now called Vadi.

VOLATICA, in Medicine, 3. name given by authors to
a fort of wandering pain, attended with a tumour, and
afFefting, at different times, different parts of the body. It
is by fome accounted a fpecies of the fcurvy ; by others, of
the leprofy.

VOLATILE, in Phyfia, is commonly ufed to denote
a mixt body, whofe integral parts are eafily diffipated by
fire or heat ; but it is more properly ufed for bodies whofe
elements, or firll component parts, are eafily feparated from
each other, and difperfed in air.

As thofe bodies which by heat fuffer no diminution of
their weight are faid to be fixed, fo thofe which do lofe of
their weight are faid to be volatile ; and they are faid to be
more or lefs volatile, according as a greater or lefs degree
of heat is reqiiifite for producing a feparation of their
parts. Perhaps, indeed, every body is, rigoroufly fpeaking,
volatile : but as there are fome, the volatihty of which can
be only rendered fcnfible by the a&ion of a fire much more
violent than any which we can produce, we confider thefe
bodies as being fixed, or not volatile.

Minerals, for the generality, are lefs volatile than vege-
tables ; and vegetables are lefs fo than animals.

The chemills diftinguifh between volatile falts and fixt
falts. The capitals of aludels flop and coUeft the volatile
parts of fubftances, in fublimation, and make what we call
P.oivers.

" The particles of fluids which do not cohere very ftrongly
together, and are of fuch fmallnefs as renders them moll
fuiceptible of thofe agitations which keep liquors in a fluor,
are eafily rarefied into vapour ; and, in the language of the
chemills, are volatile. Thofe which are groffer, and by
that means lefs fufceptible of alterations, or vfhich cohere
by a ftronger lieat, or, perhaps, not without fermentation ;
thefe are what the chemills call fixt bodies." Newton's
Optics, p. S71.

Volatile yilia/i. See Alkali.

Volatile Salt of Amber. See Amber.

Volatile Oil, in Rur^l Economy, is that fort which has
a fragrant aromatic fmell, and which is fometimes called
ejfential oil. It is ftated by fir Humphrey Davy to differ
from fixed oil, in being capable of evaporation by a much
lower degree of heat, in being foluble in alcohol, and in
poffefling a very flight degree of folubility in water. There
is a great number of this fort of oils, diftingui(hed by
their fmell, their tafte, their fpecific gravity, and other fen-
fible qualities. A ftrong and peculiar odour may, however,
be confidered as the great charafteriftic of each fort ; the
volatile oils inflame with more facility than the fixed oils, and
afford by their combullion different proportions of the fame
fubftances, water, carbonic acid, and carbon.

It is faid that the peculiar odours of plants feem, in almoft
all cafes, to depend upon the peculiar oils of this fort they
contain. All the perfumed dillilled waters owe their pecu-
liar properties to the volatile oils they hold in folution. By
collefting the aromatic oils, the fragrance of flowers, fo
fugitive in the common courfe of nature, is as it were em-
bodied and made permanent. It cannot be doubted, it is
faid, that the volatile oils conCfl of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen ; but no accurate experiments have as yet been made
on the proportions in which thefe elements are combined.
As the fragrance of flowers depends upon the volatile oils
they contain ; and thefe oils, by their conflant evaporation,

VOL

furround the flower with a kind of odorous atmofphere ;
which, at the fame time that it entices larger infetls, may
probably preferve the parts of fructification from the ravages
of fmaller ones ; volatile oils, or odorous fubftances, feem.
it is faid, particularly deltriiftive to thefe minute infeits
and animalcules which feed on the fubftance of vegetables :
thoufands of aphides may be ufually feen in the ilalk and
leaves of the rofe ; but none of them are ever obferved on
the flower. Camphor is the fubftance ufed to preferve the
colleftions of naturalifts. The woods that contain aromatic
oils are remarkable for their indeftriidlibility, and for their
exemption from the attacks of infedts : this is particularly
the cafe with the cedar, rofe-wood, and cyprefs. The
gates of Conftantinople, which were made of this laft fort
of wood, ftood entire, it is faid, from the time of Conftan-
tine, their founder, to that of pope Eugene IV., a period
of 1 100 years.

This fort of oils is afforded by diftillation, coming over
with the water, and floating on the top of it in fmall glo-
bules. It is coUefted by pouring a quantity of the diftillcd
water with the oil, as it comes over into a velTel, fo con-
ftrufted as to fuffer the watery part to efcape by a ftop-
cock near the bottom ; the veffel or apparatus is again filled,,
and when fettled, the water is again let out ; in this manner
the oil is oollefled in great quantities, floating as above.
This effential or etherial oil refides, it is fuppofed by fome,
in a particular part of the plant, but which is different in
different forts. And it is faid that the oils vary in their
nature or properties in different forts of plants.

It is noticed by the above writer, that the volatile oils have
never been ufed as articles of food ; many of them are em-
ployed in the arts, in the manufadlure of pigments and var-
mlhes ; but that their moft extenfive application is as per-
fumes in the hands of the perfumer, and manufafturer in that
way. On the contrary, the fixed oils are very nutritive fub-
ftances, and are of great importance in their applications to
the purpofes of life. See Oil.

Volatile, Sal Ohojum. See Sal.

Volatile Salt. See Salt.

VOLATILISATION, or Volatilization, the ad
of rendering fixt bodies volatile, or refolving them, by fire,
into a fine, fubtle vapour, or fpirit, which eafily diffipates,
and flies away.

All bodies, even the moft fixt, as gold, may be volati-
lized, either of themfelves, or with the admixture of fome
volatile fubftance, or fpirit ; by diftillation, or fubhmation.

In the Memoiis of the Royal Academy we have a dif-
couife on the volatihzation of the fixed falts of plants, by
M. Romberg.

VOLATILITY, in Chemijlry, is a property that many
bodies have of being reduced into light vapours, which ex-
hale when they are expofed to the adlion of fire. This qua-
lity is oppofed to fixity, and is owint^ to the greater or lefs
dilatability which bodies have, when expofed to fire. See
Volatile, Sublimation", Sec.

VOLCjE Arecomici, in Ancient Geography, contradif-
tiiiguifhed from the Te8ofages, were a branch of a people,
who occupied, in the Narbonnefe province, the whole fpace
that lies between the Rhone and the Garonne. The Are-
comici were fituated near the Rhone, and extended along
the fea in that territory which is now called Lower Lan-
guedoc. When Hannibal traverfed the fouthern part of
Gaul, in his way to Italy, the Arecomici were not bounded
by the Rhone, but pofFefTed territory on both fides of the
river. The chain of Mons Aberna feparated the Areco-
mici from the Ruteni and the Gabati. But their limits with
regard to the Teftofages ai'e not eafily afcertained. Ac-
cording

VOL

\' O L

cording to Strabo, Narbonne was a part of the territory of
the Arecomici ; but Ptolemy extends the territory of the
Teftofages, fo as to alTign to them the towns of Narbonne,
Beziers, and CefTero upon the Arur. Before the Romans
made Narbonne the capital of their firft province conquered
in Gaul, this city might have belonged to the Arecomici
rather than to the Teclofages, agreeably to Strabo's ac-
count. But when Narbonne was elevated to this dignity, it
found itfelf independent of both clafles of the Voles, and
appropriated to itfelf a dillinft and feparate territory. This
territory is indicated by the pofition of Fines, between Car-
caffonne and Touloufe. Ptolemy, however, not duly re-
garding the diftindtion between thefe feveral people, adjudged
Narbonne and fome other towns to the TeClofages rather
than to the Arecomici, whofe diftridl was thus reduced to
that of the capital, or of Nemaufus in particular. The
VolciE Te<ftofages merit a particular diftinftion on account
of the expeditions in which they engaged. They penetrated,
according to Cxfar, into Germany, and eftablifhed themfelves
in cantons of the for .-ft of Herinia, acquiring the reputation
of juftice as well as of courage in war. Jullin reports that
a body of the Teftofages penetrated into Illyria, and fixed
itfelf in Pannonia. But their moll celebrated eftablifhment
was that in Phrygia, where they preferved their own name.
They alfo occupied Ancyra, the principal town of the
country, which took the name of Galatia. The Teftofages
of the Narbonnefe, according to Strabo, approached the
Pyrenees, and attained one extreme of the dechvity of
mount Comnienus or Cehanna. Their limit, with regard to
the Arecomici, feems to have been determined by the pofi-
tion of Fines, of which we have already fpokeii.
VOLCANO, in Geography. See Vulcano.
VoLrANO, in Geology, is an opening made by fub-
terranean fire in the fiirface of the earth, through which
vapour, fmoke, flames, and ftones are ejetled, with ftreams
of melted Hone, called lava. Some volcanoes throw out
boiling water and mud.

Of all geological phenomena, volcanoes are the moil im-
preffive, as they not unfrequcntly change the appearance of
a whole diftrift in the courfe of a few days ; and the only
inllances we have of the formation of rocks in our own
times, are thofe produced by the agency of volcanic fires.
In a former (late of the globe, thefe fires appear to have been
Itill more aftively and extcnfively operative : this is proved by
the numerous remains of extinft volcanoes of immcnfe fize,
fcattered over various parts of the world, and by the ex-
iftence of rocks nearly refembling volcanic produfts, found
in almoft every country that has yet been explored. It is
only within a (hort period that thefe phenomena have
been attentively and accurately examined. We (hall com-
mence our account with a d'.fcription of the external (Iruc-
ture of volcanoes.

Many volcanoes are lofty mountains, furmounted by a
truncated cone, having an aperture at the fummit, nearly
circular, and of greater or lefs depth, called the crater,
from which the eruptions iflfue ; but not unfrequcntly the
eruptions burd from the fide or the foot of the mountain,
and they fomctimes break forth at a great depth under
the fea. The greateft number of aftive volcanoes are
fituated near the fea or large lakes, from which circum-
llance it has been fuppofed, by fome gcologifts, that water
is an agent in all volcanic eruptions. Mod ifolated volcanic
mountains have a pyramidal or conical form, afcending at a
moderate angle of inclination from the bafe to an elevated
plain, from the centre of which rifes the cone in. wliich the
■principal crater is fituated. The fides of this cone are
generally fteep, and are covered with volcanic fand, pumice,

9

or fcorijc. The matter of which it is compofed, as well as
the fliape, evidently indicate that it has been formed by
fubftances thrown out of the volcano in a perpendicular di-
rcftion, which in their defcent have accumulated round the
aperture, and from the laws of gravity have afTumed a co-
nical form. The Ihape of the cone is changed dining great
eruptions, fometimes they have been known to link down
and difappear, new volcanic cones forming in other parts of
the mountain. A confiderable part of the com- of Vefuvius
fell down during the eruption of 1794. In 1727, when M.'
d'Orville vifited Vulcano, one of the Lipari or jEolian ifles,
there were two diftinft volcanic cones, each placed on an
eminence, and containing a crater in a ftate of adlive erup-
tion ; whereas, at prefent, there is but one cone confpicuoua
in the ifland, the fummit being fingle. Spallanzani, who
vifited thefe iflands about fixty years after M. d'Orville,
made inquiries of fome of the oldell inhabitants re-
fpefting the double cone and crater of Vulcano, and he
found fome few perfons who retained a recoUeftion of it.
The regular conical form does not characterize all vol-
canoes. The volcanic mountains in America, according to
Humboldt, prefent a confiderable diverfity, both In fhape
and fitnation, from thofe in the old world.

In Europe and in Afia, as far as the interior of the
latter continent is known, no burning volcano is fituated in
a chain of mountains ; all being at a greattr or lefs diftance
from thefe chains. In the new world, on the contrary, the
volcanoes, the niofl ilupendous for their maffes, form a part
of the Cordilleras theinfelves. The mountains of mica-
flate and gniefs, in Peru and New Granada, immediately
touch the voh;;nic porphyries of the province of Quito and
Pafto. To the fouth and north of thele countries, in
Chili and in the kingdom of Guatimala, the aiSlive vol-
canoes are grouped in rows. They are the continuation of
the chains of primitive rocks ; and if the volcanic fire has
broken out in fome plains far from the Cordilleras, as in
mount Sangay and Jorullo, we muft confider this pheno-
menon as an exception to the law which n,iture feems to
have im;-ofcd on thefe regions.

The Peak of Tenerilfc forms a pyramidal niafs like
Etna, Tnngurahiia, and Popocatapetl, but this charafter is
far from being common to all volcanoes. We have feen,
fays Humboldt, fome in the fouthern hemifphere, which,
inhead of having the form of a cone or bell, are lengthened
in one direAion, having the ridge fometimes fmooth, at
others rough, with fmall pointed rocks. This ftrudlure is
peculiar to Antifan and Pichinca, two burning mountains of
the province of Quito, and the abfence of the conical form
ought never to be confidcrcd as oppofed to a volcanic
origin.

M. Humboldt deduces the following inferences from his
obfervations on the fliapc of different volcanoes. That
mountains with llcnder conical peaks, arc thofe which are
fubjeft to eruptions of the greatill violence, and at the near-
eft periods to each other. Mountains willi lengthened fum-
mits, rugged, with f:na!l (lony mall'es, are very old volcanoes
nearly exiinguiflied. Rounded fummits, in the form of
domes or bells, indicate thofe doubtful kinds of porphyries
which are fuppofed to have been heated in tlieir original
place, and forced up in a fofteiied (late witliout ever having
Howed as lavas. To the firik of thefe mountains belong
Cotopaxi, the Peak of Teiieriffe, and th.it of Orizava, in
Mixico. The fecond is common to Cargiiarazo and
Pichinca, in the province of Quito, and to tlie volcano of
Puracey, near Popayan, and perhaps alfo to Hecla, in Ice-
land. The third and laR form i« feen in the majeftic figure
of Chimborazo, and in the great Sarcony, in Auvcrgne.

Ill

VOLCANO.

In order to fonn a moreexaft idea of the external ftrufture
of volcanoes, it is important to compare their perpendicular
lieiglit with their circumference ; but this can only be done
with ifolated mountains placed on a plain which is nearly
on a level with the fea. The height of the Peak of Tene-
rifFe is one twenty-eighth of the circumference of its bafe ;
that of Vefuvius, according to Von Buch, is a thirty-third ;
and of Etna, a thirty -fourth. Ifolated volcanoes, in the
mod diftant regions, are very analogous in their external
"ftrufture. All have elevated plains, in the middle of which
rifes a cone perfectly circular. The greater the quantity of
matter that has ifTued from the crater of a volcano, the more
elevated is its cone of a(hes, in proportion to the perpen-
dicular height of the mountain. Nothing is more ftriking
than the difference in this refpeft, fays Humboldt, between
Vefuvius, the Peak of TenerifFe, and Pichinca. The cone
of Cotopaxi, the form of which is the moft regular and ele-
gant of any hitherto known, is 540 toifes in height, but it
is impoffible to decide whether the whole of this mafs is
covered with afbes.

Cone covered with Aflies.

Toifes.

r

Toifes.

Vefuvius, height of

606

200

t

Peak of Teneriffe

1904

8+

t
T-2

Pichinca

2490

240

I

The latter column fhews the proportion of the cone to
the total height of the mountain.

In moft volcanic mountains, the cone, or fugar-loaf, as it
has been not unaptly called, prefervcs its conic figure to
the very fummit ; the whole of the declivity is inclined the
fame number of degrees, and is uniformly covered with
layers of voltanic fand or powder. When we reach the top,
nothing obftrufts the view of the bottom of the crater.
The Peak of TenerifFe and Cotopaxi, on the contrary, liavc
a different conftruiElion. Their fummits have a circular
■wail, furrounding the brink of the crater, which appears at
a diitance like a fmall cylinder placed on a truncated cone.
According to Humboldt, this pecuhar conllruftion of
Cotopaxi, is vifible to the naked eye at the diftance of
nearly three leagues. No perfon has reached the crater of
this volcano. On the Peak of TenerifFe, the wall that fur-
rounds the crater is fo high, that it would be impoffible to
enter, if there were not a breach which feems to have been
made by the flowing of an ancient current of lava.

The (hape of volcanic craters is generally that of a funnel,
either circular or elliptical, the fides fhelving down to the
bottom, which is a plain of greater or lefs extent, having
apertures or fifFures, through which fmoke and heated
vapour are exhaled. At the bottom of many volcanic
craters are one or more fmall cones, which during erup-
tions enlarge, and fometimes fill up the crater, and rife
above its brim. The prefent cone of Vefuvius is fuppofed
to have been railed within a crater of much larger fize, of
which mount Somma forms part of the remaining wall.
( See Vesuviu.s. ) The fize of the crater does not depend
on the height and mafs of the mountain, of which it
forms the principal vent. Vefuvius, which is but a fmall
hill compared with the Peak of Teneriffe, has a crater
with a diameter five times larger than that of the latter
mountain ; and the prefent crater of Vulcano equals or
exceeds that of Vefuvius, though the height of the cone is
not more than 1500 feet above the level of the fea. Wiien
we reileft, fays Humboldt, that very lofty volcanoes throw
out lefs matter by their fummits than by lateral openings, we
ihould be led to conclude that the lower volcanoes are, their
force and aftivity being the fame, the more confiderable

ought to be the fize of their craters. There are immenfe
volcanoes in the Andes, which have but verj- fmall open-
ings, and we might eflablifh it as a geological principle, that
the moft lofty volcanoes have craters of fmall extent at
their fummits, if the Cordilleras did not offer many inftances
to the contrary-. The great volcanoes of Cotopaxi and
Rucupichinca have craters, which, according to the admea-
furement of this indefatigable traveller, exceed half and
three-quarters of a mile in diameter.

In a volcano like Vefuvius, the attivity of which is prin-
cipally direded towards the fummit, the depth of the crater
varies before and after every eruption ; but at the Peak of
Teneriffe, the depth of the crater appears to have been fta-
tionai-y for a long time. In 1 7 1 5, it was eftimated by Mr.
Eden at one hundred and fifteen feet; in 1805, by M.
Cordier, at one hundred and ten feet ; and fubfequently, by
Humboldt, it was conjedlured to have rather lefs depth.
The infide of the crater indicates a volcano, which for a long
period has emitted no fire at the fummit. From the lapfe
of time, and the aftioii of vapours, the infide walls have fallen
in, and have covered tlie bafin with great blocks of lava.

For an account of the cone and crater of mount iEtna,
fee ^TNA.

Among the various changes that have taken place in
this volcano, it is highly probable that the partition
between the upper and lower crater may have been fre-
quently removed. Lieut. -general Cockburn, who vifited
Etna in 18 10, defcribcs only one crater, though he afcended
the highefl pinnacle. This crater, he eftimates at nearly
two miles in circumference. At that time the bottom of
the crater, which he diftinftly faw, was not flat ; it con-
tained fevcral minor mountains and their craters, fome
fmoking like tlic moft violent glafs-furnace, or fteam-
engine. Cockburn's Travels in Sicily, vol. i. p. 137.

The whole cone of a volcano is fometimes fwallowed up
during an eruption, leaving a circular crater of a larger
diameter and at a much lower level ; which, when the
volcanic fire becomes extindl, or remains dormant for
ages, may form a lake. The celebrated lake of Avernus,
near Naples, and the neighbouring lake Agano, are the
craters of extinft volcanoes, the cones of which have pro-
bably been buried after a great eruption, or by an earth-
quake. Numerous circular lakes exifl in volcanic countries
which have had the Came origin. Nor need we be furprifed
at the difappearance of a volcanic cone, however large, as ic
muft ftand and have its foundation on the brink of a much
larger abyfs, from which it has been thrown out, as we (hall
have occafion to remark in defcribing the formation of fome
of thefe cones, which have taken place in modern times.

The crater of a volcano can only be approached when the
fire is in a dormant or nearly quiefcent (late ; but as the in-
tervals between volcanic eruptions fometimes laft for many
years, and even centuries, opportunities are offered for ex-
ploring their ftrufture. The floor of the crater appears in
many inftances to be only a thin congealed cruft, and returns
a hollow found when ftruck upon with a ftone or any hard
fubftance. This is the cafe at the Solfaterra, which ap-
pears to be the floor of an extinft crater. See Solfa-
terra.

When M. de Luc walked over the bottom of the crater
of Vulcano in 1757, it returned a hollow found. The
largeft diameter of the crater was then above three-quarters
of a mile, and the depth nearly a thoufand feet. In 178 1
it was vifited by M. Dolomieu, who found it impoflible to
enter the crater ; its depth he eftimated at half a mile from
the brink, and the bottom not more tlian two hundred and
fifty feet in diameter. He threw in fome large ftones from

10 ttit

VOLCANO.

the edge of the crater, which he perceived funk in fomc
fluid when they reached the bottom. This fluid could not
be aqueous, fince it would foon have been evaporated by ex-
ccfllve heat ; lie fuppofed it to be melted fulphur, as lie faw
that fubftance trickle down the fides, againll which it had
fubliraed. With a good telefcope he could difcover at the
bottom two fmall pools, which he fuppofed to be full of
the fame combuftible matter. He likewife obferved, that
the fumes which in the dav-time appeared white, were by
night fplendent, but placid flames, th,it rofe above the
mountain, and diffufed their light to fome diftaiice.

Spallanzaiii, who vifited Vulcano feven years after Dolo-
mieu, found the bottom only about a quarter of a mile
deep, but intolerably hot.

The changes which took place in this interval, were pro-
bably occafioned by a violent commotion which occurred in
the month of March 1786, during which the crater threw
out a prodigious quantity of volcanic powder or fand with
immenfe volumes of fmoke and flame. This eruption lalled
fifteen days.

That the bottom of the crater fliould vary confiderably in
depth after every eruption will not appear furprifmg, if we
refleft that this bottom is a criift of congealed lava, more
or lefs covered with loofe materials, which have fallen upon
it. When the lava which has been forced up near to the
brink of the crater, remains ftationary at the clofe of an
eruption, and folidifies, the melted lava will gradually fink
down as the intcnCty of the volcanic fire diminifties at the
furface, thus leaving a cruft of greater or lefs thicknefs over
a hollow fpace below. The depth of this floor from the
brink will depend on the quantity of lava which remains in
the crater towards the end of an eruption.

The phenomena preceding and attending volcanic erup-
tions, vary according to the fituation in which they break
forth, and the magnitude or iiitenfity of the volcanic fire.
An eruption may proceed from ancient volcanoes, v\'hich
have been dormant for a longer or fliorter period, or it may
break out from a new opening or from under the fea. The
phenomena moll common to each of thefe fituations we fhall
briefly defcribe. The indications of an approaching erup-
tion from a dormant volcano, are the increafe of fmoke
from the fummit of the crater, which fometimes rifes to a
vaft. iieight, branching in the form of a pine-tree. This was
the cafe in the memorable eruption of Veiuvius, dtfcribed
by Pliny, in tlie year 79 of the Chriftian era. The caufe of
tliis appearance is probably the violent efcape of elailic gas
driving up the volatile materials into the higher regions of
the atmofphere, which in their defcent float at difl'crent
heights, according to their fpecific gravity, the heavicll
llratum floating over a larger fpace. Tremendous explo-
fions, like the firing of artillery, commence after the in-
creafe of fmoke, accompanied with tremors of the earth,
more or lefs violent, and by eruptions of red-coloured flame
and ftones from the crater ; after which, in moll violent erup-
tion;!, currents of melted (lone, called lava, flow either over
the brink of the crater, or break through the fides of the
mountain. Thefe currents, when confolidated by cooling,
frequently form a llratum thirty or forty miles in length,
feveral miles broad, and feveral yards thick, equalling in
extent any continuous llratum, among the regular forma-
tions of fecondary flrata. The eruption of lava has been
known to continue for feveral months. Black clouds, com-
pofed of dark-coloured fand or powder, improperly called
aflies, are thrown out of the crater after the lava ceafes to
flow. During one eruption of Etna, a fpace of one hun-
dred and fifty fquare miles was covered with this fand twelve
feet thick. Stones or globiform mafles of melted lava are

Vol. XXXVII.

thrown out at the fame time, and fall at a greater or lefs
dillance, according to their fize, and the force with which
they are ejefted, the larger maffes faUing neareft to the
mouth of the volcano. The fmoke and vapour are highly
eleftrical, and vivid violent flaflies of lightning dart from it,
which frequently occafion much mifchief. Towards the
conclufion of the eruption, the colour of the volcanic fand
changes to white ; it confiils of pumice in a finely commi-
nuted ftate. It is obferved, that when the lava flows freely,
the tremors of the earth and the explofion become lefs fre-
quent, which proves that they were occafioned by the con-
finement of the gafeous and folid matter that is afterwards
difcharged.

Mod of the phenomena here mentioned occur in the
eruptions of mount Vefuvius, near Naples. The firfl erup-
tion of this mountain recorded in hillory, is that whicii
happened in the time of Vefpafian, A.D. 79 ; on which
occafion, fays Dion Caffius, great quantities of aflies and
fulphureous fmoke were carried not only to Rome, but alfo
beyond the Mediterranean, into Africa, and even to Egypt.
Birds were fuffocated in the air, and fell down dead upon
the ground, and fifhes perifhed in the neighbouring waters,
which were made hot, and infected by it. Sir William
Hamilton reckons, that the eruption in 1767 was the twenty-
leventh from that in the time of Titus. Since 1767 the
eruptions have been frequent.

Bifliop Berkeley has given a particular account of the
eruption in 1717 ; for which, fee Phil. Tranf. N° ^54.
p. 708, or the Life of Berkeley, in the Biographia Bri-
tannica, by Dr. Kippis.

We have an account of mount Vefuvius, and of the
eruption from it in 1737, by the prince of Caflano, in the
Philofophical TranfaCtions, N°435. feft. i, 2.

The matter thrown out flowed like melted lead, and
moved about half a mile in an hour, which was then con-
fidered as an unnfual velocity. The trees touched by this
matter, immediately took fire, and fell. Glafs in houfes
was melted into a paft.e.

Sir William Hamilton has given an accurate and circum-
llantial defcription of the eruptions in 1766, 1767, and
1779. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ivii. p. 192, vol. Iviii. p. i, &c.
vol. lix. p. i8, &c. vol. Ixx. part i. p. 42, &c. We rtiall
feleA his account of the latter. During the whole month
of .July the mountain continued in a ftate of fermentation.
Subterraneous explofions and rumbhng noifcs were heard,
quantities of fmoke were thrown up with great violence,
fometimes with red-hot lloncs, fcorix, and alhcs ; and to-
wards the er.d of the month thefe fymptoms increafed to
fuch a degree, as to exhibit in the night-time the moft beau-
tiful fire-works tliat can be imagined.

On Thnrfday, the 5th of Auguft, the volcano appeared
moft violently agitated ; a while and fulphureous fmoke
ifTued continually and impetuouily from its cr.iter, one puff
feeming to impel another, fo that a m;'.f3 of them was iooa
accumulated, to appearance four times the height and fize
of the volcano itfelf. Thefe clouds of fmoke were exceed-
ingly white, fo tliat the whole refembled an immenfe accu-
mulation of bales of the whiteft cotton. In the midft of
this very white fmoke, vaft quantities of ftones, fcorite, and
aflies were thrown up to the height of two thoufand feet,
and a quantity of liquid lava, fecmingly very heavy, wa;.
lifted up juft high enough to clear the rim of the crater,
and take its way down the fides of tlie mountain. This
lava having run violently for fome hours, fuddcnly ceafed,
juft before it had reached the cultivated parts of the moun-
tain, near four miles from the fpot whence it in"ued. Th«?
heat all this day was intolerable at the towne of Somnia and
3 K Ottaianu,

VOLCANO.

Ottaiano, and was fenfibly felt at Palma and Lauri, which
are much farther off. Reddifh afhes fell fo thick on the
two former towns, that the air was darkened, fo that ob-
jedls could not be diflinguifhed at the dillance of ten feet.
Long filaments of a vitrified matter, like fpun glafs, were
mixed and fell with thefe aihes ; fevcral birds in cages were
fuffocated, and the leaves of the trees in the neighbourhood
of Somma were covered with a white and very corrcfivc fait.

About twelve at eight on the 7th, the fermentation of
the mountain fecmed greatly to incrcafe. Our author was
watching the motion of the volcano from the mole at
Naples, which has a full view of it. Several glorious pic-
turefque effefts had been obfervcd from the refleiftion of
the deep red fire within the crater of Vefuvius, and whicii
mounted high amongll thofe huge clouds on the top of it ;
when a fum'mer ftorm (caUod in that country a tropea),
came on fuddenly, and blended its heavy watery clouds with
the fulphureous and mineral ones, which were already like
fo many other mountains, piled up on the top of the volcano.
At this moment a fountain of fire was (hot up to an incre-
dible height, cafting fo bright a light, that the fmalleft ob-
jcds were clearly dillinguifhable, at any place within fix
miles or more from Vefuvius. The black llormy clouds
pafilng fvviftly over, and at times covering the whole or a
part of the bright column of fire, at other times clearing
away ar.d giving a full view of it, with the various tints pro-
duced by its reverberated light on the white clouds above it,
in contrail with the pale flafhes of forked lightning that at-
tended the tropea, formed fuch a fcene as no power of art can
exprefs. One of his Sicilian majefty's game-keepers, who
•was out in the fields near Ottaiano whilft the ftorm was at
its height, was furprifed to find the drops of rain fcald his
face and hands, a phenomenon probably occafioned by the
clouds having acquired a great degree of heat in paffing
through the above-mentioned column of fire.

On the 8th, the mountain was quiet till towards fix o'clock
in the evening, when a great fmoke began to gather over its
crater ; and about an hour afterwards, a fubterrancous noife
was heard in the neighbourhood of the volcano ; the ufual
throws of red-hot (tones and fcoris began and increafed
every inftant. The crater, viewed through a telefcope,
feemed much enlarged by the violence of lail night's explo-
fions, and the little mountain on the top was entirely gone.
About nine o'clock a nioft violent report was heard at Por-
tici and its neighbourhood, which (hook the houfes to fuch
a degree, as made the inhabitants run out into the ftreets.
Many windows were broken and walls cracked by the con-
cuflion of the air on this occafion, though the noife was
but faintly heard at Naples. In an inftant, a fountain of
liquid tranfparent fire began to rife, and gradually increaf-
ing, arrived at lafl at the amazing height of ten thoufand
feet and upwards. Puffs of fmoke, as black as can polfibly
be imagined, fucceeded one another haftily, and accom-
panied the red-hot tranfparent and liquid lava, interrupting
its fplendid brightnefs here and there, by patches of the
darkefl liue. Within thefe puffs of fmoke, at the very
moment of emiflion, a bright but pale eleftrical fire was
obferved playing briflvly about in zig-zag lines. The wind
was fouth-weft, and though gentle, was fufficient to carry
thefe puffs of fmoke out of the colunm of fire, and a col-
leftioD of them by degrees formed a black and extenfive
curtain behind it. In other parts of the (ky it was perfeftly
clear, and the ftars bright. The fiery fountain, of fuch im-
menfe magnitude, on the dark ground juft mentioned, made
the fineft contraft imaginable ; and the blaze of it reflefted
from the furface of the fea, which was at that time per-
fcdly fmooth, added greatly to this fublime view.

7

The lava, mixed with ftones and fcoriae, having rifen to
the amazing height already mentioned, was partly direftcd
by the wind towards Ottaiano, and partly falling, ilill red-
hot and liquid, upon the top of Vefuvius, covered its whole
cone, part of the fummit of Somma, and the valley between
them. The falling matter, being nearly as much inflamed
.md vivid as that which was continually ilTuing fre(h from the
crater, formed with it one complete body of fire, which couli
not be lefs than two miles, and a half m breadth, and at tli'i
extraordinary height above ftated, call a heat to the dillance
of at leaft fix miles round. The brulli-wood on the moun-
tain of Somma was foon in a blaze, and the flame being of
a different colour from the deep red thrown out by the vol-
cano, and from the filvery blue of the eleftrical fire, ftill
added to the contraft of this moft extraordinary fcene.

The black cloud, increafing greatly, once bent towards
Naples, and threatened the city with fpeedy deftruftion j
for it was charged with eleftrical fire, which kept conftantly
darting about in bright zigzag lines, like thofe defcribcd
by Pliny the younger, in his letter to Tacitus, and which
accompanied the great eruption of Vefuvius that proved
fatal to his uncle. This fire, however, rarely quitted the
cloud, but ufually returned to the great column of fire
whsnce it proceeded : though once or twice it was feen to
fall on the top of Somma. Fortunately the wind carried
back the cloud, juft as ic reached the citv, and had begun
to occafion great alarm. The column of fire, however, ftill
continued, and diffiifed fuch a ftrong light, that the moft
minute objects could be difcerned at the dillance of ten
miles or more from the mountain.

Mr. Morris informed our author, that at Sorrento, which
is twelve miles diftant from Vefuvius, he read the title-page
of a book by that volcanic light.

Whilft the eruption lafted, a mixed fmell, like that of
fulphur, with the vapours of an iron-foundery, was fenfible.
The air, after one day's eruption, was filled at night for
many hours with meteors, fuch as are vulgarly called falling
ftars, which fhot generally in a horizontal direction, leaving
behind them a luminous trace, which quickly difappeared.
Many fmall volcanic ftones and cinders were afterwards
found to have fallen more than thirty miles from Vefuvius,
and minute aflies fell in great abundance at the diftance of a
iiundrcd miles.

During the eruption, the miferable inhabitants of Ot-
taiano were involved in the utmoft diftrefs and danger, by the
(howers of ftones which fell upon them, and which, had the
eruption continued for a longer time, would moft certainly
have reduced their town to the fame iituation with Her-
culaneum and Pompeii. The mountain of Somma, at the
foot of which the town of Ottaiano is fituated, hides Ve-
fuvius from the view of its inhabitants ; fo that till the
eruption became confiderable, it was not vifible to them.
On Sunday night, when the noife increafed, and the fire
began to appear above the mountain of Somma, many of
the inhabitants flew to the churches, and others were pre-
paring to quit the town, when a fudden and violent report
was heard, foon after which they found themfelves involved
in a thick cloud of fmoke and alhes : a horrid clafhing noife
was heard in the air, and prefently fell a vaft (bower of
ftones and large pieces of fcoria, fome of which were of the
diameter of feven or eight feet, and muft have weighed more
than a hundred pounds before they were broken, as fome,
of the fragments which fir W. Hamilton found in the ftreets
ftill weighed upwards of fixty pounds. When thofe large
vitrified maffes either ftruck againft one another in the air,
or fell on the ground, they broke in many pieces, and
covered a large fpace of ground with vivid fparks of fire,

■which

VOLCANO.

which ignited every thing that was combuftible. Thefe
mafTes were formed of liquid lava : their exterior parts were
become black and porous, by cooling during their fall
through fuch a vaft fpacc, whilll the interior retained an ex-
treme heat, and were perfeftly red. To add to the horror
of the fcene, incelFant volcanic lightning darted from the
black clouds that furrounded the inhabitants, and the ful-
phureous fmell and heat would fcarcely allow them to
breathe. In this fituation they remained about twenty-five
minutes, when the volcanic ftorm ceafed all at once, and
Vefuvius remained fullen and filent.

Moil volcanoes are obferved to liave intervals of repofe of
longer or (horter duration. Vefuvius has been known to
remain inaftive for many centuries. (See Vesuvh/s. )
The periods of intermiffion of Etna and the Peak of Tene-
riffe have extended to near a century. According to Hum-
boldt, the long intervals of repofe appear to charafterife
volcanoes highly elevated; and he adduces feveral inftances
in favour of this opinion ; but other inftances might be
ftated which oppofe it : thus, the periods of repofe of Ve-
fuvius have been much longer than thofe of Etna ; and
Vulcano, which is far lower than Vefuvius, had no eruption
from the fourth to the fifteenth century, or during a period
of eleven hundred years.

The volcano of Stromboli is the only one at prefent
known, which appears to be in a ftate of conftant aftivity.
The mod ancient accounts of the conflagrations of Strom-
boli, tranfmitted by hiftory, are prior to the Chriftian era
about two hundred and ninety -two years ; but at what time
the eruptions firft commenced we are entirely ignorant.
Stromboli was burning in the time of Auguftus and Ti-
berius ; but for want of documents, we are unacquainted
with the ilate of this volcano for a feries of years after-
wards. We know, however, from various public tefti-
monies, that the continued eruptions have lafted fome cen-
turies. The crater is fituated on the fide of the mountain.
Spallanzani, who looked into it from an eminence immedi-
ately above it, fays that it has a circular conical form, and
Js about three hundred and forty feet in circumference at the
brink. To a'certain height the crater is filled with liquid
red-hot matter, refembling melted brafs : this is the fluid
lava. It appeared to be agitated by two dillinft motions :
the one inteftine, whirling, and tumultuous ; by the other
motion it was impelled upwards. The liquid matter is
railed fometimes with more and fometimes with lefs rapidity
within the crater ; and when it has reached the diftancc of
twenty-five feet from the upper edge, a found is heard not
unlike a very fliort clap of thunder ; while, at the fame in-
ftant, a portion of the lava, feparated into a thoufand
pieces, is thrown up with indefcribable fwiftnefs, accom-
panied with copious eruptions of fmoke and fand.

A few moments before the report, the furface of the lava
is infl.ited and covered with large bubbles, fome of which are
feveral feet in diameter. On the burfting of thefe bubbles,
the detonation and fiery (hower take place. After the ex-
plofion, the lava finks within the crater, but foon rifcs as
before, and new bubbles appear, which again burll, and
produce new cxplofions. When the lava finks, it produces
little or no found ; but when it rifes, and begins to be in-
flated with bubbles, it is accompanied with a found like that
of liquor boiling vehemently in a cauldron, but greater in
/ proportion to the magnitude of the crater. In the fmaller
' and moderate ejeftions, the ftones fell into the crater, and,
:\t their eoUifion with the lava, produced a found fimilar to
that of water ftruck by a number of (laves; but in the
greater ejeftions, a confidcrable quantity of them fell with-
out the mouth of the crater. The rcdncfs of the larger

ftones was vifibic in the air, notwidiftanding the light of the
fun. The lava, when it rofe or fell, emitted but little
fmoke ; but a great quantity iffued from the fiffures, when
it exploded. This difappearcd almoft inftantly after the
explofion, hke the fmoke from the firing of gunpowder.
Though the ejeftion of the larger and heavier ilones have
fiiort intermiffior.s, thofe of the leifer have fcarcely any.
Did not the eye perceive from whence thefe ftiowcrs of
ftone originate, they might be fuppofed to fall from the
flvy. The noife of the more violent eruptions, and the
darknefs from the afcending fmoke, prefent together the
image of a tempett. Durmg the night, the red-hot ftones
fpread hke a (heaf, and have the appearance of a beautiful
fire-work.

It has been obferved of Stromboli, that the inflammation
is in general more confiderable in winter than in fummcr,
and more intenfe on the approach of, or during, ftorms than
in calm weather. The materials which fupply the erup-
tions appear to be inexhauftible ; and there is reafon to be-
lieve that the volcanic fires of Stromboli and Vulcano have
an internal communication with thofe of JElna. and more
diftant countries, as we (hall prefently have occafion to
notice.

Boihng water and mud are occafionally thrown out of
volcanoes, but more frequently from the American vol-
canoes than from thofe in Europe. This phenomenon is
very different from that of mud volcanoes, more properly
fo called, the water ejefted from which is cold.

The water ejefted from fire volcanoes is probably what
finds accefs to the deep mafs of melted lava, either from the
fea in the vicinity, or from the neighbouring lakes. Ve-
fuvius is ftated at one time to have thrown out a conlider-
able quantity of fait water.

The moft remarkable circumftance attending the volcanic
eruptions in America is that ftated by Humboldt, who in-
forms us that great quantities of fifli are fometimes ejeiSled
from the crater at the top, and fometimes from the fides of
the mountain, through lateral openings ; but always from an
elevation more than fifteen thoufand feet above the level of
the fea. M. Humboldt has given the name of plnelodus
cyclopum to this fpecies of fi(h. Some of them are found
living in the rivers on the fides of the mountains, and in all
probability they exift in fubterranean lakes, the fides of
which are broken down during violent commotions, or
melted by heat : hence the water finds its way to the crater,
and is ejcfted with other materials. From this accefs of
water, the mud or flime thrown out, called by the Indians
moya, is probably formed.

In many inftances, however, the torrents of water which
iftue from volcanoes arife from the rapid thawing of the
fnow on the fummk. According to Humboldt, the colollal
volcanic cones in the Andes, covered with fnow, have be-
come fo hot in a fingle night as to melt the whole of the
fnow, and occafion the moil cxtcnfive and fatal inundations.
Torrents of water in"ued from Etna, in the eruption of
1755 ; but, according to Ferrara, ihey did not flow out of
the crater, but from the fnow and ice on the (urfacc fud-
denly thawed by the lava. A mafs of this ice, partially
melted by the lava, left a pile in the midft ft.iiiding like a
fuperb palace of cryilal.

It is only by obfcrvations made in or near the crater,
wlien a volcano is in a quicfcent ftate, that we can gain any
knowledge of the faline or inflammable matter, which may
cither have fcrvcd as fuel to the volcano, or have been pro-
duced by the eruption, or been fubfcquently fublimcd. Of
thefe we (lull fpeak more particularly, in deicribing Folcanic
Produiii, infra. The rapidity and extent of a cnrrcnt of
3 K 2 lava

VOLCANO.

lava will depend on its fluidity, the quatitity thrown out,
and on the more or lefs rapid declivity ot the mountain.

From various experiments made by Spallanzani and
others, on the melting of lavas, it appears that they are
fufceptible of different degrees of fluidity, according to the
degrees of temperature to which they are fubjefted. Thefe
gradations of fluidity, proportioned to the degree of heat,
take place in other ftones or fubftances fufible by fire, as
may be obferved in the flag from our furnaces. In fome
inllances, the lava appears to have the perfeft fluidity of
water. According to profeflbr Bottis, who was an eye-
witnefs in 1776, the lava fpoutcd from three fmall cones or
apertures on Vefuvius, precifely like water, forming three
beautiful fountains of fire, which defcribed curves of dif-
ferent dimenfions as they fell. He fays alfo, that he has
twice feen the inflamed matter break forth and difgorge in
the Atrio del Cavallo, at the foot of the volcanic cone of
Vefuvius. From its great fluidity, it refembled water
ifluing with violence from under the earth, and inundating
the adjacent country. The current of lava, which flowed
from this mountain in 1776, ftruck upon the lava of 1771,
and rebounded into the air, congealing in various figures,
terminating in thin fliarp points like needles. In the erup-
tion of 1754, the lava formed two branches, which flowed
thirty feet in forty-five feconds, or above half a mile an
hour ; and uniting lower down, proceeded at the rate of
thirty-three feet in fifty feconds. In 1765, the lava is
ftated to have flowed at the rate of a mile an hour. An-
other branch of the fame lava is faid by fir William Hamil-
ton to have had a velocity equal to that of the river Severn
at Briftol. In 1776, a torrent of lava from the fummit
of Vefuvius was obferved to flow a mile and a half in four-
teen minutes. When the declivity is very gentle, the mo-
tion is flow, if the current is not prefled forward by new
fupplies of melted matter. Notwithftanding the velocity of
torrents of lava, their tenacity is much greater than might
at firft have been expefted. Sir William Hamilton informs
us, that the lava of Vefuvius in 1765, which flowed a mile
an hour, almoft refift;ed any impreflion made on it with a
long pole ; and fome large ftones, thrown upon it with great
force, did not fink, but making only a flight impreflion,
fwam upon its furface. The tenacity and refiltance of lavas,
even when flowing, is, fays Spallanzani, an evident confe-
quence of the aftion of the cold atmofphere. The lofs of
heat fo occafioned is incomparably greater on the furface
than in the internal parts, in which the lava ft:ill retains a
confidenible degree of fluidity, as appears on breaking the
cruft. The different currents of lava from Etna have
flowed to the diftance of fifteen, twenty, and even thirty
miles from their fource ; and the current of lava, which
flowed during the volcanic eruption of 1783 in Iceland, ex-
tended nearly fixty miles in length.

Neiu Volcanoes When a volcano breaks out in a new

fituatioD, the phenomena are generally fomewhat different ;
but it may be proper to remark, that we have no inflances
of volcanoes breaking out on land, in countries that are not
or have not formerly been volcanic. New openings have
indeed been made, at the diftance of feveral m.iles from any
exifting volcano ; but they have taken place in a volcanic or
bafaltic foil. From prcfent appearances we are warranted
in the conclufion, that all volcanoes were originally fub-
marine. The moft remarkable inftance of the formation of
a range of volcanic mountains in a new fituation is that
recorded by Humboldt of the volcano of JoruUo, and
the adjoining hills, in the intendancy of Valladohd, or Me-
choacan, in New Spain, on the Z9th of September, i"59.

A vaft plain extends from the hills of Agtiafarco nearly
2

to the villages of Teipa and Petatlan. This plain is in fome
parts not more than Ivio thoufand fix hundred feet above the
level of the fea : it contains various conical hills of bafalt
and porphyry, crowned with evergreen oaks and palm-trees.
Till tlie middle of the eighteenth century, part of the plain
was cultivated with fugar-canes and indigo. It was bounded
by bafaltic mountains, the ftrufture of which indicated that,
at a very remote period, this country had feveral times been
convulfed by volcanoes. Thefe fields, watered by artificial
means, belonged to the plantation of San Pedro de Jorullo,
one of the largeft and richeft in the country. In the month
of June, 1 759, hollow fubterranean noifes of a moft alarm-
ing kind were accompanied by earthquakes, which fucceeded
each other for fixty days, to the great confternation of the
inhabitants. After the commencement of September, tran-
quillity appeared re-eftabliflied ; but on the nights of the
29th and 3Cth, the horrible fubterranean noifes were re-
newed. The affrighted inhabitants fled to the mountains of
Aguafarco.

A tracl of ground, ten Enghfli miles in extent, rofe up in
the fliape of a bladder above the old level of the plain.
Near the edges it is only thirty-nine feet above the plain ;
but tqwards the centre, the convexity of the ground rifcs to
the height of five hundred and thirty-four feet above its
former level. This part of the ground is called Malpays.
Thofe who witnefled the fcene from the top of Aguafarco
aflert that flames were feen to iffue forth from an extent of
more than half a league, that fragments of burning rocks
were thrown to a prodigious height, and that the loftened
furface of the earth feemed to fwell like an agitated fea.
The rivers Cuitambo and San Pedro precipitated ihemfelves
into the burning abyfs, and appeared to invigorate the
flames. Torrents of mud and clay, enveloping balls of
bafalt in concentric layers, were thrown out. Thouiands
of fmall cones rofe up in the Malpays, from each of which
a thick vapour afcended. In the midft of thefe cones was
opened a large chafm, from which were thrown out fix large
mafles or mountains, from thirteen to tjxteen hundred feet
in height above the level of the plain : the moft elevated of
thefe is the volcano of Jorullo. Here we have a range of
volcanic hills formed in a few days, in the fame manner as
the Monte Nuovo near Naples, but of an extent and eleva-
tion exceeding that of the Malvern hills in Worcefterfliire,
or the Pentland hills near Edinburgh.

The volcano of Jorullo is ftill continually burning, and
according to M. Humboldt's account, who vifited it in
1803, it has thrown up on tlie north fide an immenfe quan-
tity of fcoriie and bafaltic lavas, containing fragments of
prim.itive rocks. The firft great eruption continued to the
year 1760; m the following years, the explofions became
gradvially lefs frequent. The traveller is ftill fhewn where
the rivers Cuitambo and San Pedro difappeared on the
night of September 29, 1759. About one mile and a half
lower down now rife up two rivers, impregnated with
mineral matter, having a temperature of 126' Fahrenheit.

There is one circumftance attending this great eruption,
which feems peculiar to the formation of new volcanoes or
volcanic cones. An immenfe rent is made in the furface,
through the whole of which the matter is ejedled, until the
chafm becomes choaked up in different parts, and the erup-
tions are confined to a few openings, round which the matter
is accumulated, forming a feries of craters or mountains,
ranged in one line. A fimilar range of volcanic cones was
formed on the fide of Etna, neareft Lingua Groffa, in the
year 1809. In this eruption, nine new boccas or craters
were formed in the fame fine, near to each other. The an-
cient volcanoes in Auvergnc, which are ranged in a line of

fixty

VOLCANO.

Cixly miles, and alfo other volcanic ranges of great extent,
have probably been formed by enormous chafms, partially
choaked up in the fame manner. Indeed the new volcanic
range, of which Jorullo forms a part, is placed in the diredl
line of a volcanic range of vatt extent, which this erup-
tion appears to have partially re-opened. Humboldt ob-
ferves, that in New Spain there is a narrow zone placed
between latitude i8° 59' and 19° 12', in which the lofty
volcanoes that dill continue to burn, or which from their
form and the nature of the rocks may be inferred to have
been once volcanic, are fituated. In receding from the At-
lantic, we find in the fame line, ranging eaft and well, the
Pic d'Orizaba, the two volcanoes of Le Pucbla, the Ne-
vada de Toluca, and the volcano of Colima. The parallel of
their grcatell elevation ranges nearly at right angles with the
chain of mountains that form the Cordillera of Anahuac ;
and it is worthy of obfervation, that the volcano of Jorullo
forms a prolongation of that line, on the fame parallel with
the ancient Mexican volcanoes. Do not thefe analogies, he
adds, entitle us to fuppofe that in this part of Mexico there
exifts, at a great depth in the earth, a chafm, extending in
a direftion from eaft to welt one himdred and thirty-feven
leagues, along which the volcanic lire, at different epochas,
has burft through the porphyritic crull, from the gulf of
Mexico to the South fta ? This chafm may alfo extend to
the group of iflands called the Archipelago of Revellegedo,
placed in the fame parallel of latitude, around which pumice-
itone has been feen floating.

For an account of the volcanic eruption which formed
Monte Roii'o on Etna, fee ^txa.

A tremendous noife and violent concufBons of the earth
preceded the repeated difcharges of fcorije and fand in this
eruption ; yet during all thefe convulfions, the fummit of
Etna was perfeftly quiet, and only emitted a light fmoke,
which had ifTued with the fame tranquillity before the
eruption. A range of volcanic hills was formed in a fimilar
manner near the foot of Vefuvins, in 1760. After repeated
concudions of the earth, which were felt fifteen miles round
the mountain, a vaft opening was made in the territory of
Torre del Greco, from which fifteen volcanoes arofe ; eight
of thefe were foon covered by a torrent of lava, which
rufhed from one of them ; the other feven remaining entire,
and inceffantly ejecting from tluir mouths vaft quantities of
ignited fubftances, which falling almolt perpendicularly
round the new volcanoes, produced in ten days feven fmall
mountains of various heights, difpofed in a right line.
During the eruption, the iioifcs fometimes refembh-d violent
thunder, at others the difchargc of artillery ; large ftones
were thrown to the height of nine hundred and fixty feet.
After tile tenth day, the eruption ceafed, and the newly-
formed mountains gradually cooling, permitted a nearer ap-
proach'; fome of them had at their fummits a cavity
refembling a funnel, others a hollow of greater or lefs
depth.

The J^ipari iflands extend in a right hne about fifty miles
from eaft to weft, except Vulcano, which makes a fmall
angle. Thefe iflands, as well as the volcanic ifles of the
Moluccas, which form a chain in the Indian ocean, pro-
bably originated from enormous chafms, hke thofc which
formed Jorullo, and the ranges on the fides of Etna and
Vefuvius. Thefe chafms were in all probability firil opened
under the ocean.

When a volcano opens in a new fituation, the commo-
tions which precede it will be greater than when the erup-
tion takes place from craters already formed. The rc-
fiftance occalioned by the congelation of lava in the mouth
and paflages of the principal crater, may be greater than

from other parts of tl:e furface, in which cafe the liquid
lava, confined and compreffed by the expanfive force of heat
and elaflic vapour, may be driven laterally to a great
diftance between the feams and fiffures of the ftrata, up-
heaving the furface in fome parts, and foftening it or melt-
ing it in others, producing earthquakes in countries far re-
mote from the principal crater, which will continue till a
new opening is made.

It is related by Strabo, that the ifland of Euboea had
been for a long time violently agitated by earthquakes,
when a large rent opened in the plain of Lelantum,
from which was ejetted a river of fiery mud ; after this the
earthquake ceafed. Other inftances of violent earth-
quakes, felt at the diftance of many hundred miles from the
place of eruption, arc not uncommon, as we (hall foon have
occafion to notice. The lateral prefi'ure occafioned by a
column of lava two miles in lieight, inuft be enormoufly
great, and from this caufe alone we might expeft, that in
very lofty volcar->*5, like Etna, the eruptions ftiould be
more frequent fi^m the fides than the fummit, which is
found to be the faft. The fuddcn retiring of the fea from
the fliore before an eruption has frequently been noticed.
This can only be fatisfaftorily explained by the upheaving
of the foftened furface of the ground ; and during violent
earthquakes, the anchors let down at a diftance from the
fiiore have been oblerved to be heated, proving the ftate of
the ground below.

Siihmarinc Voliniwes. — When a volcano breaks out under
the furface of tlie fea, the phenomena attending the erup-
tion vary confiderably from thofe obferved on land, owing to
the oppofition of conflicting elements, the refiftance made to
the eruption, and the more fudden cooling of the matter
ejefted. It is the opinion of Humboldt, that in all fub-
marine volcanoes, the cruft of the earth is foftened and
fwelled by fubterranean heat, till it rifes above the furface
of the ocean even from great depths, before any eruption
takes place. From the narrative of eyc-witneffes, we have
reafon to believe that in many inftances the opinion of Hum-
boldt is correct. There are, however, volcanic eruptions which
undoubtedly take place at the bottom of the fea, and the ap-
pearance of new land is caufcd by the ftones and fcori;c thrown
up from thence : the more rapid cooling of the cruft of the
lava may alfo accelerate the formation of a new ifland. We
have alio inftances of Immenfe quantities of pumice floating
in the ocean fome hundred leagues from land, which could
oiily proceed from the eruption of volcanoes at fo great a
depth under the fea as to prcfent no other volcanic phe-
nomena on its furface. The fubmarine volcanoes which
have been obft rved fince the records of authentic hiftory are
not very numerous, nor will this appear furprifing, when we
confider that the ocean has not been cxtenfively traverfed by
civilized men more than a few hundred years. The nu-
merous volcanic iflands fcattered over the globe, which are
evidently formed by fubterranean fire, may however con-
vince us, that the phenomena of fubmarine volcanoes have
been not unfrequent in a former condition of tlie globe.
The fubmarine volcanoes of which we have the earlieft ac-
count, are thofe in the Grecian Archipelago, near the ifland
of Santorini. This ifland forms a triangle with the ifland
of Melo, which is volcanic, and with Paros, fo celebrated
for its marble. The fides of the triangle are about fifteen
leagues each.

Santorini, formerly Thera, and afterwards St. Irene, was
furnamed by the Greeks Kaij.mi, or burnt, and fo in fadl the
foil is. There is a tradition, fays Pliny, (hb. ii. cap. H7.)
" that it rofe out of the fea in a very remote but unknown
period." The fea i< very dee]) near Santorini, there being

no

VOLCANO.

no ground for anchorage near it. The ancients have left us
the foUovring account of the eruptions in its vicinity.

In the fourth year of the 135th Olympiad, or 236 B. C,
the idand of Therafia rofe in the midft of fire from the fea ;
it is feparated from Santorini by a ftrait of a mile and a half
in breadth.

A hundred and thirty years afterwards, the ifland of
Automate, called alfo Hiera, rofe near it ; and one hundred
and ten years after this, another idand, called Thia, rofe two
hundred and fifty paces from Hiera. Thefe three erup-
tions are recorded by Pliny, in the place above cited ; by
Strabo, lib. i. ; and by Seneca, in the Quxftiones Naturales,
lib. vi. cap. 21.

Since the Chriftian era, we have the following accounts
of the fubmarine eruptions near Santorini.

In the year 726, Thia was joined to Hiera by a quantity
of lava ejeAed, together with afhes and red-hot rocks.

In 1457, the ifland was ftill farther increafed by a fimilar
eruption. This event and the date are attetled by an in-
fcription on a marble ftone erefted near the gate of fort
Scaumo, in Santorini.

A fixth eruption, in 1576, produced a new ifland, called
the Little Kamenoi.

According to the account of Kircher, a cotemporary
author, there was an eruption in 1650, which lafted a
twelvemonth, from the 24th of September to the 9th of
Oftober in the following year. " The fea rofe to the height
of forty-five feet, and that at fuch a diftance, that fome gal-
leys of the grand feignor's were wrecked in the port of
Candia, fituated more than eighty miles from Santorini, and
Smyrna and Conftantinople were incommoded with the afhes,
which rufhed out of the fea in whirlwinds of flame. Another
great eruption took place in 1707 and 1708, whereby the
Little Kamenoi was increafed, and is now more than three
leagues in circumference. On the 23d of May, I707»
after an earthquake that happened the night before, a new
ifland was difcovered by fome feamen, who taking it for a
wreck, rowed immediately toward it, but finding rocks and
earth, inft.ead of the remains of a fliip, haft;ened back, and
fpread the ngws of what they had feen in Santorini. How
great foever the apprehenfions of the inhabitants were at the
firft fight, their furprife foon abated ; and in a few days,
feeing no appearance of fire or fmoke, fome of them ven-
tured to land on the new ifland. Their curiofity led them
from rock to rock, where they found a kind of white ttone,
that cut hke bread, which it nearly refembled in its form and
confiilence. They alfo found many oyfters flicking to the
rocks ; but while they were employed in gathering them,
the ifland moved and fliook under their feet, upon which
they ran with precipitation to their boats. With thefe
motions and tremblings the ifland increafed not only in
height, but in length and breadth ; yet fometimes, while it
was raifed and extended on one fide, it funk and diminiflied
on the otlier.

" Our author obferved a rock rife out of the fea forty or
fifty paces from the ifland, which having continued four days,
funk, and appealed no more ; but feveral others appeared
and difappeared alternately, till at laft they remained fixed
and unmoved. In the mean time, the colour of the fur-
rounding fea was changed : at firft it was of a light green,
then reddifli, and afterwards of a pale yellow, accompanied
with a noifome flench, which fpread itfelf over part of
Santorini.

" On the 1 6th of July the fmoke firft appeared, not indeed
from the ifland, but from a ridge of black Hones which fud-
denly rofe about fixty paces from it, where the depth of
the fea was unfathomable. Thus there were two fc-paratc

iflands, one called the White and the other tlic Black ifland,
from their different appearances. This thick fmoke was of
a whitifli colour, like that of a lime-kiln, and vias carried by
the wind to Santorini, where it penetrated the houfes of the
inhabitants.

" In the night between the 19th and 20th of July, flames
began to iflue with the fmoke, to the great terror of the in-
habitants of Santorini, efpecially thofe of the caftle of
Scaro, who were not above a mile and a half diftant from
the burning ifland, which now increafed very faft, large
rocks daily fpringing up, which fometimes added to its
length, and fometimes to its breadth. The fmoke alfo in-
creafed, and there being no wind, it afcended fo high as to
be feen at Candia and other diftant iflands. During the
night it refembled a column of fire, fifteen or twenty feet
high ; and the fea was then covered with a fcurf or froth, in
fome places reddifli, and in others yellowifli, from which
proceeded fuch a ftench, that the inhabitants throughout
the whole ifland of Santorini burnt perfumes in their
houfes, and made fires in the ftreets to prevent infeftion.
This indeed did not laft above a day or two, for a ftrong
gale of wind difperfed the froth, but drove the fmoke upon
the vineyards of Santorini, by which the grapes in one night
were parched up and deftroyed. This fmoke alfo caufed
violent head- aches, attended with retchings.

" On the 31ft of July, the fea fmoked and bubbled in
two different places near the ifland, where the water formed

a perfeft circle, and looked like oil when ready to boil.
This continued above a month, during which many fifli were
found dead on the ftiore of Santorini. The following night
a dull hollow noife was heard, like the diftant report of feveral
cannon, which was inftantly followed by flames of fire,
fliooting up to a great height in the air, where they fud-
denly difappeared. The next day the fame hollow found
was feveral times heard, and fucceeded by a blackifli fmoke,
which, notwithftanding a frefli gale blew at that time, rofe
up in the form of a column to a prodigious height, and
would probably in tlie night have appeared as if on fire.

" On the 7th of Auguft the noife was diff'erent, it re-
fembled that of large ftones thrown all together into a deep
well. This noife having lafted fome days, was fucceeded by
another much louder, fo nearly refembling thunder, as
hardly to be diftinguiflied from three or four real claps that
happened at the fame time.

" On the 2 1 ft, the fire and fmoke very confiderably dimi-
niflied, but the next morning they broke out with greater
fury than before. The fmoke was red and very thick ; and
the heat was fo intenfe, that all around the ifland the fea
fmoked and bubbled in a furprifing manner. At night,
our author viewing with a telcfcope a large furnace upon the
higheft part of the ifland, difcovered fixty fmaller openings
or funnels, all emitting a very bright flame ; and he ima-
gined there might be many more on the other fide of the
great volcano. On the 23d of Auguft, in the morning,
the ifland was much higher than the day before, and its
breadth was increafed by a chain of rocks, fprung up in the
night almoft fifty feet above the water. The fea was alfo
again covered with reddifli froth, which always appeared
when the ifland received any confiderable additions, and oc
cafioned nn intolerable ftench, till it was difperfed by the wind
and the motion of the waves.

" On the 5th of September the fire opened another vent
at the extremity of Black ifland, from which it iffucd for
feveral days, during which but Uttle was difcharged from
the large furnace : and from this new paflage the aftoniflicd
fpeftators beheld the fire dart up three feveral times, to a vail
heiglit, refembling fo many prodigious fliy. rockets, of a

glowing

VOLCANO.

j^lowiftg lively red. The foilowiisg night the fiihtci raucous
fire made a terrible noife, aiid immediately after, a thoufand
Iheaves of fire blew up into the air, where breakinij and dif-
perllng, they fell like a ftiower of ftars upon the ifland,
which appeared all in a blaze, prefenting to the amazed
fpeftators at once a moll dreadful and beautiful illumination.
To ihefe natural fire -works fucceeded a kind of meteor,
which for fome time hung over the caftle of Scare, which
is fcated on a high rock in the ifland of Santorini, a meteor
not unlike a fiery fword, and which ferved to incieafe the
terror of the inhabitants.

" On the 9th of September, the White and Black iflands
united, after which the wellcrn end of the ifland daily in-
creafed. There were now only four openings that emitted
flames, which ilTued forth with great impetuofity, fometimes
attended with noife like that of a large organ-pipe, and
fometimes hke the howling of wild beafts. On the 12th, the
fubterraneous noife became much augmented, having never
been fo frequent or fo dreadful as on that and the following
day. The burfts of this fubterranean thunder, like a gene-
ral difcharge of the artillery of an army, were repeated ten
or twelve times within twenty-four hours ; and immediately
after each clap, the large furnace threw up huge red-hot
Hones, which fell mto the fea at a great diftance. Thefe
claps were always followed by a thick fmoke, which fpread
clouds of arties over the fea and the neighbouring iflands.
" On the 1 8th of September an earthquake was felt at
Santorini, but did no great damage, though it confiderably
enlarged the burning ifland, and in feveral places gave vent
to the fire and fmoke. The claps were alfo more terrible
than ever, and in the midft of a thick fmoke, that appeared
like a mountain, large pieces of rock were thrown up with
as much noife and force as balls from the mouth of a cannon,
which afterwards fell upon the ifland, or into the fea. One
of the fmall neighbouring iflands was feveral times covered
with thefe fiery llones, which being thinly crutled over vvitli
fulphur, gave a bright light, and continued burning till that
waa confumed.

" On the 21ft, after a dreadful clap of fubterraneous
thunder, very great lightnings cnfued, and at the fame in-
fant the new ifland was fo violently fliaken,that part of the
great furnace came tumbling down, and huge burning rocks
were thrown to the dillance of two miles and upwards. This
feemed to be the lafl effort of the volcano, and to have ex-
haufted the combullible matter, as all was quiet for feveral
days after. But on the 25th the fire broke out again, with
Hill greater fury, and among the claps was one fo terrible, that
the churches of Santorini were foon filled with crowds of
people, cxpefting every moment would be their lad ; and
the callle and town of Scaro fuffcrcd fuch a (hock, that the
doors and windows of the houfes flew open. The volcano
continued to rage during tlie remainder of the year ; and in
the month of January 1708, the large furnace without intcr-
miflion threw out llones and flames at lead once or twice,
but generally five or fix times a day.

" On the loth of February, in the morning, a pretty
ftrong earthquake was felt at Santorini, which the inhabit-
ants confidered as a prelude to greater commotions in the
burning ifland : nor were they deceived ; for foon after, the
fire and fmoke iffucd in prodigious quantities ; the claps
like thunder were redoubled ; and nothing appeared but ob-
jcfts of horror and confufion. Rocks of an amazing fize
were raifed up to a great height above the water, and the
fea raged and boiled to fuch a degree, that it occafioncd
great conllernation. The fubterraneous bcllowings were
heard without intermiffion, and fometimes, in Icfs than a
quarter of an hour, there were fix or feveii eruptions from

the large furnace. The noife of the repeated clapt,
the quantity of huge (tones that flew on every fide, the
houfes tottering to their very foundations, and the fire which
now appeared in open day, furpaffed all that had hitherto
happened, and formed a fcene allonifhing beyond defcription.
" The 15th of April was rendered remarkable by the
number and violence of the bellowings and eruptions, by
one of which near a hundred large ftones were thrown up
all together into the air, and fell again into the fea, at about
two miles diftance. From this time to the 23d of May,
which might be called the anniverfary of the birth of the
new ifland, things continued much in the fame ftate ; but
afterwards the fire and fmoke by degrees fubfided, and the
fubterraneous thunders became lefs terrible.

" On the 15th of July, 1709, our author, accompanied
by the Romifh bifhop of Santorini and fome other eccle-
fiaftics, hired a boat to take a near view of the ifland. They
made direftly towards it, on that fide wfiere the fea did not
bubble, but where it fmoked very much. Being got into
this vapour, they felt a clofe fuffocating heat, and found
the water very hot and fultry. Having encompaffed the
ifland, and furveyed it carefully from an adjacent one, they
judged it to be two hundred feet above the fea, about a mile
broad, and five miles in circumference ; but not being
thoroughly fatisfied, they refolved to attempt to land, and
accordingly rowed toward that part of the ifland where they
perceived neither fire nor fmoke ; but when they got within
a hundred yards of it, the gre:^t furnace difcharged itfelf
with its ufual fury, and the wind blew upon them a thick
fmoke, and a ihower of aflies, which obliged them to quit
their defign. Having retired a little, they let down a plum-
met, with a line ninety-five fathoms long, but it was too
fliort to reach the bottom. On their return to Santorini,
they obferved that the heat of the water had melted moll of
the pitch from their boat, which was before grown very
leaky. For feveral years afterwards the ifland continued to
incrcafe, and the fire and fubterranean noifes abated."

Another eruption, almoll equally violent, took place in
1767, in the month of June, and a new ifland was formed
between the Little Kamenoi and the ifland of Hiera. It
is named the Black ifland, and is twice as large as the
Little Kamenoi. There have been nine of thefe fubmarine
eruptions recorded in the fpace of twenty-one centuries,
and probably many others have occurred at great depths,
without raifing new iflands. Thevenot, a refpcftable tra-
veller, who vifited Santorini in 1655, ft'itcs that eighteen
years before his arrival in the ifland, a violent noiie was
heard there, and even at Chios, though diftant two hundred
miles, and was at firft fuppofed to be occafioned by an
aftion between the Venetian and Turkilh fleets. A (hort
time after, a vaft quantity of pumice-llone rofc from the
bottom of the fea, near the harbour, with fuch violence and
noife, as to refemble repeated difcharges of artillery, which
fo infefted the air, that feveral perfons died at Santorini,
and others loft their fight. The infedion extended to Chios
and Smyrna. The pumices thrown up covered the fea in
fuch a manner, that when certain winds prevailed, the h.ir-
bours were fo blocked up with them, that not even the
fmalleft vefltls could get out, till a way was made for them,
by removing the pumicea witli long poles ; and they were
ftill, in 1655, fcen fcattered over the whole Mediterranean.
Voyages de M. Thevenot, prem. part.

Various fubmarine volcanoes have broken out near the

. iflands called Azores or Terceras, and have raifed feveral

new iflands. The phenomena attending their formation were

fimilar to thofe which took place at Santorini. Tliefocnip-

tioDs hive occurred fince lljc Azores were iirft vifited by

Europeans.

VOLCANO.

Europeans. The Azores, indeed, appear to have been all
formed in a fimilar manner at a remote period. Moil of the
newly formed iflands have funk down fome months after tht-ir
emerfion. So recently as i8i i, a fmall ifland was raifed by
a fubmarine eruption, at a little diftance from St. Michael's.
It was a mafs of black rock, defcribed by the captain of
the Sabrina frigate, who witneffed its formation, to be equal
in height to Matlock High Tor, in Derby fliire. In 1813 it
had difappeared, and there is now eighty fathoms water in
the place.

In 1783, about the end of January, flames broke out
from the fea, at the diftance of thirty miles from Cape
Reckianes, at the fouth-weft extremity of Iceland, and
coHtinued to burft forth during feveral months. In June
earthquakes fhook the whole of Iceland, and the flames
from the fea difappeared. A dreadful eruption then com-
menced from the Shaptaa Jokul, nearly two hundred miles
diftaiit from the place where the fubmarine volcano broke
out. This eruption is one of the greateft recorded in hif-
tory. The inhabitants of Iceland never faw the fun during
the remaining part of the fummer, and black volcanic
fand fell in the Orkney iflands, and was called black fnow.
The whole of Europe was covered with a haze, which
greatly obfcured the atniofphere when no clouds were pre-
fent. It was in the fummer of the fame year that the dread-
ful earthquakes in Sicily took place, which nearly deftroyed
the harbour of Meffina, and did incalculable damage in va-
rious parts of Calabria. According to the account of iir
George Mackenzie, the volcano of Heckla is nearly in a
direft line between the fubmarine volcano and the Shaptaa
Jokul, which indicates that a communication fubfifted between
them : hence, fays he, we may conjefture, " that the depth
of the fource from whence they both proceeded was very
great." Were we to admit that the fource of the motion
which produced the earthquakes in Calabria was the fame
with that of the volcanic fires in Iceland, we muft place it
fome thoufand miles below the furface, if not in the centre
of the globe itfelf.

Mud Volcanoes- — Befides the volcanoes already defcribed,
there are others refembUng them in many circumftances, but
differing in this important one, that inftead of fire, they
throw out water and mud. They are much kfs common
than fire volcanoes. There is one in the ifland of Sicily ;
there are others in the Crimea and its vicinity ; and one alfo
in the ifland of Java.

Maccaluba, in Sicily, is fituated between Arragona and
Girgenti, formerly Agrigentum. In its vicinity is a coni-
cal hill truncated, and forming a plain at the fummit of
half a mile in circumference.

The whole furface of this plain is a thick mud, yet not
fo firm, but that it fometimes occafions a fear of finking
into it. There is not the flighteft fign of vegetation upon it.
The depth of the mud is unknown, but it is fuppofed to be
immenfe.

In the courfe of the year this plain prefents two different
appearances. In the rainy feafon the mud is much foftened ;
it has an even furface, on which there is nothing more to be
ieen than a general ebullition, accompanied with a very fen-
fible rumbling iioife. At this time it is dangerous to go
upon the fpot. In the dry feafon the fcene changes, the
mud acquires greater confiftency, but without ceafing its
motion ; the plain alTumes a form flightly convex, and a
number of little cones are thrown up, which, however,
rarely rife to the height of two feet. Each of them has its
crater, where a black mud is feen in conftant agitation, and
inceffantly emitting bubbles of air. With thefe the matter
infenfibly rifes. As foon as the crater is full of it, it dif.

gorges : the refidue finks, and the cone has a free crater
until a new cmiifion. In this feafon alio, to the weft of this
fmall plain, there appear fome cavities full of muddy falt-
water, from which likewife bubbles of air are thrown up ;
but here it is without noife ; whereas in the cones, the air
makes a crackling, as when it proceeds from water that boils
violently.

Such are the regular ftates of this extraordinary hill in the
courfe of the year. It would probably have obtained but
little attention, had thefe been the only phenomena it
prefents.

But at times the hill affumes quite another charader,
being fubjeft to convulfions alarming to all its environs.
They are denoted by earthquakes, which are felt at the
diftance of two or three miles. Internal noifes, refembling
the rolling of fubterranean thunder, are heard ; they increafe
for feveral days, and then end in an eruption of a prodigious
fountain of mud, earth,and ftones, which rifes two or three hun-
dred feet into the air. This explofion is fometimes repeated
twice or thrice in the courfe of the twenty-four hours.
Some years the mount has no eruptions. Of the eruption
in 1777, Ferrara gives the following account. " Dreadful
noifes were heard all around, and from the midft of the
plain an immenfe column of mud arofe to the height of about
one hundred feet, which, on defcending, alTumed the ap-
pearance of a tree at the top. Stones of all kinds and fizes
were darted up violently and vertically within the body of
the column. This terrible explofion lafted half an hour,
when it became quiet ; but after a few minutes refumed its
courfe, and with thefe intermiflions, continued all the day.
During the time of this phenomenon, a pungent fmell of
fulphuretted hydrogen gas was perceived at a great diftance.
On the following day the new orifices had ejefted feveral
ftreams of calcareous earth (called by Ferrara chalk) ;
this had covered with a cruft of many feet all the furround-
ing fpace, filling the cavities and chinks. The hard fub-
ftances ejefted were fragments of calcareous tufa, of cryf-
taUized gypfum, pieces of quartz and of iron pyrites, which
had loft their luftre, and were broken to pieces.

The apparent boiling of the mud proceeds from the
efcape of bubbles of gas, for the mud does not feel warm,
and the thermometer, on being immerfed in it, fell three de-
grees. Of the other mud volcano, we have the following
account by Pallas, Tableau Phyfique de la Taurida, 1794.

The ifland of Taman is fituated near the peninfula of
Kenha, and is feparated from it by one of the mouths of
the river Cuban, on the fouth-eaft of Little Tartary, now
Taurida. The country is flat, and covered with beds of
flime, mixed with mud, and with fome beds of marie and
fea-fliells. Copious fprings of petroleum are found in fe-
veral places, alfo pools of greater or fmaller dimenfions,
from moft of which a briny mud is difgorged with bubbles.
There are three of thefe pools in the peninfula, and feven or
eight in Taman. One of the latter, feveral fathoms in
diameter, fituated on the fide of a hill, ihews by its incefl"ant
bubbling the abundance of gas that keeps it working ; the
liquid river is conftantly falling over the brim of it, and
flowing off flowly. On the top of the fame hill are feen
three fmall eminences, which are evidently formed by the
mud vomited by three fimilar pools, formerly open. At
the foot are two little lakes of falt-water, which fmell of pe-
troleum. Perfons fettled at Yenikoul for fifteen or twenty
years paft, remember an explofion on this hill, accompanied
with circumftances fimilar to what took place in a different
part of the ifland, fix months previous to the author's
journey.

This laft eruption occurred in February, 1794. It was

the

VOLCANO.

the greateft and moft copious ever known. It happened at
the top of a hill, fituated at the north point of Taman, near
tlie bay of the fame name. The appearance of the place
fccms to indicate that there had been a fimilar eruption at a
remote period, for the ground that was not covered over by
the lail eruption, is of the fame nature as the more recent
fediments, being the fame foil, with the difference only
which vegetation and atmofplieric influence muft neceffarily
produce.

The place where the new gulf opened was a pool where
the fnow and rain-water ufually remained for a long time.
The explofion took place with a noife hlce that of thunder,
and with the appearance of a mafs of fire in the form of a
fheaf, which lafted only about half an hour, accompanied by
a thick fmoke. The ebulhtion, which threw up a part of
the liquid mud, lafted till next day, after which the mud con-
tinued running over flowly, and formed fij^ ftreams, which
made their way from the top of the hill to the plain. The
body of mud collefted by thefe ftreams is from fix to ten
feet deep, and may be reckoned more than a hundred thou-
fand cubic fathoms ! In July, the time when M. Pallas
vifited the place, the furface of thofe beds of mud was dry,
extremely uneven, and cracked like clayey ground. The
gulf that had vomited them was ftopped up with the mud,
which was likewife dry. It was not dangerous to walk
over it, but it was frightful, as the horrid bubbhng, which
was then ftill heard in the interior of the hill, (hewed that it
was not fo tranquil as at the furface. The mud thus dif-
charged is always a foft clay of a blueifh-afh colour, every
where of the fame nature, mixed with brilliant fparks of
mica, and with fragments of marly, calcareous and fandy
fchift, which feem torn from the beds direftly over the re-
fervoir whence the explofion proceeds. Some cryftals and
fparkling laminae of pyrites found in thefe fragments, prove
that the heat of the refervoir was not fuificiently powerful to
afFeft the beds which contained thofe pyrites, nor was the
mud difcharged from the gulf more than luke-warm. The
appearance of fire, which M. Pallas heard defcribed as
accompanying the eruption, was probably inflamed hydrogen
gas. He fuppofes that a bed of coal has for ages been on
fire under Kercha and Taman, and that the fea at times
breaking into the cavities, produces a quantity of lleam, the
expanfion of which, and the generation of hydrogen gas,
force open a paifage for the mud, and drive it upwards in
its afceiit. This opinion we ftiall confider when we treat
of the probable caufes of volcanic eruptions in the prefent
article. In the Penang Ga/.ette of February lo, 1816,
there is an account of a mud volcano of great extent in the
ifland of Java, rcfcmbling in all the important particulars
thofe defcribed in Sicily and Taman. It is fituated m the
plains of Grobogno, N.E. of Solo, near the village of
Kuhoo. The mud volcano, if it may be fo called, forms
an elevated plain, about two miles in circumference, which
may be regarded as the crater. In the centre of this plain
very large bubbles of mud rofe, and fwelled up to the height
of ten or fifteen feet, which on burfting emitted volumes of
dcnfe white fmoke. Thefe large bubbles, of which there
were two, continued to rife and burll feven or eight times in
a minute, and often threw up two or three tons of mud.
The fmoke had the fmcU of fulphuretted hydrogen, or, as it
it defcribed, like the wafliing of a gun-barrel. As the bub-
bles burft, they tlircw out the mud round the centre with a
noifc occafioned by the falling of the mud on the plain, com-
pofed of the fame mud. Smaller bubbles rofe from fome
parts of the plain : from other parts round the large bub-
bles fmall quantities of fand were occafionally (hot up to the-
height of twenty or thirty feet, unaccompanied with fmoke.

Vol.. XXXVII.

This was in parts where the mud was of too ftiff a con-
fiftency to rife in bubbles. The mud in every part felt
cold. The water which drains from the mud is coUefted
by the Javanefe, and expofed to the fun in the hollows of
fplit bamboos, where it depofits common fait in cryftals.
This fait is referved exclufively for the ufc of the emperor.
In wet weather the brine is lefs ftrong than when the wea-
ther is dry. The phenon^na attending all mud eruptions
arc very fimilar ; in all of them, the muriate of foda ^com-
mon fait ) is either produced, or is itfelf an agent in pro-
ducing the fermentation which is the immq^iate caufe of the
eruption. Though the great volcanoes in America fome-
times throw out water and mud, as before noticed, they are
properly fire volcanoes, into which water finds accefs. The
water is generally hot, and its ejeAion only occafional.

Pfeudo-Volcanoes The German geologifts have given the

name of pfeudo or falfe volcanoes to thofe cafual inflamma-
tions of beds of coal, that occafionally occur in coal diftrifts,
and continue in greater or lefs aftivity for many years. Thefe
inflammations are too trifling in extent or intenfity, to be
compared with true volcanic eruptions, nor do they prefent
the fame phenomena ; for we have never feen a torrent of
lava, however fmall, thrown out by any of thefe pfeudo-
volcanoes.

Beds of coal of confiderable extent have been burning for
many years near Bilfton, in StafFordfhire.

By the continued aftion of fire on the ftrata of clay and
(hale which accompany coal, fome fingular effefts are pro-
duced, the clay becomes indurated, approaching to the ftate
of jafper ; and what is called porcellanous jafper is, in fome
initances, formed by thefe fires.

From fome beds of coal, great quantities of carburetted
hydrogen gas are evolved, which, when lighted, will con-
tinue to burn for a long time. In fome parts of the world,
ftreams of ignited inflammable air are emitted conilantly, or
at intervals, which polTefs the property of taking fire fpon-
taneoufly on their accefs to atmofpheric air : in all proba-
bihty, thefe currents contain phofphuretted hydrogen gas,
from which the property is derived. We confider thefe
phenomena as diftinft from volcanic fires.

On the fouth-eaft of Natoha, the mountain Climax, the
Chimera of the ancients, fituated near the Mediterranean fea,
conftantly emits flames from an aperture on the northern fide.
This appearance is unaccompanied by any detonation. It
is very ancient, being mentioned in the Periplus of Scylas
as continually burning.

The flames that are obferved to ifTue occafionally during
earthquakes, can fcarcely be claiTed with volcanic phe-
nomena ; they appear to proceed from the fuddcii difen-
gagement of hydrogen gas, combined with pliofphorus,
naphtha, and other fubftances, which may difpofe it to ignite
fpontaneoufly. During the great earthquakes which defo-
lated Thrace, Afia Minor, and Syria, in the fourth and
fifth centuries, flames were fcen to burft from the earth
over a vaft extent of ground. On the 2fith of January,
A.D. 447, fubterranean noifcs were heard from the Black
to the Red fea, and the earth was convulfed without inter-
miffion for the fpace of fix months ; in many places the
air appeared on fire. Towns, large trafts of ground, and
mountains, were fwallowcd up in Phrygia. On the JOth of
May, A.D. 520, Anlioch waa overturned by a dreadful
earthquake, and two hundred and fifty thoufand of its in-
habitants were cruftied in the ruins. A raging fire covered
the ground on which the town was built, and the diftriA
around, fpnadmg over an extent of foity-two miles in
diameter, and a fiirfa«e of fourteen hunth-ed fquarc miles.
Numerous inftanccs of a fimilar kind are recorded by the
3 L hilUirian*

VOLCANO.

hiftorians of that period. Flames «?«re alfo obferved to
burft from the neighbouring mountains during the earth-
quake at Lifbon in 1755. Though thefe phenomena may
proceed from fubterranean fire as the primary caufe, yet
they differ from volcanic fires, as the latter throw out
their contents in an ignited ftate ; but the flames which ac-
company earthquakes, appear to arife from the ignition of
vapour at the furface.

Burning and Exl'mSl Volcanoes. — When we take a general
view of the terreftrial globe, we obferve volcanoes in every
parallel of latitude, from Iceland and Kamtfchatka, in the
north, to Terra del Fuego in the fouth. They are more
abundantly fcattered over the ocean than the continent, and
are more numerous in America than in the old world. They
are found at every degree of elevation, from the depths of
tlie fea to the fummits of the Andes. Ancient volcanic
craters, which have been for ages extinft or dormant, have
left undoubted velliges of their prior ftate of aftivity in
various countries where no volcanoes at prefent exift ; and
volcanic rocks are found even where all veftiges of volcanic
craters have been long obliterated.

Our knowledge of volcanic geography is at prefent im-
perfeA, as a large portion of the earth's furface has not yet
been examined ; and our knowledge of volcanic iflands in
the Indian and Pacific oceans is confined to thofe which
were in a Hate of aftive eruption at the time they were
pafled by navigators. Of the fubmarine volcanoes fcattered
over the bed of the ocean we have no account, and it is only
when they occur in the vicinity of civihzed countries, that
vre can afcertain their locahty. At the beginning of the
prefent century, the aftivc volcanoes then known were
Hated at about two hundred. Travellers and navigators
have fince enlarged the number. Perhaps it would not be
exceeding the faft, were we to eftimate the number of aftive
volcanoes in the world at one thoufand, including all thofe
virhich ftill preferve a confiderable degree of heat, and prefent
other indications that they are not extinguifhed, but dormant.

The only aftive volcano on the continent of Europe is
Vefuvius. The Solfatara and .Monte Nuovo in the vicinity
may be regarded as dormant. Hillory mentions a volcano
in Albania, which deilroyed Durazzo in 1269.

Of the European iflands, Iceland is the moft extenfively
volcanic, the whole foil of that country is apparently the
produft of fire. It contains fix large aftive volcanoes, be-
fides numerous fmaller ones, and boiling fprings.

Sicily contains Etna and the various volcanic mountains
on its fides, with the mud volcano of Maccaluba.

Three of the Lipari iflands are at prefent aftive : Strom-
boli, Vulcano, and Vulcanello.

Santorini and the neighbouring ifles are evidently placed
near or over a great fubmarine volcano, by which they have
at different times been formed.

The ifland of Milo, about twenty leagues to the eaft of
Santorini, has a volcano in an aftive Hate ; the whole of the
ifland is alfo ilated to be volcanic.

The extinft or dormant volcanoes in Europe are far more
numerous than thofe which are at prefent aftive. In Cam-
pania alone, between Naples and Cumea, in the fpace of
twenty miles in length and ten in breadth, according to
Breiflak, there are no lefs than fixty craters, without rec-
koning thofe in the neighbouring iflands, which are nu-
merous. Some of the craters are larger than that of Vefu-
vius. The crater of Quarto even greatly exceeds that of
Etna ; its diameter is nearly two miles. The crater on
which the ancient city of Cumea is fituated, has thrown out
a torrent of lava nine hundred feet broad, and from twenty-
five to thirty feel in depth.

This crater belongs to a volcano extinft from the moft
remote ages. The foundation of Cumea was about twelve
hundred years prior to the Chriftian era, hence Breiflak
adds, the laft eruptions muft have taken place more than
three thoufand years fince, as the Greeks would not have
founded their city on the mouth of an aftive volcano.

The other parts of Italy, from the Veronefe and the Vi-
centin territory, with that of Padua, to the extremity of
Calabria, are covered with the inconteftible veftiges of
ancient volcanoes.

Sicily prefents a great number of extinft volcanoes, with-
out reckoning thofe on the fides of Etna, of which fome
are equal to Vefuvius. Many of the Mediterranean iflands,
at prefent in a ftate of repofe, have formerly been volcanic,
as the iflands of Elba, Sardinia, Ifchia, Procita, the whole
of the Lipari iflands, with the greater part of tlie iflands in
the Grecian Archipelago. Lemnos was formerly regarded
as the arfenal of Vulcan.

In Spain and Portugal there are volcanic craters ftill to
be traced. The Souffriere of Conilla, near Cadiz, is an
ancient volcano. The environs of Burgos are entirely com-
pofed of lava, pumice, and other volcanic produfts. The
famous falt-minc of Pofa, near Burgos, is ftated to be
fituated in the midft of an immenfe crater.

In France there are numerous extinft volcanoes, as thofe
of the Vivarais and Velay, defcribed by Faujas St. Fond ;
and thofe of Auvergne, defcribed by DaubuifTon. The ex-
tinft volcanoes in Languedoc and Provence are faid to be
very numerous. The alps of Dauphiny, according to La-
manon, contain a crater of large extent.

There are entire chains of volcanic mountains on the
banks of the Rhine, in the Brifgau, and the environs of
Andernach.

The northern countries of Europe poffefs fewer indu-
bitable veftiges of volcanic craters, though volcanic pro-
dufts and rocks, nearly aUied to lavas, exift in various parts
of Germany and Hungary, and are fuppofed by many geo-
logifts to be formed by fubterranean fire, at a very remote
period.

According to the Italian geologift BreifljJt, the famous
gold and tellurium mine of Nagyag is fituated in the crater
of an extinft volcano. See Tellurium Mines.

In Great Britain, on the weftern fide, particularly in the
mountains of North Wales and Cumberland, are various
circular cavities, partly filled with water, which bear a near
refemblance to extinft craters. The rocks by which they
are furrounded are generally a porphyritic trap, a rock
wliich is fuppofed by many geologifts to have had an igneous
origin. See Trap, and RowLEY-i?aj-.

Above the village of Buttermere, in Cumberland, be-
tween the fummits of the mountains called Redpike and
Highftile, there is a large elevated crater of this kind, con-
taining in its centre a fmall tarn or lake. The rocks which
furround it confift of clink-ftone-porphyry which melts
with great facility, and porphyritic red felfpar, and are in
fome parts rudely columnar. The fide neareft the lake is
broken down. We have no doubt, from an examination of
the place, that it would be defcribed by many geologifts
on the continent, as the well-defined crater of an extinft
volcano. Von Buch, whofe acquaintance with volcanoes is
extenfive, after a recent tour through this part of England,
informed us that many of the mountains in Cumberland re-
femble thofe in Auvergne, and other parts of the world,
which are fuppofed to have been foftened and elevated by
fubterranean heat, without ever having flowed as lavas.

The bafaltic hills of many parts of Scotland have been
defcribed by Faujas St. Fond as volcanic, and the bafaltic

mountains

VOLCANO.

moimtakis and ranges in Ireland are fuppofed to have had a
fimilar origin. It is however doubted, by geologiits of
great repute, whetlier bafaltic vocks liave all been formed
by fire, and fomc deny altogether the igneous origin of thefe
rocks. See Systems of Geology, Basalt, Trap, and Whin-
stone.

The iflands of Faroe, near Iceland, prefent more un-
doubted marks of their former volcanic Hate.

On the continent of Afia, few adlivc volcanoes arc known.
According to the traveller Morier, there are feveral moun-
tains in Perfia that conilantly emit fmoke. Ancient geo-
graphers alfo mention volcanoes in Thibet and Camboya.
The mountain of Cophante, at the fouth-eaft extremity of
the Cafpian fea, is ftated to be volcanic. There is a volcano
at the entrance of the Red fea, and another at the entrance
of the Perfian gulf. From thence to Kamtfchatka we are not
acquainted with any aftive volcano ; but in tliis peninfula,
according to count Beniowflci, there are not lefs than twenty,
five of which are of immenfe fize, called Awatcha, Joupanou-
flcaia, Chevehtchc, Tobatchia, and Kamtchatka'ia. The three
former are faid to be connefted, and to have fimultaneous
eruptions ; the latter ejefts a great quantity of vitrified fub-
ftances, which are found in its neighbourhood. It is of an
immenfe height : the philofophers who accompanied Pe-
roufe were three days in reaching the crater, and it is faid
to be vifible at the diftance of three hundred miles. In the
month of September 1737, torrents of burning matter flow-
ing down on every fide, prcfented to the fight the whole of
the mountain as red-hot. Almoft all the fprings and lakes
in this peninfula are more or lefs warm, hence they are
never entirely frozen over, notwithftanding the rigour of the
climate. The chain of the Kurilc idands, which may be
confidered as a continuation of Kamtfchatka, contains nine
a&ive volcanoes.

Ksempfer, in his Hiftory of Japan, defcribes eighteen
volcanoes in that and the neighbouring iflands, and La Pe-
roufe difcovered two others.

In the Marianas, or Ladrone iflands, nine volcanoes have
been defcribed. The Philippine iflands, which are faid to
exceed twelve hundred, are many of them volcanic. There
are three volcanoes in L\r/.on, the principal ifland.

The archipelago of the Molucca iflands abounds with
volcanoes. Machian, one of thefe valuable fpice iflands,
contains a remarkable volcanic mountain, which in 1646 was
completely rent from the fummit to tlie bafe, by the violence
of its eruptions, and at prefent forms two diflindl moun-
tains. Handing near each other.

In the ifland of Ceylon, the peak of Adam is celebrated
for its lieight and its volcanic eruptions.

In Sumatra there are four gigantic volcanoes, the higheil
of which is thirteen thoufand eight hundred and forty-two
feet above the level of the fea. The others are nearly of
equal height. Several volcanoes occur in the ifland of Java.
The ifland of Teriiate affords alfo a volcano on tlie top of a
mountain very difHcult of accefs, but opening with a vaft
mouth, and very terrible when it burns.

The feveral violent eruptions of this mountain have given
it, within the mouth or crater, the appearance of an am-
phitheatre, conftru Aed for holding people at the time of fome
pubhc fhow, feveral circles appearing in it one above an-
other, formed with a fort of regularity that is furprifing.
Modern navigators have difcovered numerous volcanic iflands
fcattered over the Yellow Sea and in the Pacific Ocean, from
Afia to the weftern coafts of America.

Of the extinft volcanoes of Afia, excepting the northern
parts, we have no accounts whatever. Patrin, an eminent
French mineralogift, who vifited part of northern Afia, fays

that hills of lava were feai after he had crofTcd the lake
of Baikal, fifteen leagues to the call of l)ie city of Oudinfk,
near the river Kourba. All the country between Chilka
and Argounc, which forms the river Amour, prcfents traces
of volcanoes. The mines of Gazemour are in the vicinity
of an immenfe crater, the bottom of which is at prefent
nearly on a level with the river. It is flat, and covered with
blocks of fcorificd lava, from whence rife feveral fmall vol-
canic cones. On pafTing over this plain it returned a hollow
found to the horfes' feet, as if they were travelling over a
vault.

There are other larger craters on the fummits of vol-
canic mountains, near the river Kourba, fome of which are
converted into lakes. Valt currents of lava defcend from
thefe craters ; fome of them are at prefent empty, others
refemble thole of Oberftein and Deux Ponts, and arc filled
with chalcedonies and amygdaloidal Hones.

When Hanno, the Carthaginian, coafted Africa, he faw
in the night-time fires afcendiiig from a lofty mountain
called the Car of the Gods. Kircher, in his Mundus Sub-
terraneus, mentions eight burning volcanoes on that conti-
nent, and the remains of many extindl ones. Our know-
ledge of the interior of this country is very imperfect, and
no aftive volcanoes are at prefent known there.

From the accounts of fome of the mountains near the
Cape of Good Hope, we may infer that they have formerly
been volcanic.

All the African iflands are volcanic, or contain veiliges
of their igneous origin. No lefs than forty-two aftive or
dormant volcanoes are found in the Azores.

Tlie iflands of Lanzerotta, Palma, and Teneriffe, contain
burning volcanoes, and the other Canary ifles are volcanic.

The Cape Verd iflands are alfo volcanic, but Fuego is the
only one in which the fire is at prefent aftive.

The ifland of Afcenfioii, and the ifle of Bourbon, con-
tain volcanoes. St. Helena and the Madeira iflands prefent
undoubted marks of their igneous formation.

The volcanoes on the continent of America are numerous,
and of an immenfe fizc and height. They are principally
fituatcd near the wcllern coalt. Ancient navigators men-
tion volcanoes in Greenland with boiling fprings, announc-
ing a volcanic foil, fimilar to that of Iceland. On the
fiorth-well coall of America, Capt. Cook faw a volcano in
lat. 61°, and another of amazing height in lat. 55°, at the
point of Alafl<a. Another iiigher than the Peak of Tene-
riffe was difcovered in lat. 5^ . Others have been fecn in
various parts of the coall between Alalka and California ;
but of the volcanoes in the interior, in thefe latitudes, we
are unacquainted. Five volcanoes arc enumerated in Cali-
fornia. Proceeding fouthwards, along the chain of moun-
tains that forms the Cordillera";, we find the volcanoes ranged
in rows nearly north and fouth along a line of five thoufand
miles in length, from the tropic of Cancer to Terra del
Fuego. In the province of Quito the volcanic mountains
diverge from this line eafl and weft, being fcattered over a
fpace of feven hundred fquare leagues, which is regarded
by Humboldt as one enormous volcanic abyfs, covered with
a crufl of volcanic matter, and fending forth eruptions from
the numerous lofty craters, which are only different vents to
the fame internal fire. In New Spain alfo, tliere is a vol.
canic range, intcrfefting the Cordilleras in lat. 19°, and ex-
tending call and welt from the gulf of Mexico to the Pa-
cific ocean. In this range, Coliina and other ancient vol-
canoes, with the new volcano of Jorullo, .ire placed.

From the province of Quito the volcanoes are continued
along the Cordilleras, in a direft line to the fouthcrn ex-
tremity of America. The number of aftive volcanoes on
this continent can fcarceiy be lefs than one hundred.
3 L 2 Eighty-

VOLCANO.

Eighty-feven have been enumerated by form.er geographers,
before Humboldt had extended our knowledge of the new
world. From twenty-five to thirty were defcribed as exift-
ing on the weftern fide of Mexico, before the new volcanic
range of Jorullo was thrown up. Sixteen of the higheft
mountains in the world, in the province of Quito, are vol-
canic, but it is remarkable that they do not ejeft lava, but
torrents of mud, which in drying form earthy ilrata of many
hundred fquare miles in extent.

Of the extinft volcanoes in America we have little know-
ledge. La Condamine faw feveral extinft craters in Peru.
It is thought by travellers, that fome of the lakes in North
America occupy the craters of extinft volcanoes of vaft
extent ; this can only be determined by an examination of
the rocks that furround thefe lakes. Extinft volcanoes are
faid to occur in fome parts of Canada.

Tlie volcanoes in the American iflands are very numerous.
The long range of iflands extending weft from point Alaflia
is altogether volcanic, according to the relation given by Sauer
of the voyage of commodore Billings. One of thefe iflands,
called by the Ruffiaas Semifopiahnol, or the feven mountains,
contanis feven volcanoes. The group of iflands called Revil-
lagedo are fuppofed to be volcanic, from the pumice found
on the (hores. The iflands of Gallipagos are chiefly cora-
poftd of fcoriaceous lava, as we are informed by a gentle-
man who recently vifited them, and who favoured us with
fpecimens. On the eaftern fide, among the Antilles, the
iflands of St. Chriftopher, Guadaloupe, Nevis, and St.
Vincent's, contain volcanoes ; and many of the other Weft
Indian ifles appear to be volcanic, though they have had no
eruptions fince they were firft vifited by Europeans.

The volcanoes fcattered in the Southern Pacific ocean
can fcaroely be claffed with thofe of the American iflands.
There are three very lofty volcanoes in the Friendly ifles,
and among a multitude of ifles difperfed over that vaft ex-
panfe of water, doubtlefs numerous volcanoes exift which
are at prefent unknown. Wc have no account of volcanoes
in New Holland.

This general outline of volcanic geography may fuffice
to -fliew how large a portion of the globe is at prefent,
or has been formerly, fubjeded to the aftion of fubter-
ranean fire. It is the opinion of fome geologifts, that
many of the ancient volcanoes which exifted prior to
the formation of the upper ftrata, have been entirely
covered by them and hid from human obfervation. In
other inftances, the craters of ancient volcanoes have been
buried by the lavas of more recent eruptions, and in the
great revolutions which have changed the appearance of the
globe, volcanic dillritts of vail extent have been broken down
and the furface fwept away, leaving only detached ifolated
caps of volcanic matter on the fummits of diftant mountains,
the folitavy monuments of the former dominion of fire. Even
volcanic mountains of later date have had their craters en-
tirely obhterated by the united agency of mountain torrents
and the eruptions of fmaller volcanoes. In the ifland of
Lipari, according to the defcription of Spallanzani, the
volcanic fires have raged fo near to each other, that they
have produced in every part confufion and diforder, which
is feen in the groups of broken and half deftroyed moun-
tains. The fubftarices ejefted from the numerous eruptions
have inferfefted each other, and intermingled fo much, that
no diilinft volcanic crater can be traced at prefent. This
confufion has been further increafed by torrents of rain, and
by gradual difintegration during a long feries of years.

From the volcanizcd foil of Lipari, from the prefent
Hate of the .neighbouring iflands, as well as from ancient
tradition, we may with certainty infer that this ifland has
been the former feat of volcanoes, though their craters are

ftcarly obliterated. No geologiit, who has vifited Lipari, cvef
entertained the Icaft doubt of its igneous formation. Vol-
canic glafs and pumice, with which it abounds, are found
on the Peak of Tenerifl'e, in Iceland, Kamtfchatka, and
other volcanic countries ; yet the followers of Werner have
doubted or denied the igneous origin of thefe fubftances,
becaufe they exift in bafaltic diftritts, where no trace of a
volcanic crater remains. This appears to be taking a limited
view of the fubjeft ; for when we contemplate the prefent
cxtenfive effefts of fire in every quarter of the globe, aud
the great changes which have taken place on its furface, we
may reafonably infer the former exiftence of volcanoes in all
countries where the produfts of fubterranean fire are found
as native rocks, though no veftige of a crater may remain,
and the date of the eruption may be for ever loft in the
darknefs of paft ages, which preceded the emerfion of our
prefent continents from the ocean.

Since the preceding article was written, we have feen the
Hiftory of Java, by lieutenant-governor Raffles, recently
publiflied ; from which it appears that the whole of that
large ifland, and moft of the neighbouring ifles, are vol-
canic. There are no Icfs than thirty-eight large volcanic
mountains in Java, fome of which are at prefent in an aftive
ftate. Thefe mountains all rife from a plain, little elevated
above the fea. They are detached from each other, and
though fome of them are covered by the vegetation of many
ages, the indications of their former eruptions are numerous
and unequivocal. From the apertures in their craters, many
of them continue to difcharge fmoke and fulphureous
vapours.

The following account is truly remarkable, as it is the
only recorded inftance of the natural death, if we may be
allowed the expreflion, of a large volcano.

" The Papandayang, fituated on the weftern part of the
diftrift of Cheribon, in the province of Suka-pura, w.is
formerly one of the largeft volcanoes in the ifland of Java ;
but the greateft part of it was fwallowed up in the
earth, after a fliort but very fevere combuftion, in the year
1772. The account which has remained of this event
aflerts, that near midnight, between the nth and 12th of
Auguft, there was obferved about the mountain an uncom-
monly luminous cloud, by which it appeared to be com-
pletely eaveloped. The inhabitants, as well about the foot
as on the declivities of the mountain, alarmed by this ap-
pearance, betook themfelves to flight ; but before they
could all fave themfelves, the mountain began to give way,
and the greateft part of it 7i(k\i2\\y fell In, and difappeared in
the earth. At the fame time a trem.endous noife was heard,
refembling the difcharge of the heavieft cannon. Immenfe
quantities of volcanic fubftances, which were thrown out at
the fame time, and fpread in every direction, propagated
the effefts of the explofion through the fpace of many
miles. 1

" It is eftimated that an extent of ground, of the mountain
itfelf, and its immediate environs, fifteen miles long, and full
fix broad, was by this commotion fwallowed up in the
bowels of the earth. Several perfons fent to examine the
condition of the neighbouriiood, made report that they
found it impoflible to approach the place where the moun-
tain ftood, on account of the heat of the fubftances which
covered its circumference, and which were piled on each
other to the height of three feet ; although this was
the 24th of September, full fix weeks after the cataf-
trophe. It is alfo mentioned, that forty villages, partly
fwallowed up by the ground, and partly covered by the
fubftances thrown out, were deftroyed on this occafion, and
that 2957 of the inhabitants periflied. A proportionate
number of cattle was alfo deftroyed, and moft of the plant-
ations

VOLCANO.

alions of cotton, inJigo, and coffee in the adjacent diftriAs
were buried under the volcanic matter. The efforts of this
explolion are Hill very apparent on the remains of this
volcano."

We have before ftatcd that fcveral circular lakes, of con-
fiderable extent, are fuppofed to iiave been formed in the
craters of extinft volcanoes, but it feems more probable
that theie lakes cover the places where former volcanic cones,
or R-hole mountains, have funk down. We have fcveral in-
ttances of the partial deftruftion of the cone of a volcano,
and fome traditions are preferved of the entire difappearaiice
of volcanic mountains, but the above is the only authentic
record of inch an event in modern times.

The following narrative, extraftcd from the fame work,
defcribes one of the raoft aftonifhing volcanic eruptions of
which we have any knowledge. It took place in Sumbawa,
one of the Molucca iflands, in April, 1815.

" This eruption extended perceptible evidences of its ex-
iftence over the whole of the Molucca iflands, over Java, a
confiderable portion of Celebes, Sumatra, and Borneo, to
a circumference of a thonfand ilatute miles from its centre,
by tremulous motions, and the report of explofions ; while
within the range of its more immediate aftivity, embracing
a fpace of three hundred miles around, it produced the
molt aftonilhing effefts, and excited the mod alarming ap-
prehenfions. In Java, at the diftance of thice hundred
miles, it feemed to be awefuUy prefent. The flvy was over-
call at noon-day with clouds of alhes ; the fun was enve-
loped in an atmofphere, whofe ' palpable' deiifity the obferver
was unable to penetrate ; ftiowers of aflies covered the houfes,
the ftreets, and the fields, to the depth of feveral inches ;
and amid this darknefs, explofions were heard at intervals
like the report of artillery, or the noife of diftant thunder.
So fully did the refemblance of the noifes to the report of
cannon imprefs the minds of fome officers, that from an ap-
prehenfion of pirates on the coafl, veffels were difpatchcd to
afford relief. Superftition, on the other hand, was bufily at
work on the minds of the natives, and attributed the reports
to an artillery of a different defcription to that of pirates.
All conceived that the effecfs experienced might be caufed
by eruptions of fome of the numerous volcanoes on the
ifland ; but no one could have conjeftured that the fliowers
of afhes wliich darkened the air and covered the ground of
the caftern dillrifts of Java, could have proceeded from a
mountain in Sumbawa, at the diftance of feveral hundred
miles."

The lieutenant-governor of Java direftcd a circular to the
different refidents, requiring tliem to tranfmlt to the go-
vernment a flatemeiit of the fafts and circumltaiices con-
nefted with tins eruption, which occurred within their
own knowledge. From their replies, the narrative drawn
up by Mr. Affey, and printed in the ninth volume of the
Batavian Tranfaitions, was coUeAed : the following is an
cxtraft from that paper.

" The firll explofions were heard on this ifland (Java)
in the evening of the 5th of April ; they were noticed in
every quarter, and continued at intervals until the following
day. The noife was, in the Aril inftance, univcrfally at-
tributed to diilant cannon ; fo much fo, that a detachment
of troops was marched from Djoejocarta, under the appre-
hcnfion that a neighbouring poll had been attacked : and
along the coall boats were in two inllanccs difpatched in quefl
of fuppofed fliips in diflreis. On the following morning,
however, a flight fall of alhes removed all doubt as to the
caufc of the found ; and it is worthy of remark, that as the
eruption continued, the found appeared to be fo clofc, that in
each diflriA it feemed near at haud, and was generally at-

tributed to an eruption, eiihcr from the mountains Morapi'
Klut, or Bromo. From the 6th the fun became obfcured i
it had every where the appearance of being enveloped in a
iog. The weather was fultry, .-'nd the atmofphere clofe and
flill ; the fim feemed fhorn of its rays, and the general
ffillnefs and prefTure of the atmofphere feemed to forebode
an earthquake. This laltcd feveral days. The explofions
continued occafionally, but lefs violently, and lefs frequently
than at firll. Volcanic allies alfo began to fall, but in fmall
quantities, and fo llightly, as to be hardly perceptible in the
weflern dithiAs. This appearance of the atmofphere con-
tinued, witli little variation, until the loth of April ; and
till then it does not appear that the volcano at'.racied much
obfervation, or was confidered of greater importance tlian
thofe which had occafionally burft forth in Java. But on
the evening of the loth, the eruptions were heard more
loud and more frequent ; from Cheribon call ward the air
became darkened by the quantity of falling alhes ; the fun
was nearly darkened ; and in fome fituations many faid they
felt a tremulous motion of the earth. An unufual thick
darknefs was remarked all the following night, and the
greater part of the next day. At Solo, candles were lighted
at 4 p.m. of the 12th; at Magellan, objefts could not be
fecn at three hundred yards diftance. In other diftrifts
more eaftward, it was dark as night, and this fat urated Hate
of the atmofphere leffe.ied as the cloud of afhes paffcd along,
and difcharged itfclf on its way. Thus the afhes that were
eight inclies deep at Banyuwangi, were but two inches in
depth at Sumenap, and lefs in Grifik ; and the fun does
not feem to have been aftually obfcured in any diftrift weft
of Semarang.

" All reports concur in Hating, that fo violent and exten-
five an eruption has not happened within the memory of the
oldeft inhabitant, nor within tradition. They fpeak of fin-
gular efiefts in a lefier degree, when an eruption took place
from the volcano of Kaiang Afam, in Bali, about fevea
years ago, and it was at firll fuppofed that this mountain was
the feat of the eruption. The Balincfe of Java attributed
the event to a recent difpute between the two rajahs of Bali
Baliling, which terminated in the death of the younger rajah
by order of his brother.

" From Sumbawa to the part of Sumatra where the found
was noticed, is about ni:ie hundred and feventy geographical
miles in adireft hne. From Sumbawa toTernate is a diftance
of about feven hundred and twenty miles. The diftance alfo
to which the cloud of afhes was carried fo quickly as to pro-
duce utter darknefs, was clearly pointed out to have been
the ifland of Celebes, and the diflrifts of Grifik or Java ;
the former is two hundred and feventeen nautical miles dif-
tant from the feat of the volcano ; the latter, in a direft line,
more than three hundred geographical miles." On this
narrative we fliall remark, that tlie groalefl known diftance
at which volcanic eruptions had been heard before this of
Sumbawa, was fix hundred miles. According to Hum-
boldt, the reports of Cotojiaxi during fome of its mofl vio-
lent explofions, have been heard at a diftance equal to that
of Dijon in France, from Veiuvius.

A more accurate and extended knowledge of the cffeAs
of fubterranean fire throughout the Afiatic illes and thofe
of the Pacific ocean, would probably denioiiftrate that the
intenfity of this powerful agent is not diininlfhed, as fome
philolophers have fuppofed, though its prefent effefts on
the old continents may be lefs extenfive than in former
ages.

Volcanic Fire The qucftions which have divided the

opinion of geologifts refpedling volcanic fire are, firft.
What is the intenfity of the heal ? — Secondly, Where is

the

VOLCANO.

the fource of heat fituated ?— And, laftly, From what caufe
does it originate i Some philofophers contend, that vol-
canic heat greatly exceeds that of our common furnaces ;
whilft others aflert that it fcarcely exceeds that of a culinary
fire.

The arguments in favour of the low degree of heat of
volcanic fire are founded on the experiments made upon lava
in a common furnace, which was obferved to vitrify them
more completely than volcanoes, and to melt many of the
imbedded cryftals, which were fuppofed to have been left
infufible by volcanic heat. M. Sage and Deluc firft fup.
ported the hypothefis of the low degree of volcanic heat.
M. Dolomieu endeavoured to prove it to be ftill lefs. His
principal argument is the following. " It cannot be too
frequently inculcated that lavas are not vitrifications ; their
fluidity is fimilar to that of metals reduced to fufion : when
they ceafe to flow, they refume, like metals, the grain,
texture, and all the charafters of their primitive bafe ; effefts
which we cannot produce on ftones in our furnaces, fince we
know not how to foften them by fire, without changing
the manner in which they are aggregated. The fire of vol-
canoes has not that intenfity which is fuppofed : the effeft
is produced rather by its extenfion and duration than by its
aftivity." We greatly refpeft the labours of this intelli-
gent obferver ; but we mult notice, that in the above ftate-
ment he has not appreciated the important difference between
the effefts of volcanic fire and that of a furnace, refulting
from the more rapid cooling of the materials in the latter
cafe. It has been proved by the important experiments of
fir James Hall, that vitrification depends not on the degree
of heat fo much as on the rapid coohng of ilone or lava in a
Hate of fufion ; and that lava, vitrified in the furnace, af-
fumes its ftony texture again, if it is remelted, and the heat
be very gradually diminifhed. It was proved alfo by the
interelling experiments of Mr. G. Watt, that if this procefs
of coohng be continued for a ftill longer time, a cryftalline
arrangement of the particles takes place.

It was an opinion long entertained, that the cryftals ex-
ifting in lava, whether of fdfpar, aiigite, olivine, leuciti,
(fee thefe articles,) or other minerals, were original cryftals,
exifting in rocks which had been fubjefted to volcanic heat ;
and that this heat, though fufiicicnt to melt the rock itfclf,
was not powerful enough to melt the imbedded cr)'ftals.
It was fuppofed alfo, that fome of thefe cryftals, previoufly
exifting, were found detached by the lava in its courfe, and
buried in it. Thefe opinions, fo unphilofophical and impro-
bable, are giving place to a more correft and enlarged view
of thefe operations of nature.

The cryftals in lava did not previoufly exift, but were
formed during the (low confolidation of the materi.ils, which
admitted the elementary particles to enter into different com-
binations, according to the laws of elcftive afiinity and
cryftalline arrangement, precifely in the fame way that dif-
ferent falls in the fame folution feparate from each other,
and cryftallize. In the flags from our furnaces we may
frequently obferve the fame procefs more or lefs perfeftly
completed ; and we have feen cryftals refenibling felfpar,
found in a mafs of coal-fliale or bituminous flate-clay, which
had been fufed and run down from the large ignited heaps,
in the vicinity of Newcaftle-upon-Tyne. The fafts ad-
duced to prove the low degree of heat in volcanic fires,
prove only its long continued aclion, and not its original
degree of intenfity. Dolomieu indeed admits, that a great
difference muft refult from the different periods of the con-
tinuance of heat. This was fubfequently demonftrated by
the experiments of Spallanzani. He took feveral ftones,
which had been found refraftory, when expofed to a certain

degree of heat for two or three days, and placed them in a

glafs furnace where the fame degree of heat, was continued
equally for more than fix weeks ; during which time they
were all more or lefs foftened by fire, and the vitrification,
which began on the furface, extended deeper and deeper into
the ftone, in proportion to the time. Hence, fays he, we may
learn, that a long continued heat of lefs ftrength is as effi-
cacious in the fufion of bodies as a ftronger heat of a fhorter
duration. Dolomieu further conjcftured, that the extreme
fluidity of fome lavas was occafioned by the prefence of
fulphur, which afted as a flux, in the fame manner as a bar
of iron, when brought nearly to a white heat, will inftantly
melt, if it be rubbed with fulphur ; but this opinion was not
confirmed by experiment. Spallanzani found that fulphur
produced no effeft, when mixed with ftone or lava, and ex-
pofed to heat ; nor did the lava melt fooner than in other
crucibles, in which it was expofed to the fame degree of
heat.

The refult was the fame, whether he employed comiHOn
fulphur or iron pyrites. The fafts, jherefore, adduced for
the low degree of heat in volcanic fire, prove nothing ; and
it is only from the aftual ftate of the lava itfelf, that its
greater or leffer degree of intenfity can be afcertained.

The extreme liquidity of lava flowing from the crater, in
fome inftances, has been fhewn in a former part of this ar-
ticle, where it is defcribed as fpouting up, and forming
curves like a fountain of water. Profeffor Bottis relates,
that on the loth of September, 1776, he obferved a fmall
hill on the fide of Vefuvius, formed of fcoriae, and fur-
rounded by lava recently ejefted. In this hill was a fmall
circular gulf, about three palms in diameter, and two in
depth. From this gulf proceeded a low noife, fimilar to
that of oil or any other fat fubftance fimmering over the
fire ; which found was doubtlefs produced, he fays, by fub-
ftances fufing within it. The fire was fo ftrong, that fome
fcorix being caft into it, immediately became red-hot, and
melted, producing the appearance of boihng pitch. Spal-
lanzani fays, that the fame kind of ftone required to be half
an hour in the furnace before it was foftened ; and in a re-
verberating furnace, it required a heat equal to the melting
of iron, to obtain a fpeedy fufion of thefe ftones. It is
likewife evident, that the heat in this fmall gulf, communi-
cating with the cold air above, muft be lefs intenfe than in
the internal part, fince this was only a fpiracle or vent to
the great mafs of lava which boiled in the deep receffes of
the mountain.

Spallanzani alfo obferved, that when the lava, placed in a
common furnace, had been fufed feveral hours, and boiled
over the edge of the crucible, its tenacity was ftill fo great,
that he could fcarcely with all his force immerge a pointed
iron-wire to the bottom ; and when he took away the iron,
the impreffion remained fome minutes, though the crucible
ftill continued in the furnace. When the fame lavas were
expofed to the intenfe heat of the reverberating furnace,
they were more liquid, and might be penetrated with
greater eafe.

From thefe experiments and obfervations we are war-
ranted in concluding, that the heat of volcanic fires fome-
times exceeds that of our moft violent furnaces, but that the
lava of different eruptions may poffefs different degrees of
fluidity and heat. It may alfo be worthy of notice, that the
lavas were confiderably reduced in weight by remaining long
in the furnace, the particles having been volatihzed and
fublimed. Another argument for the intenfity of volcanic
fire is derived from the long continued heat of certain cor-
rents of lava. Spallanzani fays, when he paffed a detached
current of lava near the fummit of Etna, which had flowed

eleven

VOLCANO.

ele«en months before, it ftill retaiiifd a red heat, which was
very confpicuous in fomc of the apertures even in the day-
time ; and a ftafT being placed upon it, immediately took
fire. Ferrara itates, that when tlie current, wiiith flowed
from Monte Roifo on Etna in 1 669, was perforated at Ca-
tania in 1709, flames broke out, and it continued to fmoke
on the furface after rain, at the beginning of the prefent
centur)-. Now whatever may be the mafs of a current of
lava, the heat could not remain fo great after fuch long in-
tervals of time, were it not prodigioufly more powerful
when it firil flowed. It is obvious that the heat of the in-
ternal fire cannot be lefs than that of the lava which flows
from it, which, we have before obferved, is fometimes equal
at leall to the heat of the mol powerful rcverberatory fur-
nace. Where the lava pofTeffes a much lefs degree of heat,
we are not warranted in afTertitig that the niternal fire was
lefs intenfe ; for various circumllances may modify and di-
minifli the heat of the lava itfelf, fuch as the acccfs of water
near the furface, which may mix with it in the crater, and
produce a torrent of mud, or may cool it fo much as to in-
creafe its tenacity, until it can fcarcely flow when it firft
ifFues from the crater. The following circumftance is well
deferving attention. On opening fome of the houfcs in
Torre del Greco, which were nearly buried in the lava
that flowed from the foot of Vefuvius in 1794, various
ftriking effefts were obferved, which could only have been
produced by the long continued agency of intenfe heat ;
effefls which we have at prefent no means of imitating.
Among others, even iron utenfils had been partly vola-
tilized, andcryftals of fpecular iron-ore were formed on the
furface. For a knowledge of this important faft, the
public is indebted to the honourable H. G. Bennet, who
brought away various fpecimens from the newly opened
houfes.

The quellion refpefting the fituation of volcanic fires may
be thus Hated : — Does the fire in volcanic mountains ori-
ginate in the mountain itfelf, or is it fituated at a great
depth beneath the furface ? It has been an opinion com-
monly entertained, that volcanoes originally break out in
mountains already formed, and cover them with lava and
fcoriae. Hence it is fuppofed by fome philofophers, that
there exillcd primitive or fecondary mountains, where we
now obferve the Peak of Tenerifle and Etna, or Vefuvius,
and that volcanic fire has merely covered the furface with
its produiSs, or efFefted a change in the external form of
thefe mountains. On the other hand, it is contended that
volcanic mountains are either entirely the produfts of fub-
terrancan fire, and have been formed by the lava and fcoriae
thrown up, as was the cafe with the volcanic range of
JoruUo in New Spain, and Monte Nnovo near Naples ; or
that they have been raifed by fnbterranean heat, which has
foftened and upheaved the regular beds and (Irata that form
the cruft of the globe, as was the cafe at Malpays, already
defcribed ; and on this upraifed furface a volcanic cone has
been formed, when the eruption of the volcano took place.
To determine thefe quellions, where hiftory is filent refpcA-
ing the formation of volcanoes, we mult examine their ftruc-
ture at the bafe and the fummit, and attend to the pheno-
mena which accompany the eruptions. Some volcanic hills
are fo entirely compofed of fcorirc and lava, that we can
have no hefitation in believing that they have been formed
by eruptions. Tliis might be aflerted of .loruUo, of Monte
Roflb, and Monte Nnovo, if even we had no well authenti-
cated accounts of their formation ; and hence we may infer
that the fource of the fire is fituated far below the bafe of
thefe hills. Other volcanic mountains of larger ii/.c are
partly compofed of beds and llrata, to which wc cannot

10

afcribe a volcanic origin. According to the obfervations of
Mr. Leckie, during his rcfidence in Sicily, calcareous ftrata,
with marine organic remains, reft on Ijeds of volcanic tufa,
on the eaftern fide of Etna, and dip towards the fea.
(Bakewell's Introduftion to Geology, 2d edit. p. 316.)
Hence we may infer that the primeval eruptions took place
under the fea, and that their produfts of tufa were covered
with marine depofits, before the mountain emerged from
the ocean. In other words, the exiftence of the volcano
preceded that of the mountain itfelf, the firft eruptions
taking place under the fea, the whole mafs of the bafe hav-
ing been upraifed at a fubfequcnt period. Calcareous beds
occur in fome of the Canary iflands, which are all volcanic ;
and thougli the bafe of the Peak of Tenerifle, according to
Humboldt, rifes amidft a feries of bafalts and old lavas, he
does not confider thefe as a progreflive accumulation of
lavas, but as having been formed under and elevated from
the fea. On attending to the circumftances which accom-
pany the formation of new iflands, he fays, we find that
thefe extraordinary eruptions are generally preceded by a
fwelling of the foftened cruft of the globe. Rocks appear
above the water, before the flames find their way or lava
iflfues from the crater. We muft, therefore, diftinguifh be-
tween the nucleus raifed up, and the mafs of fcorise and lava
thrown upon it. This, as we h. ve before obferved, is the
cafe in fome inftances : there are others, however, in which
pumice and fcoris have been thrown up from under the fea ;
but both phenomena prove that the fource of volcanic fire is
feated at great depths below the furface of the ground.
Were the fource of volcanic fire feated in the mountain from
which the eruption takes place, it is impofllble to conceive
that it could continue burning for fome thoufand years,
without tiie mountain talhng in ; and when the lire was once
extinft, it does not appear probable that it (hould ever burft
forth again in the fame place. M. Werner and his fol-
lowers have placed the feat of volcanic fire in beds of coal ;
but as thefe occupy the upper ftratL' of the globe, being
fituated above the primary and lower fecondary beds, they
can have no great comparative depth, and the objeAions
juft ftated apply to this theory in full force. For if beds
of coal wera once burned out, or extinguifhed in one place,
we can aflign no conceivable reafon vviiy volcanic fires
fliould breiik out in the fame place again, after a ceflation
of feven hundred years, and (hould continue to burn for
many hundred years afterwards, as was the cafe with Ve-
fuvius. Indeed, the opinion of volcanic fire being derived
from the ignition of coal-beds, appears to us a fuppofition
altogether inadequate to explain their origin, and the extent
of iheir operations.

Mr. Whitehurft, in his " Inquiry into the original State
and Formation of liie Earth," 410. 1778, apprcliends, that
fubterraneous fire inuft at different times have exifted uni-
verfally in the bowels of the eartli, and that in union with
water, or by the expanfive power of fteam, it has produced
the immenfe continents, aa well as the moinitains of our
globe, and alfo the univerfal deluge. When thefe fires were
firft kindled, by what fort of fuel they are ftill maintained,
at what depths below the furface of the earth they are
placed, whether they have a mutual comnuinication, of
what dimenlions they confift, and how long they may con-
tinue, arc qiieftions which do not admit an eafy decifion.
Some, with M. Buffon, have placed the feat of the fire of
volcanoes towards the centre, or near the fnmniit of the
mountains, which thev fn|)pofe to fnniini the matter emitted.
But if this were the cafe, that part of the mountain which
is fituated above the fuppofed (eat of the fin-, muft be de-
ft roycd or diflipatcd in a fliort time ; whereas an eruption

uuially

VOLCANO.

nd the

ufually adds to the height and bulk of a volcano
matter difcharged by it for many ages would be fufficient to
form three fuch mountains as the fimple cone or mountam ot
the exifting volcano. r i • i.

We have hitherto confined our account of volcanic phe-
nomena to thofe circumftances which accompany the erup-
tion in its immediate vicinity ; but in order to form any ra-
tional or probable conjedure refpeding the feat and origin
of volcanic fires, we mult take a more enlarged view of the
fubjed, and contemplate volcanic fires in conneaion with
each other, or in their effcfts on remote parts of the globe.
Volcanoes and earthquakes are regarded as diftinft pheno-
mena, but they are only different cffcfts of the fame caufe.
Volcanoes are the vents through which is difcharged the
elaftic vapour, and other materials, that, in a confined ftate,
are the principal caufes of earthquakes. Whenever thefe
vents are by any means choaked up for a long time, violent
commotions of the earth may be expeded, until the former
vents are re-opened, or new paffages made for the confined
materials to efcape. This view of the fubjed may he illuf-
trated by the following fafts, which prove the immediate
conneftion of earthquakes with volcanic fires.

The great earthquakes which have (haken Sicily and Ca-
labria, have generally been accompanied with volcanic erup-
tions from Etna or the Lipari ifles. In the year 1169,
every houfe in Catania was thrown down by a violent earth-
quake, which occurred at the fame time with a great eruption
of Etna.

The earthquakes of 1634 and 1635, which nearly de-
ftroyed Mefiina, accompanied the memorable eruption from
the fame mountam, in which part of the volcanic cone fell
down. The lava formed a torrent eighteen miles long, two
miles broad, and twenty-four feet high. Immediately pre-
ceding the earthquake which deftroyed Euphemia in 1633,
Kircher, who was an eye-witnefs, fays that Stromboli threw
out an immenfe quantity of flames, accompanied with a noife
which could be dlftindly heard at the diftance of fixty miles.
The common eruptions from this volcano are comparatively
feeble.

Near the time of the great earthquakes which deftroyed
Lifbon in 1755 and 1761, Europe, Africa, and America were
repeatedly agitated by fubterranean commotions, accounts of

which may be feen by referring to the journals of that period.
A few hours after the great fhock of the former earthquake,
the waters of Switzerland, Northern Europe, Canada, and
the Weft India iflands, were violently agitated, and fire was
feen to rife from the midft of the Atlantic ocean. Thefe
efforts, nearly fimultaneous, prove that the fource of the
commotion was feated deep within the globe.

The earthquakes of Cumana, in New Andalufia, are con-
neded, fays Humboldt, with thofe of the Weft India
iflands ; and it has even been fuppofed that they have fome
connedion with the diftant volcanic phenomena of the
Andes. On the 4th of November, 1797, the province of
Quito fuffered fuch a deftrudive commotion, that even in
that thinly inhabited country, forty thoufand of the natives
perifhed, buried under the ruins of their houfes, fwallowed
up in the fiflufes, or drowned in lakes that were fuddenly
formed. At the fame period, the inhabitants of the Eaftern
Antilles were alarmed by ftiocks which continued eight
months, when the volcano of Guadaloupe threw out pumice-
ftones, alhes, and gufts of fulphureous vapours. This erup-
tion, during which long fubterranean nolfes were heard,
took place on the 27th of September, and was followed on
the [4th of December by the great earthquake at Cumana.

The city of Caraccas was entirely deftroyed by an earth-
qmke on the 24th of March, 181 2 : violent ofcillations of

the ground were felt for thirty-five days after, both in the
Weft India iflands, and on Terra Firma. At this time the
volcano in St. Vincent's, which had been dormant for near a
century, broke out with great fury, covering the neighbour-
ing iflands with its afties. On the night in which the cities
of Lima and Callao were deftroyed by an earthquake, four
new volcanoes broke out in the Andes. Humboldt alfo
ftates, that a column of denfe black fmoke, that had ilTued for
feveral months from a volcano on the (hore near Pafto, in
1797, dlfappeared at the very hour when the towns of
Rlobamba, Hambato, and Tacunga, fixty leagues to the
fouth, were overturned by a moft violent fhock.

Numerous other inftances might be cited, were it necef-
fary, to prove the connedion exifting between the phe-
nomena of earthquakes and diftant volcanoes. The inha-
bitants in the vicinity of volcanoes are fo well aware of
this connedion, that at Meffina and Naples, and at the foot
of Cotopaxl and Tungurahua, earthquakes are only dreaded
when flames and vapours ceafe to ifl'ue from the craters ;
and what, fays Humboldt, is very remarkable, the ftiocks
appear to be ftronger, as the country is more diftant from
burning volcanoes. The globe, it may be faid, is agitated
with greater force, in proportion as the furface has a fmaller
number ef funnels communicating with the interior.

The cataftrophe of Rlobamba, in Quito, before ftated,
has led feveral well-informed peribns to think that this un-
fortunate country would be lefs frequently defolated, were
the fubterranean fire to break the porphyritic dome of
Chimborazo, and this coloffal mountain were to become an
adive volcano.

The connedion which diftant volcanoes have with each
other, and the vail extent to which the agitations of the
ground are felt during eruptions, offer fatisfadory proofs
that the fource of heat is not fituated in the middle of vol-
canic mountains, but is placed far below them ; or to fpeak
famiharly, a volcanic mountain is not the fire-place, but the
chimney-top. Our ideas of volcanic operations will be en-
larged by contemplating Ae immenfe craters of ancient vol-
canoes which are either become extlnd, or nearly fo. From
experiments made by Spallanzani to draw up the ftones
from the bottom of the fea between the iflands of Lipari,
Vulcano, and Salene, he learned that the ground was one

continued mafs of volcanic fubftances, precifely of the fame
kind as thofe on the fhores of thefe iflands. Hence he in-
fers, that all the fubmarine ground between them has fuf-
fered the adion of fire, in the fame manner as that which
is expofed to view, and thefe three iflands are one continued
group of volcanized fubftances, and have originally been
formed by one central conflagration. That this eruption
has been fubfequently confined to three dlftind mouths,
which gave birth to the three iflands. Humboldt has
drawn nearly the fame inference refpeding the whole of the
mountainous part of the province of Quito, which, he fays,
may be confidered as one immenfe volcano, occupying feven
hundred fquare leagues of furface, and throwing out flames
by different cones, known under the denomination of dlftind
volcanoes, as Cotopaxl, Tungurahua, and Pichinca. In like
manner, he adds, the whole group of the Canary iflands is
placed as it were over one immenfe fubmarine volcano.
The fire makes its way fometimes through one, and fome-
times through another of thefe iflands in different parts.
Now if we confider this opinion as correft, how vaft and
deep muft be the volcanic abyfs to which the mountains of
Quito are only the different chimneys, placed over a thick
cruft of confolidated porphyritic lava. The volcanic cruft
which fupports the Canary ifles, muft cover an abyfs not
lefs in extent and depth than that of Quito.

^ 5 The

VOLCANO.

The range of volcanoes in the Andes, to the fouth of
Quito, extends in a right line nearly two tlioufand miles ;
and if thefe have originally rifen from one vaft chafm, like
the volcanic ranges of whoffe origin we have authentic re-
cords, it would not appear extravagant to fuppofe that this
chafm may deCcend to the very centre of the globe. Some
philofophers, indeed, contend for the exiftence of central
heat in our planet, which gives rife to all the different phe-
nomena of earthquakes and volcanoes. (See Systems of
Geology.) We (hall advert to this opinion in treating of
the various explanations which have been given of the ori-
gin and fupport of volcanic fires.

In contemplating the impreflive phenomena of volcanoes,
and the great changes they have produced on the furface of
the globe, we cannot be furprifed that philofophers, ancient
and modern, (hould have been anxious to difcover the origin
of thefe fires, and the means by which they are fupported,
but from the nature of the fubjeft, their theories can be en-
titled to little more than tlie appellation of probable con-
jeftures.

In all inquiries of this kind, it is important to bear in
mind the elTential diftinftion between the caufe of any
natural phenomenon, and the mode in which that caufe
operates. With the latter we may become well acquainted
by attentive obfervation, while we remain profoundly ig-
norant of the former. Thus, when in volcanic operations
we obferve the expanfive effefts of heat, forcing a vent for
the difchargeof aeriform, fluid, or fohd matter, we may infer
that thefe effefts do not differ in kind, but in degree only,
from the fame effefts of heat when fubjefted to the controul
of human agency ; but we can draw no certain inference
from hence refpefting the origin of volcanic fire, or the
fubftamces by which they are kept burning for thoufands of
years with increafed or diminifhed intenfity.

The opinion formerly moft prevalent refpefting the origin
of volcanic fire, was that it proceeded from the fubterranean
Jermentation of certain materials which were difpofed to
inflame and explode fpontaneoufly. When the decompo-
fitiou of iron pyrites by water, and the ipontaneous inflam-
mation attending it was firfl obferved, and particularly when
tlie experiment of Lemery was known, where inflammation
is produced by a mixture of iron-fiUngs, fulphur, and water,
it was imagined that a fatisfaftory explanation of the caufe
of volcanic fire was difcovered.

In this experiment he mixed twenty-five pounds of pow-
dered fulphur with an equal weight of iron-filings : and
having made with water a pafte of the mixture, he put it
into an iron pot, covered it with a cloth, and buried it a
foot under ground. In about eight or nine hours time
the earth fwelled, became warm, and cracked : hot ful-
phureous vapours were perceived ; a flame which dilated
the cracks was obferved ; the fuperincumbent earth was
covered with a yellow and black powder ; and, in fliort,
a fubterraneous fire, producing a volcano in miniature,
was fpontaneoufly lighted up from the reciprocal aftions of
fulphur, iron, and water. See Artificial Eartiiquakks.

The above experiment has been often repeated ; and it
has been obferved, that large quantities of the materials
arc not requifile to make the experiment fucceed, pro-
vided there be a due proportion of water : half a pound
of fteel-fiLngs, half a pound of flower of brimflonc,
and fourteen ounces of water, will, when well mixed, ac-
quire heat enough to make the mafs take fire. But it
was known long before the time of Lcmcry, that natu-
ral mixtures of fulphur and iron would fpontaneoufly
take fire. Thefe fubilanccs, it is well known, are fupphcd
by the pyrites ; a fmall quantity of which is fufficient to
kindle a firo ; a proper portion of water (for too great a
Vol. XXXVII.

quantity would extinguifli the fubterraneous fire) may be
derived either from tifTures and channels communicating
with the fea, or from fources in the earth, wherein it is
known to abound ; and air, if it fliould be thought abfo-
lutely neceffary to the fpontaneous firing of the pyrites,
may be conceived eitlier to accompany the wt>t';r, or to
defcend into the innermoft parts of the earth through the
fifl"ure3 which are found on its furface. Or, if we fuppofe the
heated pyrites to have been in contaft with the oxyd of manga-
nefe and petrol, the flame may arife, as it is produced by art,
from the deficcation of that fubilance, and its mixture with
the mineral oil. That ore when heated affords oxygen gas,
of which a very fmall quantity is fufficient to produce flame ;
and the flame, when once produced, may be fupported by
pure air from other ores, as Dr. Prieftley has fliewn (Obf.
on Air, vol. iv. p. 210, &c. ) ; and tlie inflammable matter, ac-
cording to his fyfl:em, may be fupplied by pyrites, bituminous
fchiftus, bitumen, and coal. After the eruption in any place,
the volcanoes themfelves ferve for fpiracles or air-holes, by
which the fubterranean fire may receive neceffary fupplies ; fo
that thefe may ferve to keep the magazines of internal fire iu
a due ftate, as well as to difcharge the fmoke and other
matters with which it would otherwife be choaked up and
extinguifhed.

Many of the regular ftrata are impregnated with iron and
fulphur in the form of pyrites, and it was only neceffary to
provide for the accefs of water and air, to produce fpon-
taneous inflammation. Thus the cliffs near Charmoutli, m
Dorfetfhire, abound in pyrites, and after a very hot fummer
and heavy rains, they took fire, and continued burning
flowly for a long time. Thefe cliffs are principally cora-
pofed of pyritous clay, forming part of the great llratum,
called lias, in the well of England. See Strata.

Tlie abundant evolution of fulphuretted hydrogen gas from
the decompofition of pyrites, tended further to confirm the
opinion that afcribed to this caufe the origin of volcanic fire.
We conceive, however, that this theory is quite inadequate to
explain volcanic phenomena on a great fcale, fuch as the con-
neftion which difl;ant volcanoes have with each other, the
long continuance of the fire, and its breaking forth again in
the fame place, after it has ccafed to burn for ages. Some
phenomena, however, which are nearly allied to volcanic,
and appear to be local, may be produced by pyritous de-
compofition. The eruptions of mud in the Crimea, and at
Maccaluba in Sicily, may derive their origin from this caufe,
particularly as the matter thrown out is obferved to contain
particles of pyrites, whereas they have rarely, if ever, been
obferved in the matter erupted from nre volcanoes.

The inflammation of fulphur and bitumen has been fup-
pofed by fome philofophers to occafion the various phe-
nomena of volcanoes, but where do thefe fubflances derive
the oxygen neceffary to fupport their combuflion ? Spal-
lanzani lias conjectured that this may be obtained from va-
rious faliiie ingredients which yield their oxygen to heat, or
it may be derived from the decompofition of water ; but
here we meet again with the fame difficulty as before ; iiow
are the combullible materials renewed for ages in the lame
place ? This would feem to require currents of liquid ful-
phur and bitumen to circulate through the interior of the
globe, a circumllaiice which the theory of Spallanzani has
not provided for, but which docs not appear to us very im-
probable. This induflnous obferver could not deleft the
flightefl fmell of bitumen in the volcanic fmoke of Strom-
boli, but according to Dolomieu and Humboldt, it is very
perceptible in Veluvius, and bitumen is even found in the
recently erupted lava of that mountain. Sulphur, in its
different combinations, is a conftant produft of all volcanoes.

According to the opinion of Spallanzani and others, the
3 M lava

VOLCANO.

lava and earthy produAs of volcanoea are formed of the in-
ternal beds of rock, which are melted by the inflammation
of fulphur or bitumen, and thrown up by the violent pref-
fure of elaftic vapour, either from fteam or more per-
manently elaftic fluids. From feme ingenious experiments,
he afcertained that even the lava itfelf, at a certain tempera-
ture, partly afl"umes an aeriform (late, and may then further
contribute to the violence of thefe explofions, by which it is
ejefted from the crater.

It was the opinion of bifhop Berkeley, that a vacuum
was made within the body of the earth by a vaft body of
inflammable matter taking fire, and that the water, by com-
munication with the fea, rufhed in, and was converted into
fleam. However this be, it is certain, that by the procefs
above explained, a vapour would be produced, whofe elafl:ic
force is known to be feveral times greater than that of gun-
powder ; and, therefore, if the fuperincumbent weight were
not too great, it might caufe earthquakes ; and it would
propel the matter melted by the fubterraneous fire laterally
towards the mouth of the volcano, where meeting with leait
refiftance, it would expel it, together with all the unmelted
ftony mafles which it found in its paffage. It is eafy to
conceive, that before the denfe matter is ejefted, the dilated
air of the volcano will be firft forced out, and carry with
it the alhes and loofer ftones adhering to the fides and crater
of the volcano, in the manner obferved and defcribed by fir
William Hamilton.

That fteam is one of the mod important agents in lifting
up torrents of lava to fuch prodigious heights, has been ge-
nerally fuppofed : it is even aflerted that the fea has been
obferved to retire in the bav of Naples previoufly to erup-
tions from Vefuvius ; but this may, with more probability,
be afcribed to the upheaving of the ground, than to the
fudden abforption of water. Were the water to be ab-
forbed ever fo rapidly, other water would inftantly flow on
to fupply its place, fo that the apparent level of the fea
from this caufe could not perceptibly vary, except for a few
minutes. But if the ground were foftened and raifed up by
fubterranean heat, the eff^eft might continue for a longer
time ; and rtiould even a fmall quantity of water find accefs
through fiffures to the deep recefles of melted lava, this, by
its rapid expanfion, might force up part of the lava to the
fammit of the volcano, and produce the moft; tremendous
commotions.

According to the experiments of Spallanzani, water
poured on the furface of melted lava, produced little effect,
but when introduced under the furface, it occafioned a moft
violent explofion. Similar effefts are often feen in founde-
ries ; for if the moulds contain the leaft raoifture when the
melted metal is poured in, it is driven back with a loud re-
port, and is violently difperfed in every direftion. Thefe
experiments, and the reafonings founded upon them, apply
rather to the mode in which volcanic fires operate, than to
the caufe of thefe fires. It feems exceedingly probable,
that the fudden accefs of water, and the generation of im-
menfe volumes of elaftic vapour, may be the immediate caufe
of moft volcanic eruptions. An explanation of the eruption
of Etna, nearly fimilar to this, is given by the poet
Lucretius.

" Praeterea, magna ex parte mare montis ad ejus
Radices frangit fluftus, asftumque refolvit.
Ex hoc ufque mare fpeluncae montis ad altas
Perveniunt fubter fauces : hac ire, fatendum eft,
Et penetrare, mari, penitus res cogit, aperto :
Atque ecflare foras ; ideoque extollere flammas,
Saxaque fubjeftare, et arena toUere nimbos."

Lib. vi, 1. 694, &c.

We have ftill however to feck for the origin of the fire
itfelf, which this illuftration does not explain.

The caufe of volcanic fire muft probably be fought in the
chemical combination of the elementary matter, of which
mineral fubftances are compofed, and not in the combuftioii
of any inflammable materials like thofe which exift on the
earth's furface. The folid produfts ejefted from volcanoes
are compofed of the different earths and alk.ilies ; thefe are
not fimple fubftances, but confiil of metalline bafes and oxy-
gen. Some of thefe metalline bafes, or metalloids, (as
they have been called,) inftantly inflame on contaft with
water, and abforb the oxygen from it, whereby they are con-
verted into earths or alkalies, having all the properties which
the fame bodies poffefs in their natural ftate. ( See Potas-
sium. ) This important difcovery of fir H. Davy has been
applied to explain the origin of volcanic fires. It has been
fuppofed that the furface of the globe, formed of the dif-
ferent earths, may be regarded as its oxyded cruft, but that
the internal parts are prmcipally compofed of the metalhne
bafes of thefe earths ; and whenever water finds accefs to
them, they oxydate rapidly, and inflame, and are thrown
up in the form of e.irthy lavas, &c. giving rife to all the
various phenomena attending volcanic eruptions. This hy-
potheCs, though fimple and ingenious, is not free from va-
rious objeftions. It is exceedingly difficult to conceive how
fubftances fo inflammable and oxydable could remain for
ages in a metallic ftate, protefted from the accefs of moif-
ture. Perhaps the difficulty we feel in admitting this may
arife from our having obferved in the inflammation of potaf-
fium by water, that the whole was almoft inftantly burned
and diffolved ; but were we to fuppofe a compaft mafs of
this fubftance to exill in the earth, of a mile or more in
thicknefs, on the accefs of a limited quantity of water, the
furface would inflame, and be reduced to an alkali, and form
a cruft, which would proteft the internal part from inflamma-
tion. Another current of water might diffolve this cruft,
and again inflame the potaffium. By a fucceflion of fuch
currents, the metalline beds in the earth may be fuppofed to
be repeatedly inflamed, until the whole mafs was oxydized,
when the volcanic fires would there be for ever extinft ;
unlefs we can conceive a procefs of deoxydation to take
place, and reduce the earths and alkalies once more to a me-
tallic ftate. The currents of eleftric light at the north and
fouth poles may lead us to fufpeft that eleftric agency is
operative in the interior of the globe, and it would not ap-
pear contrary to analogies, were we to fuppofe that it may
perform an important part in the procefs of deoxydation, and
other chemical changes, which produce metallic veins, vol-
canic eruptions, and other geological phenomena. When
the attention of philofophers was ftrongly drawn to the
phenomena of eleftricity by the difcovery of the Leyden
phial, in the middle of the laft century, it was fuppofed
that this powerful and myfterious agent was the principal
caufe of the phenomena of earthquakes. Ingenious and
plaufible theories were framed, to explain its mode of opera-
tion, and its agency was extended to account for volcanic
fires alfo. The quantity of eleftric matter evolved from
volcanic fmoke in the thunders and lightnings which accom-
panied eruptions, were fuppofed to indicate that the difen-
gagement of eleftric matter gave rife to all the phenomena
of volcanoes. It may be obferved that the data on which
thefe theories were formed was defeftive : the eleftric matter
evolved from the fmoke and vapour of volcanoes was the
neceffary effeft of the fudden formation and expanfion of
aeriform fluids : this is rendered fenfible when a fingle drop
of water is converted into fteam, and. muft be moft powerful
when immenfe volumes of vapour are inftantly generated.

In our fpeculations refpefting the origin of volcanic fires,

it

VOLCANO.

it is important to confider whether volcanoes are accidental
appendages, or neceflary parts of the terreilrial fyftem, for
" were we," as Mr. Bakewell obferves in his Introduftion
to Geology, " to regard volcanic craters merely as the vents
for fubterranean fires, a further inquiry would arife refpeft-
ing the utility of thefe fires. We cannot fuppofe that the
interior motions of our planet are not direfted to fome defi-
nite purpofe, with the fame wifdom and defign which are dif-
played in the external univerfe. The craters of ancient vol-
canoes greatly exceed any that are now aftive ; and the
quantity of matter thrown out mud have been commenfu-
rate with the mighty openings through which it was ejefted.
Now thefe immenfe volcanoes, whofe craters are many fquare
leagues in extent, had doubtlefs an important office to per-
form in the economy of nature. It cannot, therefore, be
unreafonable to fuppofe that the earth itfelf contains the
gre?', laboratory and ftorchoufe, where the materials that
form its furface are prepared, and from whence they were
thrown up at different times, through thefe vaft openings,
either in the ftate of mud, or in chemical folution, or in the
form of lava, or in the comminuted ftate of powders or
fand. The only inftances we have at prefent of rock
formations are volcanic ; the vaft volcanoes in America
throw out torrents of mud, which form Itrata of fome
hundred fquare miles in extent, and of confiderable depth.
And according to Humboldt, the further we trace back the
ancient currents of lava, the greater fimilarity we find be-
tween them and thofe rocks, which are confidered as primi-
tive. Thefe primeval eruptions took place when our prefent
continents were covered by the fia or by large lakes, at the
bottom of which they probably fpread, and enveloped the
remains of animals or vegetables, which we find buried in
the different ftrata. Long intervals of rcpofe might allow
time for the growth of other tribes of animals, which were
buried in the matter of fuccceding eruptions. The internal
fire afting with greater or lefs force on the ftrata already
formed, might occafion thefe diflocations and contortions fo
frequently obferved in primary and fecondary rocks." This
view of the fubjeft is confiftent with that fyftem of geology
which fuppofes the exiftence of a central fire in the globe,
and it afligns to that fire its ufe in the vaft chemical labora-
tory of nature. The exiftence of numerous attivc or ex-
tinft volcanoes proves the exiftence of this fire, their con-
neftion leads us to infer the great depth at which it is placed,
and the produftion of new land offers no obfcure indication of
the final caufe. The caufes by which this fire is called into
greater aftivity at certain periods, will probably for ever re-
main unknown ; but it is important to keep in mind the efien-
tial difference between combnftion and ignition. A fubftance
may remain red-hot for ages without undergoing any change,
if it be deprived of air, or the prefence of other fubttances
with which it is difpofcd to combine ; but by conibuftion a
chemical change is produced. A mafs of melted iron or
lava, inclofed within the globe, might remain unchanged for
Sny conceivable time, if protcfted from air or water by a
folid cruft of the fame material ; and it is only on the con-
tact of othc-r fiibftances, permeating or breaking through
the cruft, that the common effefts of fire would be pro-
duced.

Granting a fufficiont fin.al caufe for the exiftence of fire in
the earth, the fatt will not be more furprifing than the
cmifTion of light and heat from the lun : of the manner in
which eitlier are generated, we are profoundly ignorant, as
we are alfo of the nature and effence of heat itfelf. We are
equally ignorant refpcftiii.j the caufes which have increafed
or diminilhed the inlenfity of fubterranean fires at certain
periods, and direifted them to certain parts of the earth's

furface. The variation of magnetic polarity may lead us
to mfer that there are regular proceffes taking place in the
earth ; and that it is not an inert mafs, but a well-conftruaed
machine,containing withm it the materials and the meansofits
future renovation, direfted by the fame wifdom which guides
Its path in the heavens, and circulates the fluids through all
the various forms of organic exiftence that inhabit its furface.
Whether a time may arrive when the central fire, encreafing
Its adivity, ftiall again reduce the prefent continents under
Its dominion, we have no natural means of afcertaining.
The ancient Stoics, and many of the oriental philofophers,
maintained the dodrine of the deftrudion and renovation of
the world by fire ; the facred writers not unfrequently refer
to the fame event, announcing a period when " the earth
ftiall be burned up, and the elements ftiall melt with fervent
heat."

Dr. Hooke formerly had maintained, that all land was
raifed out of the fea by earthquakes ; and many modern philo-
fophers feem to admit his hypothefis, though not, perhaps, in
Its utmoft latitude. Von Troil ( Letters on Iceland, p. 222.)
IS of opinion tliat this ifland has been produced by volcanoes
in the courfe of feveral centuries. Dr. Forfter, in his Ob-
fervations made during a Voyage round the World, p. 15 1,
after giving an ingenious conjeiture concerning the origin of
all the tropical low ifles in the South Sea, affures us, that
of the higher ifles there iu hardly one of them which has not
ftrong veftiges of its having undergone fome violent altera-
tion by a volcano. Some of them have volcanoes ftill fub-
fifting ; others, among which are Otaheite and Huaheinc,
feem to have been elevated, in remote ages, from the bot-
tom of the fea by fubterraneous fires. Sir William HamiU
ton is confident, that the ifland of Ifchia, the whole bafis
of which is lava, rofe out of the fea in the fame manner as
fome of the Azores.

Dr. Prieftley (Obf. on Air, vol. i. p. 263.) thinks it not
improbable that the volcanoes, with which there are evident
traces of almoft the whole furface of the earth having been
overfpread, may have been the origin of our atmofpherc, as
well as (according to the opinion of fame) of all the folid
land. The fuperfluous phlogifton of the air, in the ftate in
which it in"ues from volcanoes, may have been imbibed by
the waters of the fea, which it is probable covered the fur-
face of the earth, though part of it might have united with
the acid vapour exhaled from the fea, and by this union have
made a confideiable and valuable addition to the common
mafs of air ; and the remainder of this overcharge of phlo-
gifton may have been imbibed by plants as foon as the earth
was furnifhed with them.

The beds of lava are deepoft and iiarrowell in the proxi-
mity of the crater, and broader and (hallower as they
are more diftant, unlefs fome valley intervenes ; fcorix
and aflies lie ftiil more diftant. From tliefe obfervations
extinguirtied volcanoes are traced. Many excellent in-
veftigations of this fort may be feen in M. Soulavie's Iliftory
of the South of France. For further information refpcA-
ing volcanoes we refer to ^TN A, Stromboli, Systems o/"
Geology, Vrauviu.s, and Vl'LCANO.

Foknnic ProduSs — The fubftanccs thrown out of vol-
canoes, or found in the crater, are inflammable, f.diiie, me-
tallic, and earthy, without water, and may be claffed as aeri-
form, fluid, or folid.

Atriform Fluids. — Steam, or vapour, is frequently emitted
in a qniefccnt ftate of the volcano, and is fuppofed to per-
form an important part during the moft violent eruptions.
Suipiiuretted liydrogen gas is thrown out in great abundance
from all volcanoes. Carbonic acid gas is emitted from fome
volcanoes in a quiclccnl ftate. Of the other gafcous i>r volatile
3 M : fubftanccs

VOLCANO.

fubftances emitted during an aftive ftate of the volcano, we
can only infer the exiilence from the fmell or from their being
found in combination with the fohd produfts of volcanoes ;
the principal of thefe are ammoniacal gas, muriatic acid
gas, and fulphureous acid gas. Probably almoft every mineral
tubftance which can be rendered volatile by heat, may be
emitted in an aeriform ftate during violent eruptions ; even the
earthy matter of lavas is volatilized at a high temperature,
as was proved in the experiments of Dr. Prieftley and
Spallanzani.

Volcanic fubftances fluid at a heat below 2 1 2° Fahren-
heit are water, which is fometimes thrown out in tor-
rents : and fulphuric acid, found in fome volcanic water and
bitumen, which has been obferved exuding from lavas at
Vefuvius. Sulphuric acid, that abounds in fome water near
volcanic mountains, is probably formed during a quiefcent
ftate of a volcano, from the combuftion of fulphur in the
crater, or in the upper receffes of the mountain. It is not
difficult to conceive how the acid may become diffufed in
the rain-water, or in that from melted fnow, which may
permeate the porous rocks, and delcend in ftreams from a
lofty volcano.

The folid fubftances ejefted from volcanoes, or formed
by chemical combination in the crater, comprife inflam-
mable, fahne, metallic,, and earthy minerals. The three
former are by far the leaft confiderable in bulk.

Sulphur is found in abundance in the craters of dormant
volcanoes : its formation is attributed to the gradual decom-
pofition of fulphuretted hydrogen gas, exhaled copioufly
through fiffures from below. See Solfaterua and SouF-

FFRERE.

Phofphorus is too inflammable to be found fohd among apa-
tite volcanic produfts ; it is only from the white colour of the
fmoke, from its pecuUar fmell, and from its combination
with lime in the mineral called apatite, found near fome vol-
canoes, that we can infer its exiftence as a volcanic fubftance.
See Apatite.

SoUd carbon has only been found in fmall quantities, in
concrete bitumen in fome volcanic produfts. Carbonized
wood and vegetable matter have been found occafionally in
lava or tufa ; in all probabihty they were enveloped during
an eruption, and cannot therefore be regarded as volcanic
fubftances. Carbon, in the ftate of mineral coal, has been
fuppofed by M. Werner and his followers to be the prin-
cipal fupport and caufe of volcanic fires ; but this opinion is
deftitute of all proof, and is at variance with all geological
analogies.

The faline fubftances found in the craters of volcanoes, or
formed by volcanic fire, are numerous, though not very
abundant. Muriate of ammonia (fal ammoniac) forms an
incruftation on many lavas foon after they cool. Muriate
of foda (common fait) is found in fome volcanoes in confi-
derable quantities, even entire beds of rock-falt are found in
volcanic craters, as at Pofa, near Burgos. Mount Cologero,
near Sciacca, in Sicily, appears to be a volcanic mountain,
impregnated throughout with common fait. Muriate of
copper and of iron are found in fome volcanoes, as that
of Vefuvius. Sulphate of iron and fulphate of copper,
or green and blue vitriol, alum, gypfum, and fulphate of
niagnefia may alfo be enumerated among the faline fubftances
found in volcanoes. See Sulphate o/" /ron, &c.

The metallic fubftances found in volcanoes, or among their
produfts, are antimony, copper, gold, manganefe, mercury,
iron, tellurium, and titanium.
. Antimony is found combined with fulphur.

Copper is found native, and combined with fulphur, with

7

iron, and with the muriatic and fulphuric acids, as before
ftated.

Gold is faid to be found in fome volcanic products,
and the gold-mine of Nagyag is ftated by Breizlak to be
placed in the crater of a volcano. There is a gold-mine in
the ifland of Ifchia, which is entirely volcanic.

Manganefe exilts in a fmall proportion combined with
iron in obfidian and lava.

Mercury is found at Guanca Velua in great quantities^
and it is faid the mine is fituated in the crater of a volcano,
M. Patrin fuppofes that fome of the Cinnabar mines in Afia
have a finiilar fituation.

Iron is abundantly diffufed through all volcanic rocks,
which have a dark-brown, a black, or red colour. It forme
one-eighth part of the fubftance of moft lavas. Iron exifts
alfo in craters in the form of fpecular iron ore.

Tellurium is found with gold in the mines of Nagyag.
See Tellurium Mines.

Titanium, combined writh iron, appears, from the obferva-
tions of Cordier, to be a conftituent part of almoft all dark-
coloured volcanic rocks.

The earthy produfts of volcanoes confift principally of
lava, obfidian, pumice, volcanic flags or fcorise, vWth vol-
canic fand, tufa, and we may alfo enumerate the earthy tufa
formed of the indurated mud thrown out of the Americar
volcanoes. Many geologills enumerate bafalt and wacke
among volcanic produfts, which they refemble both in ap-
pearance and in the nature of their conftituent parts. Va-
rious cryftallized minerals are found imbedded in lava, par-
ticularly augite, cryfolite, or olivine, felfpar, leucite, V'e-
fuvian, and zeolite. (See Augite, &c.) Under the articles
Lava, Obftd'mn, &c. are given fome account of thefe
minerals.

The ftones firft thrown out of volcanoes are frequently
pieces of granite or other primitive rocks, either untouched
or only partially changed by fire. This circumftance proves
that the feat of volcanic fire is far below thefe rocks.
Scorix or volcanic flags are generally thrown out before
the eruption of lava. Thefe flags are more or lefs vitrified ;
they fometimes take a globofe form in the air, and become
confolidated before they cool. Thefe havebeen called volcanic
bombs. Immenfe black clouds, confifting of pieces of fcorise
and minute fragments and particles, fimilar to the fcoriae, are
thrown out with it. Some volcanic eruptions confift entirely
of thefe powders or fand, which are driven to vaft diftancee,
and have been carried by currents of air more than five hun-
dred miles from the volcano.

Vefuvius threw out fcorije and powders without any lava,
for many centuries after the eruption in 79 A.D. ■

Lava. — Currents of melted ftone or lava, of twenty or
thirty miles in length, from two to four miles in breadth,
and from twenty to forty feet in depth, are found in vol-
canic dittrifts, equalling in fize fome of the regular ftrata
of the globe. The upper furface of thefe lavas is gene-
rally more or lefs veficular and fcoriaceous ; and it is only
where the beds liave been broken or cut through, that the
compaft ftony fubftance of the lava can be ieen. From
this circumftance alone many philofophers have been led to
doubt the volcanic origin of more compaft rocks ; but, as
M. Cordier obferves, in a paper recently publiftied, " to
judge of the fubftance of a current of lava, from what ap-
pears on the furface, would be like judging of a vat of wine
from the froth with which it was covered." The cryftals
imbedded in lavas were fuppofed by many geologitts to have
exifted previoufly in the rocks which formed the lava, but
were too infufible to be melted by the volcanic fire. On
this erroneous fuppofition, they concluded that volcanic fire

muil

VOLCANO.

mult have poUtlTed bill a low deforce of lieat, as the fame
cryftals may be melted in a common furnace. The forma-
tion of cryftals does not depend upon the degree of heat,
but on the circumftances under which the fubftancc cools ;
a long ftate of q\iiefcent fluidity being a» neceflary to the for-
mation of perfeft cryftals by igneous fufion, a3 it is known
to be in aqueous folutions. Inattention to tliis ciicumftance
has rendered many of the conclufions from the laborious re-
fearches of Spallanzani invalid. M. Cordier, an ingenious
geologift in France, has devifed a new mode of analyfing
lavas. He very properly obferves, that the attention of
geologifts has been hitherto direfted more to the imbedded
cryftals in lava, than to the pafte or bafe of the lava itfelf ;
and it has been admitted, without fufficicrt proof, that the
bafe of lava was either hornblende or felfpar, or a mixture
of tlicfc two minerals.

On attentively examining the fubftance of lava and vol-
canic fcoria;, with a very high magnifying power of the
microfcope, he difcovered that it was not homogeneous, but
confilled of a congeries of minute cryitals of different mi-
nerals, which were principally fimilar to the larger imbedded
cryftals. To afcertain more decidedly the nature of thefe
fmall cryftals, he endeavoured to difunite them by com-
prellion, then felefting particles of the fame fize feparated
them, according to their relative denfity, by wafhing. The
ifolated particles were afterwards examined with the micro-
fcope, and compared with the particles of the cryftals moft
commonly found in volcanic rocks, fuch as felfpar, cryfo-
lite, olivine, iron-fand, and menakanite. He commenced
with the examination of compaft or ftony lavas, beginning
with thofe from burning volcanoes, then proceeding to thofe
from extinft volcanoes, and laftly to thofe whofe volcanic
origin has been doubted by geologifts, fuch as bafalt and
wacke. The refult of thefe examinations have led him to
conclude, that all thefe rocks, from whatever diftrift they
come, are compofed nearly in the fame manner, and are all
granular, confifting of very different diftinft cryftalline
grains, interlaced with each other, fo that all ftony lavas may
be regarded as minutely granitic, when viewed with the mi-
crofcope. There fometimes exift minute pores between the
grains, which however do not occupy one-fixtieth part of
the bulk : thefe pores are more common in modern than in
ancient lavas.

There are five forts of thefe grains diftinguifhable by
their colour ; i. white more or lefi tranfparent ; 2. bottle-
green ; 3. black and pcrfeftly opaque ; 4. a clear brown ;
5. and laftly, very fmall grains of reddifh-brown. Thefe
five forts of grains are fufceptible of further fubdivifion,
according to their phyfical or chemical properties. The
white grains belong to three diftinft minerals. The moft
common are thofe which melt into a white enamel ; thefe
are felfpar. The more infufible are cryfolite, and thofe
which are perfeftly infufible are leucite.

According to the prevalence of felfpar, the lava poflcfTes
different charadlcrs. Thofe which contain from forty-live
to fifty-five per cmt. of felfpar, melt into a black glafs, the
minute edges of which are bottle-green, black, or greyilh-
black ; bafalts arc of this kind.

Thofe lavas which contain from fifty-five to feventy^^r
:ent. of felfpar, melt into a bottle-green enamel, fuch are
the greeiiifh, greyifh, and dark-coloured bafalts.

Stony lavas, which co:rain ninety per cent, of felfpar,
vnelt into a white glafs. Such are the petrofiliceous or com-
pact felfpar lavas and clink-ftonc.

The yellowilh or greenifti grains belong to augite or to
hornblende, which are fometimes difficult to be diftinguifhcd
from each other. According to Cordier, the grains o\ .lugitc

are rounded and iircgbl..r, with a viirtousfratlure and fplen.
dent hiftre. The grains of hornblende are long, and affume
a prifmatic form : they prefent indications of their laminsr
ftrufture, and have little luftre except in the direftion of
the laminse.

The greateft proportion of augite in lava is forty -five per
cent. Thefe lavas melt into a black glafs. Thofe lavas
which melt into a white glafs only contain one per cent, of
augite. The black opaque grains confift of titanium
combined with iron, as iron-fand, fer titnne, or as me-
nakanite. The iron-fand contains only 0.5 of titanium,
the particles have a perfcA metallic luftre, and conchoi-
dal fiafture, and are attraftcd by the magnet. The
greatcil proportion in which they exift in ftony lavas that
melt into a black glafs, is fifteen per cent. The grains of
menakanite exift in a much fmaller proportion, they are dif-
ficult to melt, and are not attrafted by the magnet.

The grains of iron ore, fer oligifte, may be known by the
red colour of the powder when they are pounded. Thefe
are very rare in lavas.

From an examination of a great number of lavas, it ap-
pears that there are only two prevailing minerals which com-
pofe the greater part of their bafe. Thefe are augite
and felfpar. All the reft are in a very fmall proportion ;
and hornblende, which has been admitted without examina-
tion into all volcanic rocks, exifts but in a very few, and
thofe are fuch as abound in felfpar. In the latter the cryi-
tals of hornblende, which are diffeminated, are very diftinft.
Bafaltic rocks, which have hitherto been ttatcd to confift of
hornblende and felfpar, according to Cordier, are principally
compofed of augite and felfpar.

Stony lavas may therefore be clafTed into two kimls, thofe
which melt into a white glafs, and thofe which melt into a
black glafs. The former M. Cordier denominates leu-
coftine, the latter bafalt. Leucoftine comprifes thofe fub-
ftances called, by Dolomieu, petrofiliceous lavas ; by Hauy,
compa8 fonorous felfpar ; by Karften, domite, and lava 'with
a horn-flone bafe ; and by Werner, clink flone. The latter
comprifes the ferruginous lavas of Dolomieu ; the bafaltic
lava of Hauy, les laves bafaltiques uniformcs ; and the bafalt
and lava of Werner. The refult of thefe obfervations con-
firms the fimilarity of compofition between ftony lavas of
recent volcanoes and bafaltic rocks, whofe igneous origin
has been contefterf.

In the fame manner M. Cordier has examined the com-
pofition of volcanic fcorix and volcanic glafs, volcanic cin-
ders and tufa. Thefe arc all compofed of the fame fub-
ftances as the ftony lava.

Obfidians, or volcanic glaffes, may be divided into two
kinds like lava, according as they yield a black or white
glafs to the blow-pipe. In the vitreous pafte of both may
be difcovered by the microfcope, the fame cryftals as in
lava, grains of felfpar are feen in thofe glaffes which become
white before the blow-pipe ; grains of augite in thofe which
melt into a black glafs. In certain inftaiices, we fee the
tranfition of obfidian into a compaA black bafalt, and alfo
into pumice.

Thefe obfervations of Cordier tend to eftablifh the iden-
tity of bafaltic rocks with thofe of volcanic origin, whilft
at the fame time tlicy diftinguifli them from the beds of
liornblendc and trap, which occur in primary mountains.
The latter ditlcr in compofition from bafalts and lavas, and
alfo in the nature of the imbedded cryftals which they con-
tain. All volcanic rocks, even thofe which appear the moft
homogeneous, are compofed in a groat part of microfcopic
cryftals, belonging to 3 fmall number of mi'ierals, parti-
cularly augite, felfpar, olivine, and iron-fand. Volcanic

rocks

VOLCANO.

rocks of ererj age and country, that have flowed as lavas,
or been ejefted during fiery eruptions, are compofed of the
fame mineral fubftances, and are different in their compofi-
tion and internal ftrufture from rocks which form the regu-
lar ftrata of the globe.

The external ftrufture of lava is much diverfified, owing,
in all probabihty, to the different circumflances under
which it has cooled. Some lava is porous, fome contains
large cavities or is veficular, whilfl other lavas are appa-
rently compaft, and afTume a prifmatic form. According
to the obfervations of fir G. S. Mackenzie in Iceland, there
are beds of lava of great extent, which appear never to have
flowed in currents, but to have been completely fufed in the
fituations where they occur. This lava was columnar in
many places, the columns varying in fize from a few inches
to feveral feet in diameter. The furface of the lava was
heaved up into large bhfters and bubbles, fome of which
were round, and from a few feet to forty or fifty in dia-
meter, others were long, and fome were waved. A great
many of the bubbles had burft, and difplayed caverns of
confiderable depth. On this account fir G. Mackenzie
denominates it cavernous lava. Currents of lava, which had
flowed from volcanoes, covered the cavernous lava in many
parts, but prefented very diftinft charafters. In the com-
mon ftreams of lava, no defined approach to a columnar
form was obferved ; but nothing was more common than
the columnar ftrufture in the cavernous lava. In fome parts
of Iceland were feen beds of amygdaloid, from ten to forty
feet in thicknefs, alternating with tufa. The upper part
of thefe beds did not indicate the adlion of fire, but the
under part of each was a complete volcanic flag. From the
fituation of thefe beds, and other circumflances, it was in-
ferred that they were lavas which had flowed under the fea.
Some of the beds were very compaft in the upper part.
Another feries of beds occur near Krifuvick, which was
flaggy at the bottom, but fo compaft above as to refemble
porphyry flate. Beds of very compaft bafalt, with the
under furface flaggy, were alfo obferved ; and an extenfive
and beautiful range of lofty columns at Stappen prefent the
fame appearance, and have flaggy maffes included in them.
Sir George Mackenzie explains thefe appearances, by fup-
pofing the lava to have originally flowed over a cold wet
furface at the bottom of the fea. An abundance of fleam
would conflantly be produced from the upper furface,
which would feparate the hot lava from the water, in the
fame manner as a drop of water is kept detached from a
plate of red-hot iron. Thus, ho water could enter the fub-
Itance of the lava from above, but the moifture below would
operate very differently. From its converfion into fleam,
and the tendency to afcend, it would penetrate the fluid
lava, and produce the porofity obferved in the above rocks,
and render the lava more or lefs veficular, according to its
degree of fluidity. When the lava is very hot and liquid,
the fleam will have lefs difficulty in penetrating it. In fome
inflances it may allow the whole of the moiflure to efcape
through it in the form of elatlic vapour, fo that the lava
may become fohd. According as the lava is more or lefs
vifcid, the fleam may be more or lefs confined, making the
Hone porous or veficular ; and, lailly, tlie lava may be fo
tough, that the exertions of the elatlic vapour may be con-
fined to the lower furface of the beds. In the firfl cafe, a
mafs of compaft flone would be formed, having no appear-
ance of the aftion of fire. In the fecond cafe, the lava
would form an amygdaloidal or veficular mafs. In the lafl
cafe would refult a mafs entirely compaft, except in the
under-furface. (Travels in Iceland, by fir G. S. Mac-
;kenzie. ) In the formation of volcanic rocks, which have

J

flowed as lava under the fea, very different refulta would
take place from the formation of fimilar rocks on land, owing
to the great difference which the fuperincumbent preffure of
a deep volume of water would occafion ; and as moft of the
ancient currents of lava have in all probability been ori-
ginally fubmarine, we may expeft them to vary in flrufture
from the lavas of more recent eruptions. In the Tranfac-
tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh are feveral valuable
papers of fir James Hall, detaihng a feries of the mofl in-
terefling and inflruftive experiments on the effefts of heat
modified by comprelfion. Thefe experiments merit the
profound attention of every one who would endeavour to
form a jufl and comprehenfive view of the agency of fubter-
ranean fire on the different rocks which form the crufl of
the globe. For the refult of fome of thefe experiments, we
refer to Systems of Geology; but we particularly recom-
mend our readers to perufe the original papers, which are
well illuftrated by a feries of plates.

The minerals which line or fill the cavities of veficular
lava are principally varieties of zeolites, chalcedonies, and
calcareous fpar. Quartz cryflals abound in fome of the
veficular lavas of Lipari. All thefe minerals are fuppofcd,
with much probability, to be of poflerior formation to the
lava itfelf, and to derive their origin from the infiltration of
water, holding the conflituent parts in folution or fufpen-
fion. Spallanzani conjeftures that the particles are fepa-
rated from the lava itfelf, by the decompofing effefts of
fulphureous acid.

Lava is fubjeft to decompofition from atmofpheric agency,
according as it is more or lefs vitreous. Some lavas are
known to have refilled all tendency to decompofe for many
centuries ; other lavas decompofe rapidly, and form a pro-
duftive foil. Particular vegetables poffefs the property of
reducing lava to vegetable mould with great rapidity. The
Indian fig, or, as it is commonly called, the prickly pear,
has this property in a remarkable degree. According to
the account of it given by General Cockburn, in his " Tra-
vels through Sicily," this plant pulverifes the hardefl rocks,
and forms the mofl luxuriant foil. The inhabitants bring a
little earth to any crevice of lava, and plant a prickly pear-
tree in it, which fpreads and fplits the rocks in about feven
years. A thick plantation is thus formed, and a very little
earth being added, in about ten years more the rock is pul-
verifed for fome inches deep. Vol. ii. p. 163.

Objidian or black volcanic glafs appears to be a vitreous
modification of ftony lava, produced by its fudden re-
frigeration. According to the obfervations of Cordier
before flated, it may confifl either of felfpar or angite, as
forming the principal part of the bafe. The volcanic origin
of this mineral has been denied by fome geologifls without
any apparent reafon, except an attachment to theory ; for
this fubflance may be traced flowing from the craters of
volcanoes, and palfing into compaft black lava or bafalt,
and alfo into white fpongy pumice. Sir James Hall and
Dr. Home vifited a mountain in Lipari, that had efcaped
the attention of Dolomieu. From feveral openings in this
mountain a flream of obfidian and pumice miglit be traced :
they gradually paffed into each other. The pumice liad
evidently flowed with the obfidian, as it formed the upper
furface of the flream. The greatefl breadth of the flream
was about two miles and a half, and its length three miles.
It feemed to have been produced by the lafl effort of the
volcano. Sir G. Mackenzie difcovered a flream of obfidian
in Iceland, fiUing up a valley to the depth of thirty feet,
and vifible for more than two miles ii; extent. The furface
was in many parts covered with pumice. Obfidian is found
flraaming from the crater of Vulcano : it exifls in abun-
dance

VOLCANO.

dance at TenerifFe, Kamtfchatka, and various volcanic
countries ; but it is by np means fo common a produft as
iloiiy lava.

The objcftions to the volcanic origin of obfldian, founded
on its lofs of colour, and its tumefaftion at a low degree of
heai, are deprived of their force by the dilcoveries of fir
James Hall before mentioned. Thefe experiments prove,
that a ftone, which was not fufible under a heat of thirty-
eight degrees of Wedgewood's pyrometer, yields a glafs
that foftens at fourteen degrees ; and when this glafs is rc-
melted, and acquires a ftony texture by flow cooling, it
cannot be fufed again with a lefs degree of heat than thirty-
iire degrees.

Pitch-Hone (fee PiTCH-Stone), though lofs vitreous in its
appearance than obfidian, yet, viewed by the geologift as it
exifts in nature, cannot be feparatcd from it, but mull be
clafTed as a different mode of the fame fubftance, or as
vitreous lava. The bafe of the Peak of Teneriffe, to the
plain of Ketama, is buried under fcorioe and heaps of pu-
mice reduced to powder. From thence to the fummit of the
mountain, or from fifteen hundred to nineteen hundred
toifes in height, the volcano exhibits only vitreous lavas,
compofed of obfidian and pitch-llone more or lefs porphy-
ritic : they are of blackiAi-brown, often varying to the
deepeft olive-green ; tliey contain large cryftals of felfpar.
The analogy of thefe decidedly volcanic fubitances with the
pitch-Hone porphyries of the valley of Turbach in Saxony is,
fays Humboldt, very remarkable ; but the latter contain
quartz, which is wanting in the modern lava. When the
lava changes from pitch-ftbne to obfidian, the colour i«
paler ; fometimes both varieties occur in the fame fragment.
Among the pitch-Rone and lava, near the fummit, were
found blocks of real greeniih clink-llone porphyry, fimilar
to the porphyry-flate of the mountain of Belin, in Bohemia.
Thefe faSs further prove the conneftion between rocks of
the trap formation and volcanic produfts. ( See Trap. )
Obfidian and pitch-ftone arc found in Hungary, in Mexico,
and in Quito, at a great diftance from burning volcanoes.
Pitch-done cxiils abundantly in fome of the Scotch He-
brides, particularly in the ifle of Eigg. In South America,
obfidian is fcattered over the fields in angular pieces, and
fometimes forms ifolatcd rocks. The Mexicans dug ob-
fidian in mines, and mad<' knives, fword-blades, and razors
of this mineral. The Guanches in Teneriffe made ipear-
heads of obfidian ; it was alio employed by them, and by
the Mexicans, in the fabrication of mirrors and ornaments
for the women. Various volcajiic glaffes, differing in colour
and from obfidian, occur in fome volcanoes, particularly
that of the ifle of Bourbon. Thefe may, however, all be
clafTed with vitreous lavas, as it appears from the experi-
ments of M. Cordier, that the conllituent parts of all arc
the fame, being principally compofed of varying propor-
tions of augite and felfpar.

Pumice (fee Pumice) is an abundant produft of vol-
canoes : it may be confidered as light fpongy lava, under
which term is comprifed a great variety of volcanic fub-
ftances, differing in porofity, in texture, and in colour.
The term pumice-Jlonc indicates a capillary or fibrous texture
of lava. It appears to be the produft of intcnfe heat,
operating cither on lava or obfidian ; the lighter coloured
pumices being formed of thofe volcanic rocks which abound
in felfpar, or rather it is the elements of thefe rocks in a ca-
pillary form. As fome obfidian fwclls greatly, and lofes its
colour by heat, it was inferred that all pumice has been
formed from this mineral ; but the conclufion is too general.
There are numerous inflances in wliich obfidian may be
traced pafGng into pumice ; but there are other inflances in

which ilony lava, abounding in felfpar, may a]fo be traced
pafling into pumice-ftone. Some experiments made by
Humboldt prove that different obfidians fwell very un-
equally, when expofed to the moderate fire of a forge.
Thofe from the Peak of Teneriffe, and the black varieties
from Cotopaxi, increafed in bulk more than five times.
The red varieties from the Andes, on the contrary, were
not much tumefied by heat. We have already Hated in-
flances of currents of obfidian covered with pumice, and of
malfes of obfidian pafTing into pumice, fo as to leave no
doubt of the formation of pumice from obfidian. Nor are
there wanting inflances as decifive of lava pafling into pu-
mice. This cannot, on refleftion, appear furprifing, at
obfidian and lavas are effentially the fame fubftances in a
vitreous and flony form. Spallanzani defcribcs a lava witli
a bafe of felfpar, which is fpread over a part of Lipari, rifing
in rocks and craggs of enormous fize : it is of a grey colour.
On attentively examining this lava, the gradual tranfition
into pumice may be diftinftly perceived. It is not uncom-
mon to find maffes of this lava, which on one fide retain the
charafter of felfpar, and on the other are changed into white
pumice, exaftly refembling that of Campo Bianco in colour,
lightnefs, Itrufture, and other charafters. Some of the
white pumices of Campo Bianco are fo compaft, that the
fmallefl pore is not vifible to the eye ; but when vievred
through a lens with a ftrong light, they refemble an irre-
gular accumulation of flakes of ice : their compaftnefs,
however, does not prevent their fwimming on water. Other
pumices were full of pores and vacuities of a larger fize, and
their texture is formed by filaments arranged parallel to each
other, and of a filvery whitenefs : both thefe varieties may
fometimes be feen in the fame ftone ; hence we may infer
that the difference arifes from the aftion of elaflic fluids
producing different degrees of dilatation, when the mafs was
in a fluid ftate. There is a black pumice in Lipari, compofed
of parallel filaments, that all lie in one direftion, which is
that of the bed defcending from the mountain to the fea.
This, fays SpallanKani, may be confidered as a true current
of pumice. The black colour he fuppofed to proceed from
fome bituminous fubftance, as a ftrong fmell of bitumen is
emitted, when two pieces of this pumice are rubbed to-
gether. The black colour was entirely loft by expofure to
heat for fome time in the furnace, wliich reduced it to a
vitreous pallc. Humboldt conjeftnres that the dark cobur
of fome obfidians is caufed by a hydruiet of carbon.

Nature, fays Humboldt, probably employs different
means to produce the fpongy and vitreous pumices of
Tenerifte, the pumices with parallel fibres from the Lipari
iflands, and the capillary vitrifications of the ifles of Bourbon,
which fometimes refemble a fpider's web. Thefe differ-
ences probably confift in the different degrees of heat, in
the different prcffure under which the fire afts, and in the
nature of the rocks ahercd by it. Above all, fays the fame
traveller, the prcffure which obfidians undergo in their
fufion, explains why thefe fubftances, with fome exceptions,
are never found whitened. Thofe pumices, which have the
appearance of having been formed at great depths, are
fibrous, and of a filky luflre. Blocks of this kind on the
Andes, of eight or ten toifes in length, have the fibres
exaftly parallel with each other, and perpendicular to the
direftion of the beds. Several volcanoes do not throw out
any pumice ; and thofe that do, ejeft them only by their
crater after the flowing of the lavas.

Vulcanic Sand. — The white powders which have been
called aflies are generally thrown out the laft, and indicate
the end of the eruption ; tliey confid entirely of white pumice
ground to powder. The black powders iffuc the firft, and,

being

VOLCANO.

being driven with greater force, are carried to a greater
diftaiice from the mountain. Thefe powders aie called by
the Italians black and white rapiUi.

VoLanlc fcoria or Jlags differ from pumice by their
greater denfity ; they are properly mafles of cellular lava,
and are more or lefs vitreous or ftony, according to the
degree of heat to which they have been fubjefted, and the
circumftances under which they have cooled. The upper
part of modern currents of lava, that have flowed in contaft
with the atmofphere, are generally compofed of fcorix.
The compofition of fcoriae is the fame as that of lava, and
varies with the different lavas from which it is formed.

folcanic tufa appears to be formed of the loofe fand or
powders, together with the fmaller fragments thrown out
of volcanoes, which are fpread over the furface of the
ground, and afterwards become partly confolidated by
water and prefFure. In all fubmarine volcanoes, thefe pow-
ders muft be mixed with water as foon as they are dif-
charged from the mouth of the crater, and mull therefore
fall as a muddy fediment over the bed of the ocean, and
form ftrata of tufa of greater or lefs extent according to the
quantity of matter ejefted. The materials of which the
powders are formed, may alfo have been mixed with water
in the deep receffes of the volcano, and have been difcharged
in torrents of mud like thofe which ilfue from the American
volcanoes. In this way beds of tufa of great extent have pro-
bably been formed, and as they fometimes take the fame fhape
as the original inequalities of the ground, it has been fuppofed
that they have flowed as lavas. Spallanzani defcribes abed
of tufa in Lipari which covers the furface of the hills and
valleys nearly equally ; but it would be difficult to conceive
how a ftream of mud could afcend a hill, were it ever fo te-
nacious. If the matter were depofited from the turbid
waves of the ocean, we Ihould have no difSculty in account-
ing for its prefent appearance, and alfo for the flratifaftion
of tufa alternating with beds of lava. Volcanic tufa, in its
more indurated Hate, is ufed as building ftone ; foft or inco-
herent tufa has received the names of puzzolana, tarras, &c.
See Puzzolana.

Volcanic tufa compofes the principal foil of many vol-
canic diftrifts. A great part of mount Etna and the
mountains on its fides are compofed of this tufa.

Hills of tufa, according to fir G. Mackenzie, invariably
accompany lava in Iceland. Whole ranges of mountains are
formed of it, and wherever eruptions have occurred, thefe
hills of tufa may be feen. It clofely refembles the tufa of
Sicily and Italy. The tufa of Iceland often alternates with
fubmarine lava, and then it invariably includes maffes of
lava and flags, more or lefs rounded by the aftion of
water. The beds of tufa are fometimes not lefs than forty
feet in thicknefs. When tufa alternates with beds of
amygdaloid trap and greenftone, it includes raaffcs of thefe
fubftances. The fubmarine lavas which alternate with tufa,
are always above the beds of trap and greenftone alternating
with the fame fubilance. Sir G. Mackenzie conjeAures
that they are all the produfts of fubmarine volcanoes, but
that the beds of trap and greenftene were firft erupted at a
greater depth under the fea, and under a greater compref-
fivc force ; to which caufe the difference in their ftrufture
from that of the upper beds is to be attributed : hence the
lower beds, being more compreffed and compaft, have lofl
the appearance of the immediate aftion of fire which is fo
vifible in the cellular lava and flags nearer the furface.
Mountains of tufa, one thoufand feet in height, occur in
Iceland, and even whole mountain ranges are compofed of
the fame material ; in thefe there is no appearance of regu-
larity, but all the mafs is heaped up iii confufion; The pre-

vailing colour of the pafte of this tufa is yellow ; and, in a
defcription given by Mr. Stephenfon of an eruption from
one of the Icelandic volcanoes, called the Kattlagian Jokul,
we have an inftance of its aftual formation. " The fand
which fell afterwards united, and covered the meadows with
a yellow-coloured cruft, quite compaft."

The mud thrown out of the American volcanoes, when
indurated, may be claffed with tufa ; but belides the earthy
ingredients, it contains a portion of carbonaceous and faline
matter. To fome intermixture of this kind, the fertilizing
properties, afcribed to the fine fand or powder recently
ejefted from the volcano at St. Vincent's, may perhaps be
attributed.

Puz'x.olana and terras are thofe foft tufas which are fer-
ruginous, and poflefs the property of confohdating under
water when mixed with lime as a cement. This property is
derived from the iron, and is common to many of the ar-
gillaceous Umeftones of England that abound in iron.

From the experiments and obfervations of M. Cordier
before flated, it appears that the different earthy produfts of
volcanoes, whether as ftone in the form of compact, veficular,
or amygdaloidal lavas, or in a ftate of perfeft vitrification as
obfidian, or lefs perfeftly vitrified, as fcoriae, or in the earthy
form of wacke or volcanic tufa, or in beds of fand formed of
minute detached grains or particles, are all compofed princi-
pally of augite and felfpar in different proportions.

This view of the fubjeft tends greatly to Amplify our
knowledge of volcanic produfts, as all the earthy maffes
and rocks ejefted from volcanoes, however differing in ftruc-
ture, denfity, and colour, ai'e to be regarded only as differ-
ent aggregations of the fame mineral fubftances, modified by
the various efFefts of heat and compreflion, and the operation
of thefe caufes to which they have been fubjefted fince their
firft eruption.

Various rocks which have been claffed under the un-
fcientific denominations of fietz trap rocks and greenftone
are alfo compofed of the fame mineral fubftances aggre-
gated in a fimilar manner ; hence we may infer that they
have had a fimilar origin. Thefe rocks are very extenfively
fpread both in volcanic diftrifts, and in countries remote
from any aftive volcanoes ; they ferve as monuments to
elucidate the natural hiftory of the globe, and to mark the
boundaries of the ancient dominion of fire over the prefent
continents.

Volcanoes in the Moon. Dr. Herfchel, now fo well
known and univerfally celebrated, on account of his va-
rious aftronomical obfervations, difcovered, on the fourth
of May, 1783, a burning volcano in the moon. This
difcovery confirms the conjeftures formed by M. jEpi-
nus, in 1778, and publifhed in a memoir printed at Ber-
lin in 1 78 1, concerning the volcanic origin of the ine-
qualities in the moon's furface. Similar ideas occurred to
profeffor Beccaria, of Turin, nearly at the fame time, and
alfo to profeffor Lichtenberg, of Gottingen. The nephew
of profeffor Beccaria difcovered. Oft. 11, 1772, alumin-
ous fpot on the moon, during its total eclipfe of that night,
in or near the place marked Copernicus ; and from this time
the profeffor mentioned this obfervation in his public lec-
tures, as an evidence that the round cavities on the furface of
the moon were fo many craters of diftinft volcanoes ; adding,
that he confidered thofe ftraight radiations, or bright paths,
which are obferved particularly on the place of the moon
marked Tycho, as fo many torrents of the lava, which
fpouted off in fome former conflagration of a volcano.

The reader may fee this account, given by the profeffor
himfelf, in a letter concerning the luminous appearance ob-
ferved by don Ulloa on the moon, during the total eclipfe of

the

VOL

VOL

the fun, June 2'^, 1778; in which he maintains, that fuch
a himinous fpot was an aftual burning volcano, and not a
real hole th.rough the mafs of the moon, as Don Ulloa
afTerted it to be. This letter is inferted in the Journal dc
Phyfiquc for the month of June, 1781. M. jEpinus ob-
ferves, that the opinion of volcanoes in the moon was iiril
fug-gefted by Dr. Hooke, in his Micrographia, printed at
London in 1665 ; in the twentieth chapter of which work
he fpeaks at large concerning this opinion.

Dr. Herfchel, on the 4th of May, 1783, difcovered
two fmall conical mountains in the very fame fpot where he
had obferved the volcano : thefe are fituatcd in the Mons
Porphyrites of Hevelius, juJl by a third mountain, much
larger, which Dr. Herfchel had often obferved before.
(See Gent. Mag. for Augnft, 1784, p. 563, Sec.) On the
19th of April, 1787, the fame ingenious and indefatigable
obferver difcovered three volcanoes in different places of the
dark part of the new moon. Two of them were nearly
extinft, or in a ftate ready to break out. The third fhewed
an aftual eruption of fire, or luminous matter. From an-
other obfervation he infers, that the diameter of this vol-
cano cannot be lefs than 3", and that the diameter of its
burning part is equal to at leaft twice that of the third fatcl-
lite of Jupiter, with whici; it was compared. Hence the
lliining or burning matter is computed to be above three
miles in diameter. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxvii. part i. p. 230.

VOLCHOVA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which
rifes in the Ilmen lake, and runs into lake Ladoga, at Nov
Ladoga.

VOLCHOVSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Toboldv ; 32 miles E. of Surgut.

VOLCI, in ylncient Geography, a town of Italy, in the
interior of Etruria. Ptol.

VoLCi. See VoLSCi.

VOLCIANI, or VoLsciANi, a people of Hifpania Ci-
terior, celebrated on account of the determined reply which
they made to the Roman ambaffadors, when they folicited
them to renounce their alliance with the Carthaginians.

VOLCKACH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg, on the Maine; II miles N.E. of Wurzburg.
N. lat. 49' 54'. E. long, lo"^ 14'.

VOLCKERSBERG, a town of Weaphalia, in the
bidiopric of Fulda ; 12 miles S. of Enlda.

VOLCKMANNSDORF, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of NeilTe ; 6 miles E. of Neiffc.

VOLCONDA, a town of Hindoollan, in the Carnatic ;
95 miles S. ofArcot. N. lat. 11° 10'. E. long. 79° 10'.

VOLCZINCY, a town of European Turkey, in Mace-
donia; 25 miles W. of Orhei.

VOLENGO, a town of Italy; 23 miles W. of
Mantua.

VOLERIUS, in j4iiciciit Geography, a river of Corfica,
whofc mouth was on the northern coa(l. Ptolemy.

VOLERY, a great bird-cage, fo large that the birds
have room to fly up and down in it.

VOLGA, in Geography, a river of Ruflia, fometin~.es
called by ancient writers Rha, and fomelimes /Iraxis, is de-
nominated by the Tartars Idel, yldal, <n- Edel, denoting
plenty, and by the Moravians is ilill called Rhau. It is
formed by two llreams, one in"uing from lake Scligcr, in
the goveriimeiit of Tver ; the other from a fmaller lake,
eight miles fro.Ti lake Seliger, which unite togetiier, N. lat.
56° 40'. E. long. 51° 20'. Its waters ilTue from fcvcral
lakes in t!ie VaUiay frontier mountains. After their union,
the river then takes a foutheaft courfe to Zobtzov ; it then
changes to north-eaft, paffcs Staritza, Tver, and Mologa ;
iR-ar which laft place it changes its courfe to fonth-eall, paflc;

Vol. XXXVII.

Jaroflavl, or Yaroflaf, Koflroma, Penza, and Kazan ; after
which its courfe is more fouth,pa(Ilng by S'partc, Simbirfk, Sa-
mara, .&c. At Samara it inclines a little to the weft, paffing
by Sizran, Ciivalinfk, Vollk, Kurdium, Saratof, Kamlif-
chin, Tzaritzin, &c.; at Tzaritzin it takes its courfe fouth-
eall, and pafling by Tchernoivar, and a number of other
towns, forts, &c. in the governments of Tver, Yaroflaf,
Koftroma, Nifhney-Novgorod,' Kazan, Simbirfl:, Saratof,
and Caucafus ; it enters the C;'.fpian fea at Allrachan, by
fevcral large mouths, two only of which are navigable for
veficls of 150 tons. It is faid to dillribute itfelf into 70
branches, and to form a multitude of iflands before its dif-
charge into the Cafpian. This is fuppofed to be the largeft
river in Europe, and in its courfe of 4000 verlls, is joined
by many other rivers ; a canal is made from it to the Neva,
which opens a navigable communication between the Caf-
pian fea and the Baltic.

•The Volga purfues its courfe through many fertile re-
gions, and in the inferior part of it, pades by beauti-
ful forefts of oak. It very much overflows in the fpring,
and is then navigable in certain parts, which at other times
are not navigable. Its chief navigation commences at Tver.
It lias no catarafts, nor other dangerous places ; and it is
faid to become fhallower from time to time, fo as to afford
reafon for apprehending that it will ceafe to be navigable for
vefl^jls of aiiy tolerable fize. It abounds with fifli, parti-
cularly (lerlet, fturgeon, &c. The principal rivers which
join it in its courfe are the Kamma and the Oltia ; which fee
refpeftively.

The Volga teems with a vafl variety of fiflt, which not
only fupplics the parts adjacent, but the greater part of the
empire, with the feveral forts of ilurgcons, with kaviar, and
with an incredible number of different kinds of fmaller tifh.
This llore of wealth, which no other river in Europe pof-
fefles in an equal degree, induces the countrymen about the
Volga to negleft agriculture, and to devote themfelves to
the fifliery. Among the fifh peculiar to the Volga, which
feldom or never come into the collateral rivers, arc the be-
luga, the fturgeon, the flerlet, the fevruga, the falmon, and
wliite falmon. But of all the fifli of the Volga, the feveral
kinds of ftnrgcons, and the white falmon (falmo nelma^ate
the beft. The beluga is from 20 to 25 fpans in length, and
weighs between 30 and 45 poods. Sturgeons are from 5 to
8 fpans long, and from 20 pounds to 2 poods in weight ; the
fevruga holds the middle ttation between the beluga and the
Ihirgeon ; the red falmon is obferved here only in the two
laft months of the year, and then but feldom ; the wliite
falmon fwim againft the ftrcam in great numbers, from the
beginning of January to fome time in July ; botli thefe are
from 3 to 5 fpans long, and at moil weigh 30 pounds.
The barbel is often larger and heavier, and the fturgcons
the largeft after the beluga. Of all the fubordinate rivers
that fall into the Volga, the Kamma is tlie weallhiell in fi(h,
and the fifh of the Kamma are held to be the beft flavoured
of all in Ruffia ; at leaft its fturgeon, fterlet, and while lal-
mon, are preferable to thofe of the Volga. Befides lliefe
three kinds, a principal fifti of the Kamma is a fniall f.ilmon,
called in Riffs Krafnaya reba, red or beautiful fifh (falmo
eriox, or falmo alpinus), commonly Xy, or 2 arlhincs long.
There is fcarcely any place in the world where fuch a variety
of contrivances and inllriimcnts are ufej for the capture ot
fidi as on the Volga, and particularly in the confines of
Aftrachan. Thefe inventions may be rt-duced to three, onr
comprifing the fiih-weirs, or utfchiugs, the fecoiul the angle,
and the third the net. Tlie utfchiugs are various ; but the
fortmoft in ufe is that called S.iboika. In the lower regions
of the Volga, a fifti-trap called gorodba is generally em-
3 N ployed ;

VOL

ployed ; confifting of a weir carried acrofs the ftream, and
provided with feveral chambers, in which the fi(h are cauglit.
The utfchiugs are generally conftrufted only in the territory
of Aftrachan, where the filhery on the Volga is a very im-
portant objeft of induftry and trafBc. The Tartarian word
utfchiug properly fignifies that kind of dam called Saboika ;
but at prefent it implies a whole filhingftation, ufually much
larger than a vataga. (See Fishery and Caspian Sea.)
Every utfchiug, befides a number of buildings appropriate
to it, has alfo a church and dwelling-houfe, for the la-
bourers and their families. Since the year 1763, thefe
utfchiugs have been granted to the merchants of Aftrachan,
in confideration of a fmall tribute ; and the revenues are ma-
naged by what is called the filh-comptoir, the direftors and
members of which are elefted from the body of Aftrachan
burghers. The profits, after dedufting the very mode-
rate tribute to the crown, muft be divided in equal portions
among the merchants ; but by feveral reports it appears, that
the fidi-comptoir are fo arrogant and arbitrary in their pro-
ceedings, that the generous abandonment of her prerogative
by the late emprefs, who intended that the benefit fliould ex-
tend over the whole, is only advantageous to certain privi-
leged perfons, who enrich themfelves at the common ex-
pence. Befides the aftual inhabitants of Aftrachan, who
are employed in the fiftiery, every fpring about 10,000
fifhing-canoes come thither, having in each at leaft two
people, fo that the number of ftrangers who follow this
trade at Aftrachan far exceeds 20,000. Tooke's Ruflia,
vol. iii.

VOLGAIC Cossacks. See Cossacks.

VOLGANSK, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Charkov, on the Donetz ; 40 miles N.E. of Charkov.

VOLGIVOD, a river of Ruffia, which rifes near
Bachmut, in the government of Ekaterinoflav, and runs
into the Dnieper, 12 miles above Ekaterinoflav.

VOLHYNIA, a palatinate of Ruffian Poland, bounded
on the north by tlie palatinate of Brzefc, on the eaft by
Kiev, on the fouth by the palatinate of Kaminiec, and on
the weft by the palatinates of Chelm and Belcz ; about 180
miles in length, and from 80 to 120 in breadth. This
country is fo fertile, as to fupply the inhabitants with a large
furplus of grain ;>rolemary, afparagus, &c. grow wild in
the woods, and can fcarcely be diftinguifhed from thofe cul-
tivated in the gardens. Volhynia was annexed to Poland in
a diet held at Lublin in 1659. The Tartars, befides a
great booty, carried off 30,000 perfons out of this country,
to be fold as flaves, in the year 1618. It is now added to
RufTia.

VOLI, in indent Geography, a people of Africa, in Mau-
ritania Tingitana. Ptol.

VOLIBA, a town of Great Britain, afligned by Pto-
lemy to the Danmonii, or Dunmonii. It is placed by Cam-
den and Baxter at Grampound ; but Horfley thinks it was
fituated at Lellwithiel.

VOLISSO, in Geography, a fea-port town on the weft
coaft of the ifland of Scio, faid to take its name from Beli-
farius, called there " Velifarius," v;ho bui'.c the caltle. It
is fituated at the fide of a hill, about two miles from the fea.
It has a large bay, but no harbour. N. lat. 38° 27'. E.
long. 25° 56'.

VOLITION, the aft of wilUng. See Will.

VOLITIVE Thinking. See Thinking.

VOLKAMERIA, in Botany, was dedicated by Lin-
n.ieus to the memory of Dr. John George Volckamer, a
diitinguifhed phyfician, and prafeftbr of medicine, at Nu-
remberg, who was born May 7th, 1662, and died June 8th,
1 744. He publiftied, in 1 700, a verv rich defcrintive cata-
6

VOL

loguc, in ^arto, with many good plates, of the native aS
well as cultivated plants known in that neighbourhood,
with tlie title of Flora Noribergenfis. He was the botanical
correfpondent of Tournefort, Bocrhaave, Sherard, Trium-
fetti, Commelin, and other eminent men of his time, and
has been recently commemorated by his countrymen the
Panzers, in an academical differtation, printed at Nnrem-
berg in 1802. — Linn. Gen. 325. Schreb. 425. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 3. 383. Mart. MiU. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 5. 62. Juir. 107. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 544.
Gxrtn. t. 56. (Duglaffia; Reliq. Houft. t. i3.)_Clafs
and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonatte,
Linn. Vitkes, JnfT. Gen. Verbenace£, JulF. in Ann. du
Muf. V. 7. 63. Brown Prodr. 510.

Gen. Ch.. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, turbinate,
with five, nearly equal, acute fegments. Cor. of one petal,
ringent. Tube cyUndrical, tvi'ice the length of the calyx.
Limb flat, in five deep, nearly equal, reflexed fegments, all
nearly turned one way, and moft widely feparated at the
upper fide. Stam. Filaments four, thread-fhaped, very
long, at the gaping fide of the corolla ; anthers fimple.
Pijl. Germen fuperior, quadrangular ; ftyle thread-fhaped,
nearly the length of the ftamens ; ftigma cloven, one feg-
ment acute, more confpicuous than the other. Peru. Berry
roundiftl, of two cells. Seeds. Nuts folitary, furrowed,
each of two cells, with two kernels.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla with a cylindrical
tube, and deeply five-cleft limb, rather turned to one fide.
Stamens prominent, afcending. Berry with two bilocular
feeds.

Obf. This genus ought probably, as Mr. Brown ob-
ferves, to be funk in ClkrodenbRUM, (fee that article,)
to which he has in Ait. Hort. Kew. removed all our garden
fpecies, except one, not without a juft expreffion of doubt
refpefting that alfo. The only pretended diftinftions are,
I ft, the fegments of the corolla being turned one way, not
equally fpreading ; and, 2d, the Berry having two feeds,
each with two cells, inftead of four feeds, each of one cell.
The fpecies we are about to defcribe, however, having this
charafter in the fruit at leaft, and being the original Volka-
mer'ia, may as well be retained as fuch. Several of the
others, popularly placed along with it, we have long ago
found to have the cliarafters ot Cterodendrum altogether.

I. V.aculeata. Prickly Volkameria. Linn. Sp. PI. 889.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Jacq. Amer. 185. t. 117.
( Clerodendrum n. i ; Browne Jam. 262. t. 30, not t. 20.
f. 2. Liguftrum aculeatum, fruftu tefticulato ; Plum. Ic.
156. t. 164. f. 2, not f. l.j — Native of the Weft Indies.
Browne fpeaks of it as one of the moft common plants in the
low lands of Jamaica, in a dry gravelly foil. Miller culti-
vated this (hrub before the year 1739. Mr. Aitcn fa^s it
flowers in the ftove from Auguft to Oftober. The buftiy
Jlem is five or fix feet liigh, with round rather warty
branches ; the ultimate ones often whorled ; p,nd all befet
with fliort fharp prickles, originating in the permanent bafes
of laft year's footftalks. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, lanceo-
late, bluntifti, entire, an inch and a half or two inches long,
nearly fmooth ; paler and minutely dotted beneath. Stalks
axiUary, three-flowered, a little downy. Corolla cream-
coloured, with purple jlamens. Willdenow has three errors
of the prefs among the fynonyms of this fpecies, all copied
from Linnxus, in the references to three common books,
which he ought furely to have examined.

Some fpecies referred to Clerodendrum, particularly V^
hiermis of Linnaeus ; as alfo V. ligujlrina of Willdenow ; fo
nearly agree in habit with the above plant, that we cannot
but miftruft any generic diftindlion which feparates them.

VOLKA-

VOL

VOL

VoLKAMF.RiA, in Gardening, funiirties plants of the ex-
otic tree kind, among wliich the Ipecies cultivated are, the
prickly volkamoria i,V. aculeata) ; and the ovate-leaved
fmooth volkameria i V. incrmis ' .

The firil is a rather tall fpiny (hrubby plant.

And the fecond fort has much the fame appearance, but
more white, and without fpincs.

Method of Culture. — Tliefc plants are increafed by cut-
tings, which fhould beplanted in pots filled with light good
mould in the fummcr feafon, plunging them in a moderate
hot-bed, covering them clofe with hand-glafles. When they
are well rooted, they fhould be removed into feparate fmall
pots, replunging them in the hot-bed till they are frefh
rooted ; then gradually inure them to the open air in warm
weather, continuing them in warm llieltered fituations in the
open air till the approach of frofls, when they mull be taken
into the houfe, where there is a moderate heat. They will
not fucceed in a common green-houfe.

They afford ornament among other more hardy ftove-
plants in pots.

VOLKENMARCK, or Volkel Markt, in Geography,
a town of the duchy of Carinthia, on the north fide of the
Drave ; 12 miles E. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46° 41'. £.
long. 12° 20'.

VOLKERODE, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Gotha ; 20 miles N. of Gotha.

VOLKMARSEN, or Volmarsheim, a town of the
duchy of Weftphalia ; i8 miles S.E of Paderborn. N. lat.
51° 23'. E. long. 9° 8'.

VOLL, a town of Norway, in the province of Agger-
huus, on the Glomme ; 50 miles N.E. of Chriftiania.

VOLLENAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Cote d'Or ; 3 miles S.W. of Beaune.

VOLLENHOVEN, a town of Holland, and capital
of a diftrift, in the department of OverifTel, fituated near
the Zuyder See. It is not large, but carries on a con-
fiderable trade. N. lat. 52^44'. E. long. 5^ 41'.

VOLLEY, a mihtary falute, made by difcharging a
great number of fire-arms at tlie fame time.

VOLLORE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Puy de Dome; 5 miles S.S.E. of
Thiers.

VOLMAR, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Riga ; 56 miles N.N.E. of Riga. N. lat. 57° 36'. E.
long. 25° 14'.

VOLME, a river which rifes about eight miles fouth of
Lunfchcde, in the county of Mark, and joins the Roer,
4 miles S.W. of Schvviert.

VOLMER, a town of the principality of Culmbach ;
3 miles S.E. of Berncck.

VOLMESTEIN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Mark ; 8 miles S.W. of Schwiert.

VOLMUNSTER, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mofelle ; 9 miles E. of Sarguemine.

VOLO, a fea-port town of European Turkey, in Thef-
faly, fituated in a gulf, to which it gives name ; 38 miles
N.W. of Lariffa. N. lat. 39^^ 28'. E. long. 23° 12'.

VoLO, in Antl/juily, a n.ime whicii the Romans gave the
flaves who, in the fecond Punic war, offered themfelves to
ferve in the army, upon a want of a fufficient immber of
citizens.

The name -volo, volones, they are faid to have had from
their offering themfelves voluntarily. Fetlus fays, it was
after the battle of Canna; that this happened. Macrobius,
tJat. lib. i. cap. 2. places it before that battle.

Capitolinns tells us, that Marcus Aurelius formed troops,
or legions, of flaves, which he called volunlarii ; and that
the like forces, in the fecond Punic war, had been called

volones. But before M. Aurelius, Auguftus had given
the name I'oluntarli to forces which he had raifed out of
iiberti, or freedmen ; as we are afTured by Macrobius, Sat.
lib. i. cap. 2.

The volones were afterwards called evocali.
\ OLOGDA, in Geography, a city of Ruffia, and capital
of a government, on the river Suchona, near lake Ku-
benfl<oe, the fee of an archbifhop. This city contains
about 1700 houfes, and a great many churches. The prin-
cipal trade is in hemp, matting, Ruffia leather, and tallow ;
320 miles S. of Archangel. N. lat. 59° 10'. E. long.
40^ 14'.

VOLOGESIA, a town of the Arabian Irak, and
pach.ilic of Bagdat, built by Vologufa, one of the Parthian
kings, contemporary with Nero and Vefpafian, and men-
tioned by the ancient geographers as an inconfiderable
place ; but fince the death of HofTein, the fon of Ali, by
Fatin-.a, the daughter of the prophet, who was llain near it,
and is here interred, it has increafed in magnitude, and
become more famous from the numerous bodies of pilgrims
of the feft of Ali, who continually flock to it from all
quarters, but in particular from Perfia, to pay tlieir devo-
tions at the fhrine. It is now large and populous, and
called " Kerbela," or " Mefhed-HolTein," fituated 7 fur-
fungs N.W. of Hilleh, the fcite of ancient Babylon, at
the extremity of a very noble canal drawn from the Eu-
phrates. The environs of the town and borders of the
canal are fhaded by extenfive plantations of palm-trees ; and
the walks, which are upwards of two miles in circujnference,
have lately been repaired, to fecure the riches of the holy city
againft the predatory incurfions of the Wahabees, by whom
it was plundered fome years ago. Kerbela has five gates, a
well-fupplied bazaar, and feven khans or caravanferas ; but
the chief, and, indeed, only ornaments of the city are the
tomb of Holfein, which is adorned with a lofty cupola,
gilded by Nadir Shah, a.id a noble mofque, confecrated to
the memory of Abbas, the half-brother of the Imam. Al-
though Melhed-Hoffein is fubjeft to the Turks, the in-
habitants are for the mod part Perfians. The canal of
Kerbela, or Nahr Sares, though it now bears the name of
HofTcini, is more ancient than the days of Alexander, and
is fuppofed at one time to have been conncAed with Bahr
Wijifl. The modern town of Hilleh Hands on the banks
of the Euphrates, in N. lat. 32- 25', and about 54 miles
from Bagdat ; covering a very fmall portion of the fpace
occupied by the ancient capital of Aflyria. See Babylon.
Kinneir's Geog. Mem. of the Perlian Empire.

VOLOGINA, a town of RulTia, in the government of
Irkutlk ; 40 miles S.W. of Kirenlk.

VOLOGODSKOI, a government of Ruffia, which in-
eludes the province of Ultrug ; bounded on the north by
the government of Archangel, on the eafl by the govern-
ment of Tobollk, on the fouth by the governments of Perm,
Viatka, Koftroma, and .laroflavl or Yaroflaf, and on the weft
by the governments of Olonetz and Novgorod ; rather more
than 600 m les in length, and about 240 in breadth. N.
lat. 58^ 30'rto 6;° 20'. E. long. 39° to 59°.

VOLOGZANOVA, a town of Rullia, in the govern-
merit of Irkutlk ; 18 miles N. of Ilimfli.

VOLONE, in yincient Geography, a town of Italy, io
Saniniiim.

VoLONE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the l^owcr Alps ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Silleron.

VOLOUSKA, a town of Illria; 15 miles N. of Lau-
rana.

VOl.Pl, GiANANTONio, in Biography, an elegant Latin

poet, was defcendcd from a noble family, and born at Como

in 1514. Having lludicd jurifprudence in the univerfity of

3 N 2 Pavia,

VOL

VOL

Pavia, and purfued it with reputation at his natlre place ;
with a view to preferment, he vifited Rome ; but difap-
pointed in his expectations, he returned to Como, and fuc-
ceeded Bernardine della Croce, bilhop of the church in
1559, the offices of which ftatlon he affiduoufly difcharged
for 30 years, until his death in 1588. His poems were
coUefted, and publifned at Padua in 1725. They have been
much praifed for their elegance, and in the fatires he is faid
to have happily imitated the ftyle of Horace. Gen. Biog.

VOLPIANO, in Geography, a town of France, in the
depai-tment of the Po ; 9 miles N.N.E. of Tiurin.

VOLSAS Sinus, in Jnc'ient Geography, a bay men-
tioned by Ptolemy, fituated on the northern fide of Great
Britain : it is Loch-bay, in Rofsfhire.

VOLSBACH, in Geography, a town of the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 3 miles N.E. of Weifchenf^ld.

VOLSCi, or VoLCl, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Italy, in Latium, They were defcended from the ancient
Ofci : they had among them Coriolanus in the year 264 ;
and in the year 310 they fnbmitted to the Romans. Their
territory lay from the fca of Antium as far as the fource of
the Lirjs, and beyond it. The extent of their country in-
duced Mela to diilinguifli it from Latium, from which it
was aftnally feparated.

VOLSINENSIS or Vulsinensis Lacus, a lake of
Italy, in Etruria, according to Pliny. He fpeaks vaguely
and unphilofophically of two floating iflands, the form of
which was occafionally changed by the winds into triangular
and roun^. Upon it, however, was one ifland, called the
iifle of S. Giacomo, to which the princefs Amalafouth,
queen of the Goths, was exiled by Theodotus, who in a
few days caufed her to be fhrangled, A.D. 534.

VOLSK, in Geography, a town of Rulfia, in the govern-
ment of Saratov, on the Volga ; 76 miles N.E. of Saratov.
N. lat. 52° 15'. E. long. 47° 44'.

VOLTA, atown of AfiaticTurkey, on the fouth coaft
of Natoha. N. lat. 36° 46'. E. long. 27° 16'.— Alfo, a
town of Italy, in the department of the Mincio ; 10 miles
N. of Mantua.

VoLTA, or Rio Voha, a river of Africa, which feparates
the Gold Coaft from the Slave Coafl, and runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 5° 50'. W. long. 45'.

VoLTA, in the Italian Mujic, (hews that the part is to be
repeated one, two, or more times, according to the numeral
adjeftive joined with it : thus, Ji replica una voha, intimates
to play that part once over again.

VoLTA is alfo a fort of dance of Italian origin, in which
the man turns the woman feveral times, and then aflifts her
to make a leap or jump. It is a fpecies of galhard.

VOLTAGGIO, or Ottagio, in Geography, a town of
the Ligurian republic ; 15 miles N. of Genoa.

VOLTAIRE, Marie Francois Arouet de, in Bio-
graphy, was born at Chatenay, near Paris, in the year 1694,
and in his earliell youth indicated a partial fondnefs for
▼erfe, which was cherifhed by the recital of La Fontaine's
fables. He was alfo conftriined to commit to memory a
poem, entitled " La Moifade," and tiius he is faid to have
imbibed a prepoffeffion aiiainft the Mofaic hiftory. In pur-
fuing his literary education at the Jefuits' college of Louis-
le-Grand, he had for his preceptor father Poree ; and at the
age of 12, diftinguifhed himfelf by compofitions above liis
years. The celebrated Ninoh de I'Enctos, to whom he was
prefented, left him a legacy of 20CO livrcs, which he def-
tined for a juvenile library. DiffatitficJ with law, for the
profelfion of which his father dchgned him, he devoted his
whole attention to poetry, which was rendered invincible by
a fociety of wits and Epicureans, into which he was ad-
mitted. His father made an attempt to divert him irom his

9

favourite purfuit, by fending him as a page in the fuite of
the marquis de Chateauneuf, amballador from France to
Holland ; but falling in love with the daughter of Mad. du
Noyer, a refugee, he was fent back to Paris, and excluded
from his father's houfe. In this pitiable fituation he was
taken under the proteftion of M. deCanniartin, his father's
friend ; and at his country-houfe he had the advantage of
converfing with the elder Caumartin, who infpircd him with
his own enthufiaftic admiration of Henry IV. and Sully.
He flill indulged his difpofition for writing lampoons ; and
for one of theie, aimed at the government, he was impri-
foned for a year in the Baftille. Ac this time he had com-
pofed his tragedy of " CEdipe," which was brought on the
llage in 1718, and much applauded. The regent was alfo
highly pleafed with it, and granted him permilfion to return
to Paris, after his releafe from the Baftille. His father,
much interefted- in his favour by attending at one of the re-
prefentations of his tragedy, was reconciled to him, and
gave up all thoughts of making him a lawyer. At BrufFels,
which he vifited in 1722, he became acquainted with the
poet Rouffeau ; but in confequence of this interview, they
became enemies for life. On his return, his " Mariamne"
was exhibited, and did not fucceed. In 1726 he was again
lodged in the Baftille, in confequence of a quarrel with the
chevalier de Rohan ; and obtained liberation, after a con-
finement of fix months, upon condition of leaving the king-
dom. England was the country of his choice, and he
brought with him his poem of the " Henriade." It was
printed in London by fubfcription, patronized by king
George I. and Caroline princefs of Wales, and yielded a
profit which laid the foundation of his fortune. His maa-
ners, however, did not fuit thofe of England, and his con-
verfation was unfufferably licentious. Having obtained
permiflion to return to France in 1728, he put his money
into a lottery, and engaged in other lucrative fpeculations,
and thus amalfed a large capital, which he augmented by
his economy. His tragedy of " Brutus," brought on the
ftage in 1730, was not very popular; and as his dramatic
reputation was ambiguous, he was adviled by Fontenelle
and La Motte to abandon this fpecies of compofition,
alleging that it was not adapted to his genius. His reply
was the production of his " Zaire," which was regarded as
the moft affefting piece on the French ftage, after the
" Phedre" of Racine. On account of his " Lettres Philo-
fophiques," he was confidered as an avowed enemy to re-
velation and ecclefiaftical authority ; and the parhament of
Paris iffued a decree, which ordered his work to be com-
mitted to the flames, and his perfon to be arretted. Upon
this he quitted the capital, and retired to Cyrei, near Vaffi,
;n Champagne, the feat of the marquis du Chatclet, where
they employed thenifelves in making experiments, and
where Voltaire wrote his " Elements of the Newtonian
Pliilofophv." He alfo continued to write tragedies, fo
that his " Alzire" appeared in 1736, and his " Mahomet"
in 1 74 1 ; but the latter, charged with being an attack upon
religion, was withdrawn from the ftage. His " Merope,"
exhibited in 1743, ^^^ received with the greateft applaufe.
Before this time he had made his peace at court by a po-
litical fervice, which it is not necelTary for us to relate ; and
he farther ingratiated himfelf with the royal family by his
piece for the feftlvlties on the marriage of the Dauphin, en-
titled " La Princeffe de Navarre." Received at court, he
became gentleman of the chamber in ordinary, and hiftorio-
grapher of France ; and, under the latter charadler, drew up
his hiftory of the war of 1 741 , wWch then fubfifted. He alfo
engaged in other courtly offices, and wrote the inanifefto of
the French court in favour of the Pretender, on his expedi-
tion to Scotland. In 1746 he was adniittcd into the

French.

VOLTAIRE.

FicDch academy. In coufequciicc of urgent iiivitalions on
the part of the king of Pruffia, and afliiraiice of a pL-nfion of
22,oco ]ivres, with other benefits, ho arrived at I'otfdam in
June, 1750; and was received by the king with the moll
flattering tokens of refpedt. Here it was Jiis prafticc to
fpend two hours in the day with his majefly, during which
he employed himfelf in corredling his works ; and the rell
of his time was at his own difpofal. His tranquillity, how-
ever, was foon interrupted, on occafion of a difpute between
Maupertuis and Koenig ; for tliough the king defired him
not to interfere, he took part againil Maupertuis, and Fre-
deric fent him his difmifilon. During his abfence on a viiit
to the dnchefs of Saxe-Gotha, Maupertuis, as he fays,
ufed his influence to lower him in the king's eflimation ;
and, therefore, inftead of returniTjg to Berlin, he proceeded
towards France ; but at Frankfort he was arrefted by the
king's order, and obliged to rellore his poems, with which
he had been intrulled for correction, together with his key,
crofs, and the brevet for his penlion. It was now his wi(h
to refide at Paris ; but he could not obtain permiflion ^r
this purpofe, as he had publiflied a very indecent and licen-
tious poem, " La Pucelle d'Orleans," which had railed a
violent outcry agaiull him ; and, th..'refore, after a year's
ftay at Colmar, he purchalc-d a country-houfe near Geneva ;
and having gratified his petulant difpofition by interfering in
the political difputes of this place, he thought proper to
remove, and bought an eitate at Fcrncy, in the Pays de
Gex. Here he lived, as one of his biographers has faid,
" like a petty prince in his own territory ;" — " improving
his own village by encouraging colonills, and introducing
manufactures, which through his influence obtained a fale in
many countries of the continent." — " A declared enemy to
tyranny and oppreflion of every kind, he undertook the pro-
tection of fevcral fufferers from injullice, among whom were
the family of Calas, a noted viflim of religious bigotry. He
made the enormity of thefc abufes of power known through-
out Europe, and fet himfelf up as a kind of general cenfor,
to whofe tribunal the higheit ranks were amenable." All
his motives his biographer does not attempt to jullify. He
likewife poured forth from tiiis retreat a variety of works,
which were fought after and generally read, directing the
fcHtiments and influencing the condudt of many who perufed
them, whether always to their own iionour and advantage
we leave others who are acquainted witii llieni to determine.
In general, his extended fway over the opinions of the
civilized part of mankind, fays the biographer of whofe
obfervations wo avail ourfelves in the compilation of
this article, " was dircSed to the fubverfion of both civil
and c-ccleCaftical tyranny ; but his attacks on the latter in-
cluded hoftilities againil religion in general, at leaft of the
revealed clafs : and, whilil he admitted natural religion, he
dellroyed its moral effi

of laurel ; and Mad. Veftris, advancing to tiie front of the
llage, pronounced fome verfes to his praife, compofed uit
fpot by a nobleman, amid the (houts of the audience.

tl

ble frame, whick
Voltaire himfelf

:acy." In his retreat he was vifited
by the mod diilinguiflied perfons who came near his abode,

and he correfponded with fome of the chief fovereigns of fur Hilloire generale," and tlie " Siicles de Louis XIV
Europe. Neverthelefs he was not happy. Impatient and
reftlefs in his difpofition, and irritable in his temper, he was
felf-tormented. In advanced life he wiflicd again to emerge
from obfcurity ; and in February, 1778, he vifitcd Paris,
nhere he had many admirers, and where he was regarded
alfo with averfion and alarm. Here his vanity and love of
admiration and praife mull be fully gratified, by the mantier
in which he was received at the the.itre, after tlie exhibition
of his " Irene," which he had brought with him. As foon
at he was feated in his box, after having received repeated
plaudits in his way to it, an aftor placed a crown on his
head. When the play was concluded, the drawing up of

lay wa
the curtain difplayed ;ill the adlors and aftrefles furrounding
a bud of Voltaire, and by turns covering it with garlatids

This reception produced effects on his fe

probably hallened its difiblution. Of thi . ^ ^„

leems to have been apprifed, when he faid in a tone of deep
melancholy, " I am come to Paris to find glory and a
tomb." Unable to fleep, it is thought that he accelerated
his death by taking too large a dofe of opium. When he
was thought to be near his laft moments, the marquis de
Villette, with whom he refided, fent for the reftor of St.
Sulpice to adminiiler the lall offices which are thought ef-
fential to the fafety of a Cathohc Chriflian. What pafll-d
between Voltaire and the redor on this occafion has been
diff"erently flated ; but it is certain that he died, without the
lafl; facraments, on the 30th of May, 1778, in the 85th
year of his age. If is faid that the archbiihop of Paris ab-
folutely refuted to allow him Chriflian buiiaj, and that his
body was fecretly conveyed for interment to Sellieres, an
abbey of Bernardines, between Nogent and Troyes. It
was thence brought, by a decree of the national aflembly in
1791, to be repofiled in St. Genevieve's at Paris.

" The phyfiognoniy of Voltaire," fays his biographer,
" was indicative of his difpofition. It is faid to have par-
taken of the eagle and the monkey ; and to the fire and
rapidity of the former animal, he united the mifchievous and
malicious propenfities of the latter. With fliong percep-
tions of moral excellence and elevation, he was little and
mean in conduft, a vidlim to petty palfions and caprices ;
never at reft either in mind or body, never tranquil or
fedate. If he was a piiilofopher, it was in his opinions, not
in his aftions. He had been accuflomed from his youth to
pay as much homage to rank and wealth as his vanity would
permit ; his taftes of life were vitiated, and his manners cor-
rupted : he could not, therefore, be a confillcnt friend to
virtue and liberty, though he might occalionally be capti-
vated with their charms, and even zcilous in their fupport.
He was habitually avaricious, though he performed fome
generous adls, wliich, however, he took care to make
known. He was too felfifli to iiifpire love, and too capri-
cious to me^it elleem. He had numerous admirers, but
probably not one friend."

As a poetical writer, he was diftinguilhed by his " Hen-
riade," which was confidered as the principal epic poem in
the French language, and by his tragedies, which are fanl
to have more variety of ftyle and fubjcd than thofe of Cor-
neille and Racine ; but in comedy and lyric compofition he
was not equally fuccefsful. The morality of his moral
epifllcs, which are excellent in their manner, is liable to
many objcdlions. As a profe writer, Voltaire has been
commended for that kind of middle llyle, which is pure,
unaftefted, lively, precifc, and always in good tafte. In
the department of hillory, his principal works are the " Effai
fur Hilloire generale," and tlie " Slides de Louis XIV. ct
de Louis XV." His " Hilloire de Charles XII." is a
model of royal biography. Of his witty writings, which
are very numerous, we may obfervc in general, that they
•■";*-" '"it only depreciated in real value, but rendered per-
nicious in their tendency and efleft, by his frequently re-
curring attacks and larcjf'ma, levelled againil revealed
religion : nor fhall we be thought deficient in candour if wc
add, that, whatever inflrudlion or amufement his produc-
tions of the latter clafs afford, they have done greater injury,
m a moral and religious view of them, particularly among
perfons of little rctleftion, than thofe of any other author.
All the works of Voltaire amount to 30 vols. 410. of the

Genevan ediuon, and. 71 vols. 3vo. in the more complete
edition of Bafil. Gcji. Biog. by Aikin.

I'he

VOL

VOL

The univerfality of Voltaire's genius extended to mufic,
though no mufician. And in fpitc of his partiality to his
own country, he did the writings of Metallaiio, and the
Italian opera, more juftice than any of his countrymen.
And though he gained lefs applaufe by his lyric poetry
than his other poetical corapofition, he produced feveral
pieces for mufic, and frequently made admirable refleftions
on the lyric theatre.

Voltaire has never planted his farcaftic artillery againft
Italian mufic or finging. And though neither a connoifieur
nor palTionately fond of mufic, lie feems inilinctively to
have felt a fuperiority in the mufic of Italy to that of
France ; and has been always juft to the writings of Metaf-
tafio. For though a defender of Quinault againil the in-
juftice of Boileau, he has never fet him up as a writer for
mufic fuperior to the imperial laureat. The truth is, that
Voltaire, with all the black fpots in his charafter, had a
natural good tafte when his judgment was not warped by
envy, or his paffions inflamed by the attacks of his enemies.
He early faw and celebrated the fcience of Newton and
genius of Shakfpeare. And it was not till the latter had
been more noticed, and the tranflation of his works more
patronized than his own, that, in felf-defence, he abufed
them.

VOLTAISM. That branch of elcftrical fcience which
has its fource in the chemical aftion between metals and dif-
ferent liquids, and in the proofs which eftablifh its identity
with common eleftricity, the world owe principally to dif-
coveries made by fignor Volta. Its remaikable influence
upon animals, which firft brought it into notice, was firll
obferved by Galvani. Hence it was firfl: called Galvanifm
and afterwards Voltaifm. We fhould have treated this fub-
jed. wholly under Galvanism, which was then more than
half completed, but the latter was not finifhed in time
to be then publiflied. Hence the prefent article mull
rather be confidered as a continuation of Galvanifm, than a
diftinft treatife.

Galvanifm concludes with a lift of the different galvanic
combinations, which will be terminated in this article, and
the reft will be treated in fuccefEon. We have alfo given
fome account of all fuch fafts as have tranfpired fince the
time of the publication of the firft part.
Table (hewing the relative quantity of bubbles upon the
negative wire, by immerfing a compound arc, of zinc
and platina, into different faline folutions at a boiling
heat, and at the common temperature.
Effea.
Solution. r^-'^■^^ Remarks.

Hot. Cold.
Muriate of ammonia 6 •?

Muriate of foda - 2

Super-tartrate of potalh 4

Nitrate of potaili

Phofphate of foda

Alum

Sulphate of potafh

Sulphate of foda

Sulphate of magnefia

4
o
o
a

In this and other cafes,
where the cypher is
placed, it does not mean
that no effeft was pro-
duced, but that no bub-
bles could be feen.

In this experiment two
combined arcs were ufed
which juft produced a
fenfible effeft.

In the three laft two com-
bined arcs were tried,
but no bubbles appeared.

The two preceding tables will give fome idea of the rela-
tive power of different combinations of metals, and of the
comparative aftion of different fluids.

The moft powerful of the metallic combinations will be
feen to be zinc with platina, gold, and filver ; but zinc with
copper is fo little inferior, that in point of economy it will
always be preferred.

Zinc with iron is, however, fo near to zinc with copper,
that iron might be ufed to great advantage where cheapnefs
is d^iirable.

Zinc and copper are, in the prefent ftate of Galvanifm,
generally employed for the conftruftion of galvanic bat-
teries. In the trough invented by Cruickftiank, the zinc and
copper plates were foldered together in pairs, fo as to form
fo many compound plates. Thefe plates are cemented into a
wooden box, which is lined with the fame cement, at fuch a
diftance from each other, as to divide the trough into diftinft
cells about half wide. The order of the plates fiiould be
fuch that all the zinc plates face one way, and the copper
ones the contrary.

A great improvement has been made upon the trough of
Cruicklhank, by forming the cells in the trough with plates
of glafs. The plates of metal are foldered together by
their edges, and bent at the joining, till the oppofite fides
become parallel, and feparate from each other about half an
inch. Each of thefe compound arcs is fo placed in the
trough with glafs plates, that the zinc plate of each arc
may he on one fide of the glafs, and the copper on the other,
and in fuch order, that the zinc plate of one arc, and the
copper of another, may be in each of the cells. A fecond
improvement has been made upon this trough. Inftead of
a wooden trough, divided into cells with glafs plates, the
whole trough is made of earthenware, each trough confift-
ing of ten cells. All the plates are fitted to a piece of
wood of the length of the trough, fo that they can be
taken out or put into the trough all together. When they
are taken out, the fluid is fuffered to remain in the trough,
and the plates are fufpended over it upon a gibbet attached
to the frame in which the earthen trough is placed. An
imnienfe battery upon this conftruftion, confilling of 2000
pairs of four-inch plates, has been lately made for the
Royal Inftitution. The experiments made upon it were in-
conceivably brilliant. The fpark was fo intenfe as to ftrike
through ^ fpace of fome lines of air, and of fuch dazzling
fplendouf as to refemble the fun. Many fubftances were
fufed by the heat it produced, which had not been fufed
before, among which were the metal called fredium, and the
earths zircon and alumine. Charcoal was made to evapo-
rate, and plumbago to fufe in vacuo. A large eleftrical
battery was charged by inftant contaft.

Since the trial of this battery, one of immenfe furface
has been conftrucftcd by J. G. Children, efq. It confifted
of twenty pairs of plates of copper and zinc, each plate
being fix feet fquare, the whole exhibiting a zinc and copper
furface equal to 720 fquare feet. Each of the pairs of
plates was united at the top by ilrips of lead bent into an
arch, and fo as to allow the plates to be exaftly parallel to
each other. The cells were diftinft and made of wood ;
each pair of plates entered two cells, having the wooden
divifion between them. The plates were all fufpended from
a beam above, and counterpoifed to admit of their being
eafily let down into the liquid in the cells. The liquid con-
fifted of water with one-fixtieth of a mixture of the ful-
phuric and nitric acids, which was afterwards gradually in-
creafed to one-thirtieth. Leaden pipes were conveyed from
the ends of the battery to an adjoining fhade out of doors,
where the experiments were made.

This battery, as a fource of heat, furpaffed any thing

ever

VOLTAISM.

ever before heard of. It melted platinum with the greateft
facility. Trifhum, which had not been before melted, was
fufed into a globule. Charcoal was kept at a white heat in
chlorine gas and phofgene gas, without any change being
produced in the gas. It ignited fix feet of platina wire. It
was obferved, that when the wire was lefs than a certain
diameter, a lefs length was ignited. A view of one of the
before mentioned troughs is fhewn in^^. I.

Since this plan is likely to become general, from its
great advantage both in economy and convenience, we (hall
venture to fuggeft fevcral improvements.

For making all the variety of galvanic experiments, it has
always been a dtfideratum to have a battery, the furface of
which mav be increafed in any proportion, to a certain hmit,
without affecting the feries or number of combinations.
This has not hitherto appeared prafticable by any other
means than that of ufing diftinft batteries of different fizes.
A battery on the plan above dcfcribed, having loofe
plates, will admit of the advantage here alluded to, without
any other increafe of expence than that of the additional
plates which are meant to increafe the furface at pleafure.

The cells in the earthen trough (hould be about an inch
and a half from one dividing furface to the other, and ca-
pable of receiving plates of four inches fquare. Each of
the cells may occafionally contain four plates, two of zinc
and two of copper.

The form of the plates for this battery is reprefented in
fg. 2. Plali I. having a wire ftaplc, ab, of the fame metal
with the plate. The ftaplcs muft be made accurately of the
fame (ize for all the plates. A piece of wood, ah, [fg-i-) 's
made to pafs through all the ftaples of the plates. This
bearer, or fufpender, is divided into as many tranfvcrfe
grooves as there arc plates, of a depth capable of receiving
one-half of the diameter of the wire (laple. In the fame
bearer are alfo two longitudinal grooves, A A, B B, about
one-tenth of an inch wide and a quarter of an inch deep.
A number of Aiding pieces of brafs, a a, are introduced into
the latter grooves, equal to the number of combinations,
one half of the pieces being in one groove, and the other
half in the other. Thefe pieces of metal, after being placed
in proper fituations, are filed down with the tranfverfe
grooves, leaving the metal above the wood, where the ftaple
of a plate is iiilsnded to touch the metal, and filing the
metal away lower than the wood, where the ftaple is not
meant to be in contaft.

Ai"ter the plates are arranged upon the bearer, alternately
copper and zinc, tlie pieces of fliding metal are made to
communicate with them, that the zinc plates of one cell
may communicate with the copper of the fucceeding cell,
the zinc of the laft with the copper of the next, and
fo on throughout the feries. The plates being all in their
places and properly conneftcd, a fecond piece of wood, c d,
{_fig-4-) is laid upon the bearer, witli coriefpondent grooves
to fit the ftaples. It is covered on the under fide with
woollen clotli, fo that when it is fcrewed to tiie bearer it
ferves to keep the plates fccure, and at the fame time pre-
ferves tlie connecting parts from the fumes of the acid
emptoyed in the battery. A feclion of the bearer, ftaples,
&c. are fecn in /ig. 4. The whole of the apparatus com-
plete is rcprcfeiitcd in Jig. 5, as drawn out of the cell.
Fig. 6. is an end view of the apparatus.

In this battery, the maximum of furface ia when every
cell contains two plates each of zinc and copper. When
it is required to reduce the furface, nothing more is nccef-
fary than to take off the top part of the bearer, while the
plates arc rcfting in the trough, and then drawing out the
lower part. If the two end plates of each cell, one of

copper and the other' of zinc, be taken away throughout
the whole, the bearer may be again introduced to its ori-
ginal fituation. The battery will now confift of the fame
ieries and half the furface. If a mean quantity of furface
be required, it is done by taking the end plates away from
a part of the cells.

It appears, from an experiment detailed in Nicholfon's
Journal, vol. xxvi. p. 72, that the copper furface may be
increafed to advantage above that of the zinc. The experi-
ment is an follows : If an arc of copper and zinc be made
to conneft two glafs cups containing dilute muriatic acid,
the zinc part of the arc being in one cup and the copper in
the other, and if the connection be made between tlie two
cups, to compleat the circuit by an arc of copper wire, a
quantity of bubbles will be evolved from the copper wire of
the compound arc. If, however, inftead of the copper wire
the conneftion be made with a conical (lip of copper, a very
different effeft will be obferved, as the broad or pointed end
of the flip may be next to the zinc wire. When the broad
end is placed in the cup where the zinc wire is placed, a
much greater quantity of bubbles appears upon the copper
of the compound arc, than when the fmall end is placed
next to the zinc. Hence it would appear, that the copper
furface fhould be greater than that of the zinc. This may
be very eafily effefted, by dividing the copper furface into
fmall grooves, the fides of which make an angle of 60°, the
furface will by this means be doubled. This figure might
be given to the copper furface by means of a pair of fluted
rollers. It will be obvious, that if the grooves are not very
fmall, the different parts of the copper furface will not be
uniformly contiguous to the zinc furface, which is a matter
of fome importance.

Having dcfcribed the mod convenient and economical
method of conftrufting a battery, we (hall now confider the
means of exerting the galvanic energy fo far as relates to the
interpofing fluid.

In the galvanic battery, there appear to be two fources
from which the eleflricity is obtained. The one is that
which arifes from the contaft of the metals, and the other
from the chemical aftion between the interpofing fluid and
the zinc furface. The firft does not require even the
prefence of moifture, as is (hewn in the eleftric column of
De Luc. The fecond is rendered greatly confpicuous by
introducing between the oppofite furfaces any fubftance ca-
pable of oxydating and diiiolving the zinc.

Acids, as appears from tlie preceding table, are the great-
eft promoters of the energy afforded by chemical atlion, be-
caufe they diflblve the zinc after it lias been oxydated by
the oxygen of the water. This is more efpecially the cafe
with the fulphuric and muriatic acids, bccaufe thefe acids
are not dccompofed by the zinc. The nitric acid produces
a ftill greater galvanic cffett, bccaufe the acid is dccompofed,
and oxydates the zinc with greater facility than water. The
\vater is alfo dccompofed when this acid is ufed. Zinc hy-
drogen is always evolved.

The action is always increafed when the conduiTting
power of the fluid is increafed. Hence it would be proper
to life fome cheap faliiie folution with the acid, which will
not be decompofed by the fame.

The faline folutions, alone, are very inferior to any of the
acids. But from what has been obferved, we may eafily
point out fuch falts as are beft fitted for the purpofc. All
the fuper-falts, from their cxccfs of acid, will anfwer this
purpofe ; or fuch falts as are decompofed by zinc. All
tliofe falts which aCt upon metals by forming triple falts,
fuch as muriate of ammonia and muriate of ioda, are Found
to aft very well in the galvanic battery.

It

VOLT A ISM.

It will be proper to obferve here, tlut the intcrpofed
fluid does not afford a quantity of eleftricity proportionate
to the rapidity of the oxydation, or at leall the quantity ot
galvanic energy cannot be appreciated beyond a certain
limit. If the quantity of the concentrated acid be much
more than from V„ to ^V the weight of the water, the power
of the battery will not be found to increafe but from another
caufe, which we (hall hereafter explain ; the power is much
fooner exhaufted than when a fmaller dofe is ufed. The
zinc is oxvdated fo flowly by faline bodies, that they may
be ufed in faturated folutions. Potafh, in a cauilic Hate,
even when much diluted with water, might be ufed to great
advantage. At the fame time that it fcarcely appears to
oxydate the zinc, when a fingle pair of wires of copper and
zinc are ufed, the copper wire affords as much hydrogen
durincr the contaft, as could be expeded from tlie agency
of an°acid. It is, therefore, highly probable, that potadi
or foda will be fubftituted for acids in galvanic experiments,
as well for the fake of economy as from its being lefs offeu-
five to the operator. It poffeffes another advantage ftill
greater, in not deftroying the zinc plates like acid

folutions. , • r J n J

From what has been faid regarding the interpoled tluid,
it will be eafy to infer that the greateft part of the galvanic
energy, which is eleftricity excited by chemical aftion, de-
pends upon the prcfence of the water, and fomc fubftance
which can difTolve the zinc, and at the fame time give a
to the water. The effeft is

vanic battery are made to terminate in a veffel of pure water
the water will be obferved to be decompofed, the oxygen
being given out at the pofitive wire, or that com:ng from
the zinc lide of the battery, and the hydrogen from the ne-
gative or oppofite wire. If the fmailell quantity of an
acid, a ialt, or an alkali, be added to the water, the rapidity
of the decompoiition will be increafed very confpicuoufly.

As it is of fome importance to know the relative con-
dufting power of water, and its different compounds, the
following apparatus has been contrived for this purpofe, re-
prefented in Jig- 7. Let c ^ be a fniall cup of wood var-
niihed, or, what is much better, glafs ; and z, c two wires of
platina diftinftly inferted in the bottoni of the cup, fo as to
be water tight. A glafs tube, op, filled with the fluid, is
inverted in the cup to receive the gas which arifes from the
wires z c, while the fluid defcends, and is contained in the
cup. If the cup f ^ be made larger, and of an oval fliape,
two glafs tubes may be inverted over each wire, and the gafes
may be obtained feparately. Fig. 8. A B C D, is a frame
fupporting one of the cups. The parts G and F are of
glafs or variiilhed dry wood, cemented into the parts
A B C D, which are of brafs, fo that the two lides H and I of
the frame are detached. The apparatus,_/ff. 7. with four
others firailar, are to be placed in the frame, the wires
being inferted into one fide of the frame, and the other, c,
rcfting upon the other fide. When the glafs tubes of each
are filled with different fluids, the (!,de H is connected with

greater condufting power to the water. 1 tie eneCt is one end of the battery, and that of I with the other. Since
not as fir Humphrey Davy has fuppofed, produced by the the galvanic current muff neceffarily take the bed condudor,
opp'ofite eleftrical ilatcs of the elements of the compounds the action will commence through that fluid having the

conftituting the fluid medium, fince the hypothefis is contra-
difted by experiment. If there wanted another experiment
to decide, that the galvanic effeft is as the chemical effeft,
the following would fuffice. Take two wine-glaffes, con-
taining dilute muriatic acid, and conneft them by an arc
made of two wires, one of zinc and the other of platina, fol-
dcred or tied together, the zinc being in one glafs and the
copper in the other. If the circuit be complicated between
the glaffes by an arc of platina wire, no appearance of bub-
bles will be obferved upon the platina wire of the compound
arc. If, however, a fmall quantity of nitric acid be poured
into the glafs containing this wire, hydrogen gas will be
immediately evolved from it, and at the fame time the other
platina wire in the fame glafs will become oxydated. This
effea is not caufed by the ekaHcal agency of the nitric
acid, which is decompofed ; becaufe when copper is ufed
inftead of platina, with the pure muriatic acid, the fame
effea takes place. It appears, therefore, that the increafcd
cffea would be attributed only to the oxydation of the wire
of the homogeneous arc, in the glafs containing the negative
wire of the compound arc.

In every galvanic procefs, from a fingle combination to an
unhmited feries, no effea is obferved till the circuit is com-
plete ; and during this, a current of elearicity is efta-
blifiied from the zinc furface of one combination to the
copper of the fucceeding. While it is paffing through a
metal, whatever be its length, it obeys the laws of elec-
tricity very ftriaiy,but when it paffes through a humid con-
duaor, it appears to poffefs rather anomalous properties.
It is proper to obferve here, that conduaors of Galvanifm
are of two kinds ; the one we (hall call dry conduaors, and
the other humid. The firil clafs comprifes all the metals,
well burnt charcoal, plumbago, and the fulphurets of metals.
Water appears to be effential to the fecond kind, holding in
folution acids, alkahes, or neutral falts. Simple water has
its conduaing power increafed by the fmalleft quantity of any
acid, alkali, or fait. When the conduding wires of a gal-

greateft. conduaing povixr. If a thin bit of baked wood or
glafs be put under the refting part c, in that where the
aaion commenced, the current will be transferred to the
next inferior conduaor, and fo on to all the rell. By this
means an accurate table, fhewing the relative conduaing
powers of fluids, may be eafily obtained.

Since the quantity of gas is the tell of the conduaing
power, fome allowance mull be made when the muriates are
the fubjea of experiment. Almoft all the oxygen gas dif-
appears in converting the muriatic into oxymuriatic acid.
In a fimilar way the hydrogen does not appear when certain
metaUic folutions are employed, fince it combines with
the oxygen of the metallic oxyd, and the metal is re-
duced. When the battery is in full power, and of great
extent, the relative conduding power of the fluids may be
expreffed by the time required for the afcending gas to dif-
place the hquid in the glafs tube. In all thofe experiments
where the elements of bodies are transferred to different
fides, the transfer takes place through any of the moift con-
duaors, but not through any of the dry ones. No transfer
can therefore be made through folid bodies, except the body
be permeable to moifture. Sir Humphrey Davy, in his ex-
periments, made ufe of the fibrous afbeftus moiltened with
water. Where the fluids are required to be ftrittly fcpa-
rate, bladder anfwers very well as a feparating medium.
Animal and vegetable fubftances, however, abound with
fo many elements, that in nice experiments they would be
objeaionable. A veffel divided into a proper number of
ceils of earthenware, in the ftate of bifcuit, would be bell
calculated for thefe experiments. This veffel ihould be
made of pure filex and pure alumina. Should it ever be-
come an objed of manufaaure to feparate acids and alkalies
from neutral falts, a veffel of wood, with a feparation in the
middle, of unglazed earthenware, would aniwer very well.

We fliall here mention fome curious faas conneaed with
the iiiterpofition of metals, in different conduding media.
When the wires, coming from the two ends of a galvanic

battery.

VOLT A ISM.

battery, are brought into feparate velTels containing any
fluid wliicli is a conduftor. If a wire of platina, in the
form of an arc, conneft the two glaffes together, that end
of the connefting arc in the pofitive glafs will afford hy-
drogen gas, while that in the negative glafs will furnifh
oxygen gas ; or, if we take all the four ends of the wires in
the circuit, the pofitive wire from the battery will give
oxygen, and that oppofite to it, in the fame glafs, hydrogen.
In the other glafs, the negative wire will afford hydrogen,
and the oppofite wire oxygen, fo that the water appears to
be decompofed in each glafs, fince oxygen and hydrogen
are furnifhed feparately by each glafs. If a number of
glalTes be arranged fimilarly, having connefting arcs of pla-
tina, and if the wires of the battery be introduced in the
extreme glafles, all the ends of the wires will alternately
furnifh oxygen and hydrogen. No theory yet brought for-
ward will fatisfaftorily account for thefe phenomena. Sir
Humphrey Davy would affert, that each of the wires from
the battery induced an oppofite ftate of eleflricity in the
wires oppofed to them ; and that in confequence the one
attrafted oxygen and the other hydrogen. Another theo-
rift might hold that the eleftricity, which enters the firft
glafs from the pofitive fide, decompofes the water, and com-
bining with the hydrogen, fets the oxygen free. The elec-
tricity and the hydrogen pals through the fluid to the op-
pofite wire, when the eleftricity deferts the hydrogen, and
paffing through the platina arc, decompofes the water in the
iecond glafs. The oxygen is again evolved, and the hy-
drogen carried to the next wire, and fo on through the re-
mainder of the glaffes.

A very curious experiment of the above kind rather tends
to confirm the latter, than the former hypothefis. We,
however, give thefe fafts to the common ftosk, for the ad-
vantage of other labourers in this field of inquiry ; ftrongly
convinced that^very hypothefis yet advanced falls very fhort
of explaining all the phenomena of Galvanifm.

Let the wires of a galvanic battery be made to terminate
ill a flat-bottomed veffel, containing pure water, about an
inch and a half from each other ; and if now another wire,
of an inch in length, be laid longitudinally between them,
but not to touch them, each end of the intermediate wire,
if of gold or platina, will afford gas. That end oppofite
the negative wire will give oxygen, and the other end of the
fame will furnifh hydrogen ; and if any number of bits of
wire be placed between the principal wires, at the fame time
they do not touch each other, o:.ygen and hydrogen will be
alternately furnifhed by the ends of the wires. When the
principal wires are brought nea-er together, and a platina
wire placed tranfverfely between them, one fide of the in-
termediate wire will furnifli oxygen, and the other hydro-
gen. This fatl is put in a more ftriking point of view, by
placing a plate of platina in a veffel of water edgeways, and
bringing the wires of the battery oppofite to each other, and
perpendicular to tiie fides of the plate. If the battery cm-
ployed confifl of 50 plates three inches fquare, a circular
fpot will be obferved on each fide the plate, oppofite the
wires. This appearance is caufed by the evolution of gas
from thofe parts of the plate only.

It is fi:igular, that in all the experiments where* the con-
nefting wire was immerfed in the water, if any fubllance,
capable of increafing the condufting power of the water,
be very gradually added to it, the gafes given out by the
intermediate wire will diminifh, till they entirely ceafe to be
produced. The wire which was tranfverfely placed fooner
ceafcd to afford gas, than when it was in a longiU'dinal po-
fition ; and the cffeft fooner ceafed with the wire than with
Vol. XXXVII.

the plate ; and in difil-rent plates, the continuance was a^
the fize of the plate.

If the plate, however, be cut fo as to divide the veffel
into two portions, and the edges fo completely cemented to
the fides of the veffel that no hquid communication exifts be-
tween the two portions, each fide of the plate will furnifh as
much gas as the wires, whatever may be the conducing
power of the iSuid. If the power, which induces the plate
or immerfed wires to give out gas, depended upon the in-
duAion of the oppofite wires, why is it not as great before
the fluid is divided as afterwards ? and why is it the fame
when pure water is ufed, whether the intermediate wire be
immerfed in the water, or is made to conned two portions
of water together ? Thefe are fafts which, in the prefent
flate of knowledge, do not admit of eafy folution. They,
however, fhew us the neceffity of having the cells of our
galvanic b.ntteries perfectly diftinft from each other. It
appecirs pretty clear, that that which conducts the oxygen
or the hydrogen, or perhaps both, paffes with greater faci-
lity through a good moifl conduftor than fhrough a metal.

Decompoftion of Bodies in general The decompofition of

water and of metallic oxyds was known to Cruickfhank, the
hiflory of whofc experiments we have already given ; and in
a very early flage of galvanic progrefs, it was obferved that
the alkali was feparated from muriate of foda in the gal-
vanic battery. In fubjeding muriate of foda to the galvanic
povvsr in a glafs tube, it has alfo been obferved that oxy-
muriatic acid was produced. The fubjeft of the decom-
pofition of falts, however, has been clearly made out, and
elbblifhed on true principles, by fir Humphrey Davy,
whofe experiments have been detailed under Galvanism.
The chemical agency of bodies, arifing from their relative
eleftric ftates, is no doubt the caufe of the decompofitions of
falts, and of all other bodies to a certain extent ; allhou"-h
there are many decompofitions, particularly the mctaJSc
oxyds and water, wkich are to be attributed to fome other
caufe much more aftive and expeditious. We fhall here
venture to draw a hne of diflindlion between the decompofi-
tion effefted by the eleftrical intenfity arifing from the con-
taft of the bodies, and that produced by the eleftricity, and
the hydrogen developed by the chemical agency of the
oxydable metal, and the oxydating fluid.

If we take a fingle combination, for inftance, a zinc wire
connefted with a platina wire, the eleftrical intenfity arifing
from coiitaft is fo exceeding fm.ill, that it could hardly be
appreciated by the acid of the condenfcr. If this com-
bination be immerfed in water, no galvanic appearance takes
place, however near the immerfed ends be brought to each
other. If, however, we add to the water about one-tenth
its weight of muriatic acid, an immenfc quantity of hy-
drogen immediately appears upon the platina wire, and con-
tinues to be evolved fo long as the contaft is formed, till
the acid is expended. The cleftrical intenfity, however, is
the fame with the water as with the dilute .icid ; yet the
quantity of hydrogen upon the platina wire, when the .icid
was ufed, which can be attributed only to galvanifm of
chereiical aftion, is much more than could be obtained by
the moll powerful eleftric machine. It can readily be ad-
mitted, from experiments in which Dr. Wollallon decom-
pofed water by the eledlric machine, and from the clcftric
effefts of Deluc's column, that fomc water would be de-
compofed by the fingle combination, independently of the
chemical aftion ; but the difference is To glaring as to pro-
duce the flrongefl convic"lion, that the decompofition of
water and the tranfmiflion of hydrogen are not dependent on
the mere electric flates of the wirea. That the hydrogen is
3 O tranfiuiiied

VOLTAISM.

tranfmilted from the zinc to platina, during the chemical
aftion, many experiments feem to prove ; and that the hy-
drogen fo tranlmitted, by its chemical agency, and in its
nafcent ftate, is capable of effeding many decompofitions,
which, under other circumitances, would be impoffible.
In the fingle combination above alluded to, if the dilute acid
be feparatcd from a folution of acetate of lead, or fulphate
of copper, by a piece of bladder, the zinc being immerfed
into the acid part, and the platina into the metallic folution,
no hydrogen will be afforded by the platina, but the metal
becomes reduced in proportion to the quantity of hydrogen
which has difappeared : yet no perceptible quantity of this
cffeft can be attributed to the eleftricity of contaft, but to
the mere chemical agency of hydrogen in its nafcent ilate.
Hence we are inclined to think, that the decompofitions by
the galvanic battery arife from two caufes. Water princi-
pally owes its decompofition to the chemical aftion, and the
agency of the eleftricity upon the hydrogen. Metallic
oxyds are principally decompofed by the prefence of the
nafcent hydrogen, fo coUefted and tranfmitted by the elec-
tricity. The decompofition of faline bodies, however, is
to be attributed alone to the eleftrical attraftion produced
by the contaft of the bodies employed, which can be made
fo great as to overcome the chemical attraction of the bodies
decompofed. Of the latter of thcfe powers of decompofi-
tion we have given fome account, in delaiUng the ingenious
experiments of fir Humphrey Davy ; of the two former
means of decompofition we fliall fay fomething in a pradical
point of view.

Many very anomalous fafts were known in chemiflry
long previous to the difcovery of Galvanifm. All thofe
chemical phenomena, under which the appearance called ar-
borefcence was obferved, were inexplicable, till it was ihewn
from fome experiments, publilhed in Nicholfon's Journal,
vol. XV. p. 94, that Galvanifm is the caufe of tliefe Angular
phenomena. In the experiment where lead is fo beautifully
precipitated, by fufpending a piece of zinc in a folution of
acetate of lead, the zinc firft reduces a fmall portion of
lead, which, with the zinc, forms a galvanic combination.
The lead, if no folution of lead were prefent, would now
give out hydrogen gas; but the hydrogen, in (lead of ap-
pearing in that form, combines with the oxygen of the
oxyd, and the metallic lead is formed at the fame point.
Hence the lead appears to grow from the laft. point formed,
which gives the appearance of vegetation. That this effect
does not depend upon the prefence of zinc, may be proved
by the following experiment. Tie on one end of a glafs
tube, about half an inch wide, a piece of bladder, fo that
it may hold water, and fill it with a folution of acetate of
lead. Into-the other end infert a cork loofely, and through
the -cork let a platina wire pafs within about half an inch of
the bladder. Into a wine-glafs put fome dilute muriatic
acid, in which place a zinc wire. When the tube with the
bladder is immerfed in the wine-glafs, if that part of the
zinc wire without the glafs be brought into contatt with that
part of the platina wire without the tube, beautiful cryftals
of metallic lead will foon appear upon the platina wire. If
the acetate of lead be removed, and a dilute acid be put in
its place, bubbles of hydrogen will appear upon the platina
wire.

Another experiment, fimilar to that of the lead-tree, and
equally anomalous, has been long known in chemiftry. If
a plate of glafs be fmeared over with a folution of nitrate of
filver, and a brafs pin or a piece of zinc wire be laid in the
middle of the plate, beautiful ramifications of filver will foon
appear as if growing out of the pin, very much refembling

vegetation. By obferviiig the procefs with a magnifying
glafs, each branch of this arborefcence may be feen to grow
from tlie end or fide of another ; which proves that the filver
forming the vegetative appearance is not reduced by the
oxydable metal laid on the plate, but by fomething at the
fucceffive points of the filver branches. With a view to
afcertain this faft, one half of the plate fhuuld be fmeared
with nitrate of filver, and the other half with dilute muriatic
acid. If a piece of zinc wire be tied to a piece of platina
wire, and the compound wire fo bent that the zinc may
touch the dilute acid, and the platina the nitrate of filver,
the ramifications of filver will foon appear upon the platina
wire. That the filver is reduced by the hydrogen carried
in the galvanic current, is probable from varying the ex-
periment as follows : If, inilead of fmearing the plate
with nitrate of filver, the whole be covered with dilute acid,
and the fame compound arc be laid upon it, the platina will
give out bubbles of hydrogen. In the common way of
making this experiment with the pin, as well as the variation
above ftated, it appears that the procels is kept up by the
galvanic current, which furnilhes the hydrogen. The pin
firll reduces a fmall portion of filver, which forms a gal-
vanic combination with the pin. The hydrogen which, but
for the prefence of the remaining nitrate of filver, would
appear in the gafeous form, is employed in depriving the
filver of its oxygen. With the compound arc, the zinc
does not require to touch the nitrate of filver, becaufe the
platina with zinc is already a galvanic combination. The
theory of whitening common pins can be explained only on
this principle. Tlie tin, in a fmall proportion, is diffolved
in the tartrate of potafli ; pieces of metallic tin, with the
pins, are alfo prefent. The two latter form the galvanic
combination, and a portion of tin is reduced from the folu-
tion upon tlic pins, to which they owe their whitenefs. We
may generally conclude, that in all inflances where one
metal becomes the precipitant of another, the precipitation
is much facihtated by the agency of the galvanic com.bina-
tion, formed between the precipitating and the precipitated
metals, and the confequent prefence of hydrogen. If a
piece of zinc be introduced into a folution of fulphate of
copper, the zinc in the firfl inilance becomes covered with
copper, and the effeft appears to flop. If, however, a
very fmall excefs of fulphuric acid be added, the procefs
will go on with fuch rapidity, that the copper becomes
precipitated in a very Uttle time. By minutely obferving
the procefs, the copper will be feen to be reduced upon
that already produced, which is a proof that it is not done
by the mere agency of the zinc.

It appears very evident, that when a galvanic combina-
tion of zinc with any leffer oxydable metal is placed in a
dilute acid, that a much larger quantity of hydrogen will be
evolved from the leffer oxydable wire, than could pofTibly
be produced by any eleftrical intenfity generated by the
contaft of the bodies employed ; but that independent of
this, there is an immenfe quantity of eleftricity generated
during the chemical aftion, by which the hydrogen is tranf-
ported from the greater oxydable furface to the leffer one.
If the quantity of hydrogen produced depended upon the
attradlioil of the wires for the elements of the water, this
power would depend upon the eleftrical intenfity alone, and
of courfe upon the feries in the galvanic battery, whatever
might be its furface ; but it is found that the po—--r -*' Gal-
vanifm to decompofe water is much increafed by an increafe
of furface only.

Galvanifm as a Source of Heat. — When the wires coming
from the ends of a galvanic battery of coafiderable furface

are

VOL

art- brought into contaft, a brilliant fpark is produced, and
the wires ftick together with conliderable force, as if they
were welded, or united by fufion. If the parts in contaft
be held with the fingers, a confiderable heat will be per-
ceived, which will be greater as the battery is more power-
ful, and jnverfely as the thicknefs of the wires.

Small wires feem to affect the eleftric fluid in a manner
fimilai' to that in which light is affefted by a convex lens,
or a concave mirror, by concentrating and compelling a
large quantity of cledlricity to pafs through a fmall channel.
This appears to be the cafe with common eleftricity, as well
as galvanifm, lince by difcharging the eleftrical battery
through very fmall wires, the metals become fufed and
oxydated.

On the galvanic battery this experiment (hould be made
as follows : at each end of the battery fhould be placed a
rod of metal, with a clean ball at the top of each. Between
the two balls muft be ftretched a piece of very fmall wire, not
exceeding TTirth of an inch in diameter, while the circuit
is interrupted in fome other part of the battery. As foon
as the wire is fixed, the circuit mufl be completed where it
was broken, and the current will inllantly be determined
through the fmall wire, which will in confequence become
ignited.

It was difcovered by Dr. Wollafton, that, in the ignition
of wire by the voltaic battery, there was one certain diame-
ter of the wire, in which the length ignited was the greateft,
above or below which the length was lefs. This does not
arife from more heat being fent through the wire in which
the greated length was ignited, but from the ratio of the fur-
face of the very fmall wire being fo much greater to its foli-
dity than in thicker wire, by which a greater proportion of
heat is carried ofl by radiation ; but when the diameter is
beyond a certain extent, then a lefs length is ignited, from
the heat being lefs concentrated.

It has alfo been found, that very different lengths of wire
are heated of different metals when their diameters are equal.
This appears to take place from the relative coaiduftive
powers of the different metals for elcftricity, which appears
to be as their conducing powers for heat. Platina, being the
worft condudtor, has a greater length heated ; and filver,
which is known to be a good conduftor, has a lefs length
heated.

If the battery be very powerful, it will be fufed and oxy-
dated. When a connexion is formed between the two ends
of the battery, by means of the very thin foils of metals,
fuch as leaf-gold, the metals undergo brilliant combullion,
exhibiting different coloured flames. Charcoal and plum-
bago, prefented by Iharp angles, are fimilarly deflagrated.
If the ends of the two wires coming from the battery be
made to touch each fide of a fmall globule of mercury, the
latter will inflame with a bright flalh. This lieat, furnilhed in
the'galvanic current, is alfo very apparent while it is paffing
through moifl conductors. Different fluids fubjefted to de-
compofition in the circuit, in glafs tubes, become confider-
ably heated, and this will be found the cafe, as the diameter
of the tube is lefs.

Sir H. Davy attributes this heat to the decompofition,
which muft ftrikc any one as being an error. Heat we al-
ways find to be evolved during combination ; the very re-
vfrfe of which ought to take place during decompofition.

ABwn of Galvanifm upon Animals All animal fub-

ftances, either dead or living, if not deprived of their moif-
ture, are tolerably humid conductors of Galvanifm. In the
living fubjeft, independent of its conducing power, it has
the property of being affecled in a peculiar manner. All
thofe animals which poilefs excitability are aifcfted by Gal-

VOL

vanifm as they would be affeftrd by any other violent lli-
niulus ; and if the excitable part be at all mufcular, the
fibres are vigoroufly contraded. This caufes, in a living
and confcious animal, a fenfation not unlike an c-leftric
fhock. The fliock is more hke that of common eleftricitf ,
as the plates of the battery are fmaller and more numerous.
When the plates are of very large furface; z fort of vibra-
tory motion is felt through the part attended with a fenfa-
tion of heat ; and this, in a powerful battery, is felt fo
long as the connexion is kept up. The befl; mode of taking
the fliock is firil to moiif en the hands, or the part where the
effeft is to be applied ; grafp in each hand a piece of metal,
fuch as two fpoons, and touch each end of the battery with
the other ends of the fpoons at the fame time. If it is in-
tended to be applied to any other part, let two plates, of
about two inches in diameter, be each attached to the wires
coming from the battery, and let the plates be applied to fome
two parts : if the effeft be too fevere, let fome inferior con-
duAor be placed between the plate and the fkin.

Sir H. Davy found, that when an animal fubftance was
placed in the circuit of a galvanic battery, the different com-
pounds contained in it were decompofed. This was more
efpecially the cafe with the faline bodies contained in the ani-
mal fluids ; the acids of the falts were found on the pofitive
fide of the battery, and the bafesof the falts on the negative.
Should it be afcertained that any redundancy of faline mat-
ter is the caufe of difeafe, Galvanifm might be employed
with great fucccfs in feparating thofe bodies from the fylleni.

Dr. Wollafton has given fome hints in Nicholfon's Jour-
nal, from which it appears probable that the power of the
glands in fecreting difi"erent fluids is dependent upon the
eleftrical itate of the glands ; by which they are induced to
attraft all bodies in a contrary ftate to themfelves. The opi-
nion of this ingenious gentleman has been llrongly corrobo-
rated by fome experiments made by Meflrs. Home and
Brandt. Phil. Tranf.

Thefe, however, are fpeculations on which we cannot at
prefent place ilrift reliance. The fame conjefture which is
apphed to fecretion may be applied to the oxygenation, or
rather the decarbonization of the blood in the lungs ; fincc
the carbon appears to be transferred through the membranes
between the pulmonary arteries jnd the interior of the lungs.
The fame theory may be alfo' aujilied to account for the
change of the colour of the bloocl between the foetus and the
mother. Mufcular excitabihty may perhaps arife from a
certain eledtric Hate of the mufcular fibre caufed and kept
up by the arterial blood ; and if we may be allowed to carry
the conjecture ilill further, mufcular motion may perhaps
be caufed by the relative eleftric ftates of the mufcles, and
the brain and nerves.

VOLTANA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Ara-
gon ; 5 miles N.W. of Ainfa.

VOLTARE, Ital. in Mufic-books, to turn over; whence
volti, turn, volti fubito, turn quick, and often only the ini-
tials of thefe words V.S. Si -volti, at the end of a move-
ment, denote, the leaf is to be turned over to another move-
ment. And, in courtcfy, it is fometimes faid, volti fe piace,
turn over if you pleafe.

VOLTE, in the Manege, fignifies a round or circular
motion, confifling of a gait of two treads, m.adc by a horfe
going fideways round a centre : the two treads making
parallel tracks, one by the fore-feet, larger, and the other
by the hind-feet, fmaller ; the flioulder bearing outwards,
and the croup approaching towards the centre.

Volte, Dt-mi, is a half-round of one tread, or two,

made by the horfe at one of tlie angles, or corners, of the

volte, or at the end of the line of the paiTade j fo as when

3 O 2 he

VOL

VOL

he is near the end of this line, or neai' one of the corners of
the volte, he changes hands, to return by a femicircle.

Volte, Reverted, or Ini-erted, is a track of two treads,
which the horfe makes with his head to the centre, and his
croup out ; going liJeways upon a walk, trot, or gallop ;
and tracing out a larger circumference with his (houlders,
and a fmaller with his eroup. See on this fubjeft Berenger's
Art of Horfemanfhip, vol. ii. p. 8,3, &c.

Volte, in Fencing, denotes a fudden movement or leap,
which is made to avoid the thruit of an antagonift.

VOLTERRA, Daniele dI, in Biography, the cogno-
men of an artift of great renown, whofe real name was
Daniele Ricciarelli. He was a native of Volterra, and born
in 1509, and was firll a difciple of Giovanni Antonio Razzi,
Called II Sodoma, and afterwards of Baldaflare Peruzzi.
Unemployed in his native city, and without means of im-
provement, he went to Rome, and wrought fome time for
cardinal Trivulzi, to whom a pifture of the Flagellation he
had brought with him ferved as a recommendation. He af-
terwards affifted Pierino del Vaga in the capella Maflimi at
the Trinita da Monti : and in San Marcello, where he
fini(hed, from the defigns of del Vaga, the four Evangehfts,
with various other figures, and ornamental enrichments.
From defigns of the fame mafter he alfo painted a frieze in
the hall of the palazzo Maflimi, and thefe works combined
gave him fo much renown, that fignora Elena Orfina was
induced to employ him to adorn her family chapel in the
church of the Trinita da Monti.

He had in the mean time cultivated the friendfhip of Mi-
chel Angiolo and Sebaftian del Piombo, and by their com-
munion, and the ftudy of their works, aggrandized his ftyle
and formed his manner ; and the work which he produced in
the capella Orfini, the Defcent from the Crofs, teftified how
worthy he was of fuch fociety. The work of this chapel,
wluch was adorned not only with an altar-piece, but alfo
with various other defigns hiftorical and ornamental, and all
in frefco, occupied him feven years. The merit of the
principal pifture above-mentioned, has placed it, in public
eftimation, on a level with the Transfiguration by Raffaelle,
and the Communion of S. Jerome by Dominichino ; and in-
duced the French, in their rage for fpohation,to attempt the
removal of it from the wall. And they effefted it, though
they never tranfported it to France, but in doing fo, they
cut away fo much of the angles of the chapel that the roof
fell in, but not till the pifture had been removed out of
danger. It was afterwards turned, fo that its face was made
vifible, and an attempt was made by fome ignorant pretender
to enliven the colours by mea^s of oil or varnifh : the con-
fequence has been, that the furface is become black, and the
figures fcarcely difcernible ; and thus this grand work, one
of the principal features of modern Rome, one of the
greateft monuments of human ingenuity, and the fupport
of the well-earned renown of an artift ranked among the
belt, has been facrificed to ambition, vanity, and folly.
Happily the compofition is preferved by Dorigny's print,
and there is a great number of copies of it. Lanzi is of opi-
nion, that M. Angelo muft have aided Volterra in this great
work, particularly in the compofition, as the other parts in
the chapel are fo far inferior to it. He is known to have
been partial to him, and on terms of intimacy. One day
calling in his abfence at his ftudy, he left behind a (lietch of
a coloffal head, which Volterra never would permit to be
removed, and which remains to this day. And when Pierino
,del Vaga died, and Angelo had the works of the Vatican
iffigned to him, he interefted himfclf for and procured the
appointment of Volterra to fupply his place. To him alfo,
with ih^ confent of Angelo, pope Paul III. intrufted the

flight clotliing which is thrown over the nudities in the
Lail Judgment in the Siftini chapel, for which fervice how-
ever he was branded with the ludicrous name of // Brachet-
tone, the breeches-maker.

After his appointment in the Vatican, he was ordered to
compleat the paintings in the Sala Regia begun by his pre-
deceflbr, which he did, but not, as Vafari fays, with flcill
equal to that he had exhibited in the chapel Orfini.

When Julius III. mounted the papal throne, he diTmified
Volterra from his fuperintendance, but afterwards afligned
to him one lialf of a hall to paint, of which Salviati had
the other part, but Volterra did little or nothing in it, hav-
ing been difappointed in not finding the whole intrufted to
him.

He added, by means of his difciples, feveral other defigns
to the works in the Trinita da Monti, but turned his own
mind principally to fculpture, and painted but little after this
time. He died at Rome in 1566, aged 57.

Volterra, in Geography, a town of Etruria. This was
one of the ancient twelve cities, now a lonely, mean place,
though it reckons 25 churches, chapels, and oratories, and
about 20 convents and rchgious fraternities. It ftands on a
mountain, but the air is unwholefome : entire villages in the
neighbourhood lie in ruins, and uninhabited, and the coun-
try all round is overrun with weeds and bufties, which un-
queftionably contribute to render the abode unhealthful.
It has rich copper-mines, but not worked ; 29 miles E.S.E.
of Leghorn. N. lat. 43° 23'. E. long. io°52'.

VOLTOEGA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Catalonia ; 5 miles W. of Vique.

VOLTORE, a mountain of Naples, in Capitanata, E.
of Monteverde.

VOLTRI, a town of the Ligurian Republic ; 6 miles
W. of Genoa.

VOLTUMNA, or Volturna, in Mythology, a rural
divinity of the Tufcans. Livy frequently mentions a temple
belonging to her near the lake Ciminius, where the people
debated concerning their aff^airs.

VOLTURARA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Principato Ultra ; 15 miles W. of Conza.

Volturara, or Vulturara, a town of Naples, in Capi-
tanata, the fee of a bifl^op, fuffragan of Benevento ; 38
miles W.S.W. of Manfredonia. N. lat. 41° 28'. E. long.

VOLTURENA, a town of the Grifons, on the lake
of Como.

VOLTURNALIA, among the Romans, a feftival kept
in honour of the god Volturnus, on the fixth of the calends
of September, or 26th of Auguft.

VOLTURNO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Lavora, on a river of the fame name, near its mouth ; 12
miles W. of Capua. — Alfo, a river of Naples, which runs
into the gulf of Gaeta, near Caftel a Mare.

VOLTZHEIM, a town of Saxony, in the principality
of Rueflen, near Gera, where Henry IV. gained a viftory
over Rodolphus, duke of Swabia, in the year 1080.

VOLVA, in Botany, the Wrapper, or covering, of the
Fungus tribe, is ufed in two fenfes by Linnseus. In its ori-
ginal and moft legitimate meaning, as explained in the Philo-
fophia Botanica, p. 52, this term is appropriated to the mem-
branous web, which conceals the unexpanded gills of an
Agaric ; and in many fpecies, as the Common Mufliroom,
Agaricus eampejlris, feparatcs at length from the margin of
the head, and forms a permanent ring round the ftalk. This
fort of Volva is enumerated among the kinds of Calyx,
and perhaps not improperly ; fee that article. The more
ufual idea of a Volva is that of an external covering, wlwch

enfolds

VOL

V (J L

enfolds the wbule fungus, in an early ftate of growth. In
the genua Phallus it refembles a hen's egg ; and is nearly
jimilar in the Agaricus -volvaceus, Sowerby's Fungi, t. I.
In the itarry and vaulted Puff-balls this part is of a leathery-
texture when dry, more brittle when frelh. (See Geas-
TRUM. ) In the Lycoperdon phalloides of Smith's SpicUegium,
Sowerb. Fung. t. 390, now made a diftinft genus, called
Batarrea, by Perfoon, the outer Vol-va, which remains in
the ground, is filamentous.

VoLVA is alfo a word ufed by Scribonius Largus, and
fome other authors, to exprefs the central part, or, as we
call it, the core of the apple, in which the feeds are placed.
He prefcribes this in weakneffes of the ftomach, and retch-
ings to vomit.

VOLUBILE, or VoLUBILATE Stem or Stall, in Gar-
dening, a name given to thofe of many plants, as all thofe the
Hems or ftalks of which are of a twining or winding climb-
ing nature. They are commonly fuch as climb or afcend in
a fpiral manner round the ftems, llalks, or branches of other
plants, which happen to be fituate near to them, round
thofe of one another, or round flicks or flalks fet for the
purpofe; and any thing of a fimilar kind that they may meet
with in the courfe of their extending growth. The honey-
fiickle, the hop, the running kinds of kidney beans, and
many other plants, are of this defcription.

The items or ftalks of this fort, in different kinds of
plants, wind round or twifl about others, or other fub-
flances, in different diredions, either to the right or the
left, according to the apparent diurnal motion of the earth
in refpedl to the fun. The honey-fuckle and the hop among
garden plants turnmg to the left, while the different kinds
of twining kidney beans turn to the right.

In garden culture, all thofe kinds of plants (hould be con-
llantly fuffered to take their own natural direSions, and
not be in any way thwarted in their modes of growth, as
they never fucceed well where that is the cafe, or afford
fo good a produce. And their fupports, of whatever na-
ture they may be, fhould always be fully adequate, and be
well and firmly fet into the ground, that they may not be in
danger of giving way while the plants are rifmg upon them.
It will feldom be necfefTary to flop the plants from running
too high, but this may be occafionally of ufe in preventing
their running up too weak.

VOLUBILES, or VoLUBiLis, in Anciait Geography, a
/town of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, upon the route,
according to Anton. Itin. from Tocologida to Tingis, be-
tween Tocologida and Aqua Dacica ; it was a Roman co-
lony. Pliny calls it Volubile Oppidum, and gives an erro-
neous account of it. Hardouin differs from other geogra-
phers, who confider Fez as the ancient Volubihs, without
fufficieiit reafon. See Fez.

VOLUBILIS Cauli.s, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfio-
logy, a Twining Stem, (fee Caulis and Stem,) is one which
fupportf itfclf on other plants, independent of tendrils, by
atfuming a fpiral direftion, and embracing every thing that
comes in its way. Each fpecies of twining plant has its
appropriate dircdlion, in fome to the right, in others to the
left, nor can that direftion be counteracted, or impeded, by
any mechanical force. Many tendrils, on the contrary,
make a greatt-r number of convolutions in one direftion,
than in anotlier, the better to enfure a fupport for the plant
that is furnifhed with them.

VOLUCE, or Voluca, in jinctent Geography, a town
of Hifpania Citerior, E. of Clunia and S.W. of Nu-
;nacc.

VOLVENS OcuLi, in Anettomy, a name given by Spi-

gelius and fome otliers, to one of ihc mufclcs ci llic eye,
called by Cowpcr and Albinus, obliquus inferior.

VOLUERA, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Po ; 7 miles S.W. of Trino.

VOLVIC, a town of France, in the department of the
Puy de Dome ; 3 miles S.W. of Riom.

VOLVICARA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ;
9 miles E.S.E. of Scalea.

VOLUME, Volumes, a book, or writing, of a fit
bulk to be bound by itfelf.

The word has its rife a volvenJo, rolling, or nvinding; the
ancient way of making up books being in rolls of bark, or
parchment.

This manner lafled till Cicero's time, and long after
paper was invented, and books written upon it. The feve-
ral fheets were glued, or palled, end to end, written only
on one fide ; and at the bottom a (lick was fattened, called
umbilicus ; and at the other end a piece of parchment, on
which was the title of the book in letters of gold. And
yet, v/e are affured, king Attalus, or rather Eumenes, had,
long before, done up fome of his books in the fquare form ;
as having found the fecret of parchment, which would bear
writing on both fides.

The library of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, contained, ac-
cording to Aulus Gellius, 300,000 volumes ; and, accord-
ing to SabeUicus, 700,000.

Raymund LuUy wrote about 4000 volumes ; of which
we have divers catalogues extant. It is held, that Trifme-
giflus wrote 6525 volumes; others fay, 36,529: but it is
much more rational to fuppofe, with La Croix, thai it was
the cuftom with the Egyptians to put all the books they
compofed under the name of Trifmegijlus.

At prefent, volume is chiefly ufed in tJie fame fenfe with
tome, for a part, or divifion, of .\ work, bound feparately.
In this fenfe we fay, " The Councils are printed at the
Louvre, in thirty-feven volumes." SeeToMl).

Volume uf a Body is alfo ufed among foreign philofo-
phers, for its bulk, or the fpace inclofed within its fuper-
ticies.

VoLUMF. de Foi*, in Frencli Mufu, is the compafs or
extent of a voice from its lowcft, or moll grave found, to
the mofl acute. According to Rouffeau, the common com-
pafs of voices is only eight or nine notes. There have been
voices that have extended to two oftaves of real voice, voce
di petto; and Agujari, with the addition of two or three
notes in falfet, had a compafs of three oftaves.

There is another expreffive acceptation of the word volume
in fpeaking of a great voice : as it was juftly faid of Man-
zoh's vocal organ, that it was a volume of voice.

VOLUMUS, in Laiu, the firft word of a claufe in one
fpecies of the king's writs of proteftion, and letters patent.

VOLUNT, Voluntas, is when a tenant holds lands,
Sec. at the will of the lefl'or, or lord of the manor.

VOLUNTARY, in the Schools. The generality of phi-
lofophers ufe voluntary in the fame fenfe virith fpontaneous ;
and apply it to any thing arifing from an internal principle,
attended with a due knowledge of it.

Arillotle, and his followers, reflrain the term volunt.iry
to thofe aftions that proceed from an inward principle,
which knows all the tircuniflanccs of the aftion.

There are two things, therefore, required to the voluM-
tarinefs of an adtion : the firll, that il proceeds from an
inward principle ; thus, walking for ploafure-fakc, is a vo-
luntary aftion ; as arifing from the will commanding, and
the moving faculty obeying, which arc both internal. On

the

VOL

V O L

the contrary, the motion of a man dragged to prifon is not
vohuitary.

The fecond, that the aftion be performed with a perfect
intelligence of the end, and circumftances of it ; in which
fenfe the aftions of brutes, children, fleeping people, &c.
are not properly voluntary.

Anatomills diftinguilh between the voluntary and natural
or involuntary motions in the body. Of the latter kind are
thofe of the heart, lungs, pulfe, &c.

VotUNTARY, in Mu/ic, a piece played by a mufician ex-
tempore, according to liis fancy. This is often ufed before
he begins to fet himfelf to play any particular compofition,
to try the inftrument, and to lead him into the key of the
piece he intends to perform. See Research.

In thefe performances, we have frequently heard great
players produce paflages and efFefts in fits of enthufiafm and
infpiration, that have never appeared on paper. In thefe
happy moments

" Such founds efcape the daring artift's hand
As meditation never could command ;
And though the flaves to frigid rules may Hart,
Tiiey penetrate and charm the feeling heart."

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 483. feft. 2. we
have a method of writing down extemporary voluntaries, or
other pieces oi muiic, as fail as any matter can play them
on the organ, or harpfichord ; and that in a manner ex-
preflive of all the varieties thofe inflruments are capable of.
This is performed by a cylinder, turning equally upon its
axis, under the keys of an organ, and by having points
under the heads of the keys. Hence, when they are prefTed
down, they will make a fcratch or mark on the cylinder,
which may fhew the duration of the note ; and the fituation
of this mark on the cylinder will (hew what note was
touched. For farther particulars we refer the curious to
the Tranfaftion itfelf.

Voluntary ./^^rn/, Efcape, Homkule, Novation; fee the
fubftantives.

VOLUNTEERS, in the Military Art, perfons who
enter of their own accord to ferve in the army. See

iLlSTING.

On occafion of danger from invafion, the people have been
nvited to form themfelves into volunteer corps for their own
proteftion. A plan for this purpofe was propofed by earl
Shelburne, then fecretary of ftate, in 1782, when the French
threatened an invafion of this country ; but as peace foon
took place, the plan was not put in execution. In fimilar
circumftances of preparations on the part of the enemy,
and menaces of a defcent in 1797, a propofal of the fame
kind was made by Mr. Dundas, and accepted in every part
of the kingdom with the utmoft alacrity and zeal ; and in a
very few months a new army of citizens was enrolled and
muttered, in appearance equal to the regular and mihtia
forces, and in the difcipline of the parade very httle inferior.
Previoufly to this, from the very commencement of the war,
volunteer companies had been raifed in different parts of
Englandamong the refident inhabitants, particularly in the
towns contiguous to the fea-coaft. At the fame time troops
of horfe were kvied among the gentlemen and yeomen of
the country, upon the fame principle with the volunteer
companies. Thefe were called the yeomanry cavalry. Of
thefe volunteer corps, both of horfe and foot, fome ferved
without any pay from government : others received pay and
allowances, under certain regulations. The provifions and
regulations, pertaining to volunteers, whilft their corps
10

exitted, were cftablifhed by the 44 Geo. III. c. 54. But it
is now needlcfs to enlarge on this fubjeift.

\ OLUNTII, in Ancient Geography, a people who in-
habited the E. coaft of Hibernia, S. of the Daunii. Ptol.

VOLUNTOWN, in Geography, a town of Connefticut,
was fettled in 1696, containing 1016 inhabitants; 20 miles
N.E. of Norwich.

VOLVOX, in the Linnaean fyftem of Natural Hijlory, a
genus of the order of Infuforia, in the clafs of Vermes. Its
charaAers are, that it is inconfpicuous with a naked eye,
very fimple, pellucid, and fphericd. The body of this ani-
mal is fmooth, gelatinous, roundifh, without joints, and
formed for a whirling or vertiginous motion. Its young are
roundifh, and lodged in fmall holes in different parts of the
body. Of this genus, Gmelin enumerates ten fpecies : wz.
the bulla, piletts, globator, dimiJialus, fpharula, uva, lunula,
conjliffor, pilula, znd'-lotulus. See Vermes. See alfo Globe
Animalcule and Bek jE.

VOLUPIA, in Mythology, the goddefs of pleafure, the
feigned daughter of Cupid and Pfyche, who' had a temple
at Rome, in which was her ftatue ; and a feiUval in honour
of her was celebrated annually on the 2 1 ft of December.

VOLURA, in Gcorraphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Po, during the French revolution ; 7 miles
W. of Turin.

VOLUSENUS, Florentius, Florence Wilson, in
Biography,^. d\Mngmih<-A poet of the l6thcentury,profecuted
his ftudies, firil at Aberdeen, and afterwards at Paris, where
he was intrufted with the tuition of cardinal Wolfey's ne-
phew. After the uncle's death, he was patronized by two
other cardinals, Jean de Lorraine and Jean de Bellay. As
he was proceeding with the latter towards Rome, in 1538,
he was feized with an indifpofition which detained him at
Carpentras. Here he waited on cardinal Sadolet, then
bifiiop of the fee ; who was fo delighted with his literary
accomphfhments and elegant manners, that he placed him
at tlie head of a clafiical feminary in that city. Wilfon af-
terwards intended to revifit his native country^, but death
overtook him at Vienna, in the year 1546. F. Wilfon was
a fcholar whom Buchanan has celebrated as dear to the
Mufes. He is known as the author of a claffical dialogue
on tranquiUity of mind, entitled " De Animi Tranquilitate
Dialogus:" Lugd. apud Gnyphium 1543, 4to,

VOLUSPA, q. d. the oracle of the prophetefs, \n Mytho-
logy, a poem of about four hundred verfes, forming part of
the ancient Edda ; which fee.

The Edda is a collection of various odes, which, as fome
have fuggefted, are the fragments only of a much larger
work, long loft to the world. It has been generally afcribed,
as we have mentioned under the article Edda, to Sasmund
Sigfufon, an eminent Icelander, born A.D. 1056 or 1057,
who, from his knowledge, writings, and various acquire-
ments, has been called by fucceeding authors. Erode, or the
learned. His claims, however, have been contefted ; and
ftrong reafons have been urged for believing that Sasmund did
not compofe, perhaps not even compile, the Edda which is
afcribed to him. The principal opponent of Sxmund's claim
to the firft Edda is Amas Magnaeus ; whofe recondite in-
quiries into the early literature of Iceland have given him
much celebrity. See his Life of S^emund Erode, prefixed
to the Edda Stmunder, Hafniae, 1787, cited by fir George
Steuart Mackenzie, bart. in his " Travels in the liland of
Iceland," 18 10.

VOLUTA, the Volute, in Natural Hiflory, the name of
a genus of fhells, for an account of which fee Conchology.
Gmelin enumerates 141 fpecies.

VOLUTE,

VOL

V O M

VOLUTE, VoLUTA, in Arcbiteaure, a kind of fpiral
fcroll, ufed in the Ionic and Compcfitc capitals ; of which
it makes the principal charaftcriftic and ornament.

Some call it the rant's horn, from its figure, which bears
a near refenibiance to it.

Mod architefts fuppofe, that the ancients intended the
volute to rcprefent the bark or rind of a tree, laid under the
abacus, and twifted thus at each extreme, where it is at
liberty : others will have it a fort of pillow or bolder, laid
between the abacus and echinus, to prevent the latter being
broken by the weight of the former, and the entablature
over it ; and, accordingly, they call it pulvinus. Others,
after Vitruvius, will have it to reprefent the curls, or trefles,
of a woman's hair.

The number of volutes in the louic order is four ; in the
Compofite, eight.

There are alfo eight angular volutes in the Corinthian
capital, accompanied with eight other fmaller ones, called
helices.

There are feveral diverfities praftifed in the volute. In
fome, the lift or edge, throughout all the circumvolutions,
is in the fame line or plane : fuch are the antique Ionic vo-
lutes, and thofe of Vignola. In others, the fpires or cir-
cumvolutions fall back ; in others, they projett, or ftand
out. Again, in fome, the circumvolutions are oval ; in
others, the canal of one circumvolution is detached from
the lift of another, by a vacuity or aperture. In others,
the rind is parallel to the abacus, and fprings out from be-
hind the flower of it. In others, it feems to fpring out of
the vafc, from behind the ovum, and rifes to the abacus, as
in moft of the fine Compofite capitals.

The volute is a part of great importance to the beauty of
the column. Hence, architefts have invented divers ways
of delineating it. The principal are that of Vitruvius,
which was long loft, and at laft reftored by Goldman ;
and that of Palladio. Daviler prefers the former as the
eafier. The manner of which is as follows :

Draw the cathetus FC [Plate XV. Geometry, Jig. 19.)
whofe length muft be half a module, and from the point C
defcribc the eye of the volute A E B D, of which the dia-
meter is to be 3 J minutes ; divide it into four equal feftors
by the diameters A B, D E : bifecl the radii C A, C B, in
I and 4; conftrudl a fquare i, 2, 3, 4, from the centre C
to the angles 2, 3 ; draw the diagonal C 2, C 3, and divide
the fide of the fquare i, 4, into iix equal parts, at 5, 9, C,
12, 8 ; then through the points 5, 9, 12, 8, draw the lines
5, 6, 9, 10, 12, II, 8, 7, parallel to the diameter E D,
which will cut tiie diagonals in 6, 7, 10, 11, and the points
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, II, 12, will, be the centres of
the volute. From the firll centre i, with the interval I F,
defcribe the quadrant F G, from the fccond centre 2, with
the interval 2 G, defcribe the quadrant G H, and continu-
ing the fame operation from all the twelve centres, the con-
tour of the volute will be completed.

The centres for dcfcnbing the fillet are found in this
manner: conftruft a triangle, of which the fide A F (fig. zo. )
is equal to the part of the cathetus contained between A F,
and the fide F V equal to C l ; on the fide A F, place the
diftance F S from F towards A, equal to F S, the breadlh
of the fillet, and through the point S draw the line S T,
which will be to C i in the fame proportion as A S is to
A F ; place this line on each fide of the centre C, on the
diameter of the eye A B ; divide it into three equal parts ;
and through the points of divifion, draw lines paridlel to the
diameter li D, which will cut the diaj^jonaU C 2, C 3, and
you will have twelve new centres, from whence the interior

contour of the fillet may be defcribed, in the fame manner
as the exterior one was from the firft centres.

Confolcs, modillions, and other forts of ornaments, have
likewife their volutes, or fcrolls.

Volute, Canal of the. See Canal.

Volute, Eye of the. See Eye.

VOLUTELLA, in Botany, Forflv. iEgypt.-Arab. 84,
fo called on account of its twining and flender li.-ibit, is
rightly pointed out by Jufiieu, Gen. 440, on the authority
of Valil, as a Cajfytha. Linnius has marked it fo in his
own copy of Foriliall'3 work. We prefume it to be the
identical CfUfornus. Forll<all fpeaks of this plant as not
uncommon in Arabia, where it climbs trees, entangling
their branches very much. TiKjlcm is exceedingly flender,
without branches or leaves; ihe Jo'u.ers fcarcely vifible ; the
lurries, which are eaten by children, are infipid, with a
flavour of pepper, but no acrimony. Are there any con-
fidcrable points of agreement betv^een this obfcure genus
and A f arum ?

VOLUTINA, in Mythology, a rural goddefs of the
Romans, whom they invoked, for the coat that covers the
ear of corn.

VOLVULA, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of an ex-
traneous fofiile body, nearly allied to the entrochus, being
compofed of the fame fubftance, and being like that of a
cyhndric column, made up of feveral joints ; the commif-.
fures of the joints are, however, much lefs vifible in the
volvulae than in the entrochi, and they are not ftriated, as in
the entrochus, from the centre to the circumference.

The volvula: are of various figures ; fome referable in
fiiapc a little bottle, and are called vohuU utriculala, and of
thefc fome have, and others have not, a ftar marked on
their bottom ; others of them fwell out in the middle, and
taper a httle toward each end ; and thefe, from their re-
femblance in fliape to a little barrel, are called dolioli, or
vohulte cloliatie. There is great reafon, from the analogy
thefc bear to the entrochi, and other fofiils which owe their
form to animal remains, to fuppofe thefe of the fame origin ;
but we yet know not to what animal it is that they have be-
longed. Hill's Hift. FolT.

VOLVULUS, in Botany, a name given by Dalefchamp,
and fome others, to the upright narrow-leaved or toad-flax-
leaved bind-weed. See Convolvulus.

Volvulus, in Conchology, a fpecies of Helix, which fee.

Volvulus, in Entomology, a fpecies of Ceramlyx, which
fee. ,

Volvulus, in Medicine, a name which fome authors give
to the iliac paffion, by others called chordapfus ; and by
others, miferere mei.

VOLX, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Alps ; 6 miles S.E. of Forcalquier.

VOLZANA, a town of the duchy of Carniola, on the
Lifonzo ; 12 miles S.W. of Feldes.

VOMANO, a river of Naples, which runs into the
Adriatic, 5 miles N.N.E. of Atri.

VOMANUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in
Picenum, Hill called Vomano.

VOMAS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Allier ; 18 miles E.S.E. of Monlins.

VOMER, in Anatomy, a bone of the nofe. See CuA-
NltiM.

VoMKit, in Ichthyology, 3 fjiecies of zeus, with a forked
tail and f[)iiie recumbent before the aiud and dorfid fin.
This is an iVnierican fifli.

VOMICA, in Natural Hijlory, a word ufed by the an-
cients to cxprcfs one of the blcmiflics to which cryllals and

the

V O M

V 0 M

the precious ftones are fubjeft. This is a diilky foulnefs
lying deep in the ftone, and giving a duflcy colour and tinge
to the whole. Both the luftre and trar.fparence of the ftone
are much hurt by this accident. When the vomica was of
a blueith or blackilTi colour, the Romans expreffed it by
the word plumbago.

Vomica, in Medicine, an abfcefs, or colledion of purulent
matter in the fubftance of the lungs. Tiiis, like all other
abfcefles, is the refult of previous inflam-jiation in the part
which it occupies, and is, therefore, one of the terminations
of peripneumony, of which, in that cafe, it conftitutes
the laft ftage. (See Pekipneumony.) If a vomica burfts
through the exterior furface of the lungs, and the matter
confequently efcapes into the cavity of the thorax, the dif-
eafe is then called empyema.

Vomica, Nux, Vomic Nut. See Nux Vomica.

VOMIER, in Botany, Poiret in Lamarck Did. v. 8.
692, a French name, whofe derivation or meanmg we can-
not trace, applied by this author to our Eriostemon ; fee
that article.

VOMIT, Black, in Medicine, an appellation given by
the firft writers on the difeafes of tropical climates to the
yelloiv fever, the moft formidable and fatal fymptom of
which is a vomiting of a black matter, confiftiiig of grumous
blood and bile. This fymptom, however early it appeared,
was generally foon followed by death, and being the moft
remarkable and diftreffing charafter of the difeafe, its name
was given to the whole fever : it is obferved, however, in
the bilious remittents of more northern latitudes, as of Spain
and Egypt, and was noticed by Hippocrates as a fatal
fymptom of the caujos, or ardent fever, endemic in his
time in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. See
Fever, Yelloiu.

VOMITING, in Animals, is the inverted adion of the
ftomach, or the aft of difcharging the contents of it by the
mouth. Of this tlie horfe is incapable or deprived, on ac-
count of a peculiarity of flrufture in the parts : but dogs,
cats, and other animals, vomit very readily, and are often
much benefited in this way, by the u(e of proper medicines,
in different difeafes with which they are affeAed.

Vomiting, in Medicine, the aft of ejetting the contents
of the iiomach through the gullet and mouth, commonly
preceded by a fenfation of naujea.

It has been a queftion much difculTed by phyfiologifts,
how the matters contained in the fac of the ftomach are thus
forcibly expelled in a retrograde direftion ? fome fuppofing
that this was effefted by the retrograde aftion of the muf-
cular coat of the ftomach itfelf, and others contending that
the aftion of the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles was the
principal force employed in the aft. This queftion has been
amply expounded, and the affirmative of the latter opinion
fhewn to be correft under the head of Stomach, to which
we refer the reader.

Vomiting is not to be confidered as itfelf a diftinft fpecics
of difeafe, but merely as a fymptom of various morbid af-
feftions, either of the ftomach itfelf, or of fome other organ
of the body with which it is connefted by fympathy. As
a fymptom, however, which is always diftreffing, and often
very argent, it frequently becomes the objeft of medical
treatment, and it is therefore important to diftinguifti the
caufes from which it originates in different inftances, in
order that the appropriate remedies may be felefted.

The firft fet of caufes of vomiting, to which we have

alluded, are thofe which affeft the ftomach itfelf. There

are various morbid conditions of that organ, or the irritation

pf fubftanccs introduced into it. Thus vomiting is a fymp-

7

torn of inflammation of the coats of the ftomach (fee Gas-
TRiTis), which arc rendered fo irritable as to rejeft every
thing introduced within its cavity. A fcirrhous or can-
cerous ftate of the ftomach is alfo attended by vomiting,
efpecially when that difeafe diminifhes the aperture of the
pylorus, and prevents the paffage of the aliment into the in-
teftines. Vomiting is Ukewife often a fymptom oi dyfpep/ia,
or indigeftion, and is then occafioned either by the irritation
of undigefted food, or the acrimony of fluids generated
during the imperfeft procefs of digeftion : whence the mat-
ters vomited are often acid or acrimonious, irritating the
gullet and fauces as they pafs. Sometimes in thefe cafes
the vomiting is excited by the regurgitation of the bile,
when it is fuperabundant ; but moft commonly that fluid is
only vomited after repeated and fevere retchings, by which
the bile is brought into the ftomach from the upper intef-
tine. Vomiting is fometimes alfo a fymptom of the ftomach
colic, or cramp in that organ, in which cafe, as in the in-
flammation, it is accompanied by intenfe pain.

The cure of the vomiting in thefe cafes will depend upon
the removal of the refpeftive difeafed conditions of the fto-
mach of which it is fymptomatic. In gaflritis, it can only
be removed by copious blood-letting, bliftering, or cupping
the region of the ftomach, or applying leeches ; for it is in
vain to attempt to introduce medicine into an inflamed fto-
mach ; and opium would, if it could be retained, aggravate
the original difeafe. In the cramp of the ftomach, on the
other hand, opium largely given, with hot fomentations,
would be the moft effeftual remedy. In cancer or fcirrhus,
alleviation of the ficknefs is all that can be exjjefted ; and
opium or hyofcyamus affords the beft means ef foothing that
malady. In a ftate of indigeftion, vomiting will be cured
by adhering to a light and digeftible diet ; by the ufe of ab-
forbents, fuch as magnefia or chalk, with light aromatics,
efpecially where the vomitings are acid ; and by whatever
ftrengthens the tone of the ftomach, and improves the di-
geftive fuuftion ; fuch as bitters, horfe -exercife, cold-
bath, &c.

When vomiting is produced by fubftances taken into the
ftomach, and immediately irritating its fenfible furface, fuch
as the metallic or other poifons ; the obvious remedy will be
to get rid of the irritating fubftance, if poflible, to dilute
and weaken its acrimonious quality, or to change or decom-
pofe it by chemical means. In all fuch cafes, the copious
introduftion of tepid fluids fhould be immediately reforted
to.

The fecond fet of caufes of vomiting, which we have
mentioned above, are thofe which influence the ftomach
only by fympathy, the aftual feat of the irritation being in
fome other, even diftant organ ; the varieties of the caufes
producing vomiting in this indireft way are, therefore, as
numerous as the iympathies of that important organ with
almoft every other organ in the body.

Many affeftions of the head are attended with vomiting.
Vertigo, or giddinefs, from whatever caufe it originates, is
liable to induce naufea, and even that moft violent and dif-
treffing fpecies of vomiting, fea-ficknefs. ( See Vertigo. )
Blows on the head, inflammation of the brain or its mem-
branes, fraftures and depreffions of the (kull, are almoft
conftantly produftive of vomiting ; which, in fuch cafes,
can of courfe only be relieved by removing the preffure or
curing the inflammation of the brain.

With almoft every organ of the abdomen the ftomach
fympathifes fo clofely, that violent vomiting is the confe-
quence of irritations in moft of them. The kidneys are
feldom affisfted with difeafe, without producing ficknefs in

the

VON

V O R

t'le (lomacli, aiiJ the moil violent and unremitting retching
is oecafioncd by the exigence of a fmall calculus in the pel-
vis of the kidiifv, or its paffage along the ureter into the
bladder. With both colic, or fpafmodic conitriftion, and
inflammation of the intellinal canal, vomiting is a conllant
attendant ; and it often accompanies difeafes of the liver.
AfFeftions of the uterus in women very frequently oecafion
ficknefs, and among the firll fymptoms of the diftenfion of
that organ in pregnancy, naufea and vomiting frequently
occur.

Although tliefe fympathetic vomitings are manifeftly de-
pendent on cither irritations, the removal or alleviation of
which will be the only efFeftual cure, by means adapted to
them refpeftively ; yet feme alleviation of thefe ficknefles
is often attainable by diminilhing the irritability of the fto-
mach itfelf. The carbonic acid, or fixed air, appears to
have this quality in a certain degree, whence foda-water, or
the faline draught, fwatlowed during the effervefcence, will
fometimes materially allay thefe fympathetic vomitings. This
is alfo occafionally efFefted by an abforbent, with a light
aromatic, or a cordial diililled water. Thus a little magne-
Ca in peppermint or pimento water will fometimes allay
fuch a iicknefs. An opiate, or the extraft of hop or hen-
bane, may be now and then added to thefe medicines with
advantage, as they tend to leffen the irritability, and render
the ftomach lefs fenfible to the irritation.

Vomiting of Blood. See Ha:matemesis.

Vomiting excited by Medicine. See Emetics.

Vomiting ,Tulep. See Julep.

VOMITIVES, or Vomitive Medicines. See Emetics.

VONA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Sivas ; 70 miles W. of Trebifond. N. lat.
41" 10'. E. long. 38°.

VONC, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardennes ; 6 miles N. of Vouziers.

VONDEL, JoosT Vandem, in Biography, a Dutch
poet, was the fon of parents who belonged to the feft of
Mennonites, and born at Cologne in the year 1587. His
education was merely adapted to trade, and having married
in 1 610, he commenced bufinefs as a hofier at Amflerdam ;
but with talents fuperior to his ftation, he entrufted his wife
with the conduft of his trade, and direfted his attention to
literary and religious fpeculations. In the difputes between
the Arminians and Gomarills, he took part with the former,
and joined their communion. His firll poetical productions
were the mere fruits of untaught genius ; but apprehending
that he might derive advantage from thofe fources of in-
formation to which he had no accefs, on account of his igno-
rance of the learned languages, he began, at the age of
30 years, to learn the I^atin and French, and to lludy logic.
Attached to the Arminian party, he cxpofed the injullice
of the fentence againft Barnevtldt in an allegorical tragedy,
entitled " Palamcdes, or Innocence oppreUed," for which
he was profecuted and fined. Conceiving prejudices againll
the reformed religion, probably on account of the attach-
ment of the Dutch miniilcrs to the Orange faftion, he be-
came a Roman Cathohc ; and afterwards publillied a trai
gedy, intitled " (lilhert Van Amilel," or the capture of
Amtlerdam by Florence V. count of Holland ; and many
other poems, one on the fubjeft of " The Myderies, or the
Secrets of the Altar." He alfo trandatcd into Dutch verfe
Virgil, Horace, and Oviil's Metamorphofes, by which he
gained confiderable reputation. But, like many authors,
he neglefted his affairs, and fullered pecuniary embarrafT-
mcnts. He lived however to a great age, and clofed life in
1679, in hie <)iA year ; hiving acquired the honour of being

Vol. XXXVII.

regarded as one of the principal ornaments of his country
His works amouut to nine vols. 410. Moreri.

VONJASH, in Geography, a town of Abafcia, on the
Black fea ; 30 miles N.VV. of Mamak.

VONITZA, a town of European Turkey, in Albania ;
62 miles N.W. of Lepanto. N. lat. 39° 15'. E. long.
21° 2'.

VOOR, in Agriculture, a terra applied to fallow land, or
fuch as is frequently ploughed over, in different cafes. See
Fallow.

VOORN, or OosT-VooRN, in Geography, an ifland of
Holland, fituated at the mouth of the Meufe ; about 20
miles in length, and 5 in breadth. This ifland, with Gorce
and Overflakee, form the territory called Voornland ; which
formerly belonged to Zealand : Briel is the capital.

VooRN, a fmall ifland at the union of the Wahal and the
Meufe, with a fort belonging to the fl;ate of Utrecht ; 9
miles N.N.E. of Bois le Due.

VOPISCUS, a Latin term, ufed in refpeft to twins in
the womb, for that which comes to the perfeft'birth ; the
other being before excluded abortive.

Vopiscus, Flavius, in Biography, a Latin hiftorian,
was a native of Syracufe, and flourifhed about A.D. 304.
He began his hillory with the reign of Aurelian, which he
profecuted with thofe of Tacitus and his brother Flavianus,
and Probus. He then publiflied an account of the four
tyrants, Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonofus, and
alfo of the three emperors Cams, Numerianus, and Carinus.
Thefe are extant, and are contained in the " Hiltorix Au-
gufts Scriptores." Among the bed of thefe is Vopifcus,
who excelled in learning, and alfo in chronological arrange-
ment. He is faid to have given credit to the wonderful
works of ApoUonius Tyaneus, whofe life he had an inten-
tion of writing.

VOPOKAS, in Geography, a town of RulTia, in the
province of Uftiug, on the Vitchegda. N. lat. 63° 10'. E.
long. 54" 14'.

VORALBERG, a traft of country, containing fome
lordfhips, S.E. of the lake of Conllance ; fo called from
the mountain of Alberg, near which it is fituated ; ceded to
Bavaria by the peace of Prefburg.

VORALEN, a town of Hinder Ponicrania ; 10 milec
S.W. of New Stettin.

VORAU, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 7 miles N.W.
of Hardberg.

VORBACH ZoMMERN, a town of the county of Hor
henloe ; 3 miles E.S.E. of Weickerflieim.

VORCHEIM. See Forciieim.

VORCLUT, a cape of the ifland of Jerfey ; ; miles
N.E. of St. Helier.

VORDEN, or VoERDEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the
bifliopric of Paderborn ; 17 miles E.N.E. of P.iderborn.
N. lat. 5 I ='45'. E. long. 9'' 18'.

VoitDEN, a town of iVellphalia, in the bifliopric of Of-
nabruck. Both the Roman Catholics and I-utherans have
a church here in common ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Ofnabruck.
N. lat. 52'^ 29'. E. long. 8° 4'.

VORDENBURG.^a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 4
miles N. of Leoben.

VORDENSES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Narboiinenfis, W. of the Vulgientes. I'liey are placed
by loiue on the fcite of the town of Gordes, near that of
Apt.

VORE, in Agriculture, a term fometimes ufed to fignify

the narrow ilrip of ground which is left whole, for turning

the furrow. flice upon, in fome modes of paring and burning.

3P It

V O R

V O R

It is alfo applied to the head of the teazle plant, which does
not become ripe and run until the third year, fuch heads
being called vores.

VOREDA, in Ancient Geography, a Roman ftation,
marked in the fecond Iter of Antonine between Lugvallium
(Carhfle) and Brovonacis ( Kirbythure), lituated at Old
Penrith. This, without doubt, was the place where this
ftation was fituated, at the N.W. end of Plumpton wall,
about 4 miles to the N. of the prefent town of Penrith, on
a noble military way, which is there in the higheft pre-
fervation .

VOREPPE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Grenoble*

VORGANIUM, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
the Ofifmii, who occupied the weftern part of Brittany,
through its whole extent.

VORINGEN, or Stadt Voringen, in Geography, a town
of Germany, in the principality of Hohen Zollern, on the
Lauchart, formerly the chief place of a county, now ex-
tinft; lo miles S.E. of Hohen Zollern. N. kt. 48° 11'.
E. long. 9' 15'.

VORMS, called Vormfijaari, and in modern charts
Ormfon, an ifland of the Baltic, 14 verRs in length, in
breadth rather more than 9 vertts, and of a nearly quadran-
gular fliape.

VOROCHITA, in Ancient Geography, an idand of the
Perfian gulf, upon the coaft of Carmania. Ptolemy.

VORONEZ, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, and ca-
pital of a government, called " Voronezflcoi," fituated at the
conflux of a fmall river, called by the fame name, with the
Don ; and furrounded with wooden walls. The citadel is
on the oppofite fide of the Voronez river, furnifhed with
150 pieces of cannon, and a large garrifon. Here are docks
for building veflels, large and fmall, good warehoufes for
naval ftores, &c. It is the fee of a bifhop, and a place of
confiderable trade. The number of inhabitants is about
12,000; 256 miles S. of Mofcow. N. lat. 51° 36'. E.
long. 39°.

Voronez, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Don at
Voronez.

VORONEZSKOI, a government of Ruffia, bounded
on the north-eaft by Tambovlkoe, on the fouth and fouth-
eaft by the country of the Coffacks, on the north-weft by
Orlovflioe, on the weft by Kurfljoe and Charkovlltoe ;
about 260 miies in length, and 104 in its mean breadth.
N. lat. 48° 50' to 53° 16'. E. long. 37° to 42°.

VORRACH, a town of Bavaria, in the territory of
Nuremberg ; 4 miles N. of Nuremberg.

VORRAGE, in Agriculture, a term applied to the earth
or mould which is coUefted and provided for " milling" or
mixing with lime, in the making of compofts.

VORSE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Oife, near Noyon.

VORSKLA, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the
Dnieper, 20 miles E. of Kreumengug.

VORST, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 6 miles
E. of Schweinfnrt.

VORSTIUS, Conrad, (Von Dem Vorst,) in Bio-
graphy, an eminent Arminian divine, was born at Cologne
in 1569, and iininied his claftical inftruftion at Duffeldorp.
Having been entered at the college of St. Lawrence in
Cologne in 1587, he left it without taking a degree, be-
caufe his confcience would not allow his fwearing adherence
to the decrees of the council of Trent. At this time the
circumftances of his family rendered it expedient for him to
turn his attention to trade, for which he qualified himfelf by
5t

learning arithmetic, and the French and Italian languages.
However, he afterwards, viz. in 1589, refumed his ftudics
at Herborn ; and in 1593 he accompanied fome young per-
fons of rank as their tutor to Heidelberg. Here he was
created a doftor of divinity, and he then vifited the aca-
demies of Switzerland and Geneva. At Geneva he read
ledlures on theology, and was offered a profelTorfhip ; but
declining this, he accepted a fimilar office at Steinfurt in
I J96, where he gained fuch reputation as to induce other
Proteftant univerfities to invite him to the theological chair.
His orthodoxy being fufpedted, he repaired to Heidelberg
for a certificate of his foundnefs in the faith, protefting
againft the opinions of Socinus, and apologifing for fome
expreffions which he had ufed in their favour. In 1610 he
removed from Steinfurt, to fucceed Arminius as theological
profeffor at Leyden. Here the Gomarifts, or rigorous
Calvinifts, appealing to his work, intitled " Tradlatus Theo-
logicus de Deo, five de Natura et Attributis Dei," charged
him with many herefies ; and not only engaged feveral fo-
reign univerfities in their party, but induced our royal pedant,
James I., to aid them with his concurrence. The king,
acute in difcovering theological errors, and fond of exercifing
his authority in fuppreffing them, fent to his refident at the
Hague a lift of various herefies, which he had by an hour's
reading found in Vorftius's boek ; and notified to the ftates
how much he detefted thefe errors, and the perfons who
tolerated them. In order to maintain confiftency of con-
duft, his majefty ordered feveral copies of Vorftius's book
to be committed to the flames at London, Oxford, and
Cambridge. He alio wrote to the ftates, vehemently urging
them to difmifs the profeffor, whofe blafphemies, if he con-
tinued to maintain them, would juftify his being burnt ; and
at the fame time menacing, that unlefs they were ardent in
extirpating " thefe germs of atheifm, he would publicly fe-
parate from fuch falfe and heretical churches ; and, as de-
fender of the faith, exhort all other reformed churches to
take common council for extinguifliing and fending back to
hell thefe abominable herefies ; and would forbid all his own
fubjefts to haunt fo infecled a fpot as the univerfity of Ley-
den." James alfo wielded his pen againft Vorftius, who
refifted the attack by a ftiort and refpeAful reply. The
States were not much moved by the threats of the authori-
tative and incenfed monarch ; for, though they fufpended
the profeffor till he had an opportunity of exculpating him-
felf, they appointed a conference at the Hague, in April,
161 1, between fix minifters of both of the oppofite parties,
in prefence of the curators of the univerfity of Leyden, be-
fore whom Vorftius pleaded his own caule, and they de-
termined in his favour. The triumph of Vorftius would
have been complete, if he had not been implicated in a fuf-
picion of herefy, occafioned by the publication, on the part
of fome of his difciples, of a fmall trad, intitled " De
Officio Chriftiani Hominis,"which contained Anti-Trinitarian
doftrines. Vorftius, though he figned a confeffion of faith
conformable to the Trinitarian fyftem, found it expedient to
rehnquifli his profefforfliip, and to remove from Leyden till
the ftorm fubfided. Accordingly he withdrew to Tergou
in 161 2, and refided there for feven years, without a fliade
on his charafter. In 161 9 a fynod was held at Dordrecht,
in which the Anti-Arminian party was predominant. This
fynod condemned Vorftius, unheard, as unworthy of the pro-
fefforfliip ; and in confeqnence of this judgment, the States
deprived him of it, and for ever banifhed him from their
territories. He lived two years longer in fecrecy, but not
without apprehenfion for the fafety of his Ufe. At length
the duke of Holftein coUefted the difperfed relics of the

Arminians,

V O R

V O R

Arminians, and gave them a place for building a town, to
whicli Vorrtius repaired in 1622 ; but being foon taken ill,
he died at Tonningen, in September, at the age of 53 years,
with every token of pious refignatioii. His remains were
interred at Fridrichltadt, the new Arminian fettlement,
with great folemnity. He is known as the author of feveral
tlieological writings, chiefly relating to the controverfy be-
tween the Roman Catholics and his Proteftant antagonifts.
His fon, Wilimm Henry Vorjlius, publilhed fome works in
rabbinical literature. Bayle.

VoRSTlus, John, a German theologian, was born at
Ditmarfh, in Holllein, and joining the Calvinift: church,
though a native Lutheran, became librarian to the eleftor
of Brandenburg, in which conneftion he died in 1676.
He was flciUed in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages,
and publilhed feveral learned works. The earlieft of thefe
was printed at Roilock in 1641, and intitled " Quxdam
dc Stylo Novi Tefl;amenti excogitata." The firft part of
this work, on the Hebraifms of the New Teftament, was
printed at Leyden, in 1658, 4to. under the title of " Phi-
lologia Sacra;" and the fecond part at Amfterdam, in
l66y, 2 vols. 4to., and at Frankfort in 1705. Other
trafts on fcriptural topics were publidied in the " Fafciculus
Opufculorum Hiftoricorum et Philologicorum," Rotterd.
1693. Moreri.

VORTEX, Whirlwind, in Meteorology, a fudden,
rapid, violent motion of the air, in gyres, or circles. See
WniRL-lVind.

Vortex, Vorago, is alfo ufed for an eddy, or whirl-
pool, or a body of water, in certain feas and rivers, which
runs rapidly round, forming a fort of cavity in the middle.

The ordinary courfe of thefe vortices is a gulf or outlet,
by which the water of the fea, &c. is abforbed, or pre-
cipitates itfelf into fome other receptacle : fometimes to
fome other communicant fea ; and lometimes, perhaps, into
the vaft abyfs of central water.

Vortex, an Artificial, expreflive of the phenomena of
the natural ones, may be made with a cylindric veffel, placed
immoveable on an horizontal plane, and filled to a certain
height with water. In this water a ftick being plunged,
and turned round as briflcly as may be, the water is necef-
farily put into a pretty rapid circular motion, and rifes to
the very edge of the vefTel ; and, when there arrived, ceafcs
to be farther agitated.

The water thus raifed forms a cavity in the middle,
whofe figure is that of a truncated cone ; its bafc is the fame
with the upper cavity of the veffel ; and its vortex in the
axis of the cylinder.

What raifes the water at the fide of the veffel, which oc-
cafions the cavity in the middle, is its centrifugal force.
For the motion of the water being circular, it refpefts a
centre taken in the axis of the veffel ; or, which is the
fame, in the axis of the vortex formed by the water ; the
fame velocity, then, being impreffed on all the water, the
circumference of a fmalkr circle of water, or a circle Icfs
remote from the axis, has a greater centrifugal force than
another that is greater or more remote from the axis. The
fmaller circle, therefore, drives the greater towards the fide
of the veffel ; and from this preffion, or impulfioii, which
all the circles receive from the fmaller ones that precede
them, and convey to the greater which follow them, arifcs
that elevation of the water along tiie edge of the veffel to
the very top, where we fuppofe the motion to ccafe.

With a vortex thus formed, Mr. Saulmon, of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, made divers experiments, by putting
feveral folid bodies therein, to acquire the fame circular
motion, with intent to difcovcr which of thera, in making

their revolution round the axis of the vortex, approach to-
ward, or recede from it, and with what velocity. The re-
fult was, that the heavier the body, ftill the greater was its
recefs from the axis.

Mr. Saulmon's view, in this attempt, was to (hew how
the laws of mechanics produce the celeftial motions, and
that it is probably to thofe motions that the gravity or
weight of bodies is owing. But, unhappily, the experi-
ments fhew jull the contrary of what they (hould do, to
confirm the Cartefian doftrine of gravity. See Whirling
Table.

Vortex, in the Cartefian Philofophy, is a fyftem or col-
leftion of particles of matter moving the fame way, and
round the fame axis.

Such vortices are the grand machines by which thefe phi-
lofophers folve moft of the motions, and other phenomena
of the heavenly bodies. Accordingly, the doftrine of thefe
vortices makes a great part of the Cartefian philofophy.

The matter of the world they hold to have been divided
at the beginning into innumerable little equal particles, each
endowed with an equal degree of motion, both about its
own centre, and feparately, fo as to conftitute a fluid.

Several fyftems, or coUe Aions of this matter, they farther
hold to have been endowed with a common motion about
certain points, as common centres, placed at equal diftances,
and that the matter, moving round thefe, compofed fo many
vortices.

Then, the primitive particles of the matter they fuppofe,
by thefe inteftine motions, to become, as it were, ground
into fpherical figures, and fo to compofe globules of divers
magnitudes ; which they call the matter of the fecond element :
and the particles rubbed, or ground off them, to bring them
to that form, they call the matter of the frfl element.

And lince there would be more of this firft element than
would fuffice to fill all the vacuities between the globules of
the fecond, they fuppofe the remaining part to be driven
towards the centre of the vortex, by the circular motion of
the globules ; and that being there amaffcd into a fphere, it
would produce a body like the fun.

This fun being thus formed, and moving about its own
axis with the common matter of the vortex, would necef-
farily throw out fome parts of its matter, through the va-
cuities of the globules of the fecond element conltituting the
vortex ; and this efpecially at fuch places as are fartheft
from its poles ; receiving, at the fame time, in, by thefe
poles, as much as it lofes in its equatorial parts. And, by
this means, it would be able to carry round with it thofe
globules that are neareft with the greater velocity ; and the
remoter with lefs. And, by this means, thofe globules
which are neareft the centre of the fun, muft be fmaUeft ;
becaufe, were they greater, or equal, they would, by rea-
fon of their velocity, have a greater centrifugal force, and
recede from the centre. If it (hould happen, that any of
thefe fun-like bodies, in the centres of the feveral vortices,
ftiould be fo incruftated and weakened, as to be carried about
in the vortex of the true fun ; if it were of lefs folidity, or
had lefs motion, than the globules towards tlie extremity of
the yo/ar vortex, it would defcend towards the fun, till it
met with globules of tlie fame folidity, and fufceptible of
the fame degree of motions with itfelf; and thus, being
fixed there, it would be for ever after carried about by the
motion of the vortex, without either appro.iching any nearer
to, or receding from, tiie fun ; and fo would become a
planet.

Suppofing then all this, we arc next to imagine, that our

fyRem was at firft divided into feveral vortices, in the centre

of each of which was a lucid fpherical body ; and that fome

3 P 2 of

V 0 tl

of thefe, being gradually incruftated, were fwallowed up by
others which were larger, and more powerful, till at laft
they were all deftroyed, and fwallowed up, by the biggeft
Jolar vortex ; except foine few which were thrown off in
right lines from one vortex to another, and fo become
comets. See Cartesian PkUofophy.

But this doftrine of vortices is, at bed, merely hypo-
thetical. It does not pretend to (hew by what laws and
means the celellial motions are really effefted, fo much as by
what meansthey pofriblymight,incafe it {houldhave fo plcafed
the Creator. But we have another principle which .iccounts
for the fame phenomena as well, nay better than that of
vortices ; and which we plainly find has an aftual exillence
in the nature of things : and this is gravity, or the weight
of bodies.

The vortices, then, fhould be excluded from philofophy.
Were it only that two different adequate caufes of the fame
phenomena are mconfiftent.

But we have other objeftions againft them. For, i. If
the bodies of the planets and comets be carried round the
fun in vortices, the bodies of the parts of the vortex im-
mediately invefting them, mull move with the fame velocity,
and in the fame direftion ; and befides, they muft have the
fame denfity, or the fame vis inertix. But it is evident,
that the planets and comets move in the very fame parts of
the heavens with different velocity, and in different direc-
tions. It follows, therefore, that thofe parts of the vortex
muft revolve at the fame time, in different direftions, and
with different velocities ; fince one velocity and direftion
will be required for the paffage of the planets, and another
for that of the comets.

2. If it were granted, that feveral vortices are contained
in the fame fpace, and do penetrate each other, and revolve
with divers motions ; fince thofe motions mutt be conform-
able to thofe of the bodies, which are perfeftly regular, and
performed in conic feftions ; it may be afked. How they
ftiould have been preferved entire fo many ages, and not dif-
turbed and confounded by the adverfe at^ions and (hocks of
fo much matter as they mutt meet with ?

3. The number of comets is very great, and their motions
are perfeftly regular, obferving the fame laws with the
planets, and moving in orbits that are exceedingly eccen-
tric. Accordingly, they move every way, and to all parts
of the heavens, freely pervading the planetary regions, and
going frequently contrary to the order of the figns ; which
would be impoffible, unlefs thefe vortices were removed.

4. If the planets move round the fun in vortices, thofe
parts of the vortices next the planets, we have already ob-
ferved, would be equally denfe with the planets themfelves :
confequently the vortical matter contiguous to the peri-
meter to the earth's orbit, would be as denfe as the earth
itfelf : and that between the orbits of the earth and Saturn
muft be as denfe, or denfer. For a vortex cannot maintain
itfelf, unlefs the more denfe parts be in the centre, and the
lefs denfe towards the circumference : and fince the pe-
riodical times of the planets are in a fefqui.ilterate ratio of
their diftances from the fun, the parts of the vortex muft be
in the fame ratio. Whence it follows, that the centrifugal
forces of the parts will be reciprocally as the fquares of tlie
diftances. Such, therefore, as are at a greater diftance from
the centre, will endeavour to recede with the lefs force.
Accordingly, if they be lefs denfe, they muft give way to
the greater force, by which the parts nearer the centre en-
deavour to rife. Thus, the more denfe will rife, and the
lefs denfe defcend ; and thus there will be a change of
places, till the whole fluid matter of the vortex be fo ad-
jufted, as that it may reft in equihbrio.

V 0 s

Thus will the greateft part of the vortex without the
earth's orbit have a degree of denfity and inaftivity, not
lefs than that of the earth itfelf. Whence the comets mult
meet with a very great rcfillance, which is contrary to all
appearances. Gotef. Prxf. ad Newt. Princ. The doftrine
of vortices, fir Ifaac Newton obferves, labours under many
difiiculties : for a planet to defcnbe areas proportional to
the times, the periodical times of the vortex fhould be in a
duplicate ratio of their diftances from the fun ; and for the
periodical times of the planets to be in a fefquiplicate pro-
portion of their diftances from the fun, the periodical times
of the parts of the vortex Ihould be in the fame proportion
of their diftances : and, laftly, for the lefs vortices about
Jupiter, Saturn, and the other planets, to be preferved, and
fwim fecurely in the fun's vortex, the periodical times of the
parts of the fun's vortex fhould be equal. None of which
proportions are found to obtain in the revolutions of the fun
and planets around their axes. Phil. Nat. Prir.c. Math,
apud Schol. Gen. in Calce.

Befides, the planets, according to this hypothefis, being
carried about the fun in ellipfes, and having the fun in
the umbilicus of each figure, by lines drawn from them-
felves to the fun, do always defcribe areas proportion-
able to the times of their revolutions, which that author
fiiews the parts of no vortex can do. Schol. prop. ult.
lib. ii. Princip.

Again, Dr. Keill proves, in his Examination of Burnet's
Theory, that if the earth were carried in a vortex, it would
move fafter in the proportion of three to two when it is
in Virgo than when it is in Pifces ; which all experience
proves to be falie.

We have, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, a phyfico-
mathematical demonftration of the impoffibihty and in-
fufBciency of vortices to account for the celellial phenomena
by Monf. de Sigorne. See No. 457. feft. vi. p. 409.
feq.

This author endeavours to (hew, that the mechanical
generation of a vortex is impoffible ; that it has only an
axifugal, and not a centrifugal and centripetal force ;
that it is not fufficient for explaining gravity and its pro-
perties ; that it deftroys Kepler's aftronomical lav/s ; and
therefore concludes with fir Ifaac Newton, that the hy-
pothefis of vortices is fitter to difturb than explain the
celeftial motions. We muft refer to the differtation it-
felf for the proof of thefe affertions. See Cartesian
Philofophy.

VORTICELLA, in the Linna-an fyftem of Zoology, a
genus of Vermes Infuforia, the charaAers of which are, that
the body is naked and contratlile, with a rotatory or whirl-
incr motion. Gmehn enumerates fifty-one fpecies. See
Vermes.

VORTITZA, or VosTlTZA, in Geography, a town of
European Turkey, in the Morea, on the S. coaft of the
gulf of Lepanto ; 40 miles N.W. of Corinth.

VOS, Martin de, in Biography, an eminent Flemilh
painter, fon of Peter de Vos, who was himfelf an artift and
member of the academy at Antwerp. He was born at Ant-
werp in 1520. His father initiated him in the art, but he after-
wards ftudied under F.Floris until he was twenty-three, and
then purfued the cultivation of his mind in Italy. The refi-
dence he made at Venice introduced him to tiie acquaintance
of Tintoretto, who not only inftruiSed him in the principles of
his praftice, but employed him to paint landfcapes in his pic-
tures. Hence De Vos became an admirable colourift, and
gained confiderable reputation and employment. He painted
portraits of the family of the Medici, and fome hiftorical pi&-
tures for them ; and after an abfence of eight years re-

turned

V o s

V o s

Uirned to Flanders. His celebrity accompanied him, and
procured him feveral commifiions to paint pictures for
churches at Antwerp, and at other places in the Nether-
lands. In portraiture alfo he was much employed, and he
certainly advanced beyond his contemporaries, in the nature
and truth wiiich he gave to his produftions. His principal
works in the cathedral of Antwerp, are the Marriage of
Cana ; the Incredulity of Thomas ; the Miracle of the
Loaves ; and the RefurreAion ; and a fine picture of his of
the Laft Supper is in the church of St. James. He became a
member of the academy at Antwerp in 1559, and died, at
tiie age of 84, in 1604. He had a biother, Peter de Vos,
who alfo painted hiftory, but wliofe works are not much
known ; a nephew alfo of his was a painter, William de
Vos, who had confiderable talents, and gained much em-
ployment and leputation.

Vos, Paui, de, another painter of that name, but of a
different family, was born at Aloft in 1600. His works of
animals and birds are very much in the ilyle of Snyders, and
are defervedly eileemed. There are many of them in tiie
royal colleftion in Spain.

Vos, S.MON UE, born at Antwerp in 1643, was a pupil
of Rubens, and became eminent as a painter both of hiftory
and portraits. Some of his paintings in the churches of
Antwerp liave been miftaken for the produftion of his
great mafter. Sir Jofhua Reynolds fpeaks highly of his
picture of St. Norbert receiving the Sacrament, in the
church of St. Michel, in which he fays, " a great number
of portraits arc introduced extremely well painted," and
afterwards commends him as a portrait-painter ; pai-ticu-
larly ipeaking of his own portrait in the poorhoufe of Ant-
werp, painted by himfelf in black, leaning on the back of
a chair, with a fcroll of blue paper in his hand, fo highly
finished in the broad manner of Corregio, that nothing can
exceed it. S. de Vos was living in 1662.

VOSAVIA, in Anchtit Geography, a place of Belgic
Gaul, upon the route from Antunaacum to Mayence, be-
tween Bontobrice and Bingium, according to the table of
Peutinger.

VOSGES, in Geography, a large chain of mountains,
which formerly occupied the S.E. part of Lorrain, and
now gives name to a dei)arlment of France. It was for-
merly covered with wood, and harboured abundance of
game and wild beafts, and has long been famous for mines of
filver, copper, and lead.

VosGEs, one of the ten departments of the N.E. region
of France, formerly the S. part of Lorrain, wed of Upper
Rliine, in N. !at. 48^ 15'; bounded on the N. by the de-
partments of tlie Meufe, the Meurte, and the Lower Rhine,
on the E. by the department of the Upper and Lower
Rhine, on the S. by the department of the Upper Saone,
and on the W. by the department of tiie Upper Marne,
containing 65225 kiliometres, or 3296 leagues, and 308,052
inhabitants. It comprehends 5 dillricls, 30 cantons, and
550 communes. Its circles are Neufchateau, containing
55,247 inhabitants; Mirecourt, GCt,(\\i) ; Epinal, the ca-
pital, 62,592 ; St. Die, 75,298 ; and Ramiremont, 48,270.
According to Haffenfralz, this department is 26 French
leagues long, and 16 broad, and is divided into nine circles
and communes, and contains 289,054 inhabitants. The
contributions in the 1 Ith year of tiie French era amounted
to 1,839,254 fr., and tiie expences of adniiiiiftration, of
juftice, and ot public iiillrudtioii, were 242,372 fr.

VOSKRESENSK, a town of Rullia, in the govern-
ment of Mofcow ; 32 miles N.W. of Mofcow. N. lat.
56^ E. long. 36^44'.

VOSKRESENSKOI, a town of RuJIia, in the govern-

ment of Pfkov, on the Lovat ; 20 miles N. of Cholm.—
Alfo, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Peterfburg,
on the E. coaft of lake Ladoga ; 80 miles N.E. of Peterf-
burg.— Alfo, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Upha ;
80 miles S. of Upha — Alfo, a town of Ruflia, in the pro-
vince of Uftiug, on the river Vitchegda ; 28 miles S.VV. of
Yareni]<:.

V OSPOR, a town of Ruflia, in the province of Taurus;
1 12 miles E.S.E. of Perekop. N. lat. 41:' 20'. E. Ions'.
36° 26'. r -tj 6

VOSPRESENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Vologda ; 44 miles E. of Tolma.

VOSSIUS, Gekard John, in Biography, was born near
Heidelberg in 1577, and perfefted himfelf in the clallks,
mathematics, philofophy, and theology, at Leyden. Availing
himfelf of a copious library left iiim by his father, he became
direftor of the college at Dordrecht, where he married twice,
and had a numerous family. In 1614, he was appointed
direftor of the college of Leyden, and afterwards profeflbr
of eloquence and chronology in the uiiiverfity. By avowing
himfelf favourable to the fentiments of the Remonftrants, he
became obnoxious to the Gomarifts, and at the fynod in Ter-
gou, in 1620, he was deprived of his profeffbilliip ; but i.i con-
fequence of the prevalence of Arminianifm in England, he
obtained the office of prebend in the church of Canterbury.
After his return to Holland, he accepted the chair of liiilory
in the fcliola illuftris of Amfterdam in 1633, which he oc-
cupied till his death in 1649, ^^ ^he age of 72. The moil
ufeful of his writings are two books in Greek and Latin
poetry. Among liis other works are " De Origine Idola-
trisE ;" " De Scientiis Mathematicis ;" " De quatuor
Artibus popularibus ;" " Hilloria Pelagiana ;" " Inftitu-
tiones Rhetoricae, Grammaticap, Poetica: ;" " Etymologi-
con Linguae Latinx ;" " De Vitiis Sermonis ;" " De Phi-
lofophorum Seftis." A colleftion of thefe were printed at
Amfterdam, in 6 vols. fol. 1695. — 1701. Moreri.

This learned and laborious author, in his " Theolo-
gia Gentili," and other works, frequently fpeaks of mufic
and has a diftlnft chapter on the fubjedl in his trcatife
on the four popular arts, grammar, gymnaftics, mufic,
and painting. Yet he tells us little concerning ancient or
modern mufic after the time of Guido ; contenting himfelf
with giving defimtions of the terms ufed in the ancient
mufic of the Greeks. He heaps quotation on quotation,
telling us how highly the Greeks cftimated mufic ; but
attempts not to explain any of their dodriues. Like Mr.
Bryant, he tries to fliake our faith in wliat antiquity firmly
believed. In writing " De Art. Poet. Nat." cap. xiii. he
doubts whether Orpheus, Mufxus, or Linus ever exilled ;
and rather thinks that thefe ideal names are derived from the
Phoenician language ufed by Cadmus and his defcendants.

Vossius, Isaac, younger fon of the preceding, was born
at Leyden in 1618, and in confequence of his natural talents,
and the advantage of education under his father, acquired
early reputation among the learned. Queen Cliriftina, pre-
pofleflid by report in his favour, invited him to her court,
and acquired under his iiiftrudf ion a knowledge of tiie Greek
language. On the death of his father in 1649, he quitted
the court of Chriftina, and employed himfelf in the coni-
pofition of various learned works. In 1670 he vifited Eng.
land, and received the degree of LL.D. at Oxford ; and
in 1673, ''^" "'ss prcfented by Ciiarles II. witli a canonry of
Windfor, and in tliis fituation he paH'ed the refidue of his
days. Hit. credulity led king Charles to fay of iiim, " that
he would believe any thing but the Bible." When he was
on his death-bed, he was vifited l)y Dr. Ilafeard, dean of
Windfor, who urged him to receive the facramcuts, if not

for

V o s

V O T

for the love of God, at leaft for the honour of the chapter :
he replied, " I wifh you would inftruft me how to compel
the farmers to pay what they owe me ; that is the fervice I
defire of you at prefent." Thus difpofed, he left the world
in February, 1688, at the age of feventy. His very va-
luable hbrary was purchafed by the univerfity of Leyden.
Of his numerous publications the moft important are the
following : " Periplus Scylacis Caryandenfis, et Anonymi
Periplus ponti Euxini," Gr. et Lat. cum notis, Amft. 1639,
4to. " Juftini Hifloria cum Notis," Leyd. 1640 ; " Ignatii
Epiftols et Barnabi Epiftola," Amft. 1646, 4to. ; " Differ-
tatio de vera .^tate Mundi ;" " Pomponius Mela de Situ
Orbis," Hagae, Com. 1658 and 1659; " De Septuaginta
Interpretibus eorumque Tranflatione et Chronologia Difler-
tationes," 1661, in which he attempted to eftablifh the pre-
ference of the chronology of the Septuagint to that of the
Hebrew text ; which he defended in other tradls ; " De Poe-
matum Cantu et Viribus Rhythmi," Oxon. 1675 ; " De Sy-
billinis aliifque qua Chrifti natalem prxceffere Oracuhs," ib.
1679 ' " Variarum Obfervationum Liber," Lond. 1685,
4to. ; " CatuUi Opera cum Comment," ib. 1684. Moreri.
He was an enthufiaftic and redoubted champion for the
mufic of the ancient Greeks, and from his Mle Lat'tnite and
prejudices in its favour, is more frequently quoted by im-
plicit believers in its perfeflion, than any other modern who
has treated the fubjeft.

Voffius, in his celebrated book " De Poematum Cantu
et Virib. Rhythmi," publifhed iSf^, Oxon., feems more
ready to grant every poffible and impolTible excellence to
the Greek muficians, than, when ahve, they could have been
to a(k. None of the poetical fables, or mythological allego-
ries, relative to the power and excellence of their mufic, put
the leaft violence upon his credulity. A rehgious bigot,
who infifts upon our fwaUowing imphcitly every thing,
however hard of digeftion, is lefs likely to make converts to
his opinions, than he who puts our faith to few trials ; and
Voffius overcharged his creed fo much, that it is of no au-
thority.

He does not attribute the efficacy of the Greek and
Roman mufic to the richnefs of its harmony, or the ele-
gance, the fpirit, or pathos of its melody, but wholly to the
force of rhythm. "As long," fays he, p. 75, " as mufic
flouriihed in this rhythmical form, fo long flourifhed that
power which was fo adapted to excite and calm the paf-
fions." According to this opinion there was no occafion
for mellifluous founds, or lengthened tones ; a drum, cym-
bal, or the violent ftrokes of the Curetes and Salii on their
fhields, as they would have marked the time more articu-
lately, fo they would have produced more miraculous
effefts than the fweeteft voice, or moft poh(hed inftrument.
In another place he tells us, that " to build cities, furround
them with walls, to aflemble or difmifs the people, to cele-
brate the praifes of gods and men, to govern fleets and
armies, to accompany all the funftions and ceremonies of
peace and war, and to temper the human paffions, were the
original offices of mufic : in (hort, ancient Greece may be
faid to have been wholly governed by the lyre."

It appears from this paflage, and from the tenor of his
whole book, that this author will not allow us to doubt of
a fingle circumftance, be it ever fo marvellous, relative to the
perfeftion and power of ancient mufic ; the probable and
the improbable are equaUy articles of his behef ; fo that
with fuch a lively faith, it is eafy to imagine that he ranks
it among mortal fins to doubt of the ancients having in-
vented and praclifed counterpoint ; and he confequently
fpeaks with the higheft indignation againft the moderns, for
daring to deny that they were in poffeffion of a Cmultaneous

harmony, though, according to him, they ufed it with fuch
intelhgence and difcretion, as never to injure the poetry by
lengthening, fhortening, or repeating words and fyllables at
their pleafure, nor by that moft abfurd of all cuftoms,
finging different words to feveral diff^erent airs at the fame
time.

This author's remarks, however, on the little attention
that was paid by the compofers of his time to profody,
merit fome refpeft. See Rhythm.

VOSTANI, in Geography, the middle divifion of
Egypt.

VOSTERMAN, John, in Biography, was born at Bom-
mel in 1 643, the fon of a portrait-painter, who taught him the
firft rudiments of defign, but afterwards he received the in-
ftruftions of Zachtleven. He became renowned for his inge-
nuity and his vanity. At Pai-is he afliimed the ftyle and
title of baron, but foon found his honours were too dear to
be fupported. He returned to his native country, and was
employed by the marquis de Bethema to paint views on the
Rhine, and alfo as a coUeftor of works of art. He came to
England in the time of Charles II. and was engaged by the
king to paint a view of Windfor ; but was not much em-
ployed, and being extravagant, foon got into confinement,
from which he was relealed by a contribution from his
countrymen.

He accompanied fir W. Soameson his miffion to Conftan-
tinople, intending to take views of all the principal places
by the way ; but fir W. dying on the road, his plan was
broken up, and it is not known exaftlv what became of
him afterwards. The fcenery of his piftures is generally
taken from the borders of the Rhine, and painted with
chafte and agreeable colour, and admirable aerial perfpec-
tive ; and his figures and fmall boats are touched with
fpirit and neatnefs.

VOSTISSA, in Geography, a town and port of the
Morea, containing 800 houfes, churches, and public edi-
fices. This town was almoft entirely deftroyed by an
earthquake, which took place on the 23d of Auguft, 1817,
and 65 of the inhabitants periflied in the ruins. Four villages
in the neighbourhood were alfo deftroyed, and the cape at
the mouth of the river Gaidouroupniati fell into the fea,
after throwing up a thick fmoke. The fea, which at iirft
receded to a confiderable diftance, leaving the veflels in the
harbour aground, returned with great violence, inundating
the land to the extent of half a league.

VOTE, or Voice. See Suffrage, and Voice.

In the houfe of peers, they give their votes or fuffrages,
beginning at the puifne, or loweft baron, and fo to the
reft, feriatim, every one anfwering apart, content, or not
content.

In the houfe of commons, they vote by yeas and noes,
promifcuoudy. See Parliament.

Votes of the houfe of commons firft began to be
printed by a refolution of the lail parliament of Charles II.
at Oxford, in 1681.

VOTGINSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the province of Uft;iug, on the Sula ; 40 miles S. of Uft
Sifolk.

VOTIAKS, or Votes, a tribe or nation of Finns,
fituated in Ruffia, upon the river Vistka, in the govern-
ments of Viretka and Ufa. They call themfelves Ud or
Udi (feeming to be the fame with the Ruffian Vote), alfo
Mord, i. e. Man or Udmord. As they hve in a great de-
gree fecluded from other people, their language continues to
be a pure Finnifh dialed. They alfo ftill retain their old
diftribution into ftems, and give their villages additional
names accordingly ; their noble famihes, however, are partly

extinft

V o u

extinft and partly mingled with the populace. They were
formerly under Tartar proteftion ; hut in changing their
old mailers for the Ruffian fovercigjity, they alfo quitted
their paftoral life for the occupations of fettled hufbandry,
and turned their tents into permanent houfes. Their num-
ber is not inconfidcrable : in the government of Ufa, there
are about 15,000, and in that of Vixtka, 30,000 males.
Tooke's Ruffia, vol. i.

VOTIVE Medals, are thofe on v/hich the vows of the
people for the emperors, or emprcfles, are expreffed.

The public vows, made every five, ten, or twenty years,
are more often found round the edges of medals, than
on the faces of it, at leaft under the wellern empire ; for in
the eaftern the cafe is different : witnefs the medal of M.
Aurelius the younger, where the reverfe reprefents the vows
made at the time of his marriage, vota publica. And on
Greek medals, AHMOT ETXAI, which they fometimes
exprefs by the two initial letters, A. E. according to
F. Hardouin's conjefture, which may be admitted in cer-
tain medals, where the AHM. E3. that is, AHMAPXIKHS
ESOTIIAS, does not well agree. Witnefs alfo the medal of
Antonine, vota suscepta decennalia.

The origin of vows, and votive medals, is given by M.
Du Cange thus ; Auguftus feigning himfelf willing to quit
the empire, and having twice, at the prayers of the fenate,
condefcended to hold it for ten years longer, it grew into a
cuftom to make frefh public prayers, facrifices, and games,
for his continuing it, at the ten years' end ; and thefe they
called decennalia, or -vota decennalia.

Under the eaftern emperors, thefe vows were repeated
every five years : hence it is, that, after Dioclefian's
time, we find on medals voTis v. XV. &c. which praftice
continued till the time of Theodofius, when Chriftianity
being well eftablilhcd, a ceremony that had fome remains of
heathenifm in it was fet afide. So that the vOTis MULTis,
on a medal of Majorianus, muft be a very different thing ;
and no other, doubtlefs, than a kind of acclamation, like

that PLURA NATALIA FELICITER.

Votive Mafs. See Mass.

VOTOKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Ximo ; 25 miles N.W. of Funai.

VOTOMITA, in Botany, from Fotomit, the Indian
name of the tree, Aubl. Guian. 90. t. 35. Juff. Gen.
382. Sec Glossoma.

VOTUM, Vow. See Vow.

VoTUM, in our Ancient Lam Booh, is ufed for niiptia,
or marriage : fo, dies •votorum is the wedding-day, Fleta,
lib. iv. cap. 2. part 16. " Si donatarius ad alia vota convo-
laverit, &c." See Marriage.

VOUACAPOUA, in Botany, the Caribbean name of a
tree in Aublet's fupplcmcnt, p. 10. t. 373, thought by
that author the fame as the jindira, or jingelin, of Pifo and
Marcgravc, in their hillories of Brafil, p. 81. of the for-
mer, and 100. of the latter. Juffieu, in his Gen. PI. 363,
feems to think both very near to Geopfr^a, fee that
article.

Aublct dcfcribcs his plant as a very lofty tree, whofe
trunk is 60 feet, or more, in height, and two feet, at leaf!,
in diameter. The wood is ycllowifh-white, deep red at the
heart, which turns black in drying. The head is formed of
numerous branches, fprcading every way, with alternate,
flalkcd, pinnate leaves, compofed of from two to four pair
of ovate, pointed, entire leaflets, with an odd one, all
finely downy beneath, about four inches long and two
broad. Slipulas in pairs, deciduous. Aublet could never
meet with the Jloiuers. The fruit grows in large clufters,
being an obovate bivalve capfule, or perhaps legume, flcfhy

V o u

when young, dry, but thick and firm, when ripe ; externally
downy ; reddilh within. Seed folitary, large, oval, with a
thin brown fkin ; its cotyledons firm, whitifh, bitter.

The wood is very hard and durable, much ufed in building
and fences. The heart is employed in cabinet-work, and
ferves even to make pefUcs and mortars.

VOUAH, in Commerce, a long meafure at Siam, in the
Eaft Indies ; which is one inch fhorter than the French
toife, and therefore mpafures 6 feet 3} inches Englilh.
Two foks make i ken ; two kens i vouali ; 20 vouahs
I fen ; 100 fens, or 2000 vouahs, here make i league, called
roeneng,. which is 4204 Englifh yards, or 2i miles nearly.

VOUAPA, in Botany, a Caribbean name, Aubl. Guian.
25. t. 7, 8. See Mackolobil'M.

VOUARANA, a Caribbean name, Aubl. Guian.
fiippl. 12. t. 374, a tree whofe flowers have not come under
the infpection of botanifls, but whofe fruit is an inverfely
hean-fhaped, bivalve capfule, with two cells, and Vifeed'xn each,
which is round and fmooth. It appears to belong to Juf-
fieu's order of Sapindi ; but whether moll nearly akin, as he
fuppofes, to Ornitrophe, ( fee that article, ) or to any other
genus, we want materials to decide. The tree is of a mo-
derate fize, with large alternately pinnate leaves.

VOUCH. A perfon is faid to vouch for another, when
he undertakes to maintain, or warrant liim in any thing, or
paffes his word in his behalf.

In law, to vouch, is to call fuch a perfon, or vouchee, into
court, to make good his warrant.

VOUCHEE, a perfon who is to warranty, or vouch for
another, who, in refpeft hereof, is called voucher. See
Voucher and Warranty.

VOUCHER, in Latv, the tenant in a writ of right,
who calls another perfon into court, bound to warranty him,
and either to defend his right againfl the demandant, or to
yield him other lands, &c. to the value.

This feems in fome meafure to agree to the contraft in the
civil law, by which the vendee binds the vendor, fometimes
in the fimple value of the things bought, fometimes in the
double, to warrant the fecure enjoying of the thing bought.
Yet there is this difference between the civil and common
law, in this point, that the civil law binds every man to war-
rant the fecurity of that which he fellcth ; which the com-
mon law doth not, unlefs it be fpecially covenanted.

The procefs, by which the vouchee is called, is afum-

moneas ad luarrantifindum ; and if the fheriff return upon

that writ, that the party hath nothing by which he may be

fummoned, then goes out another writ, called fequatur fub

fuo periculo.

A recovery with z Jingle voucher, is when there is but one
voucher ; and with a double voucher, is when the vouchee
voucheth over, and fo a treble voucher.

There is alio z foreign voucher, when the tenant impleaded
in a particular jurifdiftion, voucheth one to warranty in fome
other county, out of the jurifdi6\ion of that court, and
prays he may be fummoned, &c. This were more perti-
nently called a voucher of a foreigner.

Voucher alfo fignifics a ledger-book, or book of ac-
compts, in which are entered the warrants for the accompt-
ant's difcharge.

VOUDSE, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Hedsjas ; 140 miles W. of Medina.

VOVES, a town of France, in the department of the
Eure and Loire ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Janvillc.

VOUET, Simon, in Biography, an eminent painter of
the French fchool, born at Paris in 1582, was the fon of
Lawrence Vouet, a painter of little celebrity. When he
was about twcoty ye;u-s old, he accompanied the baron de

Sanfy

V o u

Sajify to Conftantiaople, where he painted from recollec-
tion the pifture of the grand feignior. On his return he
llaid at Rome, and obtained the patronage of pope Urban
VIII. and his nephew the cardinal, by whom he was em-
ployed in St. Peter's, and the Barberini palace. Here he
refided 14 years, and was elefted liead of the academy of
St. Luke in 1624.

Louis XIII. appointed him, on his return to Paris in
1627, his principal painter ; and employed him munificently
in mod of his palaces: He alfo painted pidures for many
churches in Paris. He died there in 1641.

Vouet at firfl was careful and rich in his defigns and his
execution ; but as his engagements increafed in number, he
adopted a ftyle flimfy and even carelefs ; fluttered in the
parts, and without grandeur in the conception. He is the
father of the French fchool before the revolution, and cor-
rupted the art by its delufive facility. He was the teacher
of Le Brun, Mignard, and others, but had more honour
in having trained Le Sueur to the praftice of art ; who, ne-
v«rthelefs, had the fenfe to aim at the tafte of deCgn feen
in the works of Raffaelle rather than in thofe of his
niafter.

VOUGA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira, on a river of the fame name ; 10 miles

E.N.E. of Aveiro Alfo, ariverof Portugal, which rifes

about 15 miles N.E. of Vifeu, and runs into the Atlantic,
5 miles N. of Aveiro, forming a large bay at its mouth, full
of iflands.

VOU-HOUCI, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Kiang-nan ; 532 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 31° 22'. E.
long. 1 1 7° 29'.

VOUILLE', a town of France, in the department of
the Vienne. In 507, near this town, Clovis, king of France,
obtained a viftory over the Vifigoths, in which their king
Alaric was (lain ; 8 miles N.W. of Poiftiers.

VOULTE, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Ardeche ; 1 1 miles S.S.W. of Valence.

VOUNEUIL SUR Vienne, a town of France, in the
department of the Vienne ; 12 miles N.N.E. of Poidiers.

VOURA, a river of European Turkey, which fepa-
rates Theffaly from Albania, and runs into the gulf of
Arta.

VOURLA, a fea-port of Afiatic Turkey, in Nato-
lia, on the fcite of Clazomene, one of the twelve cities of
Ionia. It is built on two eminences, one poflefled by the
Turks, the other by Chriftians, who have about 500 houfes
and two churches. The harbour is about a league from the
town. The archbilhop of Ephefus refides here about three
months of the year; there are but very fmall appearances of
its ancient grandeur ; 20 miles W. of Smyrna. N. lat. 38''
24'. E. long. 26° 40'.

VOURLOTES, a town of the ifland of Samos ; 4
miles N.E. of Carlovaffi.

VOUSSOIR, Vault-stone, or Key-Jhne, in Architec-
ture, a ftone proper to form the fweep of an arch, being
cut fomevvhat in the manner of a truncated cone, whofe
fides, were they prolonged, would terminate in a centre, to
which all the llones of the vault are direfted. See Key and
Vault.

VOUTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardeche, on the right fide of the Rhone ;
18 miles N. of Viviers.

Voute, La, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Loire ; 9 miles S. of Brioude.

VOUTEZAT, a town of France, in the department of
the Correze ; 9 miles N.W. of Brive.

VDUTIN, a river of China, which rifes in Chinefe Tar-

7t

V o w

tary, and runs into the Hoang, 25 miles S.E. of Soui-te, ii>
Chen-fi.

VOU-TING, or Ou-KUEN, a city of China, of tlie fe-
cond rank, in Yun-nan ; 114J miles S.W. of Peking. N.
lat. 25° 34'. E. long. 102° 20'.

Vou-TiNG, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Chan-tong ; 162 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat. 37° 35'.
E. long. 1 17° 19'.

VOUVANT, a town of France, in the department of
the Vendee ; 6 miles N.N.E. of Fontenay le Comte.

VOUVRAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre and Loire ; 4 miles E. of Tours.

VOUX, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Marne ; 1 1 miles E. of Nemours.

VOUZAILLES, a town of France, in the department
of the Vienne ; 12 miles NE. of Poiftiers.

VOUZIERS, a town of France, and principal place of
a diftritf, in the department of the Ardennes ; 5 polls S.W,
of Stenay. N. lat. 49° 23'. E. long. 4'^ 42'.

VOW, Votum, a folemn promife, or offering of a man's
felf, or other thing, to God.

A perfon is conftituted a rehgious, by taking three
vows, that of poverty, that of challity, and that of obe-
dience.

Authors are divided as to the antiquity of thefe vows.
It is agreed, the ancient anchorets, and hermits of the The-
baid, made none ; they did not confecrate themfelves to
God by any indiflbluble obligation, but were at liberty to
quit their retirement, and return into the world, whenever
the fervour, that drove them out of it, came to abate.

Vows were not introduced till long after ; and that to fix
the too frequent inconftancy of fuch as, after retiring from
the world, repented themfelves too foon, or too (lightly ;
and by that means fcandalizedthe church, and difturbed the
quiet of families by their return.

Erafmus will have it, that folemn vows were not intro-
duced till the thirteenth century, under the pontificate of
Boniface VIII. Others hold them to be as ancient as the
council of Chalcedon : but the truth is, before Boniface
VIII. there were none but fimple vows, and fuch as might
be difpenfed withal. Their vows, till that time, were not
deemed eternal chains ; they were not indiflbluble. It is
true, they were obligatory promifes, as to confcience ; and
the inconilancy of fuch as violated them was held an odious
defertion : but, as to the law, the perfons were not held to
be civilly dead, fo as, upon their return, to render them in-
capable of all afts of civil fociety.

The moil common vow was that of poverty, but this only
regarded the convent ; on account of which, every perfon
divefted himfelf of all property : but the making of vows
did not at all exclude them from the rights of blood, or
render them incapable of inheriting.

No religious, it is true, acquired the property of the
eff^efts that fell to him ; they all belonged to the monaflery,
in favour of which he had diverted himfelf of every thing ;
and the monaftery only left him the ufufruit and direftion of
them. The popes have frequently confirmed this privi-
lege to divers orders, and permitted the monks to in-
herit, as much as if they were feculars, and had made no
vows.

At prefent, the civil death of a religious is dated from the
day he makes the vows ; and from that time he is utterly in-
capable of inheriting. A religious may reclaim, or proteft.
againll his vows within five years ; but, after that, it is
no longer admitted. The failures in the profefllon are
efteemed to be purged, by his filence and perfeverance for
five years. Indijed, to be relieved from his vows, it is not

enough

vow

enough the party reclaim within the five years ; but he muft
iikewife prove that he was forced to take the habit.

Vows, Vota, among the Romans, fignify facrificcs, offer-
ings, prefents, and prayers, made for the emperors and Cx-
fars, particularly for their profpcrity, and the duration of
their empire.

Thefe were, at firft, made every five years, then every fif-
teen, and then every twenty, called qmnquennalia, decennalia,
and vicennalia.

In divers antique medals and infcriptions, we read, Vol.
X. P'^ot. XX. Vot. mult, fignifying volis cUcennaltbus, -vicen-
nalibus, mult'ti, &c. See Decennalia.

Vows, in a moral and religious fenfe, are promifes to God ;
and therefore, according to archdeacon Paley,tiie obligation
cannot be made out upon the fame principle as that of other
promifes. The violation of them, neverthelcfs, implies a
want of reverence to the Supreme Being ; which is fufficient
to make it finful. There appears no command or encou-
ragement in the Chriftian fcriptures to make vows ; much
lets any authority to break through them when they are
made. The few inftances of vows which occur in the
New Teftament were religioufly obferved. (See Afts,
xviii. i8. xxi. 23.) The rules that pertain to promifes are
applicable to vows. Thus Jephthah's vow, taken in the fenfe
in which that tranfaftion is commonly underflood, was not
binding ; becaufe the performance, in that contingency, be-
came unlawful. From this and other inftances, it appears
that ralh vows are not only imprudent, but culpable. See
Promise.

VOWEL, VocALis, in Grammar, a letter which affords
a complete found of itfelf, or a letter fo fimple, as only to
need a bare opening of the mouth to make it heard, and to
form a diftinft voice.

Such are a, e, 1, 0, u ; which are called vocales, vowels,
in contradiftinftion to certain other letters, which, depend-
ing on a particular application of fome part of the mouth,
as the teeth, lips, or palate, can make no perfeft found with-
out an opening of the month, that is, without the addition
of a vowel ; and are therefore called confonants.

Though we ordinarily only reckon five vowels, yet, befides
that each of thefe may be either long or fhort, which occa-
fions a confiderable variety in the found ; if we confider
only their differences refulting from the different apertures
of the mouth, we might add four or five more vowels to the
number. For the e open, and the e clofe, arc different
enough to make two vowels, as \nfea, and depth ; fo alfo the
o open, and 0 clofe, in hojl, and organ. Add, that the «
pronounced ou, as the Latins did, and as the Itahans and
Spaniards ftill do, has a very different found from the u, as
pronounced by the Greeks, and, as at this day, by the
Enghffi and French. Again, eo, in people, make but one
fimple found, though we write it with two vowels.

Lallly, the e mute is, originally, no more than a furd
joined to a confonant, when that is to be pronounced with-
out a vowel, as when it is immediately followed by other
confonants. This is what the Hebrews call fcheva, efpe-
cially when it begins the fyllable : and ihii fcheva is found in
all languages, though overlooked in m.nny of them, parti-
cularly in the Engliui, Latin, &c. by reafon it has no pro-
per charafter to denote it ; though, in fome of the vulgar
tongues, particularly French and High Dutch, it is exprelled
by the vowel e adding its found to the rcll.

Thus, without regarding the differences of the fame found
or vowel, as to length or fhortncfs, one may didiiiguifti ten
(cvcral vowels, expreffed by the following charaftert, a, e,
i, i, 0, 6, eu, ou, u, e mute.

To thefe we may add y, which, as the learned Dr. Lowth
Vol. XXXVn.

U P E

obfcrves, is formed by the opening of the mouth, without
any motion or contadt of the parts, and has every properly
ot a vowel, and not one of a confonant. Lowth's Gram,
p. 20. n. I.

Mr. Sheridan, who makes the number of fimple founds
in our language to be twenty-eight, reckons nine vowels,

a, a, a, e, o, o, e, i, u.
viz. hall, hat, hate, beer, note, noofe, bet, fit, but. Rhet.
Gram. p. cj.

VowEL-Points, in the Hcbre<vj Language. See Vovicl-

PoiNTS.

VOX, in Laiv. Vocem non habere, is a phrafe ufed by
Brafton and Fleta for an infamous perfon ; one who is not
admitted to be a witnefs.

Vox Humana, Lat., Votx Humaine, Fr., a ftop in the
organ ; thus named from its being an imitation of the human
voice. It is a reed ftop, in unifon with the open diapafon :
it is a fiiort metal pipe, of a wide globular form at Uie top,
refembUng a human mouth. This is a celebrated ftop in
the famous organ at Haerlem ; in hearing which we were
fomewhat difappointed, as it does not at all referable a hu-
man voice, though a very good ftop of the kind. But the
world is very apt to be impofed upon by names. The in-
ftant a common hearer is told that an organift is playing
upon a ftop that refembles a human voice, he fuppofes it to
be very fine, and never inquires into the propriety of the
name, or exaftnefs of the imitation. However, with re-
fpeft to our own feelings, we muft confefs, that of all the
ftops which we have yet heard, that have been honoured
with the appellation of vox humana, no one, in the treble
part, has ever reminded us of any thing human, fo much as
the cracked voice of an old woman of ninety ; or, in the
lower notes, of Punch finging through a comb.

VOXTORP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Smaland ; 29 miles N.W. of Wexio.

VOYAGE, denotes a journey by fea.

VOYAL, a large rope formerly ufed to unmoor or heave
up the anchor of a (hip, by tranfmitting the effort of the
capftan to the cable j but moftly ufed when the fore-jeer
capftan was employed for this purpofe. 'I'he voyal reeved
through a large block laftied to the main-maft, and then
communicated to the fore-jeer capftan : but meffengers ^re
now chiefly ufed inftead of it.

Voyal, Shifting the. See Shifting.

VOZ, in Geography, a lake of Ruffia, in the province of
Novgorod, about 60 miles in circumference. N. lat. 60°
30'. E. long. 38" 54'.

VOZGA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Nov-
gorod, near lake Voz ; 48 miles N.N.E. of Bielozerfk.

VOZ I A, a town of European Turkey, in Beffarabia, on
the Black fea ; 26 miles W. of Otchakov.

VOZNESENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, on the Angara i
20 miles N.N.W. of Irkutllc.

UPA, a river of Ruffia, whicii rifes near Epiphan, paffes
by Tula, and runs into the Oka, near Lichvin, in the go-
vernment of Kaluga.

UPAIX, a town of France, in the department of the
Higher Alps ; 1 1 miles S.E. of Serres.

UPANEMA, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
Atlantic, S. lat. 4° 30'. W. long. 37° 32'.

UPATCHAWANAN, or Temiscamain, a fetUc-
ment in Canada. N. lat. 47° 17'.

UPBO, a town of Sweden, in Dalccarlia ; 20 miles
S.S.E. of Fahlun.

UPELLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda; 18
miles N.N.W. of Warangole.

3 Q Upella

U P I

* Upella Chanderaghery, a town of Hindooftan, in Gol-
conda ; 1 6 miles N. of Warangole.

UPEND R A, a name of the Hindoo deity Vidinu. { See
Vishnu.) It has been fuppofed to imply inferiority to
Endra, or Indra, the regent of the firmament. See
Indra.

UPHA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and capital of
a government, on the Bielaia ; 452 miles W.S.W. of To-
bollk. N. lat. 54^ 35'. E. long. 56° 2'.— Alfo, a river of
Ruflia, which runs into the Bielaia, at Upha.

UPHIMSKOI, a government of Ruffia, of a triangular
form, bounded on the north by the governments of Pprm
and Viatka ; on the weft by the governments of Caucafus,
Saratov, Simbirdc, and Kazan, the part immediately fouth
by the Cafpian fea, and the part immediately eaft by the
government of Tobolflc ; to the north it extends from eaft
to weft about 440 miles, and to the fouth from eaft to weft
only 64 ; weftward from north to fouth it meafures about
520, eaftward only 160. In this government is a famous
mine of fait, fituatcd near the river Ilek. The fait of this
pit is moft beautiful, and of the beft quality. It is taken
from a kind of rock about four verfts from the river. The
length of the rock is 800 fathoms, and the breadth about
500. It is fo folid, that it has not yet been poffible to found
it. With a miner's wimble, however, they have penetrated
to the depth of 27 fathoms ; but time and inftruments have
not afcertained a complete knowledge of the depth of this
mafs. From 1784 till 1787, more than 30,000,000 pounds
of fait were taken from this rock, and tranfported into dif-
ferent parts of the empire, by the Volga, the Bielaia, and
the Kama. This fait is fold in the country at 25 or 30 co-
pecks the pood, which is about a halfpenny the Englifh
pound. It is calculated that this pit may yet furnilh fait
for near two centuries, fuppofing the depth to be no greater
than it is already known to be. In order to render the
working more produftive, and lefs expenfive, the govern-
ment has lately made an agreement with fome Coffacks, who
are to dig 50,000 poods a year, and tranfport them to the
magazines of Orenburg. There are in the neighbourhood of
this pit fome very deep lakes of fait water, to which great
virtue is alTigned by the Kirghis, and in which they bathe of
their own accord, when ainifted with the leail difeafe.
Their phyficians, who have had an opportunity of judging
of thefe baths, all agree, that they are good for all pedi-
cular difeafes. There is one aftoniftiing circumftance at-
tending thefe waters, namely, that their furface is as cold
as ice, while the deeper you plunge, the warmer you be-
come ; at the bottom it is faid no perfon can ftay more than
two or three feconds. N. lat. 47'^ to 56^. E. long. 50°
to 64°.

UPHOLDER is ufed in the fame fenfe with under-
tzjcer, as the denomination of a tradefman who provides for
funerals.

Upholder, or Upholjlerer, denotes alfo a perfon who
furniflies houfes, fitting up apartments with beds, and other
furniture. See Appraiser and Bed.

UPIERCWIZA, in Geography, a town of Lithuania;
33 miles E. of Minlk.

UPINGE, a kind of fong confecrated to Diana by the
Greeks. Rouileau.

UPINISHAD, or Upanishad, in Hindoo Literature,
is the title of a portion of their fcripture comprifed in the
Veda. Each Veda contains feveral portions, bearing this
comnwin denomination. On thefe Upaniftiads the whole of
the Indian theology, efpecially the Vedanta theory, is pro-
feftedly founded. See Veda and Vedanta.
, The proper meaning gf the word Upanifhad, according

U P L

to Mr. Colebrooke (Af. Ref. vol. viii. art. 8.), is " divine
fcience, or the knowledge of God ; and it is equally appli-
cable to theology itfelf, and to a book in which this fcience
is taught. The fenfe properly deducible from its etymology
invariably points to the knowledge of the dirine perfeftions,
and to the confequent attainment of beatitude, through ex-
emption from pafflons."

The word, by fome writers, has been thought to mean
fomtthing hidden or myfterious ; but Mr. Colebrooke fays,
that " neither the etymology nor acceptation of the word
has any direft conneftion with the idea of fecrecy, conceal-
ment, or myftery." (lb.) It feems rather indeed to mean
revelation. In the curious article above referred to, a lift of
the Upanifhads is given ; with mucli important and intereft-
ing information refpefting them, and the extraordinary vo-
lumes through which they are interfperfed. An extraft
from it is given under our article Mirair.

UPLAND, in Geography, a province of Sweden,
bounded on the north by the gulf of Bothnia, on the eaft
by the Baltic, on the fouth by the Maslar lake, and on the
weft by Weftmanland ; about 75 miles in length from north
to fouth, and where wideft, 55 from eaft to weft. It is
fertile in corn, and the lakes and rivers abound in filh.
Some of the beft iron-mines of Sweden are found in this
province. Stockholm is fituated in Upland.

Upland, or Upland Pajfures, in Agriculture, all fuch
land and paftures as are fituated in a high elevation, or
which are much expofed in confequence of the height to
which they are raifed above the other furrounding grounds.
Such land and paftures are moftly found particularly ufeful in
fome forts of hulbandry and farming, as thofc of the fheep
kind, as they are commonly hard, firm, and dry, during
the winter and more wet feafons of the year, when tliis fort
of ftock is moft in danger in many fituations.

In the northern parts of the ifland, the extenfive highland
trafts of thefe lands and paftures are for the moft part con-
verted to the purpofe of (heep-walks ; in which management
they are fuppofed by many to be by far the moft advan-
tageous. But fome have lately fuggefted that black cattle
and planting may be combined with thefe, fo as to afford a
ftill greater benefit. The Rev. Mr. Singers, in an able
effay in the third volume of the Tranfaftions of the High-
land Society of Scotland, has remarked on the upland and
pafture (heep-farming of that diftrift, that " it has not yet
been clearly afcertained what effedls the introduftion of
fheep hufbandry into the Highlands has really produced, or
how far that mode of farming ought to be carried," or is
proper ; neither has it been accurately determined, it is faid
what forts of fheep are adapted tothe refpeAive fheep-walks
in that extenfive traft of upland and pafture. It is a point,
too, fbll undecided, how far fheep and black cattle are con-
fiftent as joint or feparate ftocks, on the fame upland farm ;
and which of them is entitled to the preference, to a certain
extent ; or whether the proper extent can be pointed out.
Doubts alfo are entertained in refpeft to foreft trees, how
far it is proper to attend to the rearing of them, on farms
producing fheep as the ftaple article ; and that a fimilar
queftion has been put, whether it is profitable to cultivate
any part of the foil, when flocks of fheep are fed in the
neighbourhood, and under the difadvantages of a chmate
very moifl and uncertain ?

It is fuppofed that thefe points lie at the foundation of
the profperity of the upland or Highland tracl;3 of the
country ; and that, of courfe, they are clofely connefted
with the general profperity of the Britifh empire : it will
confequently be admitted, that every thing is of importance
which may tend to throw a ray of light upon any one of

them.

UPLAND.

diem. In this intention, this view of a comprclienfive fyf-
tcm of hufbandry, which has been had recourfe to with great
fuccefs by intelligent individuals, in a foil and climate
greatly refembling thofe of the uplands and pallures of the
Highlands ; ftieep, it is faid, are unquettionably to be
conildered as the ftaple ftock over the Highlands of Scot-
land ; but to rear (hcep as the fole produce of the foil is, it
is thought, an error of the word kind. It was naturally to
be expefted, that when (heep were introduced upon thefc
uplands, and found to be a fafe and profitable fort of ftock,
they would probably go too far, before the true balance
Ihould be found. But it is capable of being eftablifticd, it
is faid, on reafon and clear teftimony, that woods, cattle,
and cultivation, judicioudy managed, are friendly to (heep,
on fuch uplands, in the higheft degree ; while the folid in-
terefts, comforts, and benefits of lociety are greatly pro-
moted by a proper intermixture of them all in fuch cafes.

The efFefts of Iheep-farming on thefe uplands are, it is
obferved, firft, a great rife in the rents, which is not, how-
ever, to be wholly imputed to ftieep, but many other caufes.
The true light in which the fuperiority of (lieep, in fuch
cafes, is to be confidered, is, it is faid, that by means of
them a farmer can pafture a large extent of inacccflible grafs
land, not fafe for black cattle ; that he can maintain a ftock,
with lefs danger of heavy loffes by famine, in winter and
fpring ; and tnat ftieep, as a ftock, are managed at lefs ex-
pence, and are more marketable than any other. It is con-
ceded indeed, that, by means of goats, the moll rugged
pafturage might be coiifumed ; but thefe animals, in point
of flefti, as well as coat, would be a wretched fubftitute for
(heep in fuch cafes, in any market whatever. It rauft be
allowed by all, that a ftock of ftieep enables the farmer to
occupy- a larger portion of the foil than he could do by a
ftock of black cattle ; that ftieep, too, are more adapted to
the greater part of an extenfive and rugged upland farm than
any fort of black cattle ; that a fuller ftock of them may be
fafely put on the grounds, without incurring fo much ride of
faniine ; and that no ftock is eafier managed, or more mar-
ketable. Thefe are important confiderations ; and they are
decifive in favour of ftieep, as the principal article, it is fup-
pofed, over the uplands of the Highlands, that a farm can
produce.

Secondly, a valuable fupply of wool has been futnifticd the
country, from the upland pafturcs of the Highlands ; that
though moft of fuch wool is coarfe, and that wool has not
declined in price in confequence of this large acceflion to the
trade, it mull be remembered that coarfe wool was the ar-
ticle moft wanted by manufafturers ; and alfo, that many
large upland traAs of the Highlands are well adapted to
rear fine wool, when the farmers fiiall find it their inlereft to
follow that plan. And in regard to the increafed price of
wool. It may be alked, it is faid, what mull have been the
prices, or where the manufafturers muft have looked for it,
if there had not been any raifed on the uplands of the High-
lands of late years ? Probably, it is fuppofed, the diftiii-
guiftied fuccefs of that capital branch, the woollen trade,
may have depended in no fmall degree on the vaft fupplieg
of wool from that quarter.

Thirdly, the reduftion of the numbers of black cattle muft
inevitably, it is believed, follow the inlroduftion of ftieep,
and alfo the redu£lion of the extent of cultivated grounds.
But it does not of neccflity, it is faid, follow, that black
cattle and culture fliould be altogether abandoned. There
is a good medium in thefe matters, it is fuppofed, which is
fafer than either extreme. To people not well acquainted
with the economy of a produftive fyftem, embracing ftieep
at the principal article, and a piopcr number of cattle, and

extent of cultivation, it may appear to be the eafieft ex-
pedient to lay the whole of their farms into fticcp-waftes :
but more experienced farmers would, it is thouglit, fraile at
the pretence which want of (l<ill has fo often advanced for
going into this moft injudicious extreme ; well knowing that
every intelligent ftore-mafter calculates on rendering his
ftieep much better, and infuring their fafety in a greater de-
gree, by means of judicious cultivation. It is therefore to
be obferved, that the baniftinient of black cattle ajid of cul-
ture out of the upland ftieep-farms in the Highlands nre
efiedls which do not neceffarily follow the iutroduclion of
ftieep, but have arifen from an inconfiderate extreme, the
refult of error and want of experience in the cftabliflied
modes of ftieep management, cfpecially on fuch uplands.

Fourthly, depopulation is the worft effeft, it is faid, which
has followed the introduftion of ftieep huftsandry <ni the up-
lands and paftures in the Highlands. It is, however, un-
deniably the faft, that fuch an efteifl has been produced,
and that to a great extent. But it cannot be fo readily ad-
mitted, it is thought, that this effedl was neceffarily coh-
nefted with the fheep huftiandry ; for it arofc more properly
from the total negleft of culture, and of black cattle, than
from the change of ftocks. It is aflced, if we find that the
ftieep ftocks of England, or of the fouth of Scotland, necef-
farily occafion depopulation ? If a due proportion were
maintained on fuch lands of the Highlands, between ftieep
and other important articles, fuch as cattle, corn, green
crops, and inclofures and plantations of trees, to fay no-
thing of the fiftieries, the roads, and other public matters,
employment would, it is fuppofed, be furniftied for the in-
habitants, at leaft as ample and productive as they ever pof-
fefled, when black cattle were their ftock, and a proportion
of goats, inftead of ftieep. But the truth is, it is faid, that
unfortunate circumftances of a complicated nature com-
bined in depopulating the Highlands, when ftieep were in-
troduced, as are fully fliewn in the EiTay, to which we muft
refer the reader.

Still, however, the fheep fyftem is thought to be right
upon thefe uplands ; and though it may have gone to an ex-
treme, it was what was to be dreaded and expedled. Ta
that extreme, and not to the nature of the ftock introduced,
ought, it is fuppofed, to be imputed moft of the evils com-
plained of; while the beneficial effefts of ftieep hufbandry
on fuch uplands appear to be neceffarily connefted with it,
and therefore to give it a fteady and well-founded fuperi-
ority. The evils of it may, it is thought, be obviated or
counterafted by judicious management ; and that ftieep, as
the principal article of produce, are entitled to an evident
preference over the whole of the uplands and paftures of the
Highlands j but that, at the fame time, it is unwife and im-
politic in every view to make them the fole produce on the
lands. "^

In thefe upland trails nature feems, it is faid, to have laid
out extenfive ftieep-walks on alnioft every farm ; and that as
it is found tl(at ftieep are the fafcft ftock, the moft eafily and
cheaply managed, having accefs to the largcft part of tlic
paftures, and always marketable and produ£live to the
farmer, it is undeniable, the writer fuppofes, that they
ftiould be reared as the main article of farm produce
throughout the upland tradls of the Highlands. But it can
never be admitted, it is thought, by any man of fenfe, that
this immenfe diftrift ftiould be turned wholly into a ftieep-
wafte. Other articles of produce fuccecd as well as fliccp,
and ftiould be reared to a proper extent : fomc arc effential
to the comforts, afld even fubfiftencc of the inhabitants ;
while they return as ample profits as ftieep, and are of ex-
iieedingly great value to the ftieep-ftocks ; not to rocntioii
3 Q 2 theii

U P L

U P P

their importance in other refpefts. If the (heep hufbandry
of thefe trafts, inftead of engrofling all the attention of the
farmere, and all the foil, were to be confidered as the chief
article, but at the fame time intermixed with a due propor-
tion of black cattle, of corn, and of green crops ; and if
proprietors would aJfo introduce into the fyftem judicious
plantations of foreil trees, incalculable advantages would
certainly, it is thought, be obtained. This beautiful fyf-
tem, it is faid, is not ideal. It is found by experience to
be admiffible in every point of view ; comfort, beauty, and
profit, going hand in hand.

The peculiar advantages of black cattle, the culture of
com and green crops, and the planting of foreft trees, in
conneftion with fheep, on thefe uplands and paftures, are
then particularly pointed out and explained, when the writer
fuggefls the proper fort of management for the (heep and
the black cattle that (hould be purfiied in fuch cafes, and
(hews the comparative value of each in a very clear manner ;
concluding by obferving, that all thefe branches are mu-
tually fiibfervient to each other : all of them are adapted, each
on its own fcale, to the climate and the foil of the country ;
and that they all contribute to the folid comforts and pro-
fperity of the people in all ftations, the proprietors, the
farmers, and the people at large. Thefe upland trafts are
laid out, it is faid, for pafturage by the hand of nature, and
flieep are the true ftaple : but the country is likewife na-
turally laid o\it for every part of the mixed hufbandry that
has been advifed above ; all the neceffary materials abound-
ing ; ana every part, like the links of a golden chain, being
connefted with, and depending on one another. Cattle
alone are not, and cannot, it is faid, be a fafe (lock ; (heep
reared exclufively turn all into a wafte. Trees, if fuffered
to overfpread the country, would convert it into a wilder-
nefs ; and cropping on a large fcale is more than hazardous,
it id iraprafticable. The mixed fyftem is, therefore, the
moft proper and beneficial for fuch trafts, in many different
points of view. See the paper.

In fome of the fouthem parts of the kingdom, too, the
uplands and paftures are found very beneficial in the fup-
porting of fheep-ftock. In the Romney-Mar(h fyftem of
(heep management, it is the ufual praftice to fend the lamb-
ftock in the beginning of the autumn, in raft quantities, to
be fupported and kept by the hill or upland farmers in the
neighbourhood, through the winter, which is found to
anfwer well under proper care and attention.

In the South-Down, and other upland diftrifts, the high
grounds and paftures are likewife moftly occupied with
meep as a principal ftock, to the greateft advantage. See
Sheep.

The uplands and paftures in many parts of the country
ar^, however, in a very indifferent and unprofitable ftate,
from the want of fuitable manuring, feeding, and ftocking,
whatever may be the purpofe to which they are applied.
See Pasture and Pasture- Z,an(/.

UPLOPER, a name given to one particular fpecies of
pigeon, called by Moore, columla gutturofaf aliens.

It was firft brought to England from Holland, and much
refembles that kind of pigeon called the Engli(h powter,
but that it is fmaller. Its crop is very round, and in this
it buries its bill. Its legs are very fmall and (lender, and its
toes are ihort, and clofe together, on which it treads fo
nicely, that when moving, any fmall thing might be put
under the ball of its foot. The pigeons of this fpecies are
generally all blue, all black, or all white ; feldom or never
pyed. They are very fcarce in England, and in Holland
have been valued at five and twenty guineas a pair.

They have their name from the Dutch word opiopen,
lo ,

which fignifies to leap up, and it was thus named from its
manner of approaching the hen, which is always by leaping
upon her. Moore's Colnmbarium, p. 67.

UPNOR Castle, in Geography, a fortrefs of England,
in the county of Kent, on the left bank of the Medway,
near Chatham.

UPPARAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Rajamundry ; 30 miles E. of Rajamundry.

UPPER Deck, in a Ship, the higheft of thofe decks
which are continued throughout the whole of a (hip of war,
or merchantman, without any interruption of fteps or irre-
gular afcents.

\J PPEH -Breadth Siveeps, in Ship-Building, the centre of
which is in the line reprefenting the upper height of breadth
of the timber. This fweep, defcribed upwards, forms the
lower part of the top-timber. See Ship-building.

Upper Height of Breadth, the upper curved line on the
(heer plan, defcribnig the greateft height of the main-breadth
or broadeft part of the (hip at each timber. See Ship-
building.

Upper Strahe, in Boats, a ftrake thicker than thofe of
the bottom, wrought round the gunwale.

Upper IVoris, in Naval yirchiteSure, a general name
given to all that part of a (hip which is above the furface gf
the water when (he is properly balanced for a fea voyage ;
or it is that part which is feparated from the bottom by the
main wale.

Upper Hemifphere, Ocean, Pelar Dial, and Region. See
the fubftantives.

Upper Slope of a Canal, is the face of the bank K P
( Plate I. Canals, Jig. 3. ) in fide-laying ground ; or A B and
K P (Jig- 6.) in deep-cutting.

Upper Lake, in Geography, a lake of Ireland, in the
county of Kerry, 4 miles from Lough Lane, with which it
communicates by a river, which runs between Tore moun-
tain and Gleenaa mountain.

UPPINGHAM, a market-town in the hundred of
Martindey and county of Rutland, England, is fituated 6
miles S. by E. from Oakham, and 89 miles N.N.W. from
London. It is confidered as the fecond town in the county,
and in fome refpefts fuperior to Oakham, the county-town :
the ftreets are well paved ; the houfes, which in general are
well built, are difpofed in the form of a fquare, with one
long ftreet leading to the weft end. The church, which
ftands on the fouth fide of the fquare, has a lofty fpire, and
the church-yard commands an extenfive profpeft : it alfo
contains fome well-executed monuments, particularly one of
the date of 1653, in honour of Everard Fawkener, efq.,
who had been fheriff of the county, and was a great bene-
faftor to the town, having paved the ftreets at his own ex-
pence. Adjoining to the church-yard is a free-fchool,
founded on a very extenfive plan, for general education, and
even for the preparing of youth for the univerfities. It was
built about the year 1584, by the Rev. Robert Johnfon,
archdeacon of Leicefter, who was alfo the founder of a
fimilar inftitution at Oakham. The expences of the ereftion
were defrayed partly from his own purfe, affifted by the
produce of concealed church lands which he begged from
queen Elizabeth. It is a plain neat edifice, and has over the
door, in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, " Remember thy
Creator in the days of thy youth." Here is alfo an hof-
pital, built at the fame time, and out of the fame funds, by
the benevolent archdeacon, for the maintenance of thirteen
poor men and one woman. A weekly market and an annual
fair were granted in 1280 by Edward I., to Peter de Mont-
fort, then lord of this manor, and his heirs for ever, with
the exprefs provifion that the fair (hould not operate to the

detriment

UPS

UPS

detriment of any fair of older date in the vicinity : the
market-day is Monday, and here are now two fairs yearly,
for horfes, cattle, fheep, coarfe linen, homefpun cloth, &c.
This town has the privilege, by grant of 1 1 Henry VII. to
keep the (landards of weights and meafures for the county.
In the return of the year 1811, the population of Upping-
ham was ftated to be 1484, inhabiting 292 houfes. — Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. xii. Rutlandfhire.

UPRIGHT, in /trchitedure, a reprefentation or draught
of the front of a building ; called alfo an elevation, or ortho-
graphy.

Upright, in Heraldry, is ufed in refpeft of fhell-filhes,
as crevices, &c. when (landing ereft in a coat. Inafmuch
as they want fins, they cannot, according to Guillim, be
properly faid to be hauriar.l; that being a term appropriated
to fcaly fifhes.

Upright, in Sea Language, the pofition of a fhip when
(he neither inclines to one fide nor to the other. Hence any
thing is faid to be upright when fquare with, or perpendicu-
lar to the keel.

Ab the (hip when building lies with a declivity for the
purpofe of launching, it is evident that every thing within
her intended to be upright when a-float, mud be fet fqiiare
from the^nclination of the (hip.

Upright, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the E. end of
Gore ifland, in the North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 60° 30'.
W. long. 172° 13'. — Alfo, a cape in the ftraits of Magel-
lan. S. lat. 53=6'. W. long. 75° 38'.

Upright Bay, a bay near the weftern extremity of the
Straits of Magellan. S. lat. 53° 8'. W. long. 75° 35'.

Upright Bent-Grafs, in Agriculture, a fort of this kind
of grafs, which is found, by the trials made .it Woburn
under the direftion of the duke of Bedford, to aftbrd at the
time the feed is ripe, on a foil of the boggy fort, upwards
of 7486 pounds weight of grafs upon the acre, which,
when dry, weighed more than 2713 pounds, and which loft
in the operation of drying about 4772 pounds. The quan-
tity of nutritive matter that is afforded by it, is about 175
pounds on the fame fpace of land. See Aguostis StriBa.

It fcems not to he a grafs of any great value to the
farmer.

Upright Perennial Broom-Grafs, a fort of this kind of
grafs, which has been found, at the time of flowering, on a
rich fandy foil, to produce 12,931, and rather more, pounds
of grafs on the acre, which weighed when dry about 5819
pounds, and wliich loft in drying 71 12 pounds and rathet
more. It is a grafs that affords nutritive matter about yyy
pounds on thi- fame fpace of ground. See Bkomu.s Ereffus.

Upright Goofe-Grafs, a noxious weed of the perennial
kind, often met with in meadows and wet paftures, in dif-
ferent diftrifts and parts of the country.

Upright Mat-Grafs, a kind of grafs, which, at the time
the feed is ripe, is found to produce, on the acre, 6125 ten
pounds, wliich weighs in the dry (late 2450 4, and which
lofcs in drying 3675 6 pounds. It affords 215 5 10 pounds
of nutritive matter on the fame fpace. See Nardus Sirifla.

Upright Sea-Lyme Grafs, a fort of grafs, that, at the
time the feed is ripe, produces from the acre of clayey loam
foil 43,560 poiMids, which weigh when dry 24,502 8, and
which lofes by drying 18,957 8 pounds. The quantity
of nutritive matter afforded by the fame fpace of land, is
3403 pounds and rather more. See Elymu-s /Irenarius.

Upright Screw Cheefe-Prefs. See Winding Screw
Cheefe-Prefs.

UPSAL, or Upsala, in Geography, a city of Sweden,
in the province of Upland, fituated on an open plain fertile
in grain and pafture, is a (mall but neat town, containing,

fays Coxe, exclufively of the ftudenls, 3poo inliabitante^
The ground plot is very regular : it is divided into two al-
moft equal parts by the rivulet Sala, and the ftreets are
formed at right angles from a central kind of fquare. Some
of the houfes are built with brick, and ftuccoed ; but they are
generally conftruftcd with trunks, fmoothed into the (hape
of planks, and painted red, and the roofs are covered with
turf. Each hoiife has a fmall court-yard or garden. Old
Upfala is a place of high antiquity, and is fuppofcd to have
ftood at a fmall diftance from the fcite of the pvefent town.
In times of Pagan fuperftition it was much celebrated as the
principal place of facrifice, and as the rcfidence of the high
prieft of Odin. New Upfala is anterior to the foundatioa
of Stockholm, and is faid to have been a fuburb of Old
Upfala, and to have rifen on its ruins. Upfala was formerly
the metropolis of Sweden, and the royal refidence. Its
ancient palace, begun in 1549, by Guftavus Vafa, and com-
pleted by his fon Eric, was a fpacious and magnificent edi-
fice until the year 1702, when great part of it was confumed
by fire. What remains of it commands, on account of its ele-
vated (ituation, a fine profpeft of the adjacent country; and
its principal front, which has been repaired, is covered with
a red ftucco. Many traces are ftill left of its ancient fplen-
dour. The few remaining apartments in the ruined wing
are ufed as a common gaol. Under it are three dungeous,
formerly appropriated to the confinement of ftate-prifoners,
the moil remarkable of whom was count Svante Sture, of
an ancient family, which before the eleftion of Guftavut
Vafa liad the faireft prctenfions to the throne. The extinc-
tion of this family was owing to the madnefs of Eric, who,
in the year 1 567, murdered both count Svante and his fon
Nicholas. After this frantic and cruel deed, he wandered
about the woods in a ftate of remorfe and diftraftion, until
at lengtli, being difcovered by his wife, her prefence reftored
him to a temporary poffeffion of his underdanding. How-
ever he foon relapfed, and his government became fo odious,
that in the following year he was depofed by his two bro-
thers, and John afcended the throne.

Upfala is an archiepifcopal fee, and one of the moft an-
cient Chriftian eftabh(hments in Sweden. The firft bifhop
was Everinus, an Englifhman, who in 1026 vifited Sweden,
at the requeft of king Olaus Scotkonung, to affift in con-
verting the natives of Old Upfala to Chriftianity. His fuc-
ceffors in the fee refided for the moft part at Sigtuna, until
tlie year 11 20, when Nicholas Ulphfon fixed the refidence
at Old Upfala. The firft archbifliop was Stephen, a native
of Eaft Gothland, and he was elevated to that dignity in
1164, and died in 1185. Falke, who was confecrated ia
1267, firft transferred the refidence to New Upfala, in the
year 1273. The firft Proteftant archbilhop was Laurentius
Petri of the province of Nerike, who in conjunftion with
his brother Olaus Petri firft preached the reformed doftrines
to the Swedes, and tranflated the Bible into his native tongue.
He died' in 1570. In the facriftary of the cathedral are
fcveral ancient relics ; one of which is a log of wood, carved
into a figure that rudely rcfembles a human head, called the
image of Thor, formerly wor(hipped in thefe parts, and to
whom human facrificcs were offered at Old Upfahi. The
kings of Sweden were formerly crowned in this catliedral ;
but the laft fovercign who was ina'igur.itcd at Uplala was
Ulrica Elconora. Upfala is celebrated for its uiiiverfity,
which is the moft ancient in Sweden. In 1246 Birgcr Jarl
eftabli(hcd a fchool at this place, and in 1478 Steno Sture,
lawadminiftrator of Sweden, laid tlic firft foundation of the
univerfity ; the plan of which had been formed, but not
executed, by Eric of Pomerania ; its regulations being mo-
delled after lliofc of Paris. The inftitulioii was continued

ia

UPS

U P T

in a diet which met at Strssngnss on the 2d of July ; and the
univerfity was opened with due ceremony on the 7th of Oc-
tober. It was warmly patronized by Guftavus Vafa, and
liberally endowed by him, fo that he has been regarded as
its fecond founder. Under John III. it was removed to
Stockholm, but reftored to Upfala by Charles IX. After
declining for fome time, it was revived by Guliavus Adol-
phus, who conftrufted a large building at his own expence,
and endowed it with his patrimonial eftate of Vafa. His
example was followed by his fucceflors and by various indi-
viduals ; fo that the number of fcholars has confiderably in-
creafed. At the head of the univerfity is a chancellor,
chofen by the profeflbrs and confirmed by the king. The
prefidency devolves by rotation on one of the profeflbrs,
ftyled " Reftor Magnificus." The univerfity has its own
court of juftice, called " Confiftorium Minus," for the trial
of the (Indents and dependants. From this court an appeal
lies to a " Confiftorium Majus." The number of profeflbrs
is about twenty-four, of whom the principal are thofe of
divinity, eloquence, botany, anatomy, chemiftry, natural
philofophy, aftronomy, and agriculture. Students are ad-
mitted into the univerfity at the age of fixteen, for the
completion of their academical ftudies. They do not inha-
bit, as in our univerficies, any diftinft colleges, but lodge
in the town, and repair to the lectures of the profeflbrs,
either at their houfes or at the public halls. The poorer
ftudents are aflifted by fcholarfhips, called " ftipendia,"
fome founded by the crown, others by private perfons ; the
common degrees granted by this univerfity are " Philofo-
phiss Candidatus," correfponding to bachelor of arts, and
* Philofophise Magifter," anfwermg to mafter of arts. In
order to obtain the firft; of thefe degrees, he candidate un-
dergoes feveral previous examinations, and compofes a Latin
thefis. His exercifes for the fecond, are a Latin thefts,
holding a public difputation, and reading a leAure in the
fame language. There is no academical difcipline. Al-
though the ftudents have no regular drefs, yet on fome oc-
cafions, as when they take a matter's degree, they appear
in a black filk cloak, which they ought alfo by the ftatutes
of the univerfity to wear when they keep their afts. The
profeflbrs, on days of ceremony, are clad in black cloaks,
the doftors of divinity are diftinguilhed by a hat of black
filk, the doftors of law by one of white, and thofe of phy-
fic by one of green or Iky-blue. The number of ftudents
varies, but has been ftated at an average of ten years at
500. This univerfity, ftyled by Stillingfleet, " that great
and hitherto unrivalled fchool of natural hiftory," has pro-
duced perfons eminent in every branch of fcience. The
Kbrary contams many valuable books and MSS. This
owes its origin to Guftavus Adolphus. Among the moft
valuable pieces of literary curiofity is a manufcript of the
four gofpels, called from its filver letters Codex Argenttus,
which fee.

The Royal Society at Upfala, the oldeft literary academy
of this kind in the North, took its rife in 1720. At firft it
confifted of a number of learned men, who pubiiflied reviews
of books, under the title of " Afta Literaria Suecis ;" but
in 1730 the tranfadions of the fociety confifted of original
afts and diflertations ; and when patronized by the king, it
aflumed the name of " Societas Regia," and the tranfac-
tions, publifhed annually, were denominated " Atta Lite-
raria et Scientiarum Sueciae." In 1740, it was called " So-
cietas Regia Literaria et Scientiarum Upfaiieiific," thus dif-
tinguifhed from the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm,
which was denominated " Academia Regia Suecize." In
1750 their publications ceafed, but they were again re-
newed in 1772, under the title of " Nova Afta Regix

Societatis Scientiarum Upfalienfis." ' They are written is
the Latin tongue, and printed in 4to. The original num-
bers iflued from 1720 to 1750 are comprifed in fix volumes.
The place where the ancient kings of Sweden were elefted
lies about feven miles from the town of Upfala, and is ftill
marked by mutilated ftoaes, one of which is called " Mo-
rafteen," or the ilone of Mora ; on which the fovereigns
were enthroned with due folemnity, and received the homage
of their fubjects. Olaus Magnus relates that the Morafteen
was placed in the middle of twelve other ftones in a circle.
A fimilar monument near the village of St. Buriens, in Corn-
wall, is defcribed by Camden. The botanical garden of
Upfala is fmall, but laid out with judgment, and the collec-
tion of exotics is numerous. Upfala is 45 miles from Stock-
holm. N. lat. 59° 51'. E. long. 17° 26'.

UPSARA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a poe-
tical race of water-nymphs, proverbial for their beauty and
fafcinations. They are the dancing girls of Indra's court,
anfsvering to the fairies of the Perfians, and to the damfels
called in the Koran Huruluyun, or with antelopes' eyes.
The name has been derived from up, water, the feventh cafe
plural of which is up/o, and ra/a, tafte.

UPS AW, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar;
6 miles S. of Patna.

UPSILOIDES, in Anatomy, a name for the os hyoides.
See Deglutition.

UPSTART, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the N.E.
coaft of New Holland. S. lat. 19° 39'. W. long. 212° 32'.
UPTON, a town of Mafiachufetts, in Worcefter county,
containing 935 inhabitants ; 38 miles S.W. of Bofton.

Upton upon Severn, a market-town in the lower divifion
of the hundred of Perftiore, and county of Worcefter, Eng-
land, is fituated on the banks of the river Severn, at the
diftance of 10 miles S. from the city of Worcefter, and 1 09
miles N.W. by W. from London. Though a fmall town,
it has long been in a ftate of progreflive improvement, which
may be in fome meafure attributed to its having a handfome
ftone bridge of fix arches, built in 1 605, and a harbour for
the reception of the barges employed in the navigation of
the Severn, by which a confiderable traffic is carried on.
Upton fuft^ered much in the civil war of Charles I. ; when
the bridge was partly broken down for military purpofes,
and a battery erefted in the church-yard to prevent the par-
liamentary forces from croffing the river. At that time alfo
the church fuftained great injury, and though afterwards re-
paired, it was found neceflary, in the year 1 756, to take it
down ; when, it is to be regretted, little attention was paid
to the prefervation of the painted glafs and ancient monu-
ments in the old ftrufture. It was rephced by a very neat
modem edifice, the chief ornament of the town. This was
opened in 1758 ; but the tower was not completed till 1 774.
A charity-fchool for fixteen girls is eftabli/hed here. No
manufaftures worthy of notice are carried on : but four
fairs are held annually, for the fale of horfes, cattle, ftieep,
and leather: a weekly market is kept on Tuefday. Ac-
cording to the population return in the year 181 1, the parifh
of Upton then contained 394 houfes, occupied by 2023 per-
fons. In the year 1787, a circular cavity, about fix feet in
diameter, was difcovered in a corn-field in this vicinity : on
examination, this aperture led to a cavern at the depth of
about ten feet from the furface, extending in every dire(5lion
twenty feet in diameter ; at about thirty -five or forty feet is
a pit or fliaft full of water, and nearly 140 feet deep. Va-
rious conjeftures have been formed refpeAing this pheno-
menon ; but whether it proceeds from a natural or artificial
caufe has not been determined.

About four miles from Upton, and near the village of

Earl's

U P u

U P u

•Earl'^ Croome, is Croome Court, the feat and park of the
carl of Coventry. The manfion is modern, and the (lyle of
its architefture is very plain ; but the elegance of the in-
terior makes up for any thing that may appear a deficiency
without. The drawing-room is hung with tapeftry of the
Gobehne manufafture, of crimfon ground with coloured
figures. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv. Wor-
cefterrtiire.

UPULUS, in Botany, the old Latin name for the lupulus,
or hop. This word lupulus is not old Latin, but a more
modern name, formed on the word upuhs.

UPUPA, in Ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of Picse, the charafters of which are, that the bill
is bent, long, (lender, convex, fubcomprefled, and fomewhat
obtufe : the noftrils are fmall at the bafe of the bill ; the
tongue obtufe, entire, triquetrous, and very fhort ; and the
■feet formed for walking. In the Linnsean fyflem by
Gmelin there are eight fpecies, which are as follow :

Epops. Crelted and variegated, or the ferruginous
hoopoe, with the wings barred black and white, the tail
black, with a lunated white bar, and the creit tipped with
black and white. This is the upupa of Bell. Gefn.
Aldrov. Ray, &c. ; the bubbola of Ohn. ; the ter-choas or
melTenger-bird of Pocock ; the hoopoe of Willughby,
Pennant, Edwards, &c. ; the common hoopoe of Latham ;
and the la huppe of Buffon. It is an elegant bird, generally
inhabiting the warmer and temperate parts of the old conti-
nent, and migrating occafionally, at different feafons, in
different direftions. In our idand it is much more rarely
feen than in other northern climates. It is about the fize of
a common thrufh. The colour of the head, neck, and
body, is pale ferruginous or cinnamon-brown ; the wings and
tail are black, the former eroded by five white bars, the
latter by a white crefcent ; the rump and lower part of the
abdomen are white, and the fides generally marked by a few
longitudinal duflcy ftreaks ; on the head is an elegant crefl,
which it can either erect or expand, or deprefs and clofe at
pleafure, compofedof feathers which are cinnamon-coloured,
with black tips, a white bar feparating the tip from tlie reft
of the feathers ; the legs are fhort and blackilh. The
hoopoe migrates during the fpring from Africa into various
parts of Europe, and returns in winter. In various parts of
Egypt, however, it is nearly domefticated, building even
among the houfes. The flefh of thefc domcftic hoopoes is
rank and unfit for eating, but that of the migrating birds
is confidercd in many parts of Europe as an agreeable food,
particularly in Italy, the foulli of France, and in the Gre-
cian iflands. Its ncfl is to be iometimes found in a wall or
tree, and is generally faid to have a peculiarly fetid fmell, fup-
pofed to be chiefly owing to the remains of various kinds
of infefts. The number of eggs is from five to feven. In
Egypt the migrating hoopoe never affociatcs with thofe of
the towns, but frequents remote and folitary places. Such is
generally the difpolition of thofe which appear in Europe, but
in Africa they afTociate in great numbers. Their ordinary
food confiils of various kinds of infefts and worms, in
order to obtain which they follow in Egypt the retreat of
the Nile. Thefe birds are generally feen on the furface of
the .ground, being very rarely obfcrved to perch on trees.
Dr. Shaw mentions as a variety the blue-crefted hoopoe,
obferved at Florence and on the Alps, near the town of
Rota, and differing from the common hoopoe in having the
craft-feathers tipped with flcy-blue inftead of black. The
■upupa minor, fmallcr hoopoe, ferruginous, with the wings
■varied with white, and the crefl tipped with black, the la
huppe d'Afrique of Buffon, may probably be another va-
riety of the common hoopoe, which inhabits the foutiicrii

parts of Africa, and is found in the kingdom of Congo, and
at the Cape of Good Hope, frequenting low grounds in
the neighbourhood of thickets, and not migratory.

Capensis. Crefted brown, beneath white, with a white
fpot on the wings. This is the Madagafcar hoopoe, white,
with cinnamon-brown wings and tail, and loofe-webbed
creft ; la huppe noir et blanche du Cap de Bonne Efperance
of Buffon. The tail-feathers of this fpecies are twelve in
number ; the colour of the creft, throat, and all the under
parts of the bird, is white, without any variegation ; that of
the upper parts, from the back of the head to the end of
the tail, duflty or greyifh-brown, deepeft on the wings and
tail ; on the edge of the wing is a white fpot, the tips of
two or three of the larger coverts being of that colour : the
legs and feet are yellowifh. It is a native of the ifland of
Madagafcar, as well as of fome of the African ides, and is
faid to feed on feeds and berries. From the ftrufture of
the tongue, which is rather broad, and divided at the ex-
tremity into feveral fibres. Dr. Shaw infers, that it is nearly
related to the genus mcrops, or bee-eater.

Promerops. The hoopoe with fix tail-feathers, the in-
termediate being the longefl. This is the promerops cafer, or
brown promerops, whitifh beneath, with rufcfcent breaft, and
very long tail. Upupa promerops, or Cape promerops of
Latham, and promerops of Buffon. The fizc of this bird is
that of a lark ; its colour is rufous brown, fomewhat deeper
on the wings and tail ; throat white, with a narrow, longi-
tudinal, dufliy llreak on each fide ; under part of the ab-
domen whitifh, daflied with duflcy ftreaks, vent yellow, tail
very ftrongly cuneated, bill black, and alfo the legs. In
fome, probably the males, the breaft as well as the abdomen
is fpotted, and the wings are croffed by a narrow grey or
whitifh Itripe. A native of Africa, common about the Cape
of Good Hope.

Mexicana. The grey hoopoe, with a mixture of fea-
green and purple. Underneath yellow, greater quill-feathers
blueifli,and the four intermediate tail-feathers longer than the
reft. This is the grey promerops with green and purple
glofs, blueifh wings, ycllowifh belly, and veryjong tail ; the
Mexican promerops of Linnxus, the promerops Mexicanus
of Briflon, and promerops a ailcs blancs of Buffon. The
body of this bird is of the fize of a thrufli. The bill is near
two inches long, and blackifh ; the whole of the upper parts,
except the quills, which are light blue, are grey, with green
and piiiplifli gloffes. The under parts of the body are light
yellow, and a fpot of the fame colour is fituatcd above each
eye. This fpecies is faid to be a native of Mexico, fre-
quenting mountainous regions, and feeding on various kinds
of infe<fts.

Paradise.^. The crefted chefnut-coloured hoopoe, with
the two middle tail-feathers much longer than the reft. This
is the chefnut promerops, grey'beneath, with black-crelled
head, and very long tail. Tlie avis paradifiaca criftata
orientalis rarifiima of Seba, the promerops of Buffon, and
crefted promerops of Latham. It is about the fize of a
ftarling ; the bill is curved, and of a lead colour, as arc alfo
the legs ; the head and neck are a fine deep black ; the
crown of the head being ornamented by a very confpicuous
lengthened femi-pendant creft ; the whole remainder of the
bird on the upper parts is bright brown, on tlie under pale
afli-colour. A native, according to Seba, of the Eaft
Indies, where, as he fays, it is very rare.

Fu.sca. The brown hoopoe, underneath grey, ftriped
with white and black, the crown of the colour of pohfhed
fteel, the throat .ind neck black, and two intermediate tail-fea-
thers very h)ng. This is the brown promerops, beneath white,
with black undulations, and very long tail. The promerops
^ bruDf

U R

U R A

biun, a ventre et eye of Buffon, and New Guinea brown
promerops of Latham. According to Sonnerat, who firll
defcribed and figured it, the neck, back, wings, and tail of
this bird are- brown ; the bread and remaining under parts
white, undulated by numerous tranfverfe black ftripes, each
feather having two white and two black bars ; the tail very
long, and llrongly cuneated, the bill confiderably curved, of
a blackifh colour ; and the legs yellowiih-brown. A native
of New Guinea, inhabiting large woods.

Magma. The black hoopoe ; the head, hind part of
the neck, bread, and exterior part of the falcated fca-
pular feathers golden green, and very long tail. This is
the fuperb promerops, with violet and green glofs, falcated
golden-lhining fcapular feathers, and verj- long tail ; the grand
promerops a paremens frifes of Buffon, and grand prome-
rops of Latham. Its (hape is flender, the tail almod three
times the length of the remainder of the bird, which is not
larger than a common pigeon ; the biU narrow, black, and
pretty much curved ; the general colour of the whole bird
is black, accompanied, according to the different direttions
of the light, by varying refleftions of blue, green, and
violet ; the other parts as above defcribed. The fcapular
feathers, or thofe fituated along the fides of the body, rife
up into two rows of reverfed falciform plumes, gradually en-
larging from the fhoulders to the rump, beyond which they
become much longer but lefs curved, and are dretched to
fome diftance on each fide of the bafe of the tail ; the colour of
their inner or (hallower fcales is purphih -black, but along the
edges and tip of the wider web it is of a brilliant golden-green :
on each fide of the lower part of the body, beneath the
wings, is alfo fituated a thick and moderately long group
of loofe-webbed, pendent, brownifh feathers ; the tail confids
of twelve feathers ; and the legs are drong and black. This
bird was fird defcribed by Sonnerat, and is a native of
Guinea ; but its hidory and habits are unknown.

AuRANTlA. The yellow hoopoe, with golden head and
neck, and tail even at the end. This is the orange-coloured
promerops, with tail of moderate length, and even at the tip ;
the avis paradifiaca Americana elegantifBma of Seba, the
promerops orange of Buffon, and the orange promerops of
Latham. This bird is about the fize of a itarhng ; its bill
is fomewhat curved, diarp-pointed, and yellow, as are the
legs ; the head and neck are of a deep yellow or gold colour,
with a few red feathers round the bafe of the bill ; the re-
mainder of the bird is orange-yellow ; the larger quill-fea-
thers of a redder cad than the red. A native of Guiana,
frequenting the fmall iflands in the mouth of the river
Berbice. The fuppofed female of this fpecies is defcribed
by Fernandez, in his Hidory of Mexico, under the name of
" Cochitolotl ;" it is introduced by Gmelin as a variety of
the former ; Buffon reckons it a female, and Briffon deno-
minates it promerops Mexicanus luteus. The head, throat,
neck, and wings are faid to be irregularly varied v/ith grey
and black ; the red of the bird yellow ; the bill black and
the legs grey.

Of the " black hoopoe," nothing but its exidence and
native country feems to be known : it is mentioned by Son-
nini, on the authority of Monf. VioUet, who fays that it is
found in Africa, towards the kingdom of Congo. For
other fpecies, fee Promerops, and Shaw's Zoology,
vol. viii.

UR, in indent Geography, a city of Chaldea, where
Terah, the father of Abraham, redded ; and whence Abraham
himfelf removed to the land of Canaan, which was granted
to him and his poderity. (Gen. xi. 28.) The precife
fituation of this city is not known ; fome think that it was
Camerina, in Babylonia. Ptolemy and Strabo fuppofe that

it was Orcha or Orchea, in Chaldea ; and others are
of opinion that it was Ura, or Sura, in Syria, on the
Euphrates. Bochart and Grotius maintain, that it was
Ura in Mefopotamia, two days' journey from Nifibis.
The difficulty that occurs in afcertaining its fituation, is
partly owing to the confufion that attends the fettlement of
the precife boundaries of Chaldea and Mefopotamia ; the
former being fituated towards the mouths of the Tigris and
Euphrates, and the latter between thefe rivers fomewhat
farther nortli. The word Ur, in Hebrew, fignifiea fire ;
and hence fome have pretended, that when Mofes faid God
brought Abraham out of Ur of the Chaldees, he alluded to a
fire into which the Chaldeans cad him. But this feems to be
fabulous, as St. Jerome, who once adopted their opinion,
afterwards acknowledged : and therefore others have
thought, that the name Ur was given to this city, becaufe
fire was the objeft of wordiip ; and Abraham, by his re-
moval to Canaan, was releafed from all obhgation to prac-
tife that kind of wordiip.

URA, in Geography, a town of Natolia ; 10 miles S. of
Milets.

URABA, a town and diftrift of South America, in the
province of Carthagena.

URAC, the mod northerly of the Ladrone iflands, in
the Ead Indian fea, about 9 miles in circumference. N.
lat. 20° 45'.

URACH, a town of Wurtemberg, with confiderable
manufaftures of damafk, and other linens, on the Rems ; 21
miles S.S.E. of Stuttgard. N. lat. 48° 27'. E. long.

9° 27'-

URACHUS, in Anatomy, a fibrous cord paffing from
the fundus of the bladder to the umbilicus : it is hollow in
the foetus of animals, and communicates with the allantois.
See Embryo and Kidney.

URACONDA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Gooty.

URAGO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Mela, on the Oglio ; 15 miles W. of Brefcia.

URAGUAY, a river of South America, which rifes in
Paraguay, about S. lat. 26° 30'; and, after a courfe of about
609 miles, joins the Para, in S. lat. 34°, and the united
dreams take the name of La Plata. The country on this
fide the river is alfo called Paraguay.

URAIN, St., a town of France, in the department of
the Nyevre ; 7 miles N.E. of Cofne.

URAL, formerly the Talk, a river of Rulfia, that has its
fource in the weftern fides of the Ural mountains, from which
it iffues near the fort of Orfk, and for a long interval purfues
a wedern courfe, then turns direAly fouth, and at about 47°
N. lat., and 70° long., falls into the Cafpian. The current
is rapid, and its water pure ; and it was known to the an-
cients under the name of Rhymnus. Its courfe is efti-
mated at 3000 verds. From time immemorial it has confti-
tutedthe boundary between the Kirghidziand the Bafkhirtzi ;
and upon it are dill 30 forts and feveral fore-pods againft
the former. The mod confiderable rivers which the Ural
takes up are, to the left, the Or and the Ilek ; and to the
right, the Kifil and the Sakmara. In the upper regions,
its banks are ridged with deep and lofty rocks ; but lower
down it flows through a tolerably dry and very faline fteppe.
It abounds with fiih. The fidiery on the Ural forms the
principal occupation and fupport of the Uralian Coffacks ;
nor is this trade any where fo well regulated, by the laws of
ancient ufage, as here. Ever fince the government granted
the fithery to the Coffacks, in return for the payment of the
moderate dipulation formerly annexed to the utfehiug or
fifhing dakes at Gurief, they have completely brokes ap

the

U R A

U K A

tlie faid fidi-weir, and inftead of it, inclofed the whole river
about the toxv-n of Ural/lc by a peiTnanent utfchiug ; fo that,
though the fifh come freely out of the Cafpian into the
Ural, they cannot proceed higher than Uralflc. The Ural has
all the kinds of fifh that are found in the Volga, excepting the
bream, the red falmon, and a fmall fpecies of ftiirgeon. The
lirft and mod important capture in the year is in January,
with hooks ; the fecond lafls from May till towards the
middle of June ; and the third, which is the leaft con-
fiderable, is performed with nets, in Oftober. The firft
great filhery in January is chiefly for fturgeons and belugas.
On the day when the filhery begins, ail the Coffacks who
have tickets of licence affemble before fun-rife, with their
fledges and implements, at a ftated place before the town,
ranging themfelves in rows and feftions, according to the
order in which they arrive. They are then muilered by a
proper officer and formed ; notice is given by firing of cannon
when the operation is to commence, or the breaking up of
the ice for fifhing. The order and ceremonial are the fame
for the fecond great capture of the fevrugas in fpring as in the
winter fifhery, and a certain boundary is fixed for marking
the extent of the fifhery. The Coffacks, while fifhing, fit
fingly in little canoes, commonly made of the trunks of the
black or white poplar, paid over with afphaltus inftead of
pitch. The nets are between 20 and 30 ells in length.
The autumnal fifhery is alfo condufted in the fame manner
with the others. This is performed with large calling nets,
and theyare allowed to take,befides the fmaller fpecies of fifh,
all forts of fturgeons. The largefl belugas caught in the
Ural weigh ofteji 25 pood, and yield about 5 pood of ka-
viar or cavear, which on account of itsftringinefs is reckoned
the worft. The fturgeons are about a fathom in length,
and the largeft of them weigh 5 pood, and contain a pood of
kaviar, which is moftefteemed for its quality. The fifh here,
as at the Volga, are moftly faked ; kaviar ii prepared from
the roes, and fifh -glue made of the mucilaginous fubftances ;
but the winter-fifh are tranfported frozen. Tooke's Ruffia,
vol. iii.

Ural Mountains, a famous chain of mountains in Ruflia,
which forms the natural boundary between Europe and
northern Afia, called Ural, or the belt, as if it girted the
whole world. The ancients gave this chain the appellation
of the Hyperborean and the Ryphfean mountains, andfomc-

uniting on one fide with an arm iffuing from the Kirghiftzi-'
fteppe, on the left fhore of the Ural ; and on the other fide
projcdling into the old Kalmuck-fteppe, between the Volga
and the Ural, and northerly joining the faiid-ftone moun-
tains, which accompany the main courfc- of the Ural on the
wefterii fide. Near the forts of Orflc and Guberlinfif, a part
of the mountains runs out fouth-eaftward into the Kirg-
hiftzi deferts, and reaches to the mountain Ulutau, which
ftands about the centre of that region, and is attached to the
gri-At Altay. This arm is called the Giiberlinllvoi moun-
tains. Another courfe, fmaller than the preceding, runs
fouth-c?.ftw;ird, between the rivers Ural and Ui, under the
name of Okto-Karagai, through the open fteppe of the
middle horde of the Kirghis-kaifaks, and then purfues its
way, under the appellation of Alginilioi-Sirt, towards the
Irtifh and the Altay mountains. The whole Ural chain
may be divided into three parts, ■viz. the Kirghiftzi Ural,
extending from the Cafpian and the Aral, and eaftward out
of the great fteppe of the Kirghis-kaifaks, as far as the ori-
gin of the Tobol and the Yemba ; llie Ural rich in ores, or
Ural ore mountains, comprehending the whole mountainous
track, with its weftern and eaftei n appendages, from the rife
of the faid rivers and the Guberlinflcoi mountains, quite up
to the fources of the Solva and Kolva ; and the defert
Ural, extending from thefe rivers to the Frozen ocean. The
Ural abounding in ores may be fubdivided into the Oren-
burg, the Ekatarinenburg, and the Verchoturian Ural.

This main courfe of the Ural mountains declines mucli
more on its weftern fide than on the eaflern, and on the for-
mer has a confiderable track of collateral lidge, very rich in
copper, and moftly compofed of fchiftofe fand-ftone. The
higheft mountain of the Ural chain is in the Bafhkirey (or in
tlie Orenburg Ural), and in the Verchoturian Ural.

The Ural chain is of itfelf a main mountain, whofe higheft
ridges, for the moft part, confift of granite, and of all the
properly primitive rocky materials. In minerals the Ural
mountains are very rich ; abounding with beautiful forts of
granite, porphyry, excellent jafper, fine quartz, petrofilex,
pebbles, whetftones, flints, agates, chalcedonies, large moun-
tain cryftals, fmoky topares, or brown rock cryftals, fine
amethyfts, chrj-folites, porcelain and pipe-clay, bolus, ftielly
felfpar, ferpentine, potftone, window-mica, aft)eftus, and
amianthus ; beautiful marbles, table-fchiftus, gypfum.

times " Montes Rhymnici." Under the laft of thefe deno- flowers of fpar, turf, coals, mineral oils, naphtha, native
minations, the Bafhkirian Ural was more particularly de-
fignated. The Northern Ural they termed " Montes. Hyper-
borxos" or " Riphasos ;" and the fouthcrn " Rhymnicios."
The former were afterwards called the Yugorian mountains.
Ural is a Tartarian word, fignifying a belt, or girdle ; by
which the Ruffians likewife denote this range ; for they call
it Kammenoi, and Semnoi Poyas ; that is, the rock, or
earth-girdle. Thefe mountains extend from S. to N.,
almoft in a direft line, much above 1500 Englifh miles.
They commence with the mountains between the Cafpian and
rhe lake Aral, and attain their greateft height and bulk
about the fources of the rivers Ural, Tobol, and Emba ; and
Jirom thence they ftretch on towards the origin of the Tfhuf-
fovaia and the Ifets, and further on to the fources of the
Petfhora and the Sofva ; and laftly, form two great pro-
montories about the Karian haven of the Frozen ocean :
;»fter being divided by the ftraits of Vaygat, or Waygat, they
terminate in tlic mountains of Nova Zcmla. From this chain
feme confiderable collateral branches take a weftern as well
as an caftcrn courfe. The moft material from the former
fide are thofc called Obfch'.fchei-Sirt, the mounts of fcpara-
tion, running out between the river Ural and the 6akmara,
Vol. XXXVJI.

fulphur, marcafites, foffile ialts, fources of common fait,
bitter lakes, alum, vitriolic earths, falt-pctre, natron, iron,
copper, gold, and fpccimens of filver and lead. For work-
ing of the gold, copper, and iron, very expenfive and pro-
dudive fabrics are here erefted. The Ural mountains arc
alfo amply furnifhed with woods ; fuch as pines, birch, fir,
cedar, larch, afpin, alder, and on the S.W. fide a few oaks,
elms, lindens, &c. In the vallies adjoining to this range of
mountains are rich and verdant glens, and dales and meads in
alternate lucceftion ; fo that the breed of cattle is not incon-
fiderable. Among the wild bealls and birds, which are very
plentiful, may be reckoned fables, beavers, rein-doer, elks,
&c. The various elevations are copioufly fupplicd with
beautiful pellucid lakes, ponds, and numbcrlcfs ftrcams, all
teeming with fifh. The principal rivers that take their rife
in this chain of mountains are tlie Sofva, the Tura, the
IfTet, the Ui, the Tobol, the Yemba, the Ural, the Belaia,
the Tlhuftovaia, the Kamma, the Petftiora, &c. Tooke's
RulTia, vol. i.

URALLA, a confiderable Turkifh village, fituated on

the fide of a mountain, at about the diilance ot a mile fronn

the fhore, rommanding a profpefl of the whole of the fpa-

3 R ciou*

U R A

U K A

cious gulf of Smyrna, as far as Mitylene. The greater
part of the fine Smyrna raifins come from Uralla, where
feveral cargoes are prepared annually. At the feafon of the
racolta, or fruit-harveft, the Smyrna merchants fend their
clerks to attend its ingathering, and at that time there is
much bufmefs tranfafted in this village.

URALSK, a town of Rufiia, in the government of Cau-
cafus, on the Ural ; ^28 miles N-N.E. of Aftrachaii. N.
lat. 5i°lo'. E. long". 51° 54'.

URAMARCA. a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Gua-
manga ; 60 miles E. of Guamanga.

URAMEU, a town of Brafir; 48 miles N.E. of Para.
URAN. See OuRAN.

VRANA, a town of Iftria; 9 miles E.S.E. of
Pedena. — Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Servia ;
25 miles E.S.E. of Priftina — Alfo, a river of Bulgaria,
ivhicli runs into the BLck fea at Varna.

Vrana, or Urnna, a town of Dalmatia, fituatcd on a
lake to which it gives ":ame, anciently an important fortrefs
belonging to the Templars, and the refidence of the grand
prior. This cattle, which at the time of its foundation was
named Brana, or Vratia, by way of digr.ity, is now a
frightful heap of ruins, reduced to that ttate by the Vene-
tians. Some writers have thought that Bandoiia was an-
ciently feated there ; but no veftige of Roman antiquity is
to be feen about thefe walls, and ruined, uninhabited towers.
The khan, or caravanferai, is worthy of obfervation, alth.ough
it is now in a ruinous ftate, being abandoned to the barbarity
of the Moriacchi, who inhabit the neighbouring lands, and
carry off whatever materials fuit them, to be employed in
their wretched cottages. The name of Vrana is now tranf-
ferred to a wretched village, that ftands about a mile from
the ruins of the fortrefa, in the very place where an eminent
Turk of the laft age, called Hali Bey, had his gardens ;
and the fqualid habitation of the curate of the pariih lately
went by the name of Hali Bey's gardens. The lake of
Vrana is more famous and better known at Venice than any
otiier in Dalmatia, not only on account of its coniiderable
extent of 12 miles, but from the projcft formed by a pri-
vate perfon, and partly put in execution, to cut a paffage
by which the water might be difcharged into the fea ; 15
miles E.S.E. of Zara.

URAN A, a river of South America, which run* into
the Caribbean fea ; 9 miles W. of Cumana bay.

URANDA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xicoco ;
12 miles S.S.E. of Tofa.

URANDUK, a town of Bofnia ; 2 miles E. of Seraja.

URANIA, in j^ncknt Geography, a town of the ifle of

Cyprus, taken by Demetrius, according to Diodorus

S;Culu!.

Ubania, in Botany, a name for which the clafTical
Schreber hub well exchanged the barbarous Ravenala of
Adanfon and his followers ; fee that article. This latter
feems, by Jacquin's account, to be altered from Rjvenne
ala, fignifying, as he had fome reaion to believe, the leaf of
God, among the inhabitants of Madagafcar. In the apph-
cation of Uratita, Schreber had probably in view, not fo
much the " heavenly mufe," according to the explanation of
De Theis, as the Greek adjeftive ov^xnoc, great, admirable,
or fubtime, which fo well anfvvers to the majettic ita-
ture and large proportions of this very fine plant. — Sclireb.
Gen. 212. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.7. Mart. Mill. Dift.
v. 4. (Ravenala; Jufl". 62. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 222.) —
Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Mufic,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal, Common Shsatbs alternate, each of one

leaf, ovato-lanceolate, concave, many-flowered ; partial oneB
inferior, each of two linear-lanceolate, long, channelled,
pointed, ereft, coloured, permanent valves : perianth none.
Cor. Petals three, fuperior, oblong, channelled, ereft, acute,
equal. Nedlary of two equal leaves, one of them cloven,
(according to Adanfon). Stam. Filaments fix, thread-
fhaped ; anthers vertical, ereft, linear, longer than the fila-
ments, and about equal to the neftary, inchning at the fum-
mit. Pifl. Germen inferior, oblong ; ftyle rather longer
than the ftamens ; ftigma in fix converging fegments. Peric.
Capfule oblong, abrupt, triangular, of three cells, and
three woody valves, connefted at the bafe ; the partitions
from the centre of each valve. Seeds numerous, in two
rows, roundilh-oblong, each with an umbilicated, flefhy,
laciniated, coloured, radiating tunic, fpreading from the
fear.

EfT. Ch. Sheaths general and partial. Perianth none.
Petals three. Neftary of two equal leaves, one of them
cloven. Capfule inferior, of three cells. Seeds numerous,
in two rows, each with a coloured tunic.

I. U. fpec'iofa. Superb Urania. Willd. n. r. Ait.
Epit. 376, ( Ravenala madagafcarienfis ; Sonnerat Voy.
aux Ind.Or. v. 2, 223. t. 124 — 126. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
V. I. 47. t, 93.) — Native of marfhy gro\nid in the ifland of
Madagafcar. Cultivated in the Mauritius, from whence it
v/as carried to the imperial garden at Schoenbrun, in 1782,
and to the ftoves of Kew, in 18 10.

This is one of the mott (lately of plants, withrefpeft toils
habit, and the proportion of every part, though perhaps in-
ferior in ftatnre to many trees. The_/7t;n is ereft, and, ac-
cording to Sonnerat, very lofty, though he does not men-
tion its precife height, round, marked with numerous fears
where the foliage has formerly- been, otherwife naked and
fmooth, quite fimple, crowned at the lummit with an ample,
radiating, vertical tuft, of very numerous, ttalked, alternate
leavef, fpreading in two ranks, like a vail fan, many feet
wide. Each leaf is oblong, entire, obtufe at each end, with
one rib, and numerous tranfverfe, parallel veins, fmooth, re-
fembling the leaves of the Miifa, or Plantain-tree, but larger
and thicker. Footfialhs flieathiiig from the bafe about luilf
way up. Sonnerat makes their length about two feet, but
Jacquin fays ten, adding that each leaf is fix feet long, and
two wide. If this be correft, the whole diameter of the
fan-like head may be thirty-two feet ! We might have feit
a fufpicion that Jacquin's plant, which, in the courfe of fif-
teen years' cultivation in the ftove at Schoenbrun, never
flowered, nor formed any ftem, might be the Strelttvcia au-
gujla of Thunberg, Willdenow, and Alton ; had not the au-
thor exprefsly mentioned its having been raifed from feeds
taken out of the capfules delineated in his plate, which indu-
bitably belong to our Urania, whoie flower flails are axil-
lary, fcattered, fhorter than the footftalks, zigzag, very
ftout, and finally woody, each bearing fix or eight alternate,
two-ranked, rigid, pointed Ibeaths, filled with numerous,
ereft, \\\\\u{^floiuers, -xhofe petals are feven or eight inches
long. Capfules brown, rugged, three or four inches in
length. Seeds the fize of a horfc-bean, black, their tunics

of a fine blue, and curioufly jagged The inhabitants of

Madagafcar ufe the leaves as a covering to their houfes.
Flacourt, it feems, has defcribed this plant, in his Hiftory of
Madagafcar, by the name of Voafoutfi, ( Botany is happy
to have efcaped this name,) and" he there relates that the na-
tives make an oil- from the tunic of the feeds, and grind the
fubftance of the latter into meal, which they eat with milk.
After all that we can colleft, the Urama itfelf, if diflinft
from Sirelitzia aiigiifta, is fo very nearly allied to Strelilzia m

genu»,

U R A

sfenus, that we (liould not wonder if they prove the fame.
vVc have been fhewn at fir J. Banks's, a native capfule and
feeds of a Strelit'i.la from the Cape, which anfv/er exadlly to
tke charadlers of Urania, though no tunic is dcfcribed in
STRfei.;TZlA ; fee that article.

UraNia, or Calejlis, in Mythology, one of the nine Mufes
that prcfidcd over aftronomy : ilie is reprefented as clothed
with an a/.ure-oolouicd robe, crowned with Ravs, holding a
globe in iicr hand, or fometimcs with the globe at her feet,
and furroundcd with levcral mathematical inflruments. On
medals the globe ftands upon a tripod.

Ukania, a goddefs of the Arabians, and of the Moors
of Africa, called alfo yHilat and Ccelejiis. The Urania of
the Arabs is fuppofed to have been the Moon, as Bacchus
was the Sun ; and thcfe two luminaries were among them
objfds of worfliip. The Coeleftis of the Moorf, mentioned
by TertuUian, was the Venus Urania, fo well known in
Syria, that is, the planet of that name ; for it is certain that
almoll all nations wordiipped the ftars, and had gods natural
and gods animated.

URANIBURGH, q. d. thi City of the Heavens, a term
often heard among allronomers, being the name of a cele-
brated obfervatory, in a callle in the little illand Weenen,
or Huen, in the Sound ; built by that noble Dane, Tycho
Brahe ; and furnilhed with inflruments for obferving the
courfe and motions of the heavenly bodies.

This famed obfervator}-, finifhed about the year 1580,
did not fubfill above feventeen years ; when Tycho, who
little thought to have erected an edifice of fo fhort a dura-
tion, and who had even publifhed the figure and pofition of
the heavens, which he had chofen for the moment to lay the
iirft Hone in, was obliged to abandon his country.

Soon after this, thofe to whom the property of the ifland
was given, made it their bufinefs to demohfli Uraniburgh :
part of the ruins was difperfed into divers places ; the refl
ferved to build Tycho a handfome feat upon his ancient
eftate, which to this day bears the name of Uraniburgh.
For as to the ancient Uraniburgh, there is now no footftep
of it remaining. It was here Tycho compofed his cata-
logue of the Hars.

M. Picart, making a voyage to Uraniburgh, found Ty-
cho's meridian line, drawn thereon, to deviate from the
meridian of the world : which confirms tlie conjefture of
■fome, that the pofition of the meridian line may vary. See
TvcHO Brahb.

URANIUM, in Mineralogy and Metallurgy, a metal fo
called from the planet Uranus or Herfchel, by the cele-
brated chemill Klaproth, who difcovered it in 1789, in an
ore which had been formerly fuppofed to contain zinc or
iron. Uranium is of an iron-grey colour ; it poflefTcs con-
fiderable metallic luftre ; it is brittle and hard, but yields to
the tile. It has hitherto only been obtained in grains, or in
fmall quantities as a porous cohering mafs. The fpecific
gravity of uranium, according to Klaproth, is 8.01 ; but
according to Bucholz, 9. Uranium melts with great diffi-
culty ; but when heated to rednefs in an open vefTel, it un-
dergoes a fpecies of combullion, glowing like a coal, and
is converted into a black powder, gaining in weight about
five parts in the hundred. This powder is the black oxyd.
The yellow oxyd is obtained by precipitating uranium from
its foiution in nitric acid by an alkali. The yellow oxyd of
uranium is Infoluble in p\irc alkalies, but is foluble by the
alkaline carbonates ; the former property dillinguillies it
from the oxyd of tungllen. The yellow oxyd confifls of
eight parts metal, and twenty of oxygen. The combina-
tions of uranium with the other metals are unknown. With
fulphur the yellow oxyd of uranium may be combined, by

U R A

mixing two parts of fulphur and one of oxyd, and expofing
the mixture to heat in a crucible. Mott of the fulphur is
driven off; the reliduum is a blackiHi-brown mafs, being a
fulphuret of uranium. If the heat be increafed, the whole
of the fulphur is fublimed, and the uranium remains in a
metallic ftate, in tfie form of a black coarfe powder. Me-
tallic uranium is only perfcftly foluble in nitric acid.
Bucholz fuppofes that there are feveral oxyds of this metal,
diftinguifhed by their different colours, as under :

Protoxyd, - Grcyifli-black.

Second oxyd, - Dark grey, inclining to violet.

Third oxyd, - Greenifh-brown.

Fourth oxyd, - Grcyifh-green.

Fifth oxyd, - Orange.

Peroxyd, - Lemon-yellow.

To obtain uranium from its ores, in which it exifts in the
flate of oxyd, the are mull be diflolved in dilute nitric
acid. The foiution may cor.tai.T iron, copper, and lime.
By evaporating it to drynefs, and expofing the dry mafs to
a moderately flrong heat, the iron is rendered infoluble, but
the other ingredients will be taken up by dillilled water.
Ammonia poured into this foiution, and digefled in it for
fome time, retains the copper, but throws down the
uranium.

The precipitate is to be waili-'d with ammonia till the
liquid comes off colourlefs ; it is then to be dilTolved in
nitric acid, and to be concentrated by evaporation, and fct
by to cryllallize. The green-coloured cryllals that form,
may be picked out and dried on blotting-paper, then dif-
folved in water, and the liquid partly evaporated and left to
cryflallize. By this means the whole of the lime will re-
main behind. The cryllals will confift of pure oxyd of
uranium united to nitric acid ; they are to be expofed to a
red heat ; a yellow powder remains, which is the oxyd of
uranium. This powder is to be mixed with a fmall quan-
tity of charcoal powder, and expofed to a violent heat, by
which it is reduced to a metalhc flate. The experiment
fucceeds befl when the oxyd is mixed with only the one-
twentieth part of charcoal, and inclofed in a charcoal cru-
cible to exclude the air. Klaproth employed a heat equal
to 170^ Wedgwood, to obtain this metal. No flux has
hitherto been found of any fervice in facilitating the reduc-
tion of uranium.

Uranium has not hitherto been applied to any ufeful pur-
pofe in the arts, eitiier in its metallic flate, or in combina-
tion with acids as a metalline fait.

With nitric acid, oxyd of uranium unites in two propor-
tions. The nitrate is an extremely foluble fait, of a lemon-
yellow colour. The cryllals have generally tiie form of
hexagonal tables, more or lefs perfeft ; but by careful ma-
nagement, they may be obtained in large four-fidcd reftan-
gular flat prifms. At the temperature of 100", they fall
into a white powder. In a damp .itmofpherc, they loon
deliquefce.

They confift, according to Buch<dz, of

Oxyd of uranium - - f>i

Acid 2J

Water .... 14

When nitrate of uranium is heated till its colour becomes
orange-red, it does not diffolve completely in water, but
leaves a yellow powder, which lias been lliewn by Bucholz
to be a fnbnitrate.

The oxyd of uranium combines with the muriatic and
3 R 2 fiilphnnc

U R A

IJ R A

fulphuric acids, alfo with the acetic, the tartaric, the
phofphoric, and fluoric acids, and with thofe of tungften
and molybdena. Richter formed likewife the borate, oxa-
late, citrate, malate, benzoate, fuccinate, and febate of
uranium ; but the properties of the latter falts have not been
defcribed. See Salts and Acids.

Ores of Uranium. — Pitch-blende or Pitch-ore, Pecher-z,
Werner ; Uran Osidule, Hauy. This mineral was firft ob-
I'erved in a mine at Johan-Gsorganttadt, in Saxony. From
its black colour, and other properties, it was for fome time
fuppofed to be a blende, or ore of zinc. M. Werner
placed it among iron-ores, and afterwards fuppofed that it
contained wolfram. KJaproth analyfcd this ore in 1789,
and found that it confifted principally of fulphur, combined
with a metal to which he firll gave the name of uranium.
Tliis ore occurs in veins in primitive rocks, in feveral places
in Cornwall, in Saxony, and in Norway ; it is commonly
accompanied with galena, coppier pyrites, and iron ochre,
and with quartz, calcareous fpar, and fulphate of barytes.
It is alfo fometimes affociated with ores of filver and co-
balt.

The colour of pitch-blende is velvet-black, or greyifh-
black, fometimes inclining to green and brown. It occurs
mafiive, and diffeminated alfo reniform, botryoidal, and
pulverulent. The luftre internally is refinous, more or lefs
ihining. The ftrufture is fometimes imperceptible ; in
other fpecimens it is lamellar. Pitch-blende is brittle ; the
IraSure is imperfeftly conchoidal ; the fragments are an-
gular and fharp-edged. It yields readily to the knife, but
the colour of the llreak is not changed. The fpecific gra-
vity of this ore is 7.5.

Pitch-blende is infufible without addition by the blow-
pipe : with borax it yields a grey flag ; with phpfphate of
foda, a clear green globule. It difTolves imperfeftly in the
iulphuric and muriatic acids, but is almoft entirely diffolved
in the nitric and nitro-muriatic acids. The folution has a
pale orange-green colour ; and from this folution the metal
is precipitated by the phofphate of potafh ind the alkalies :
with the former, the colour of the precipitate is a brownifh-
red ; with the latter, yellow.

The conftituent parts of this ore, as given by Klaprotl),
are,

Oxyd of uranium - - 86.5

Black oxyd of iron - - 2.5

Galena . - . . 6

Silex .... 5

100

Pitch-blende may be diftinguifhed from brown blende by
its colour, fpecific gravity, frafture, and ftreaks ; from wol-
fram by its ftreak and frafture.

Uranite, or Uran mica, Urane oxide, Hauy. The colour
of this ore is lemon-yellow, palling into orange, and into
apple-green and emerald-green ; it becomes brownifh by de-
compofition. It occurs cryftallized in reftangular prifms
and tables, and fometimes in imperfect oftohedrons. The
edges of the cryftals are frequently bevelled and truncated.
The ftrufture is lamellar, with diliinft joints in one direc-
tion, parallel to the bafes of the cryftals ; the other jonits
are indillmft. The lamellx are inflexible, and tranfparent
or tranflucent, with a Ihining pearly luftre. Uranite yields
eafily to the knife ; the fpecific gravity is 2.19. The cryf-
tals are generally fmaH. Sometimes this mineral occurs
maflive, in granular diftinft concretions ; and fometimes it
is found pulvtruleii'-., and in fmall tubercle?, which have a
glimmering or dull luftre, and an orange or green or reddifh-

brovm colour. Uranite decrepitates violently before tliA
blow-pipe; it lofes about ^^3 per cent, by ignition, and ac-
quires the colour of brafs. With borax it yields a yellowifh-
green glafs. This ore diflblves without effervefcence in
nitric acid, and communicates to it a lemon-yellow olour.
Its conftituent parte, as given by M'Gregor, 3re,
Oxyd of uranium, vinth a trace of oxyd of lead 74.4
Oxyd of copper - . . . . 8.2

Water ---...- 15,4
Lofs .-..-.. 2

100

Uranite occurs in veins in the mines of Cornwall, and in
Saxony and France ; it is generally accompanied vnth the:
ores of iron.

The pulverulent uranite is called by the Germans uran-
ochre. Indurated uran-ochre alfo occurs with the other
ores of uranite, cither madlve or difleminated ; the colour is
the fame as the pulverulent. It is foft and brittle ; the
fpecific gravity is 3.15. According to Klaproth, the yel-
low varieties are pure oxyd of uranium ; but the brownifh
and reddifh contam a little iron.

URANOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Pamphylia, and in the country called Carbalia. Ptolemy.
— Alfo, a town of Macedonia, in the Chalcide ; fituated on
mount Athos, near the fouthern fide, and the promontories
Nymphaum and Auvathon. Pliny. Athenaeus fays, that
this town was founded by Alexp.rchus, the brother of Caf-

fander, king of Macedonia Alfo, an epithet given by

Athenaeus to the city of Rome.

URANOSCOPUS, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifti,
called in Englifh ihtjiar-gazer ; and by fome authors, calli-
onymut.

The uranofcopus, in the Linnaan fyftem, is a genus of
the order of Jugulares : its characters are, that the head is
deprefled, rough, and large ; the mouth has the upper jaw
Ihorter than the lower ; the branchioftege membrane has five
rays, and is covered with fmall eminences like teeth ; the
opercula are membranous and ciliated ; the anus is in the
middle of the body. Gmelin mentions two fpecies : viz.
Jcaber, or ftar-gazer, with bearded lips and fmooth back.
It is ufually caught about feven or eight inches in length,
but fometimes it grows to a foot ; its head is very large, of
a fort of fquare figure, covered by a ftrong bony cafe,
roughened by an infinite number of fmall crefts or protube-
rances ; each fide of this cafe is terminated above by two
fpines, the under part has five fpines fmaller than thofe
above. Its mouth is large, and opens perpendicularly
downward, being placed in the fame direftion with the eyes
i:i the upper part of the head ; the tongue is thick, (hort,
and roughened with a number of fmall teeth ; under its chin
is a beard or long cirrus extending to fome diftance beyond
the lips ; its eyes are fmall and prominent, and are fo placed
near each other in the upper part of its head, as naturally to
look up to the heavens, whence it has its name ; and though
many of the flat fi(h have their eyes placed like- thofe of this
fifti, yet the pupils in thefe are direfted fidevvays, whereas
in this only they are turned ftraighl upward ; the body is of
a fquarifti form as far as the vent, and then it becomes cy-
lindric : it is covered with fmall fcales, and marked near the
back by a lateral line, compofed of fmall pores or points
bending from the neck to the peftoral fins on each fide, and
from thence in a ftraight line to the tail : on the back are
two fins, the firft being much fhorter than the latter, and
furniftied with ftronger fpines ; the pefloral fins are large,
with foft rays ; the ventral fins are fmall ; the tail is of mo-
derate

U R B

derate fize, and rounded at the end ; the colour of the body-
is brown, with a whitifti or filvery caft towards the abdo-
men ; the head, peAoral fins, and tail having a llrong fer-
ruginous call, and the firft dorfal fin being marked towards
its hind part by a large black fpot.

The ftar-gazer is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean and
Northern feas, frequenting chiefly the fhallow parts near the
(hores, and concealing itfelf in the mud, with the top of its
head only expofed : in this fituation it waves the bi.-ards of
the lips, and particularly the long cirrus of the mouth, in
various direftions, thus alluring the fmaller fifhes and marine
infefts that are near, who miftaking thefe organs for worms,
are inftantly feized by their concealed enemy. As an article
of food it is coarfe, and of an ill flavour : the gall was an-
ciently confidered as peculiarly efficacious in external dif-
orders of the eyes.

The reafon of the fituation of the eyes of the uranofco-
pus, is the providence of nature for a fi(h, which, aUvays
keeping at the bottom, has no where to look for prey but in
the water above it. But if other fifh had been well exa-
mined, this peculiar name would never have been given to
this. The eyes of the rana ptfcatrix are placed in the fame
manner, and thofe of a great number of other fifh, whofe
cuftom it is to keep at the bottom, are more or lefs alfo thus
Jituated. Gefner. Gmelin. Shaw.

Japonicus. With the back roughened by a femi-range
of fpinous fcales. Found in the fea encompafling Japan.
This is above yellow, and underneath white.

URANUGRATZ, in Geography, a town of Croatia;
1 8 miles N.N.W. of Novi.

URANUS, in Mythology, the great divinity of the
Phoenicians. According to Sanchoniathon, he was the fon of
£lion, called Hypfiftus, who lived in the neighbourhood of
Byblos, by his wife Beruth. Thefe had a fon, firft called
Epigeus, and afterwards Uranus, and a daughter named Ge.
The names of thefe two children the Greeks have given to
heaven aitd earth. Hypfiftus, having died at a hunting-
match, was advanced to divine honours, and had facrifices
and libations offered to him. Uranu? took pofTelTion of his
father's throne, and having married his fifter Ge, had feveral
children by her. Uranus, as the fabulous hiftory relates,
was expelled from the throne by his fon Chronus, on ac-
count of the offence given to his mother Ge by his infidehty,
who fucceedfd to his power. According to the thcogony
of the Atlantida:, who hvcd in the weftern parts of Africa,
preferved by Diodorus Siculus, Uranus, or Coclus, was
their firft king, and brought his fubjefts, who had before
his time wandered about without any fixed refidcnce, to five
in fociety, and to cultivate the ground. He alfo ftudied
aftronomy, and regul'^tcd the year by the courfc of the fun,
and the months by that oi the moon ; and by calculating
the motions of the heavenly bodies, he delivered prediAions,
the accomplilhmeiit of which aftoriifhed the Ailantida: to
fuch a degree, that tliey thought him divine, and after his
death enrolled him among the gods. Uranus had by his fe-
veral wives forty-five children, and by Titsa alone eighteen,
whence fprang tlnf appellation of Titans. S.e Titans.

VRASA, 111 Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Smaland ; i6 miles S. of Wexio.

URATOOR, a town of Hindoollan, in the circar of
Cuddapa ; 14 miles W. of Cuddapa.

VRAZZA, a town of Bulgaria, on the Ellicr ; 24
miles N.E. of Sophia.

URB.'MN, St., a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Marne ; 3 miles S.E. of Joinville.

URBAN I., Pope, in Biography, fucceeded Calixtus I.
A.D. 223, and occupied the poutifical chair till the year

U R B

i^^, when, as it is faid, he was beheaded under the empe-
ror Alexander Severus ; fo that the Roman fenate has
ranked him in the number of its martyrs. Bower.

Urban II., Pope, named Olho, or Eudei, was bom, as
it has been generally thought, at Chatillon-fur-Marne, and
educated under Bruno, founder of the Carthufian order ; and
devoting himfelf to a monaftic life in the monaftery of Cluny,
became abbot of that inftitution. Being called to Rome, in
1078, by pope Gregory VII., he was made cardinal and
bifhop of Oftia ; and in J088, after the death of pope Vic-
tor III. in 1087, the Romans unanimoufly eleded him as
his fucceffor, when he affumed the name of Urban II. He
was no lefs proud and arrogant than his patron Gregory,
with lefs fortitude, but greater temerity. In the fecond
year of his pontificate he affembled a council at Rome, which
excommunicated the anti-pope Guibert, together with
Henry IV., of Germany, by whom he was fupported, and all
his adherents. He alfo held another council at Melfi, in
Apulia, which confirmed the decrees of Gregory againft
lay inveftitures and the marriage of the clergy. The pope,
in order to counteraft the power of the emperor, promoted
a marriage between Guelph, duke of Bavaria, and the
countels Matilda ; upon which Henr)' marched into Italy,
and having reduced Mantua, and other places, recalled Gui-
bert to Rome, and put him in poffefTion of the Lateran pa-
lace, when the emperor's progrefs was checked by the revolt
of his fon Conrad : under the inttigation or approbation of
Urban, Guibert was expelled, and Urban returned to Rome
in 1093. In the year 1095, a council was held at Placentia,
to which a folemn embalfy was fent by Alexius Comnenus,
emperor of Conftantinople, the objeft of which was to ftate
the opprefTions of the infidels, and to requeft alTiftance on
behalf of the Chriftians of ilie Eaft. The pope and feveral
great lords interefted themfelves in their taufe, and propofed
perfonally and otherwife to afford them fuccour. At this
council, the doftrine of tranfubllantiation was afferted ; the
marriage of the clergy was rigoroufly prohibited ; and Gui-
bert and his partifans were again anathematized. After an
interview between Conrad and the pope, he was recognized
as king of Italy, on the condition of an oath of allegiance to
the apoftolic fee. In 1095 Urban vifited France, and held
a council at Claremont, the firft bufinefs of which was the
excommunication of king Philip, for refufing to part with
Bertrade, who had been his miftrefs, and whom he had mar-
ried, after having repudiated his queen Bertha. Among
other canons paffed by this council, one forbade a bifhop or
prieft to promife fidelity to a king or any layman. The
" Treuga Dei" (fee Trucio of God) was ftrongly enforced,
and all former decrees relating to it were confirmed. But this
council rendered itfelf peculiarly famous, by firft introducing
the projcft of crufades. (See Croisade. ) During Ur-
ban's abode in France, he held other councils ; and in one
of them abfolvcd Philip, who had difmiffed Bertrade ; and
he returned to Italy in 1096. At Salerno he had an inter-
view, in IC98, with liogcr, duke of Sicily, when he is fup-
pofcd to have granted the bull of the " Monarchy of Si-
cily," in confequence of which, the fovereign of Sicily is
fiiprcme head of the church in his dominions. Although
the authenticity of this bull hss been difputed, the powers
confirmed by it have been occafionally exercifcd ever
fince that period. This pope took part with Anfelnj,
arehbilhop of Canterbury, and the other En^^hfh i-lergy,
againft William Rufus, who had made free with their tem-
poralities, and threatened the king with excommunication-
In the year IO99, the fecond cnilaile took place, in which
Jerufalem was captured ; but Urban did not live to receive
this agreeable intelligence ; for he terminated a bufy pontifi-
cate

URBAN.

cate of eleven years and above four months, at Rome, in
July of this year. Over his tomb in the Vatican was
placed this infcription : " Urbanus II. Auftor Expeditionis
in Iiifidi'les." Miracles have been afcribed to Urban by
the mo:ikifh orders ; but they have not been fanftioned by
the Roman church. Several of his letters, and of the decrees
of councils convened by him, are extant. Bower. Moflicim.

Urban III., Pope, was elefted to the pontificate on the
deceafe of Lucius III., in December 1184. Several dif-
putes were excited between him and the emperor Frederic
BarbarotTa, which occafioned his menace to excommunicate
the emperor ; but Barbaroffa appealed to an aflembly of
prelates and princes in Germany in vindication of his rights,
and they wrote a letter to the pope on the fubjeft of com-
plaint. Such was his indignation, that he threatened to
fulT.inate his fcntence at Verona, but the inhabitants of that
citv would not permit it. Soon after he is faid to have died
of grief, upon hearing of the capture of Jerufalem by Sala-
din, in 1 187. Bower.

Urban IV., Pope, named Pantalion, was born of mean
parentage at Troyes, in Champagne, ftudied at Paris, and
rofe through feveral gradations of preferment to the papal
chair, on the death of Alexander IV., in 1261. At two
promotions of cardinals, he is faid to have created fourteen,
I'ho did honour to his choice. Manfred, who ufurped the
crown of Sic.ily, was excommunicated for refufing to obey
his fnmmons to Rome, and a crufade was alfo preached
againft him. Afterwards dlfturbances occurred in the city,
which caufed the pope to retire to Orvieto, where he rellded
with his cardinals during the greateil part of his pontificate.
He made an unfuccefsful attempt, by the mterference of his
authoritative counfel, to terminate the war which raged in
Germany on account of a competition for the empire : and
having failed in his negotiation with Manfred, he offered the
kingdom to Charles of Anjou, brother of king Louis IX.,
by whom it was accepted ; but before he was informed of
the refuk, he ditd at Perugia, in Oftober 1264. This pope
inilituted the feftival of " Corpus Chrifti," in honour of the
holy facrament, by a bull dated in 1264. The fanftity of
his manners, and his liberality to the poor, have been re-
corded to his honour ; and Tirabofchi produces evidence of
his having been an encourager of philofophical ftudies ; and
the mathematician Campano compliments him with being the
patron and anbciate of men of learning. He is faid to have
laid his injundlions on the famous Thomas Aquinas, to write
commentaries on Aiiftotle. His own epiftles that are ex-
tant are of little or no importance. Dupin. Bower.

Urban V., Pope, was at an early age a TBenediftine, and
ftudied civil and canon law at Moutpellier, of which
he became a profeflor in that univerfity, and at Avignon,
Touloufe, and Paris. After fome fubordinate promotions,
he fucceeded Innocent VI. in the papal chair, A.D. 1362.
At the commencement of his pontificate hewasvifitedbythree
fovereigns ; one of whom, r;z. Lufignan, king of Cyprus,
folicited his afllftance againft the Turks, who threatened to
invade his dominions. In compliance with this requeft, the
pope engaged the other two kings, i>/z. John of France,
and Waldemar of Denmark, to engage in a crufade for that
purpofe ; but the defign was rendered abortive by the death
of the French king. In 1365, the emperor Charles IV.
vifited the pope at Avignon, which was then the feat of the
papal fee ; but foon afterwards the pontiff was invited to
Rome, and to make that city, which was his proper capi-
tal, the place of his abode. Accordingly, on the laft day of
April, 1367, he fet out on his journey, and in Oftober
made his folemn entry into Rome. In the following year he
;A'as viftted by Charles, who accompanied him from Vherbo,

9

on his fecond entrance into Rome, walking by his frde, and
holding his flirrup from the Colline gate to St. Peter's.
He was alfo honoured by the vifit of another emperor,
John Palgeologus, of Conflantinople, who profeffed every
article of faith lield by the Roman church, acknowledg-
ing its primacy, and fwearing perpetual obedience. This
victory over the Greek church was highly gratifying to the
pope. At this time Urban announced, to the furprize and
difappointment of the Itahans, his intention of returning to
Avignon. Various attempts were made to diffuade nim
fr.Dm accomplifhing his purpofe ; and St. Bridget, then fa-
smous for her revelations, predifted that if ho undertook fuch
a journey he would not be able to compleat it. Notwith-
ftanding every kind of oppofition, he retained his purpofe,
and arrived at Avignon in September, 1370. But the ter-
mination of his life was approaching, and having made that
kind of preparation for it which his religion enjoined, he re-
figned himfelf with compofure and acquiefcence, expiring
December 19, 1370. This pope has been highly commend-
ed tor his public and private virtues. He extirpated abufes,
checked the ambition and reftrained the avarice of af-
piring ecclefiaftics, and deviated from the example of other
pontiffs, by raifing only one relation, vi%. his own brother,
to the purple, and not permitting even his father, who lived
to 100 years, to accept a penfion from France. To the
poor he was liberal, and in erefting public works munifi-
cent. He encouraged learning by founding univerfities, and
he is faid to have maintained icoo iludents at his own charge.
He reitored to its ancient fplendour the univerfity of Bo-
logna, which fervice was highly extolled by Petrarch. Se-
veral of his letters have been publilhed, and a volume of them
exifts in the Vatican library. Dupin. Moreri. Gen.
Biog.

Urban VI., Pope, was elefted, if the expreffion may be
ufed, by a conclave of cardinals, compelled by the populace
of Rome to name and enthrone Bartolomeo Prignani, arch-
bifhop of Bari, who affumed the name of Urban VI., and
who was then 60 years of age. He was born at Naples, and
deemed to be an excellent civihan and canonift, and a perfon
of great probity. He was exemplary in his attention to the
forms of devotion, and fingularly humble and modeil in his
demeanour. The cardinals apprehended that he would re-
nounce an election that had been the refult of force ; but
this was far from being his intention. He began with re-
proving the cardinals for their culpable qualities, and witli
urging them to reform their conduct ; and at the fame time
he ingratiated himfelf with the Roman people. The cardi-
nals were incenfed by the haughty fpint which he manifefted,
and determined upon making void his election. For this
purpofe they withdrew to Anagni, and from thence fent aiv
admonition to Urban to refign a dignity to which he muft be
confcious he had no title. When they found that their ad-
monition was unavailing, they proceeded to a new eleftion,
under the proteftion of a guard from Viterbo. At length,
the ultramontane cardinals, being fixteen, whiHl the Italian
were no more than four, pronounced, in Augull 1378, a
fentence of nullity againft; the election of Urban, and of
excommunication againft his perfon. The Italian cardinals
afterwards joined them ; and they concurred in chufing
for a new pope cardinal Robert, brother of the count of
Geneva, and allied to moft of the royal houfes of Europe.
He affumed the name of Clement Vll.

The countries of Europe were drvided between thefe two
popes : Urban being acknowledged in Italy and the greateft
part of Germany, England, Portugal, Hungary, Poland,
Denmark, Sweden, Pruffia, and Norway ; and Clement
polTeffing France, Spain, Scotland, Sicily, Rhodes, aud

Cyprus,

U R B

Cyprus. Each of thefe claimants was adlicrtJ lo and fup-
ported by men of learning and reputation. The former re-
lided at Rome, and the latter at Avignon. Wc (hall not
detail the contefts, no lefs difgraceful to the one than to the
other, by which thefe competitors foreeclefiaftical power and
their refpeftivt adherents maintained their autl.ority and
influence. One of Urban'a laft afts was that of reducing
tlie period of the Jubilee from every 50th to every 33d year.
He clofcd a very unquiet pontificate of ll| years, and a
life of atrocious mifconiiuft, in Oftober 1389. Notwith-
ilanding the apparent irregularity of his eleftion, the church
has fan£tioned it as canonical, enrolled him among the true
popes, and referred his rival to the clafs of anti-popes.
Dupin. Bower.

Urban VII., Pope, fucceeded Sixtus V. in September,
1590, and died on the tv/elfth day of his pontificate.
Bower.

Urban VIII , Pope, named MaJfiO Barhcrini, was born
of a noble Florentme family in 1567, educated in Florence
and the .lefuits' college in Rome, and ;i:raduated in law at
Pjfa. He was well acquainted with tie L;itin, Greek, and
Hebrew languages, and became a prelate by powerful in-
tereft at the age of 19 years. Under tlie patronage of Cle-
ment VIII. he fuftained many offices of diilindion ; was
made cardinal by Paul V. in 1606, and elevated to the pon-
tificate on tlie death of Gregory XV. in 1 623. Immedi-
ately upon his elevation, he created two of his nephews
cardinals, and conferred the title of eminence upon all of
that order. On the death of the duke of Urbino, in 1632,
he took pofTefGon of that duchy, as a fief uf the holy fee.
Of the part which this pontiff look in the controverfy that
prevailed with rcfpeft to the doftrines of Janfenius, we have
already given a brief account under the article Jansenism.
Among his other pontifical a£ls we may mention his appro-
bation of the order of the Vifitation, and his fuppreffion of
that of the J.-fiiitefies. He alfo iffued a bull for renewing
the decrees of the council of Trent, and of other popes,
which enjoined the reiidence of prelates on their fees. Hav-
ing, at the inftigation of his nephews, entered into a war
with the duke of Parma, from whom he had ravifhed, in
1 641, the ducliy of CuRro, as a forfeiture to the holy fee,
which he was afterwards obliged to reftorc, on condition of
obtaining peace, he died in 1644, in the 77th year of his
age, and the 21ft of his pontificate. His charafter, ex-
cepting only the charge of nepotifm, whicli lie incurred in
common with many other pontiffs, v.'as upon the whole rc-
fpeftable. He was a fcholar, and an encourager of litera-
ture. Of his poenn a magnificent imprcffion was pubhfhed,
during his life, at Paris, in 1642, under the tide " Ma-
phsi S.R.E. Carl. Barbcrini nunc Urbaai VIII. Poemata."
He alfo corrected and rendered more pure and elegant the
Latin hymns ufed in divine fervice. Among other Tplcndid
buildings, which he caufed to be ere£led in the capital, one
was the palace of Paleftrina, for the refidence of a nephew,
whom he made prhicc with tiiat title. By (tripping the
brafs from the roof of the Pantheon, in order to decorate
the altar of St. Peter's, he furniflied occafion for the fol-
lowing pafquinad- : " Quod non fccere Barbari, fecere
Barberini." His family he liad fo enriched, that he fub-
jedted them to a fevere perfecution in tiie fubfequent ponti-
ficate. Dupin. Bower.

URBANIA, or Capl Durante, in Geogral<hy, a town
of the Popedom, 111 th r duchy of Urbino. This town owes
its name to pope Urban VIII., who rebuilt it, and fur-
rounded it with baflions. It is the fee of a bifliop, fuffragan
of Urbino ; 7 miles S.S.W. of llrbino.

URBANNA, a town of Virginia, 011 the Rappahannoc ;

U R B

50 mikt E.N.E. of Richmond. N. lat. 37" 40'. W. long,
76' 40'.

URBARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
the interior of Mauritania Csfarienfis. Ptolemy.

URBATA, a town of Pannonia, upon the route from
Sirmium to Salone, between Cirtifa and Servium. Autoa.
Itin.

URBE, in Geography, a river which rifes in the county
of Waldeck, and runs into the Dimel, 5 miles W. of War-
burg.

URBIACA, in ylncitnt Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, at a fmaU diftance from mount Ubeda, towards
the eaft, on a fmall river which ran towards Bilbilis ; marked
in Anton. Itin. between Valeponga and Albonica.

URBICARY Provinces. See Suburbicary.

URBICUS, m Ancient Geography, a river of Spain.

URBINATES, a people of Italy, in Umbria ; of
whom there were two claffes, w'z. the Metaurenfes, who in-
habited the banks of the Metaurus ; and the Hortenfes, who
inhabited the city of Urbinum, near the Flaminian way.
The Urbinum Hortenfe, or town of gardens, was fituated
on a lofty hill, and had only a fountain to fupply the whole
town with water. The Urbinum of Metaurus lay fouth-eaft
of the former, on a river from which it took its name. It
was municipal.

URBINO, TlMOTEO Dl, in Biography. See VlTE.

Urbino, Duchy of, in Geography, a province of the Pope-
dom, bounded on the north by Romagna, on the north-ead
by the Adriatic, on the fouth-eaft by the marquifate of
Ancona, on the foutli by the Perugiano, and on the weft
by Tufcany and Romagna. The air is reckoned unwhole-
fome ; one of the chief produftions is filk ; game and fifh
are plentiful. Urbino was formerly governed by its own
dukes, of whom the laft, Francis Maria, of Rovera, dying
in the year 1631, without male iffue, the pope took pof-
feflion of his territory. The faid duke had by will, in
1626, confirmed the pope's claims, and already, in efFeft,
made over the country. Vidforia, daughter of his fon
Ubaldi, and fpoufe to Ferdinand II. great duke of Tuf-
cany, inherited the allodial ettates ; and hence it is that
Poggio Impcriale, and other places in this country, be-
longed to the duke of Tufcany. In the year 1764, tlie
pope purchafed the rights claimed by the duke of Tufcany.
During the French revolution it was transferred to the king-
dom of Italy.

Urbino, a city of the Popedom, and capital of a duchy
of the fame name, near the head of tlie Foglio, the fee of
an archbifliop, and refidence of a legate. It is fituated on
a hill, at the union of two rivers. The univerfity or aca-
demy is one of the moll ancient in Italy. It contains a
noble college, and 16 convents. The ducal palace, which
at piefent belongs to the pope, was built by duke Frederie,
who furnifhed it with many ancient ftatucs of marble and
bronze, excellent paintings, and a library of curious and
rare books. Tlie library was conveyed to Rome by pope
Alexander VII. In the churches .are fecn fome works of
the celebrated painters Raphael and Frederic Barocci ; as
likewife of Genga, Vincent St. Geminiaao, and Timotheus
d'Urbino, pupils of Raphael. Raphael was a native of
Urbino; 54 miles E. of Florence." N. lat. 43° 48'. E.
long. I 2° 32'.

URBI-SAGLI.\, a town of the marquifitc of Ancona ;
5 miles S.^jf Macerata.

URBS. See Kekf.

Urrs, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Liguria.
— Alfo, a foreft of Italy, in Liguria, near the forc-men-
lioned river.

Uhhs

U R C

U R C

Ures Selvia, a town of Italy, in the interior of Pi-
cenum, on this fifle of the Apennines. Ptolemy.

Urbs Vetus, Orvietfe, a town of Italy, in Etruria, on
the river Clanis.

URCAS, in Geography, rocks near the coaft of Brazil.
S. lat. 4° 50'. W. long. 35° 44'.

URCEO, Antonio, (Codrus Urceus, Lat.), in Bio-
graphy, an eminent fcholar, was born iu 1446, at Rubiera,
in the territory of Reggio, in Lombardy ; and having been
educated at Bologna, and under the famous Guarini at Fer-
rara, he became, in his 23d year, a teacher of the claffics
at Forli. At Forli he had for one o: his pupils the fon of
Pino, lord of that place, who having once politely recom-
mended himfelf to Urceo, the latter jocofely rephed,
" Good God ! how well things go with us ! Jupiter re-
conamends himfelf to Codrus ;" referring to the name of a
poet in Juvenal, whofe poverty was proverbial. From this
circumftance he obtained the appellation of Codrus. The
lofs of fome written paper, and of an opera entitled
" Pallor," by fire, roufed his paflion to fuch a degree,
that he vented his rage by uttering the mod horrid blaf-
phemies, and hurrying into a wood near the city, where he
remained a whole day without food. Upon his return the
gates were (hut, and he was obliged to pafs the night upon a
dunghill. In the morning he repaired to the houle of a car-
penter, and remained there in a ftate of melancholy for fix
months ; but he afterwards refumed his occupations till the
death of Pino. Upon this event difturbances occurred in
the city, which occafioned him, after a refidence of 13 years,
to remove to Bologna, where he taught grammar and elo-
quence with great applaufe. His difregard of religion,
however, and the freedom with which he exprefied his
doubts concerning a future flate, rendered it neceffary for
him to engage the proteftion of the moll reputable citizens.
Notwithilanding the fcepticifm and irreligion of his life, he
had recourfe, at his death, to the facraments of the church,
which he received with tokens of deep contrition. He died
in the year 1500, much regretted by his difciples, who
carried his remains to the place of interment. His diftin-
guifhed reputation, as one of the moft learned Greek and
L.atin fcholars in his time, has been teftilied by his con-
temporaries, and particularly by Angelo Poliziano and
Aldo Manuzio. His works, confiding of Latin letters,
orations, and poems, and of a fupplement to the " Aulu-
laria" of Plautus, were publilhed at Bologna in 1502, and
have been often reprinted ; but they are thought inadequate
to the reputation which he had acquired during his life.
Moreri. Bayle. Gen. Biog.

URCEOLARIA, in Botany, a genus of the tribe of
LiCHENEs, (fee that article,) eftablifhed and named by
Acharius, from urceolus, a little pitcher, in allufion to the
form of the fliields, funk, like little depreifed cups, deep
into the fubftance of the cruft. — Achar. Prodr. 30. Meth.
141. " Lichenogr. 74. t. 6. f. 8, 9. 11." Syn. 137.
Sm. Prodr. FI. Grsec. Sibth. v. 2. 305. — Clafs and order,
Cryptogamia Alga. Nat. Ord. Algs, Lichenes.

Eff. Ch. Receptacles fliield-like, concave, coloured,
fniooth, funk in the cruft ; their furrounding margin ele-
vated, feflile, of the colour and fubftance of the cruft.

Acharius remarks, in his Methodus above cited, that the
prelent genus is, as it were, intermediate between his Lecidca
and Parmdia, being diftinguiflied from both by the uni-
formly concave, as well as funk, ftiields, which moreover
arc moft frequently furnifticd with a proper, as well as ac-
C(?frory, margin. The former indeed, never prefent in Par-
mdia, is not very evident in Urceolaria, being fmall, and of
the fame colour as the diik : the latter, never obfervable in

Lecidta, is in Urciolaria an annular elevation of the fub*
llance of the cruft, overtopping the margin of the fhield.

Twenty fpecies are defined in the Synopfis of Acharius,
whofe fynonyms appear, in fome inftances, not corredlly
applied ; but we are well aware of the great ambiguity at-
tending the plants in queftion, and Ihall propofe our doubts
with caution. Few of thefe fpecies are known in England,
moft of them being either of Swifs or Lapland origin;
They frequently grow on hard ftones, that are occafionally
inundated, or on naked expofed rocks ; fometimes on the
bark of trees. They are, for the moft part, of fmall di-
menfions, and of rather inconfpicuous appearance. We
feleft the moft remarkable.

U. Acharii. Acharian Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. i.
Meth. 150. (Lichen Acharii; Ach. Prodr. 33. with a
figure in the title-page. Engl. Bot. t. 1087. L. lacuftris ;
With. V. 4. 21. t. 31. f. 4. ) — Cruft limited, fmooth, a
little cracked, pale brick-coloured. Shields red ; acceffory

border tumid Found on large ftones, of the hardeft kinds,

that border alpine lakes or rivulets, in Sweden, Wales, &c.
and are inundated in winter. Mr. Griffith firft noticed thi*
fpecies in Britain, and the name lacujlrii, under which it
appeared in Dr. Withering's work, is fo very excellent,
that nothing but the claims of our illuftrious friend Acharius
could induce us to refign it. The crujl looks like an ochra-
ceous fediment from the water, but is hard and firm, infe-
parable from the rock, fmooth and even, .is if partly
polifhed, or rubbed down, 'becoming cracked with age.
Its colour is a pale yello-- ')h-brown, rarely a dirty white-
Shidds fmall, varioufly featured, of the diameter of a fmal!
pin's head, concave, funk, of a deeper redder hue than the
cruft, furrounded at firft by a pale elevated border from the
cruft, which fubfequently disappears, probably from the
fmoothing aftion of the water. Dr. Acharius gives, as a
variety of this, the Liranora cyrtafpis of his Lichenographia,
p. 397, for which he quotes Lichen pundatus, Engl. Bot.
t. 450. We cannot conceive the latter to be an Urceolaria,
or to be even allied to the fpecies before us. It feems a
Parmdia, whofe cruft is white or greenifti, not reddifh, nor
is the di(k of the ftiields concave, nor bordered. Though
greenifh, or brown when young, that part is finally black.
We do not mean to infift on the fynonym of Fl. Dan.
t. 468. /. 2.

U. diamarta. Red and black Urceolaria. Ach. Syr.-
n. 2. Meth. 151. (" Lichen diamartus ; Wahlenb. Lapp.
414.") — " Cruft fomewhat limited, cracked, rather warty,
of an ochrey-red. Diflc of the ftiields rather convex, black ;
acceffory margin elevated, finally zigzag." — On rocks near
the ftiore of the gulf of Bothnia. Dr. Acharius declares
this to be a widely different fpecies from Endocarpon Jinopi-
cum, with which, he fays, " it feems to be confounded in
Engl. Bot." At p. 1776 of that work we have, indeed,
mentioned a fuggeftion of Mr. Turner's, that thefe two
plants may probably prove one and the fame. But we pre-
fume there is no error or confufion in the figure and defcrip-
tion annexed of our Lichen fmopicus, which we found to
agree with Mr. Wahlenberg's original fpecimen of his Endo-
carpon fo called. Of the Urceolaria in queftion, we have
never feen a fpecimen, unlefs it be Lichen Oederi of Dickfon,
as hinted by Acharius in his Methodus, 152 ; but this is
not given as a fynonym in the Synopjis.

U. gibbofa. Tumid Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 7. Meth.
144, excluding the fyn. of Bellardi and Villars. (U. fim-
briata; Ach. Meth. 145. Lichen fibrofus ; Engl. Bou
t. 1732.) — Cruft covered with papillary warts, fmoothift),
of a light fmoky brown ; the edge more or lefs fibrous.
Shields in the fummit of each wart, eoncave, blackifli ; ac-
ceffory

U R C

U R C

ccflbry mnrgin elevated, contraAed, pale, minutely crenate.
— Found on expofed rocks and ftones, in various parts of
Europe. On the fmooth flints fcattercd over the downs of
Suflex this fpecies appears in its greateft perfection ; fomc-
times having a fine radiating marginal fringe, by which the
cruil extends itfelf ; the central part being occupied, fre-
quently to the breadth of two or three inches, witli crowded,
angular, elevated, convex warts, of a grey or browniih hue.
Thefe are lefs dillinft, and more pohfhed, towards the cir-
cumference, where they vanifh into a thin, dilated, infe-
parable border, often more granulated than fibrous, except
where the flint is broltcn and poliflied. Each of the perfed
warts bears one, rarelv more than one, fmall, irregular,
concive JhielJ, whofe dirtc is blackifh, fomewhat glaucous,
internally reddifh-brown, encompaffed by a pale, roughifh,
raifed margin, which looks as if it had become vifible by
rubbing. When the plant has its fringed edge, it is the
[/. fimbriata of Acharius, now juftly reduced by that in-
telligent author to his own glhbofa.

\].cinerea. A fli -coloured Urctolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 1 1.
Meth. 143. (Lichen cinereus ; Linn. Mant. 132. Weft-
ring Lich. V. I. 247. t. 18. Ach. Prodr. 32. Verrucaria
ocellata ; Hoffm. PI. Lich. v. i. 92. t. 20. f. 2.) — Cruft
grey, rugged and cracked, with a black border. Shields
black, funk, flightly concave ; at length elevated along

with their prominent, thickifh, entire, acceffory margins

Common on large ftones, rocks, and fcattered flints. Few
Lichens have been lefs underftood, nor would Linnaeiis's
fpecific name have been changed, probably, if botaniils had
been able to afcortain, with any certainty, what he intended
by it. His herbarium gives no information on this fnbjeft ;
but we rely with confidence on the tradition of his Swedifti
pupils. The general appearance of this fpecies is like a bad
imperfeft ftate of Hudfon's Lichen ater, but the latter is
not an Urceolana. The crujl is thin and infcparable ; its
edge, when crowded and condenfed, narrow and black ; but
when allowed to fpread on fmooth flints, it is more dilated,
zoned, and greenifli, not fibrous. The central part fwells
into fmall, irregular, grey knobs, and at lengtli cracks.
The copious Jhiehli are cither folitary or cluftered, Imall,
black, with the decided acceflory border of this genus,
growing more and more above the common level. Accord-
ing to the experiments of Mr. Weftring, this fpecies affords
very fine rich (hades of orange, or red-brown, for dyeing
filk. Acharius indicates four varieties, chiefly delcribed by
himfelf, which we have liad no opportunity of comparing.

U. fcrupofa. Powdery Spherical Urccolaria. Ach.
Syn. n. 13. Meth. 147. (Lichen fcrupofus ; Schrcb.
Lipf. 133. HolI'm. Enum. 41. t. 6. f. I. Dickf. Crypt,
fafc. I. II. Engl. Uot. t. 266. Lichenoides cruftaceum
et leprofura, fcutellis nigricantibus majoribus et minoribus,
varietas ,5; Dill. Mufc. 133. t. iS. f. 15, 0- Patelhria
fcrupola ; Hofl'm. PI. Lich. v. i. 54. t. 11. f. 2.) — Cruft
corrugated, greyifh-white, granulated, mealy. Shields
nearly fplierical, black, witli a tumid, inflexed, narrow-
moutlied, linely crenate acceflory border. — Frequent on dry
chalky heatiis, and on brick walls, fometimcs on rocks, or
fprcading over decayed molfes. The rnijl is tliick and
chalkv, moftly cream-coloured, or greyifli ; very wliite wlien
dry, almoll covered with the crowded globular warts, each of
which lodges a blackifli, or (lightly glaucous, hollow JhieU,
of the fame (hapc. Lichen imjircffus, .'\eli. Prodr. 104.
{Patellaria mufcorum ; Hodm. PI. Lich. v. i. 93. t. 21.
f. I.) is acknowledged to be a variety ot this, whole cruft
affumes a leafy appearance from other plants which it over-
runs.

Vol. XXXVll.

U. diacapfis, Ach. Syn. n. ly. (Liohen diacapfis ;
Engl. Bot. t. 1954.) is furelya ZmVfaof Aciiarius, having
nothing of an accelTory border to the (hields.

U. calcarea. Chalky Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 16.
Meth. 142. t. 4. f. I. (Lichen calcareus ; Linn. Fl.
Suec. ed. 2. 407. L. cinereus ; Engl. Bot. t. 820. Ver-
rucaria contorta ; Hoftm. PI. Lich. v. i. 97. t. 22.
f. I — 4.) — Cruft limited, finely cracked, fomewhat pow-
dery, very white ; at length greyi(h. Shields minute, irre-
gular, concave, greyi(h-black, with a thin edge, and a
flightly prominent accelTory border. — Found on calcareous
rocks and wrought ftones. The plant of Englifh Botany
forms broad confpicuous infcparable patches, on grey-marble
tomb-ftonep, in the country church-yards of Norfolk and
Suffolk. Dr. Acharius determines it to be the Lichen cal-
careus of Linnaeus, to whofe defcription and remarks it well
anfwers, efpecially where he fays that it is a fure indication
of calcareous ftones, and proves very troublefome to the decy-
pherers of runic infcriptions. The cruJl is extremely hard and
folid. The form of \\\ejhielch is fcarcely ever exactly circular.
Whether U. Hoffmanni, Ach. Meth. 145, Lichen rupicola,
Hoffm. Enum. 23. t. 6. f. 3, be the fame fpecies, or
whether the eight other varieties, adopted by Acharius
chiefly from Florke in the Berlin Magazine for 181 i, be-
long to it, we are equally, at leaft, in doubt with himfelf.
Patellaria multipunda, Hoftm. PI. Lich. t. 63. f. 1 — 3, we
now agree with Acharius in leparating from the prefent
fpecies. He makes it a variety of Lecidea alho-cxrulefcens,
Ach. Syn. 29, which is Dicklon's Lichen pruinatus ; but
we prefume here to exprefs our doubts.

U. compunaa. Many-dotted Urceolaria. Sm. in Ach.
Meth. 143. Syn. n. 19. — Cruft continued, very thin,
fmooth, greyifli-white. Shields numerous, crowded, mi-
nute, concave, black, white-edged, with a tumid accelTory
border. — Found by the late Mr. Chrift. Smith, on the bark
of trees in Amboyna. The criijl appears to be divided into
telTellatcd portions, but thefe are rather cracks in the bark,
to which its thin uninterrupted fubftance exaftly conforms.
Each portion contains innumerable cavities, as if made with
the point of a needle, every one of which lodges a minute
blacki(h hollow di(k, whofe proper margin, unconnefted
with the accelTory one, is contraAed, and very pale, almoft
white. We can alTure our worthy friend Acharius, who
has relied on the writer of this for the prefent curious
fpecies, that, notwithttanding his doubts, nothing can be
more unlike U. calcarea.

U. cfculcnta. Eatable Urceolaria. Ach. Syn. n. 20. —
" Crult tartareous, thick, rugged and warty, grcyilh.
Receptacles wart-like, with a hollow dilk." — Native of the
chalky hills, of the deferts of Tartary. The cruJl is eat-
able ! Acharius appears never to have fecn a Ipecimen,
and he is not certain of the genus. He quotes no au-
thority.

URCEOLUS, in Ecchfiafu-al Writers. See A(ju.E-

MAXILIS.

Uhceolus, in Mythology, a fmall vafe of brafs, lilver,
earth, or foine other material, which had a llraight neck,
and wide mouth, much after the falhion of the burettes, or
cryllal bottles in which they jint the wine and water iifed in
the facrifiee of the mafs, which the inferior minifters carried
for waffling the prieft's hands. They are often to be lound
upon antiipie monuments, in the hands of their minifttrs.

URCESA, in yfncieni Geography, a town of Hifpania
Cilerior, belonging to the Celtiberi.

U RCEUS, in ytnliijiiily, the name of a meafure of liquids,

wiiich in diflerent pLices was of dilfercnt capacity ; ilsi moA

3 S ufaal

U R C

U K E

ufaal ftandard feems to have been between twelve and fix-
teen ounces.

URCHIN, a common name given W) the hedge-liog.
Urchin, Sea, in Ichthyology. The echinus marinus of au-
thors is, in feme parts of England, called the Jea-egg, and
in others Xhe Jeo-urch'm, or hedge-hog. It is a genus of fi(h,
of which there are a great number of fpecies. See Echino-
DERMA, and Centronia.

The manner of thefe creatures moving at the bottom of
the fea has been difputed among naturalifls ; the general
opinion of the world has been, that they did it by means of
their fpines or prickles, which ferved them by way of legs ;
but feme of late, particularly Mr. Gandolphe, pretend that
the fpines of the urchins are of no ufe to them on this occa-
fion, but that they move by means of certain legs, like the
legs of the ilar-fifh, which they occafionally put out when
they walk, and at other times retraft them into their body.
The world was readily falling into this fyftem, particularly
as Mr. Gandolphe affirmed, that he had been often an eye-
witnefs to it ; but the indefatigable M. Reaumur tried the
experiment himfelf, and often made himfelf an eye-witnefs
of the contrary faft, having frequently feen them walk at
the bottom of a (hallow bafon of fea-water, with no other
affiftance than that of their fpines, and even having made
them perform the fame motion, by the fame means, upon
his hand.

This curious inquirer into nature did not, however, ftop
here ; but took occafion from hence to inquire accurately
into every circumftance of their progreflion, which is per-
formed by fo uncommon means.

It is certain that the fea-urchin does throw out at the
lower aperture of the (hell, when it pleafes, certain bodies
which refenible not a little the legs of ftar-tl(h ; but thefe
ferve not at all to its motion ; but, on the contrary, their
real ufe is to keep the creature ftill, and fixed in the fame
pofition ; and, to defcribe them more exadly, they very
aptly reiemble the horns of fnails ; whence M. Reaumur
has chofen rather to call them horns than legs. The ufe the
urchin makes of thefe horns, while it is in motion, is to feel
about, and try the ground on which it marches ; and they
ferve the creature as a ftaff does a blind man in his walking,
to touch and try every thing that lies in the way ; and to
make them ferve to this purpofe, it is continually extending
or retrafting them during the time it is moving. Thefe
horns are not only placed about the orifice of the ihell, but
they are every where difperfed among the fpines, all over the
furface of the (hell.

In order to underftand the pofition of thefe horns, we
muft confider, that the fea-urchin (hell is a hard body, ap-
proaching in form to that of a fegment of a fphere, with
two apertures, one commonly at the fummit of the (hell,
and another oppofite to it at the bafe : the former hole
ferves, as it is fuppofed, for difcharging the excrement,
and the latter for the mouth of the animal. The whole ex-
ternal furface is divided by protuberances, of different fizes,
into ten fpherical ifofceles triangles, which have their vertex
at the upper aperture, and their bale at the lower : five of
thefe are large and five fmall ; the larger are feparated from
the fmaller by triangular bands pierced with fmall holes, ar-
ranged in a beautiful and regular order. The triangular
fpaces are divided by feveral lines, commencing at the upper
aperture of the (hell, and terminating at the lower; thefe
lines are marked by fundry eminences of different fizes, each
of which refembles a fort of nipple : on thefe parts the bafe
of every fpme is fixed, and as the bafe is hollow, it is able
to turn round each eminence. Of thefe fpecies M. Reau-

mur found more than two thoufand on every fifh ; and the
number of perforations on each fhell is not lefs than thirteen
hundred. From each of thefe perforations, there proceeds
a horn, which horns ai% only vifible when the fifh is in the
water, and even then it puts forth only fome of them at
once : thefe ferve as anchors to the fi(h, becaufe it glues
them fall to the (tones, &c.

The fpines arc all capable of aflifting the creature in its
motions, but ihofe it principally employs are fuch as are
placed near its mouth ; as thefe can turn upon their balls
everyway with equal facihty, the creature finds it equally
eafy to move on any fide ; and when it has determined
which way it will move, thofe fpines which Hand direftly
toward that point, and thofe which are direftly oppofite,
are of equal fervice to it ; it draws itfelf forward by means
of the firft, and pufhes itfelf on with the others ; to do this,
it firft thrufts out the foremoft ones as far as pofiible, and
preffing them againft the bottom, it draws on its body by
them ; and this is fucceeded, by drawing up the hinder
ones clofe to its (hell, and then fixing them againft the bot-
tom, it pufhes itfelf forward by them. This is the manner
of this little creature's marching in the common way, with
its mouth downward ; but it has this ftrange fingularity,
that it is not confined to this pofture alone in marching, but
can, with equal eafe, walk with its mouth upwards, or run
along fideways in the manner of a wheel ; or in any direc-
tion between thefe. The legs and the horns cover all parts
of it, and are in every part of it equally able to move fepa-
lately thirteen hundred horns, and more than two thoufand
fpines, which ferve for legs. Mem. Acad. Par. 1712.

URCI, in yincknt Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
Boetica, at the mouth of a river, on the frontiers of the
Tarragonenfis of Boetica.

URCINIUM, a town fituatedon the coaft of the ifland
of Corfica, between Rhium Promontorium and Arenofuin
Littus. Ptolemy.

URCIZE, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Cantal ; 21 miles S. of St. Flour.

URCOS, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Cufco ; 20
miles S. of Cufco.

URCUNAZO, a river of Spain, which runs into the
Orio, in the province of Guipufcoa.

URDACHE, a town of Spam, in Navarre ; 22 miles
N. of Pamplona.

URDASIM, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Ural, at Fort Tanalitzkaia.

URDASIMSKAIA, a fort of RufTn, in the govern-
ment of Upha ; 128 miles E. of Orenburg.

URDE', or Urdee, in Heraldry. A crofs urde feems
to be the fame with what we otherwife call ciechee.

URDIALA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Tavaftland ; 28 m.ilts W. of Tavafthus.

URE, or YouRE, a river of England, in the county of
York, which rifes at and paffes by Ma(ham, Rippon, Bo-
roughbridge, &c. and about two miles below the laft town
joins the Swale, and takes the name of Oufe.

Ure, in Rural Economy, a provincial term fometimes
applied to the udders of particular forts of domeftic animals,
as thofe of cows, (heep, and fome others. See Udder.

UREA, or Ure'e. Fouicroy and Vauquelin gave this
name to a principle contained in human urine, which, in
combination with many others, Roiielle junior (irft pointed
out fo early as 1773 ; and the defcription of thefe cele-
brated chemifts, and that of Mr.Cruickfhanks, who examined
it about the fame time, have been generally adopted by fuc-
ceeding writers, with one or two exceptions only, even to

the

U R E

U R E

the prefeiit time. Berzelius appears to have been the firft
who obtained it in a feparatc It ate, but the account he has
given of it does not feem to have much attraded the atten-
t\oii of chemiih, for the more recent defcrlption of it by
Thenard is much lefs correcl. M. Vauquchn is faid to have
procured it very lately in the pure ilatc in which we are
about to delcribe it, which defcription we adopt from Dr.
Prout, who has juft pubhfhed an account of this Angular
principle in tlic Tranfadioiis of the Medico-chirurgical So-
ciety of London.

To obtain urea in any quantity is no eafy talk. This
arifes from the care with which it is decompofed, and the ob-
ilinacy with which the colouring matter, and other urinary
principles, adhere to it. Dr. Prout recommends that urine
fhould be carefully evaporated to the confiltence of a fyrup ;
that nitric acid fliould be llowly added to it in this (late,
which combines with the urea, and thus feparates it from
many other principles. The nitrate of urea is then to be
decompofed by carbonate of potafh, and after the nitre
formed has been feparated by cryftallization, animal char-
coal is recommended to be added to the coloured folution
of urea, which feparates moll of the colourinj;; matters :
laftly, the folution of urea is again ordered to be evaporated
to drynefs, and heated with llrotig alcohol and heat ; the al-
coholic folution thus formed is then to be concentrated by
evaporation, and on cooling the urea feparates from it in a
pure cryftalline (late. Thus obtained, urea has the follow-
ing properties :

" Urea moil frequently alTumes the form of a four-fided
prifm. Its cryftals are tranfparent and colourlefs, and have
a flight pearly ludre. It leaves a fenfation of coolnefs on
the tongue like nitre. Its fmell is faint and peculiar, but
not urinous. It does not affeft litmus or turmeric papers.
It undergoes no apparent change on expofure to the air,
except in very damp weather, when it flightly deliquefces,
but does not feem to fuffer decompofition. Expofed to a
ftrong heat it melts, and is partly decompofed and partly
fublimed apparently unaltered. The fpecitic gravity of its
crydals is about 1.350.

" Water at 60^ dilfolves more than its own weight of
urea, and the folution expofed to the air for feveral months
underwent no change. Boiling water diCTolves any quantity
of it whatever, and the urea does not appear to undergo
any change at this degree of temperature.

"Alcohol ((p. gr. .816) at a mean temperature diffolvcs
about 20 per cent., and at a boiling temperature more than
its own weight, and the urea feparates on cooling in the
form of cryltals. It is very fparingly if at all foluble in
fulphuric ether, or the effential oil of turpentine, though
thefc fluids are rendered opaque by it.

" The pure alkalies and alkaline earths dccompofe it,
efpecially when afiilled by heat, and the refult is chiefly
carbonate of ammonia. It unites with moft of the metallic
oxyds. The combination with filver is greyifh, and de-
tonates on being heated, and the filvcr ia reduced. It does
not feem however to be alone capable of dccompoiing any
metallic fait, but in order to effeft the union in queflion the
aid of double decompofition is neccffary.

" It combines with nitric acid, and forms a cryftaUine
compound but fparingly foluble in water. It forms alio a
fimilar compound with oxahc acid. In neither of thcfe
compounds are the properties of the acids neutralized."

Urea has the remarkable property of changing the cryf-
talline forms of thofe falts with which it is in folution. Thu»
the cubical form of the muriate of foda is changed into an
oftohcdron, while the oftohedral form of the muriate of
ammpnia is converted into a cube. The prifmatic fonn of

nitre alfo is liable to be varioudy modified. Thefe changes
do not appear to take place unlefs the urea be in excgfs in a
folution, and the proportional quantities of the different
falts be fuch as to cryftallize (lowly.

Urea fubmitted to analyfis, by combuftion with the oxyd
of copper, was found to confid of

2 atoms or z volumes of hydrogen 2.5") 'o f hydrogen 6.66
I atom or i volume of carbon 7.5 I ^ J carbon 19.99
I atom or ^volume of oxygen 10. o f A^ J oxygen 26.66
I atom or I volume of azote I7-5J o (.azote 46.66

37-5

100.00

The nitrate of urea, the cryRalline compound before-
mentioned, confifts, according to Dr. Prout's analyfis, of

Nitric acid 47.37 or one atom.
Urea S^-^S O"" ^^'^ atoms.

100.00

Hence wc are enabled, by means of this analyfis, to efti-
mate the quantity of urea in a given fpecimen of urine.

Urea fometimes exifts fo abundantly in urine, as to cryf- ^
tallize fpontaneoufiy on the addition of nitric acid. In fuch
inftances it is ufually accompanied by an excefs of the phof-
phates. A remarkable relation was found by Dr. Prout to
fubfift between urea and the faccharine principle, which, in
his opinion, fatisfaftorily explains the phenomena of diabetes,
a difoafe in which fugar is known to be prefent in the urine,
in the proportion in which urea is abfent. Another re.
markable circumflance is, its compofition being in con-
formity to the atomic theory, or theory of definite propor-
tions. This however is not pecuhar to urea, but was found
by Dr. P. to hold good in other urinary principles. Sec
Uric Acid.

URECOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Vofges ; 6 miles NN.W. of J_,a
Marc he.

UREDEN, a town of Germany, in the bifiiopric
of Munfter, on the Berckel ; 26 miles W.N.W. of
Munder.

UREDO, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers
to exprefs the virtues of metals communicated to them from
the fun. Pliny ufes the fame word to exprsfs the fmut af-
fcfting fruits ; and fome medical writers have expreffed by
it a very violent and excruciating pain in the head : and
others an extreme itching or burning in the (kin. Sec
Smut, Blast, and Blight.

Uredo, in Botany, an old Latin name, from itro, to burn,
or parch, applied to thofe occafional difcolorations on the
furfaces of plants, which were attributed to blafts, or inju-
ries of the atmofphcrc or heavenly bodies, but wliich are
now generally found to be parafiticalyi;nf< ; at lead fuch is
the date of thefc appearances, when they come under our
obfcrvation, whatever injury or difcafe, in the plant which
bears them, may have favoured their produftion. The
above name is now applied to one particular genus of this
kind of vegetable. — Perf. Obf. Mycol. fafc. 2. 23. Syn.

Fung. 214 Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat.

Ord. Fungi.

EIT. Ch. Coat none. Powder naked, deciduous. Seeds
uniform, generally globofe.

Such IS Perfoon's generic charaAer, by which the dif-
ference between this genus and another of the fame author's,
named Puccinia, feems to be, that in the latter what he
terms, with a mark of doubt, SporuU, feeds, are faid to be
3 S 2 cluftercd

UREDO.

cluftered into little tufts, roundirti, and fomewhat turbinate,
with a tail, or elongation at the bafe, and interrupted by in-
ternal partitions. What are analogous to thefe in Uredo
are faid to be "uniform, generally globofe." This dittinc-
tion is clear enough, but the denomination of the parts in
queftion proves erroneous. This is evident from the elabo-
rate inveitigation of the blight in wheat, by the right hon.
fir Jofeph Banks, illuftrated by the microfcopic drawings
of Mr. Francis Bauer, republidied in Sims and Konig's
Ann. of Bot. V. 2. 51. t. 3, 4. By this treatife, and indeed
by Perfoon's own definition, it is manifeft, that his Sporula
are not feeds, but real feed-veffels, or capfuks. Therefore
the Uredo frumentt, Sowerby's Fung. t. 140. Lambert in
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 193. Kirby ibid. v. 5. 122, which
was the fubjeft of fir Jofeph Banks's examination, and is
the Puccinia gramtms of Perfoon, Syn. Fung. 228, rather
anfwers to the charafter of the genus Llcea in the fame
work, p. 195, given as follows; " Head diftinft, round-
ifh or fomewhat indeterminate, brittle, without any fub-
jacent membrane. Seminal powder deftitute of threads."
We know not what is meant, in Perfoon's generic charafter
of Uredo, by the dillinftion between pulvis, powder, and
fporulu, feeds, nor whether the latter, if examined with equal
care, miglit prove, as in the Uredo frumentt, to be capfules.
The fubjeft indeed is in its infancy. Mr. Bauer has long
been collefting fafts and appearances to illuilrate it, which
are regiflered in his inimitable drawings, but materials are
not yet fufficiently plentiful to form therewith any fylte-
matic arrangement of thefe minute produftions, in which
the greatnefs of the Creator, and our own ignorance, have
long been acknowledged. Neverthelefs, we are obliged to
tliofe who have made any fcientific attempt at defining this
cryptogamic tribe, for prefent convenience, however imper-
fect fuch muft neceffarily be. In this light Perfoon (hines
confpicuoiis, and we fhall extraft what will beft illuftrate
his genus Uredo. The fubjeft is important in an agricul-
tural view, fome of thefe parafitical fungi being fuppofed,
at leaft, to be very detrimental to the corn, or other plants,
on which they grow. We are rather difpofed to believe
that the eft'eft has generally been miftaken for the caufe, and
that an injvn-y to the corn, from cold or wet, has merely dif-
pofed it to afford nounlhment for the fungi. This, how-
ever, is a theoretical queftion, not neceffarily connected with
the botanical part of the fubjeft.

Perfoon defines 30 fpecies of Uredo, difpofed in four
feftions, according to the colour of the apparent powder ;
whether that powder be nzked feeds, or, as there is reafon to
fuppofe, from the above obfervacions, a congeries of excef-
fively minute capfules.

Seft. I. Powder yello'wifh. Ri BIGO ; 16 fpecies.

\5. mycnphila. Mufhroom Blight. Perf. n. I. (Mucor
chryfofpermus ; Bulliard Fung. v. i. 99. t. 504. f. i, and
t. 476. f. 4. With. v. 4. 402.) — Widely fpreading, ex-
tremely fine, yellow ; feeds folitary or aggregate, on capil-
lary ftalks, fimple or branched. — Found covering the whole
furface of fevcral kinds of Boletus, which grow in fhady
places, and even penetrating their fubllance, in the form of
an apparently impalpable yellow powder, flaining the fingers
when touched ; in Auguft and September, Dr. Withering
fays, it powerfully repels wet, like the feeds of a Lycopordium,
a fpecimcn in his pofTeffion not being moiftened, though im-
merfed in a fluid for a year. Perfoon remarks, that this
fpecies rarely occurs on any Agaric, and that the Boleti
attacked with it are not fully expanded before they languifh
and rot, being at firft involved in a white evanefcent downi-
nefs, and then copioufly impregnated with the above bright
yellow powder, which Bulliard compares to the pollen of a lily.

U. jihhemilla. Ladies'-mantle Blight. Perf. n. 3.
Obf. Mycol. fafc. I. 98. — Crowded, yellow, breaking out
into nearly parallel lines. — On the leaves of Alchemilla vul-
garis, efpecially in mountainous fituations ; common in the
Hartz foreft. The leaves which bear this parafite are much
fmaller than ufual. The powder is nearly orange-coloured,
in ovate, elliptical, or more frequently linear fpots, like the
fructification of an Afplenium. Perfoon.

U. Euphorbia heliofcopiic. Spurge Blight. Perf. n. 4. —
Scattered, nearly globular, prominent, yellow. — Frequent
in fummer on the plant mentioned, which when fo occupied
has always a pale fickly afpeft ; but whether in confequence
of the prefence of the fungus, or whether the latter attaches
itfelf to weak plants only, we know not. The fpots are
various in fize, deep yellow, prominent like warts. A
fmaller variety, more regular in fhape, is found on £.
exigua.

U. linearis. Long linear Bhght. Perf. n. 7. (U.
longifTima ; Sowerb. Fung. t. 139.) — Linear, parallel, very
long, yellow, ilaining ; at length of a darker hue. — Ob-
ferved by Mr. Sowerby, on the leaves of Poa aquatica.
Perfoon fays, it is abundant in fummer on the ilraw and
leaves of barley, oats, and rye, but he fufpedls it may be
the early flage of his Puccinia graminis above mentioned.
If fo, the epithet " flaining" is not applicable. The fame
author indicates a fmaller and paler variety, found rarely
on the ftalks of Polypodium fragile of Linnxus.

U. Rubi fruticofi. Bramble Blight. Perf. n. II Mi-
nute, nearly globular, powdery, bright yellow, deciduous.
— On the leaves of brambles, not uncommon. Perfoon
juftly obferves, that the powdery balls of this fpecies are fo
flightly attached to the leaf, that, when a branch is gathered,
they fly off, as it were elaflically, if perfectly ripe.

\]. Rubi LUi. Rafpberry Blight. Perf. n. 12. Obf.
Mycol. fafc. 2. 24. — .Scattered, yellow, fomewhat conical,
breaking out in curved lines. — On the upper furface of
rafpberry leaves, towards the margin, where it forms curved
crowded lines, refembling the receptacles of an umbihcated
Lichen, Gyrophora, of a pale whitifh hue. In an advanced
ftate the powder is brownifli.

U. Tufdaginis. Colt's-foot Blight. Perf. n. 13.— Scat-
tered in fomewhat concentric, reddifh-orange, dots ; at

length confluent Common in autumn on the leaves of

colt's-foot, which it finally covers with orange powder en-
tangled among the pubefcence. This often difappoints
thofe who are fearching for the equally common jiecidium
Tujfdaginis, {Lycoperdon epiphyllum of Linnaeus,) found on
the under fide of colt's-foot leaves, in the form of orange
dots, crowded together, each with its own white notched
I'oha. But thefe two fungi are very diftinft, though young
botaniils fometimes fuppofe one changes to the other.

SeCt. 2. Powder-brown, bay, chefnut, or fomewhat blachijh.
NiGREDO ; 8 fpecies.

U. Suaveolens. Sweet-fcented Blight. Perf. n. 19.

Obf. Mycol. fate. 2. 24 Confluent, fragrant, unequal.

Powder pale brownifh-purple. — Frequent in fummer on the
leaves of Gnicus arvenfis, [Serratula arvenjis Linn.) which,
according to Perfoon, is thus rendered barren. The leaves
attacked, at firft affume a thickened or fucculent appear-
ance, marked with little blackifh dots, or round tubercles,
and exhale a pleafant fcent. When the fungus arrivss at
maturity, a bright brown powder takes place of thefe tu-
bercles, and fpreads over the furface of the leaf.

U. Ficia Fab/i. Bean Blight. Perf. n. 20. Difp.
Meth. Fung. 13. — Crowded, orbicular, or partly irregular,
depreffed. Powder brownifh-chefnut. — Plentiful on the
ftem, and efpecially on the leaves, of the common bean.

U. huUata.

U R E

U R E

U. buUata. Tumid Blight. Pcrf. n. 22. Obf. Mycol.
fafc. I. 98. t. 2. f. 5. and t. 5. f. 9, b Piomiiieiit, blad-
dery. Powder chcfinit-coloured. Seeds condriftcd in the
middle. — Rarely met with, on the ftems of umbelliferous
plants. The cuticle on the ftem is raifed in the form of an
ovate bladder, cncloling a tumid mafs of orange-brown
poivder, each particle ot which appears, under a very high
magnilier, like the figure of 8, as if formed ot two rounded
lobes.

U. Anemones. Ancmony Blight. Perf. n. 24. Difp.

Math. Fung. 56 Rather large, deprcfied, burfting from a

longitudinal fiffure in the cuticle of the leaf. Powder co-
pious, black. — Found in the fpring, on curled leaves of
Anemone nemorofa, in whofe fubftance it is lodged.

Seft. 3. Powder -white. Albugo ; 2 fpccies.

U. Candida. Cream Blight. — Shapelefs, tumid, white.
Frequent throughout the fummer, on the branches and
ftalks of Shepherd's Purle, which appear greatly fwollen,
twilled, abounding with whitifh foetid powder, which burfts
irregularly through the fliining cuticle. Ptrloon thinks it
grows along with his Botrytis parafitica, Obf. Mycol. fafc. I.
97. t. 5. f. 6, a, b. — He notices two varieties, one found
on different fpecies of Tragopogon in fummer, which is
fmaller and more deprcfied than the above, with lefs pro-
minent powder ; the other on Alyjfum calycinum, fmaller and
roundifh, though variable in ihape.

U. Cheiranthi. Stock Blight. Perf. n. 26 Scat-
tered, nearly globular, prominent, white. — Found rarely on
the foliage of Cheiranthus incanus. This, which we have
never chanced to meet with, is defcribed by Perfoon as con-
fiding of fmall globular maffes, half a line in breadth, each
encompafTed with the torn cuticle of the leaf. On account
of this difference of form, he thought proper to diftinguifli
the prefent fpecies from all the varieties of the laft.

Seft. 4. Poivder black'iji or broivn, parafitical on the parts
of fruclijication of different plants. Ustilaoo ; 4 fpecies.

U. Segetum. Corn Blight, or Smut. Purfli. n. 27.
Bulliard Fung. v. i. 90. t. 472. f. 2 — Powder copious,
black, produced within the glumes of grafles. This gene-
rally appears like a transformation of the fubftance of the
feed, in whole ears of barley, wheat, or oats, or even
Agrojlis, into a foetid footy powder, and conftitutes the
difeafe termed fmut by farmers, concerning whofe caufe,
and the means of prevention by fteeping the feed-grain in
lime-water, &c., fo many various opinions have been held.
See Smut.

U. Caricis. Carex Blight. Perf. n. 2S. — Powder

black, naked, cncompaifing the feeds Found on the fruit

of different fpecies of Carex, as the montana, and more efpe-
cially the pilulifera, on which lait it is very frequent and
confpicuous.

U. Tragopogi pratenjts. Goat's. beard Blight. Perf.

n 29. Diip. Meth. Fung. 57 Powder copious, brown-

i(h-pnrple, on the receptacles of Tragopogon. This is not
uncommon in fummer, on the receptacle of the above plant,
within its permanent caly.x, and is the largeft of the genus.
Perfoon.

U. yi'jlacea. Violet-coloured Blight. Perf. n. 30.
(Farinaria SlellariE ; Sowcrb. Fung. t. 396. f. i.) —

Powder of a violet purple, in the anthers of flowers Very

frequent in Saponaria officinalis., Silcnc nutans, Stclluria gra-
minca, the whice-flowcred Lychnis dioica, andefpecially Silene
infiata and maritima of Fl. Brit. The anthers of thefe
flowers often fwell prodigicnifly, and their natural contents
are replaced by a great quantity of foft dull-purple powder,
which flains the petals, and gives the flower the appearance
of being fprinkled with fomtthing like foot. The impreg-

nation of fuch fie wcrs fails, of courfe ; but we do not ob-
ferve thtm to be ctherwife, as Perfoon declares, languid or
fickly. Mr. Sowcrby lays, this fungus often burfls from the
ripening geimen of Sttliaria gran,ima 2nd S.hoUJlea ; and
that it (ic( urs alfo in Lrcmus nictlis, which wc likewifc have
remarked, and feme other grafTts. Every anther of the
fame flower is thus afilfted. We are much prepofTefTed
wilh the idea of this fuppofcd fungus being a difeafe, origi-
nating in the conftitution cf the plant, and ending in a mor-
bid fecretion ; but we muil allow the opinion of Perfoon to
be fupported by analogy.

UREGUR, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cey-
lon ; 60 miles N.W. of Trinkomaly.

URELLYCONDA, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore ; 20 miles N. of Bangalore.

UREMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Sy-
ria, upon the banks of the Euphrates, near Aradus. Pto-
lemy.

URENA, in Botany, from the Malabar name Uren.
This name, introduced by Dillenius, is allowed by Linnaeus,
Phil. Bot. 164, among fome others, which, though of bar-
barous origin, might, as he thought, be new-modelled, fo
as to prove not altogether intolerable. We muft allow that
the prefent is as little exceptionable in found as any barbar-
ous name can well be. — Linn. Gen. 355. Schreb. 467.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 800. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 4. 222. Dill. Elth. 430. JufT. 272. Ca-
van. Diff. 334. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 583. Gsrtn. t. 135.
— Clafs and order, Monadelphia Polyandria. Nat. Ord.
Columniferis, Linn. Malvacex, JufF.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth double, inferior. The outer of
one leaf, in five broadifh fegments. Inner of five narrow,
angular, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five, oblong, broadeft
at the extremity, blunt with a point, narroweft at the bafe,
which is attached to the tube of the flamens. Stam. Fila-
ments numerous, united in their lower part into a cylindrical
tube ; feparate above, t)elow the top of the tube ; anthers
roundifh. Pijl. Gcrmen fupcrior, roundifli, with five an-
gles ; flyle fimplc, the length of the ftamens, divided into
ten branches at the top, each tipped with a capitate, hairy,
reflexed ftigma. Peric. Capfule roundifh, with five angles,
prickly, of five cells, which finally feparate from each other
without burfting. Seeds folitary, roundifti externally, com-
prificd and angular at the oppofitc part.

Eft'. Ch. C.ilyx double ; the outermofl five-cleft. Cap-
fule of five cells, feparating entire. Seeds folitary. We
find much to corred, and fomething to add, in the difcri-
mination of the fpecies.

I. IT. lobata. Angular-leaved Urena. Linn. Sp. PI.
974. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Cavan. DifT. 336. t. 185.
f. I. (U. finica, xanthii facie; Dill. Elth. 430. t. 319.
Trifolio aflinis, Indix orientalis, xanthii facie ; Breyn.
Cent. t. 35.) Leaves rouiidifh-heartftiaped, angular, with
three glands at the bafe underneath. — Native of China. A
greenhoufe fhrub in our gardens, cultivated in the Chelfca
and Eltham colleftions, about the year 1730, but not gene-
rally to be met with, 'being inferior in fplrndour to our Wild
Mallow, common on every bank. The flowers of this
Urena are neverthelefs of a delicate peach-blofTom hue, and
though fliort-lived, lafting but a few hours, .ire produced in
plentiful fucceflion through the fummer. They/cm is two
or three feet high, ered, not much branched. Leaves
broader than long, toothed, llightly lobrd, finely downy ;
]>aler, and rather hoary, beneath. FrolJl.iUs (\cuder, round,
downy, generally longer than the leave.":. Flowers axillary,
folitary, on fhort ftalks, about the fi/.c of Malva rotundi-
folia. CapfuUs near half an inch in diameter, armed with

prominent

URENA.

prominent barbed prickleB. We reniaidc. witk regret, that
the erroneous citation of Dillenius, 340 for 430, is copied
without corredlion from Linnxus, by Cavanilles, WiUde-
now, and even in Hort. Kew., which proves that thofe au-
thors did not confult the book cited, and therefore greatly
weakens our confidence in their authority or judgment, as to
critical fynonymy, throughout.

2. \J . reticulata. Reticulated Urena. Cavan. Diif. 335.

t. 183. f. 2. Willd. n. 2 Leaves with a folitary gland at

the bafe beneath, reticulated ; the lower ones three-lobed ;
upper oblong-, fomewhat fiddle-ftiaped — Native of South
America. Defcribed by Cavanilles from Lamarck's her-
barium. Thejlem is (hrubby, a yard high, branched ; the
branches and footjlalh fomewhat downy. The lea-ves are
green above ; hoary with (hort down, and reticulated with
veins, beneath : the lower ones on longifh ftalks, hke the
foregoing, large, deeply three-lobed, their middle lobe
longeft : the reft narrow and undivided, varioufly contrafted,
on (hort ftalks. The midrib of all the leaves bears a folitary
gland. Flcjiers rather fmaller than in the former.

3. U. tricufpis. Three-pointed Urena. Cavan. Diff.
334. t. 183. f. I. WiUd. n. 3. — Leaves vrith three pointed,
angular lobes, and a folitary gland at the bafe beneath.
Stem hairy. — Native of the iflesof Mauritius and Bourbon.
Thc7?fm is three feet, or more, in height, (lender, clothed
with copious upright hairs. Leaves large, ferrated, foft
and downy, on hairy ftalks. Flowers aggregate, at leaft in
the lower part of the plant, yellow.

4. U. amertcana. Fig-leaved Urena. Linn. Suppl. 308.
Willd. n. 4. excluding Sloane's fynonym. (U. finuata;
Swartz. Obf. 263, but not of Linnaeus.) — Leaves three-
lobed, rounded and bluntilh, much longer than their foot-
ftalks ; entire and abrupt at the bafe, with a folitary gland
beneath. Stem nearly fmooth. Native of Surinam. We
have no fcruple in removing Sloane's fynonym to our follow-
ing fpecies. His plate by no means exprelTes the form of the
leaves of U. americana, which, in the original Linnaean fpeci-
men, have wide rounded Cnufes between the lobes. Their
under furface is very foft, and finely downy ; the upper more
harfh. Flo-wers fmall, moftly aggregate. Fruit muricated,
with (hort rigid prickles, rather large and broad. Very dif-
tinft from U. finuata, hereafter defcribed.

5. M.ribefta. Currant-leaved Urena. ( Malva vel Alcea
fruticofa, ribefii foliis, feminibus afperis ; Sloane Jam. v. i.
37. t. II. f. 2.) — Leaves acutely tluce-lobed ; rounded or
heart-(haped at the bafe, with a folitai-y gland beneath.
Segments of the outer calyx fpatulate, bluntilh. — Native of
Surinam ; Herl. Linn, of Barbadoes ; Sloane. The Jlem is
much more hairy or downy than in the laft. Footjlalks
longer. Z-mtiw roughilh above, finely downy beneath, as in
that fpecies ; but their lobes are acute, not dilated nor
rounded, nor are the fmufes wide. The outer calyx has
greener, more leafy and dilated, very deep fegments.
Prickles of the Jruit much (horter than even the foregoing.
Sloane's figure cannot be miftaken.

6. V.repanda. Wavy-leaved Urena. — Leaves wavy, fer-
rated, fcarcely lobed ; reticulated" beneath, with a fohtary
gland. Segments of the outer calyx awl-(haped. Fruit
fmooth. — Native of the Eaft Indies ; communicated by the
late Dr. Roxburgh. The Jlem is downy, with many (lender
axillary branches, hardly fo long as the leaves, on which the
flowers are chiefly fituated. Leaves broadly ovate, longer
than their footftalks, ferrated or (harply toothed, wavy, or
nightly lobed ; their upper fide even, rough with ftarry
hairs ; under ftrongly reticulated with copious veins, paler,
but fcarcely more foft or downy. Flotuers crimfon, axil-
lary, on (hort ftalk«, generally folitary. Outer calyn cloven

but half way down, into five narrow acute fegments ; the
tube becoming ftrongly ribbed alter flowering, and contain-
ing the very fmall and unarmedyVa;/.

7. \J. Jinuata. Cut-leaved Urena. Linn. Sp. PI. 974.
WiUd. n. 5. Ait. n. 2. Cavan. DifF. 336. t. 185. f. 2.
(" Uren ; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 10. 3. t. 2." Alcea in-
dica frutefcens, foliis ad marginem exafperatis, bryonix
albae divifuris ; Pluk. Phyt. t. j. f. 3.) — Leaves five-lobed,
with broad, deep, rounded finufes ; lobes three-cleft : pale

and hairy beneath, with three glands at the bafe Native of

the Eaft and Weft Indies. This is known at firft fight by
the peculiarly wide rounded finufes of the leaves, which are
generally clofed, by the fides of the lobes touching or over-
lapping each other ; the middle lobe, and fometimes the two
adjoining ones, have three broad, (hallow, dilated and angu-
lar lobes : both fides are clothed with fimple or divided, not
much ftellated, hairs, and the under one, though pale, is not
hoary : its three principal ribs each bear a tumid open
gland at the bafe beneath. Flowers fmall, axillary, ftalked,
fohtary or in pairs. Segments of the outer calyx, according
to Cavanilles, narrow and awl-fhaped.

S. U . heterophylla. Various-leaved Urena. (U. finuata;
Swartz Obf. 263 ? Malvinda foliis inferioribus multifidis,
fuperioribus incifis, (lore folitario ; Burm. Zeyl. 1 50. t. 69.
f. 2. Alcea indica frutefcens, foliis in lacinias varie dilTec-
tis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 74. f. I.) — Leaves deeply five-lobed,
with wide finufes ; middle fegment deeply three-lobed :
upper leaves elongated and contracted at the bafe : all hoary
and downy beneath, with a folitary gland. — Native of the
Eaft, and perhaps Weft, Indies. To this fpecies, which
appears to us very diftinft from the laft, belongs the remark
under U.Jmuata, in Linn. Syft. Veg. of there being " one
glandular pore on the mid-rib beneath ;" which remark is
copied by Willdenow, though it direftly contradifts his own
obfervation in the next paragraph. If the number of glands
be invariably three in U. finuata, this is certainly diftinguifhed
by its folitary gland on the mid-rib ; but befides that cha-
rafter, the leaves are very differently (haped ; their finufes
lefs rounded, and their under fide more white and downy ;
to fay nothing of the Angularly contrafted upper leaves.
The fegments of the outer calyx are lanceolate. Corolla
purple. Prickles of the fruit elongated, doubly or triply
barbed.

9. U. multifida. Jagged-leaved Urena. Cavan. Diff.
336. t. 184. f. 2. (Lappago laciniata ; Rumpli. Amboin.
V. 6. 59. t. 25. f. 2 ? Cavanilles.) — Leaves hairy, deeply and
acutely five-lobed, jagged, with a folitary gland beneath.
Stem much branched. Flowers fomewhat racemofe. — Na-
tive of the ifland of Mauritius. The whole plant is clothed
with (haggy down, apparently fimple. Leaves heart-{haped,
longer than their ftalks, their five lobes deeply cut or pinna-
tifid, acutely and unequally ferrated. Flotuers yellow, on
the fmaller or ultimate branches, on (hort ftalks ; the lower
ones axillary, the upper almoft leaflefs. The leaves are re-
prefented by Rumphius with far (lighter lobes than in the
figure of Cavanilles, and yet his fynonym, cited by Rei-
chard and Willdenow for lobata, and markedyTnwa.'a by Lin-
naeus, agrees better with the prefent fpecies. It may, how-
ever, belong to fome fpecies not yet known to fyftematic
botanifts. See our n. 11.

10. U. procumbens. Procumbent Urena. Linn. Sp.
PI. 975. Willd. n. 7. Cavan. Diff. 337.—" Leaves haf-
tate, fomewhat heart-(kaped, undivided, ferrated. Stem
procumbent." — Gathered by 0(beck, on httle hills in
China. The Jlem is (hrubby, creeping, much branched.
Leaves the fiie of Origanum, not lobed, fmooth, ftiarply
ferrated. The fovjcrs are larger than the leaves. Linntus.

Hu

U R E

His herbarium contains no fpecimen anfwering to this de-
fcription, nor have wc ever feen any.

II. U. Lappa^o. Bur Urena. (U. procumbens ; Linn.
Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 462. Lappago laciniata ; Rumph.
Amboin. v. 6. 59. t. 25. f. 2 ?) — Leaves finuated, ferrated,
fomewhat heart -fhaped : hoary and downy, with a (olitary
gland beneatli. Outer calyx in five deep lanceolate feg-
ments. Prickles of the fruit elongated, cylindrical, many-
barbed. — Native of the Eaft Indies. The branches are
round, fubdivided, (lightly downy. Leaves on ihortilh
Italks, acutely lobed, clothed with ftarry down on both
fides, but moft hoary beneath ; their length about an inch
and a half. Fruit large and tumid, muricated with prickles
half a quarter of an inch long, each tipped with feveral pale
hooks. We fliould have little doubt of Rumphius's fyno-
nym, had there not been fo many different opinions concern-
ing it. Our defcription is taken from fpecimens to which
Linnseus, long after he pubhfhed his Sp. Plantarum, at-
tached the name of procumbens, fabricating from them a new
fpecific charafter, which Hands in the fecond volume of his
Syft. Nat., and is adopted by Willdenow ; but which is alto-
gether irreconcileable to the defcription of the original pro-
cumbens.

12. U. viminea. Rhomb-leaved Urena. Cavan. Diff.

335. t. 84. f. I. WiUd. n. 8 Leaves acute, ferrated,

(lightly lobed ; rounded at the bafe, with a folitary gland
beneath : upper ones rhomboid or oblong. Outer calyx in
five deep lanceolate fegments. — Gathered by Commerfon in
Brafil. This feems next akin to the lall, but the leaves are
not finuated, nor of fo uniform an oblong figure ; they are
hoary beneath. Of the fruit we have no account.

U. TyphaUa, Linn. Mant. 258, and U. kptocarpa, Suppl.
308, are referred by CavaniUes and Willdenow to Pavonia ;
(ee that article.

Urena, in Gardtning, ccmprifes plants of the woody
perennial exotic kind, among which the fpecies cultivated are,
the angular-leaved urena (U. lobata) ; and the cut-leaved
urena ( U. finuata).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, which (hould be fown on a hot-bed, or in pots plunged
into it, in the early fpring feafon. When the plants have
fome growth, they (liould be removed into feparate pots,
being replunged in a frefli hot-bed, requiring afierwards the
fame management as tender exotic plants. When placed in
the (love in the fpring, they ripen feeds the firil year, but
otherwife in the fecond, and feldom continue longer.

They afford variety among other (love plants, by their
flowers, and the manner of their growth, fomc rifing high,
the others more procumbent.

URENTIA, are fometimes ufed for medicines of a hot
or burning quality. See Caustic.

VRESEN, in Geography, a fmall Dani(h ifiand in the
Great Belt ; 4 miles N. of Langcland.

URETER, in y/na/omji, the tube which conveys the urine
from the kidney to the urinary bladder. See Kidney.

URETHRA, the canal by which the urine palTes out of
the urinary bladder ; and through which the feminal fluid of
the male is conveyed into the vagina of the female. See
Generation.

Urethra, Striaures of. A llrifture of the urethra may
be defined to be a preternatural diminution of the diameter
of a part of that canal. By the late Mr. Hunter, (Iriftures
of the urethra were divided into three kinds : firft, the true
permanent ftri£lure, arifing from an alteration in the ftruc-
ture of the paffage ; fecondly, a mixed cafe, compofed of a
permanent ftrifture and fpafm ; and thirdly, the true fpaf-
modic ilridurc. (See Trcatife on the Vcn. Difcafe,
6

U R E

F- III.) This mode of dividing thefc cafes fuppofes the
urethra to poffefs a natural power of contra£Uon and relaxa-
tion ; a circumllance which, though moft probably true,
and moft commonly beheved, is not univerfally admitted.
The doftriiie of Mr. Hunter, however, has been ably fup-
ported by the obfervations of his brother-in-law, fir Everard
Home ; and it has always appeared to us, that the fafts in
favour of the contractile power of the membrane of the
urethra are equally obvious and convincing. It may be dif-
ficult, and perhaps impoflible, fays the latter author, to
prove this membrane to be mufcular, either from its ap-
pearance, or from examination of its texture ; fince the pe-
cuHar ftrufture, upon which the contraftion of a mufcle
depends, has not as yet been afcertained. Other ftruftures
apparently membranous, and equally unhke the fafciculated
fibrous texture commonly met with in mufcles, are endowed
with a power of contrafting and relaxing, in a much greater
degree, than is ever found to take place in the membrane of
tlie urethra. The taenia hydatigenia ovalis, an animal con-
fifting of a femitranfparent membranous bag, met with in
the brain, liver, and omentum of fliecp, when taken from
its natural fituation, and kept in tepid w.iter, contrafts and
relaxes the different parts of its bag to a confiderable ex-
tent. ( See Pra6t. Obf. on the Treatment of StriAures, &c.
p. 15.) The mufcular ftruAure of the ureters cannot be
demonllrated, yet no one doubts that they poffefs a con-
traftile power. As is obferved in the article Kidney, of
this Cyclopaedia, their funftion of conveying the fecreted
urine from the kidney to the bladder requires the exercife
of tonic powers ; and the idea of this fluid finding its way
by the force of gravity, is not only repugnant to the laws
ot the animal economy, but is irreconcileable with obvious
phenomena. The adhefion of the fides of the tube, where
it penetrates the coats of the bladder, prefents an obftacle,
which can be overcome only by the exertion of fome force ;
and this obftacle is vaftly increafed in the diftended ftate of
the bladder, during which the fluid is conftantly finding its
way into this receptacle.

In the fame manner, although the mufcular ftrufture of
the urethra cannot be demonftrated, yet many phenomena
are in favour of the affirmative, and, at all events, leave no
doubt of the canal poffeffmg a power of altering its diameter.
Here the funftions of the part, and certain fads remarked
in praflice, afford a better criterion than anatomy, which,
it is allowed, does not in this inftance give us any kind of
evidence. When the urine paffes out, the canal is large ;
when tiie femen is thrown out, it is fmall. When a portion
of its membrane is in an inflamed ftatc from gonorrhoea, its
furface is more readily ftimulated, and the irritation of the
urine makes it contraft fo much, that frequently the fluid
is voided only by drops. In this ftate, if the penis be im-
mcrfed in warm water, the urethra often becomes fuddenly
relaxed again, and the urine is more eafily difcharged. In
many cafes, the furgcon finds, when he attempts to intro-
duce ftimulating injeftions into the urethra, that they will
not pafs on towards the bladder, but bring on fo ftrong a
contradlion of the paffage, that they are rcjefted again with
confiderable velocity.

The celebrated Soemmerring has explained the formation
of ftritturcs by a thickening of the difcafed part, and he does
not appear to entertain any belief in tlie fpafmodic nature of
thefe cafes. (See Abliandlung iiber die Schiiell und Lang-
fam todtlichen Krankheiten der Harnblafe, und Harnrohrc
bey Mannern ini hohen alter. Erankf. 1809.) Mr. Charles
Bell .ilfo contends, that the wiiitc condenfed fubftance,
which conftitutes the moft common kind of ftrifture, muft
be equally incapable of yicidnig to preiTurc and fpalmodic

adion.

URETHRA.

acftion. He obferves, that this faft of the firm nature of a
ftriAure, pointed out by Mr. Hunter, is a fufEcient proof
to himfelf, that a ftridlure cannot be fpafmodic ; and that
even if the difeafed part of the urethra were originally muf-
cular and contraftile, the condenfation and callofity of the
part muft be attended with lofs of the contraftile power.

Mr. C. Bell argues, that it is from confounding the effeft
of the proper mufcles of the urethra, the canal has been
imagined to poffefs a mufcular property. " I made," fays
he, " the following fimple experiment, in order to put this
to the teft. I got a fmall ivory ball, to which I attached a
thread. I introduced the ball into the urethra. I made
the man endeavour all he could to pufh it out, but he could
not; neither was it retained in the flighteft degree, when
pulled by the thread. I thought it might be more fatif-
faftory, if I imbued the ball with fomething ftimulating.
I tried coarfe foap and fpirits ; but ftill there was no power
in the urethra to retain the ball, or to pufh it forth. This
could be done only by the urine behind it, and the operation
of the bladder, or the ejaculator ferainis. I need not add,
that this experiment was made upon a part of the urethra
anterior to the feat of the ejaculator feminis. In the cburfe
of praftice I find, that, when the filver ball is introduced
down to the ejaculator feminis, it is refilled bv that niufclc,
efpeciaUy when the parts are irritable. I find it fometimes
thrown out of the grafp of the mufcle ; but vidien puflied
fairly into the finus of the urethra, which is into the middle
of the mufcle, the ball is allowed to remain." (Letters
concerning Difeafes of the Urethra, p. 95, Lond. 1810.)
The fame gentleman alfo endeavoured to afcertain whether
the urethra had any aftion on fluids. He employed a g'afs
tube to throw an injeftion into the urethra, the end of the
tube being conftrufted for pading into the orifice of the
paffage. PrefTure was made on the urethra five inches
down. By elevating the tube or column, the fluid diftended
the urethra ; but no irregularity in the height of the fluid
in the tube indicated any mufcular power of the urethra to
difcharge its contents. When the urethra was dift:ended,
the (lighten touch upon it with the finger elevated the fluid
in the tube ; but no effort of the patient produced the
effeft. When he made the effort, it was with the ejaculator
feminis behind the part of the urethra compreifcd by the
fingers. (P. 96.) The conclufion drawn by Mr. Bell
from thefe fafts is, that the part of the canal, anterior to
the mufcles which furround it, has no m.ufcular power.

Mr. Bell thinks, that we can be at no lofs to account for
fpafm in the pofterior part of the urethra, fince five inches
of the canal in that fituation are furrounded by mufcles ;
the accelerator urinae or ejaculator feminis, the fphinfter
veficx, the comprefTor proftatae, and the levator ani. And
he adds, that it muft never be forgotten, that it is the fenfi-
bility of the urethra which governs their contraftion.

Although we conceive, that the mufcles in the perineum
have in fome degree the effeft which the foregoing writer
imputes to them, he is far from having convinced us that the
membrane of the urethra is not endued with mufcular power.
In the firii: place, the two experiments, above related, are
by no means fo decifive as the author fancies therii. The
firft with the ivory ball proves nothing ; except that this
body was not expelled at once by the mufcular power of
the canal. But it is conceivable, that fuch power might
exift, and yet operate rather fo as to grafp and retain the
foreign body, than force it out. Nor is it explained how
much time was allotted to the experiment ; a point effential
to be known : becaufe it is not to be fuppofed that the ivory
ball would be inftantly forced out again. The experiment
fyf the injeftion is alfo nugatory ; becaufe as a lliraulating

fluid was not ufed, (perhaps only water,) it is not likely
that any particular contraftile aftion of the urethra would
be thus excited. In oppofition to Mr. Bell's opinions,
therefore, we continue to beheve that the membrane of the
urethra pofleflTes a contraftile power. We think in this
manner alfo, becaufe there are certain phenomena, which
cannot be explained by the contraftion of any of the miifcles
with which the urethra is embraced. Thus, for inftance, a
bougie may frequently be eafily introduced as far as a ftric-
ture ; the patient fuffers little uneafinefs, and no refiftance is
experienced ; but no fooner is the paflage irritated by the
preflure of the bougie againft the obftruftion, than it con-
trafts and grafps the inftrument with manifell force. Much
refiftance is now felt on withdrawing the bougie ; and it is
in a great meafure continued, till the inftrument is quite out
of the urethra. There are few furgeons of any experience
who have not obferved this faft. Did the refiftance depend
upon a fpafm of the mufcles in the perineum, it could only
laft while the bougie was in the contiguous part of the
urethra. We find, however, that even the laft inch of the
bougie is evidently grafped. The experiments of Haller
are alfo at variance with the conclufions above related ; for
he diftinftly mentions, that chemical ftimulants will make
the urethra contraft. Indeed, as a late writer obferves, the
mufcular power of this canal may be proved almoft in any
inftance, by introducing a bougie of moderate fize into the
healthy urethra, and lightly fupporting the end that pro-
jefts from the penis in a horizontal pofition. If tlie aftion
of the urethra is then watched with attention, it will be
found, that the power which expels the inftrument, in other
words, the contraftion of the urethra, is uniform through
its whole extent. The point of the bougie is not puflied
forward more quickly while it moves through the bulb of
the urethra, where the canal is furrounded with ftrong
mufcles, than it is afterwards ; but, on the contrary, its
motion is exceedingly flow, and perfeftly equal throughout,
until the whole of the inftrument is expelled, and the point
fairly drops from the orifice of the urethra. (Howfliip's
Praft. Obf. on Difeafes of the Urinary Organs, p. 180.)
Thefe coniiderations are alfo favoured by analogy, fince
comparative anatomy demonftrably proves, that in the
larger animals, particularly the horfe, whof^ ftrufture is
more eafy of inveftigation, and the fuiiftions of the urethra
precifelv the fame as in man, the ftrong mufcular fibres, en-
circling the urethra, cannot be overlooked. Op. Cit.
p. 182.

On the whole, however, it does not appear to us, that
the queftion is of great importance in a praftical point of
view ; fince the treatment of ftriftures fliould in all proba-
bility be condufted on precifely the fame principles, whether
the fpafm, that fometimes has a fliare in increafing the im-
pediment to the exit of the urine, depend upon the muf-
cularity of the membrane of the urethra itfelf, or upon the
mufcles fituated near the canal, efpecialiy as their aftion is
faid by Mr. Bell himfelf to be entirely governed by the
fenfibility of tlie paflage. We think alfo, that the term
fpafmodic ftriftiire might as well be dropped, and that no
cafe ought to be called a ilrifture, until there is fome per-
manent contraftion, ariiing from a change of ftrufture, in
the difealed part of the urethra. Nor does it appear to us,
that any material fight is thrown upon the mode in whick
the difeafe is formed, by imputing fo much to fpafm as fe-
veral writers have done.

Accordin T to Mr. Hunter, the difeafe generally occupies
no great l-ngth of the paflfage ; and in moft of the cafes
which he had feen, it extended no further in breadth, than
if the pii-t had been furrounded with a piece of packthi-ead.

Indeed,

URETHRA.

Indeed, in many of the examples, the ftrifture is faid to
have prefented a great deal of that appearance. Mr.
Hunter adds, however, that he had feen the urethra con-
trafted for more than an inch in lencjth, owinir to its coats,
or internal membrane, being irregularly thickened, and
forming a winding canal. (P. Itj.) Somelim.?s, alfo, as
fir E. Home obferves, two ftriftures form within an inch
of each other, and the fpace betweea them becomes nar-
rower than the reft of the canal.

A ftritiure, fays Mr. Hunter, does not arife, in all cafes,
from an equal contraftion of the urethra all round ; but, in
fome, from a contraftio:'. of one fide. And iir E. Home
informs us, that he has met with cafes where there were
three llriftures, rnd all on the fame fiJe of the urethra ; the
other being perfittly fmooth. This form of the difeafe
throws the paflage to the oppofite fide, and often renders
the introduftion of the bougie difficult. Mr. Hunter alfo
acquaints us, that the contrafted part is whiter and harder
than any other part of the urethra. Sometimes there are
more ftriftures than one ; and this eminent furgeon had feen
half a dozen in one urethra, fome of which were more con-
trafted than others. Indeed, fays he, many urethras, that
have a ftrifture, have fmall tightneffes in other parts of
them.

The urethra naturally is not of the fame diameter
throughout its whole extent ; and fome parts of it are found
to be much more liable to ftridlure than others. In order
to determine with precifion the length, as well as width of
the urethra, fir E. Home took exa£t cafts of it in wax.
The fubjefts from which they were taken were of different
ages : one was between 70 and 80 ; the other, 30. The
length of the canal correfponded exaftly in both calls.
From the external orifice to the neck of the bladder was
9 inches ; but, in a note, this gentleman obferves, that, in
a relaxed ftate, the canal is commonly about 85 inches in
fcngth. From the external orifice to the bulb of the urethra
was 7 inches. The membranous part, extending from the
bulb to the proftate gland, li inch; and the canal palling
over the proftate gland was half an inch in length.

The following were the diameters of the cafts of the
urethra in different parts.

Years olil.

At three-quarters of an inch from the external 7
orifice - - - - - - -J

At 4^ inches from the external orifice * -

At the bulb, 7 inches from the orifice

In the membranous part direftly beyond the'
bulb, 75 inches from the orifice

In the membranous portion near to the proftate
gland, 85 inches from the orifice

Where the membranous part terminates, and
the proftate gland begins, 85 inchis from ' •
the orifice - - - - - . 1

At the neck of the bladder, 9 inches from the

80

T a-

t ■

TV

30

•7 [T
I I

■rv

orifice

■}

v.-

Thefe dimcnfions, it is to be underftood, are much be-
yond thofe of the ca(y ftate of the urethra.

The two parts of^ the urethra, which arc naturally the
moft narrow, are found alfo to be thofe moft liable to ftric-
ture. In faft, ftridures occur moft commonly jull behind
the bulb of the urethra, the diftance from the external ori-
fice being 65 or 7 inches. The fituation, next in order of
frequency, 13 about 45 inches from the orifice of the glans.
Striftures do alfo form at 3^ inches from this orifice, and
foraetimes almoft clofe to it. Mr. Hunter never met with

Vol. XXXVII.

a ftrifture in that part of the urethra which paffcs through
the proftate gland. P. 114.

In fome cafes, as fir E. Home further remarks, the ex-
ternal orifice itfelf is contraded. When this happens, it is
fometimes the fource of confiJerable errors, the furgeon
fuppofing the whole canal to be naturally formed of the
fame fize.

The prepuce alfo is very often contrafted, which is called
a natural phymofis. Sir E. Home believes, ■'ix. this more
frequently happens in thofe who are difpoled to ftridurcs
than other men.

In almoft all the cafes which have come under this gentle-
mjan's care, there has been one ftrifture about feven inches
from the external orifice, whether there have been others or
not. Such part of the canal feems much more difpofed to
contraft than the reft of it.

It is noticed by Mr. Hunter, that moft of the obftruc-
tions to the paflage of the urine, if not all, are attended
with nearly the fame fymptoms, fo that there are hardly fuf-
ficient marks for diflinguiftiing the different caufes. Few
patients take notice of The firft fymptoms of a ftriifture, till
they have either become violent, or have been the caufe of
olher inconveniences. For inftance, a patient (hall have a
confiderable ftriclure, without obferving that he does not
make water freely ; he fliall even have a tendency to inflam-
mation and fuppuration in the perineum, and not feel any
obftruAion to the paffage of his urine, nor fufpeft iliat he
has any other complaint than the inflammation in the peri-
neum. In all thefe obftruftions, the ftream of water be-
comes fmall, and that in proportion to the obftruftion ; but
this fymptom, though probably it is the firft, is not always
obfcrved by the patient. In fome tl.e urine is voided only in
drops, and then the diforder cannot efcape notice ; in others
the ftream is forked or fcattcred. (Hunter, p. 112.) Al-
though, as fir E. Home obferves, the firft progrefs of the
contraftion is generally very flow, yet, when once it has fo
far increafed, that the urethra is not wholly relaxed by the
force of the urine, its fubfequent advances are more rapid,
and new fymptoms are perceived. The uriiie is voided more
frequently ; does not pafs without a confiderable effort, at-
tended with pain, and a ftraining continues after the bladder
is emptied. If the patient accidentally catches cold, drinks
a glafs of fpirituous liquor, acid beverage, or punch, com-
mits an excefs in drinking wine, or removes quickly from a
warm to a cold climate, the urine will pafs only in drops,
or be entirely obftrudted ; thefe caufes, inducing in the con-
trafted part a fpafmodic aftion, by which it is clofed. Cold,
externally applied to the body (continues fir E. Home),
has fo great an effeft upon a fpafmodic ftrifturo, that a
patient who can make water without the fmalleft difficulty in
a warm room, upon attempting it in the open air fltall be
entirely unable to void a drop ; but, even in this difficulty,
if he returns to a warm room, and fits down fome little
time, the urine will come away. The experience of the
fame gentleman tends to prove, that the fymptoms o*^ ftric-
ture come on more frequently while the patient is leading a
fedeiitary than an aftive hfe.

Perinanent ftriAures are generally attended with a dif.
cliarge of matter, or a gleet. This is often confidered by
tlie patier.t as the whole difeafe ; and fometimes it is not till
after the furgeon has long in vain tried every means that he
can imagine to effect a cure, that otlier fymptoms are no-
ticed, and a ftridurc at lall fufpeded. In difeafes of tlie
urethra, and alfo in thofe of the proftate gland and bladder,
there is ufually an uncafinefs about the perineum, anus, and
lower {)art of the abdomen ; and, as Mr. Hunter remarks,
the patient can hardly crofs liia legs without pain.

3 1' Frequent

URETHRA.

Frequent intercourfe with women generally renders ftric-
tiires worfe. Under thefe circumftances, fays fir E. Home,
the membrane of the urethra is kept longer in a (late of con-
traftion ; and the part difpofed to Itrifture lofes the power
of relaxing itlelf again. Although the palTage i;i not com-
pletely clofed, it 13 rendered much narrower, and remains in
an extremely tender ftate. Hence, the paflage of the urine
irritates it, and in a few hours a difcharge of matter comes
on fimilar to that from gonorrhoea. In certain inftances,
the contra6lioa is fo great, that it ftops the emiiTion of the
femen altogether, and forces it back into the bladder ; while
in fome other cafes tliis fluid pafTes through the ftrifture
after the orgafm has taken place, but with little or no
force.

There is one circumftance which has a great tendency to
make a ftrifture be millaken for a gonorrhoea ; viz. the pain
ill making water is confined to the fame fpot in both dif-
eafes. A Itrifture in the membranous part of the urethra
does not render the part itfelf particularly fenfible ; but all
the painful fcnfations are felt about an inch and a half from
the orifice of the glans penis. This is a general faft, and
unaccountable as it may feem, it is not more extraordinary
than the burning pain felt in the glans, in cafes of ftone,
even when the whole of the urethra is perfectly found.

When a ftrifture is in an advanced ftage, the difeafed
part is at all times much narrower than the rell of the canal.
The ftrifture, however, according to fir E. Home, ftill re-
tains a power of contrading and relaxing itfelf; in the con-
trafted ftate, clofing up the paffage ; in the relaxed ftate,
allowing the urine to pafs through it in a fmall ftream. In
tliis ftate the ftream is fo fmall, and the exertion neceffary
to empty the bladder fo great, that the patient can feldom
be wholly ignorant of his complaint.

The fpafmodic contraftion, upon any irritation being ap-
plied to the part, is, as fir E. Home defcribes, very great.
This is known by the urine being unable to pafs in a ftream;
and by the extreme difficulty of now paffing a fmall bougie,
which, in the relaxed ftate of the canal, met with no refiftance.
The bougie alfo, if allowed to remain a few minutes, is not
unfrequently grafped fo tight by the fpafmodic contraftion,
that it cannot be withdrawn without confiderable force.
The bougie, when examined (continues fir E. Home), puts
on an appearance exaftly refembling what would have been
produced, if a piece of packthread had been tied round it.
In this ftage, the fpafmodic contraftions, although more
violent, occur lefs frequently than while the ftrifture was in
a more recent ftate. When the ftrifture has been of fome
years ftanding, the coats of the bladder become thickened,
in order to increafe the power of this organ to expel the
urine, the evacuation of which is rendered difficult by the
obftruftion. The bladder, in this thickened ftate, does not
admit of the ufual dilatation, fo that the patient is obliged
to make water every three or four hours, or oftener. See
Home's Praft. Obf. on StriAures.

In addition to the foregoing fymptoms, we have further
to enumerate, ampngft the numerous effefts of ftriftures in
the urethra, nofturnal emiffions ; and, in irritable patients,
a variety of unufual fenfations about the membranous part
of the urethra, conveying to the mind the idea of fome-
thing crawling or fluttering. In many cafes alfo, there is a
periodical difcharge, brought on by cold, or other occa-
fional caufes. When this happens, the inflammation extends
to the bladder ; the frequency of making water is very much
increafed ; and the urine very turbid. Sometimes the blad-
der inflames more violently, and fecretes purulent matter,
which pafles out after the urine. In ftill worfe attack5, the
difcharge from this vifcus is glairy, like the white of an egg.

and of a ftrongly tenacious confiftence. The difcharge of
pus and gelatinous mucus with the urine, has been regarded
as particularly evincing an ulcer, or calculus in the bladder ;
but it is a fymptom which arifes from any irritation of that
organ, and is frequent in cafes of old ftridlures.

Attacks of the preceding kind may bring on peritonitis,
and the patient is carried off. Sometimes alfo the inceffanc
irritation of the ftrictured part, by the efforts to make
water, brings on a gradual diminution of the canal, and, in
a few inftances, a total obhteration of a portion of it. This
laft event cannot happen without deftroying the patient, un-
lefs another outlet be formed for the urine. Complete ftric-
tures, therefore, as fir E. Home remarks, are only met with
where fiftulac in perinxo have been produced.

Some patients with ftriftures feem extremely liable to
complete paroxyfms of fever ; that is to fay, they often
have a cold, hot, and fweating ftage of febrile diforder in
regular fucceflioa. The fweating is alfo remarked to be
much more profufe than in a common ague.

Strittures in the urethra likewife occafion a fwelling of
the tefticle. When permanent and confiderable, they are
alfo apt, under particular circumftances, to caufe ftrangury
and retention of urine. If a patient goes fuddenly from a
warm into a cold fituation ; if he drinks too freely of wine ;
eats high-feafoned dirties; catches cold; commits any fpecies
of intemperance ; or delays making water too long, after
feeling the inclination, he expofes iximfelf to the danger of
thefe latter grievances.

The caufes of ftriitures in the urethra are not known
with any degree of certainty. The origin of the difeafe is
often imputed to the effefts of gonorrhoea, or to the method
of curing it. Mr. Hunter, however, conceives that there are
many reafons why this dotlrine is not likely to be correft.
Stridldres, he obferves, are common to molt paflfages in the
human body ; they often occur in the osfophagus ; in the
inteftines, efpecially the reftum ; in the anus ; in the pre-
puce producing phymofis ; and in the lachrymal du£t,
without any previous difeafe. They fometimes happen in
the urethra itfelf, without ever having been preceded by any
venereal complaint. Mr. Hunter faw an inftance of this
kind in a young man of nineteen, who had had a ftrifture
for eight years, and which therefore muft have begun when
he was only eleven years of age. The cafe was treated at
firft as the ftone or gravel. The patient was of a weak
fcrophulous habit, and the ftrifture in the mod ufual place,
about the membranous part of the urethra. Mr. Hun-
ter had alfo feen a ftriAure in a boy only four years of age,
and a fiftula in the perineum in coufequence of it. He re-
minds us alfo, that ftriftures are as common in perfons who
have had gonorrhoea flightly, as in thofe who have had it
violently. They are alfo never found to come on during the
inflammation which attends a clap, nor for fome time after
the infeftion is gone. Thirty and forty years fometimes _
elapfe between the cure of a gonorrhoea and the beginning
of a ftrifture, the health being all that time perfedlly good.
If ftriftures arofe in confequence of the inflammation ac-
companying this diforder, we (hould expeft to find them of
fome extent, becaufe the inflammation is itfelf of fome ex-
tent ; and we fliould alfo expeft to find them moft frequent
in that part of the urethra which is ufually the feat of go-
norrhoea. But the fad is, they are not fo frequent there as
they are in other parts of the urethra. Sir E. Home, how-
ever, differs from Mr. Hunter on this point, in thinking,
with moft other furgeons, that gonorrhoea is a very general
caufe of ftriftures.

It is fuppofed by many, fays Mr. Hunter, that ftricftures

arife from the ufe of injeftions in the cure of gonorrhoea ;

^ but

URETHRA.

but he thought the opinion founded on prejudice ; for he
had feen as many (triclures after gonorrhceas, which had been
cured without injeftions, as after other cafes, which liad
been cured with them. Such modes of accounting for ftric-
tures, he obferves, give no explanation of cafes which have
not been preceded by gonorrhoea, or the ufe of injeftions.
Sir E. Home alfo thinks differently from Mr. Hunter re-
fpe&ing injeftions, the injudicious ufe of which he conceives
may often caufe ilridtures. StriAures have fometimes been
fuppofed to arife from the healing of ulcers in the urethra ;
but Mr. Hunter fays, he never faw a fore in this paflage, ex-
cept in confequence of a ftrifture, and he therefore does not
fubfcribe to the opinion.

The ftone is fometimes a caufe of flriiSure, and this occa-
fjonally happens in infancy. Sir E. Home has met with
cafes of this kind in children only fix years of age ; and,
from other examples which he has recorded, it would appear,
that the difeafe is frequent in calculous patients of more ad-
vanced years.

In the Eaft Indies, and other warm climates, ftridlures
are much more readily brought on than in Europe ; and it
is thought, that the excelTes, in which the inhabitants of
hot countries indulge, have great effeft in promoting the
formation of the diforder.

Striftures have been known to arife from the application
of external violence to the perineum ; from the irritation of
blifters afFedling the membrane of the urethra ; and from
the irritation of a difeafed proftate gland. Cafes, in proof
of thefe obfervations, may be perufed in fir E. Home's
publication.

In the treatment of this difeafe, the firft thing is to afcer-
tain the precife fituation of the ftrifture neareft the orifice
of the urethra. For this purpofe, a common bougie, pro-
portioned to the fize of the orifice of this canal, is to be
gently introduced. If the bougie eafily enters the pafTage,
the furgeon may be well afTured, that, if there be no ob-
ftruAion, the fize of the inftrument cannot be too large for
the reft of the canal, the orifice of which is naturally Icfs
capacious than mod other parts of it. Small bougies, and
fuch as are too much pointed, however, are frequently
ftopped by the lacuna;, or orifices of the mucous glands,
and lead inexperienced furgeons into error.

In introducing any inftrument properly into the urethra,
fome degree of (kill is difplayed. When a bougie or cathe-
ter is to be pafied, the furgeon (hould take hold of the penis,
by placing the fore-finger and thumb of his left hand on
each fide of the prepuce, oppofite the corona glandis : thus
he avoids making any prefigure on the paflage into which he
is about to pafs the bougie. This being oiled is to be in-
troduced at firft a little way; then the furgeon is to draw the
penis forward, as it were over it, with the fore-finger and
thumb of his left hand, while, at the fame time, he gently
and fteadily perfifis in pufhing the inftrument further into
the pafTage with his right hand. The bougie itfclf is to be
h«ld like a writing pen, and, as it enters the urethra, it
ought to be artfully rotated, firll in one direflion, then in
the other, in order that its extremity may more certainly
cfcapc being entangled in any natural fold of the membrane
lining the paflage.

Having afccrtaincd, by the introduflion of a bougie, the
cxiftenqe and fituation of the ftri<?^ure neareft the mouth of
the urethra, the next defidrratum is to learn, whether the con-
traftion is fuch as would be produced by tying a piece of
packthread round the canal ; whether, on the other hand, it
occupies a confiderable extent of the paflage ; and, laftly,
what is the fize of the bougie which ran be introduced
through it. A knowledge of the extent of the ftriAure i»

a circumilance that would always be of efticntial ufe to the
prr.f ilioiier, if it could be obtained ; beraufe, we prefume,
no furgeon, knowing that the obftruflioii and difeafe extend
far along the urethra, would ever in fuch a cafe give a pre-
ference to the employment of armed bougies. Thofc anne<l
with the nitrate of filver could nevc-r be expected to burn
their way through a ftrifturc an inch in length ; and if other
bougies, armed with the cauftic potafla, are conceived to
admit of being applied to fuch a ftrifture with any degree of
precifion, or any other real efficacy than what aftually arifes
from the mechanical aftion of thefe inftruments themfelves,
when pafled through the ftrifture, we confefs that it is more
than our obfervations authorize us to believe. We have no
hefitation in giving it as our opinion, that, in all cafes ot
this defcription, as well as in others, in which two ftriftures
are near together, and the intervening part of the canal
much contradled, cauftic bougies ought not to be ufed.

Having afcertained that a common-fizcd bougie will not
pafs beyond a particular point of the urethra, we ought to
make an impreflion on the inftrument with the finger-nail,
clofe to tlie mouth of the uretlira. Then the bougie ftiould
be withdrawn, and the furgeon fliould take one of a fmaller
fize, which he is to mark with his nail, exaftly at the place
correfponding to that of the impreflion on the firft bougie.
This fmaller one is to be introduced fufiiciently far to bring
its marked part exaSly to the orifice of the urethra, at
whicli period the furgeon knows that the extremity of the
bougie has juft arrived at the contraftion, which would not
allow the firft common-fizcd bougie to pafs. If the fecond
bougie cannot be introduced farther than the firft, a iiill
fmaller one is to be tried ; but the furgeon ftiould not have
recourfe to the fmalleft bougies at once, as the largeft
bougie which can be got through the ftridturc ought to be
the model of the foft white one, which ftiould now be intro-
duced for the purpofe of ftiewing the fiiape and extent of
the ftriflure by tlie imprefilons made upon it. If, after the
foft bougie has remained a minute or two in the ftrifture, it
ftiould be marked with a diftinft circular or femi-circular
narrow furrow, on being withdrawn, we have reafon to be-
heve, that the ftridure does not occupy much of the
extent of the urethra. On the contrary, when tlic impref-
fions and irregularities on the foft bougie are extenfivc, it is
to be fufprfted that the ftrifture is not confined to a limited
point of the canal. At the fame time it muft be acknow-
ledged, that it is fomewhat difficult to form a certain judg-
ment from the appearances of the bougie, becaufe thefe wjl
depend very much upon the force or gentlenefs with which
the inftrument is ufed. In particular, it is extremely diffi-
cult to learn pofitivcly whether the urethra is diminiflicd in
diameter immediately behind the moft contracted part of the
ft rifture. Mr. C. Bell propofed the employment of a particvlar
fort of probe for determining the extent of ftriftures. " I pro-
cured ( fays this gentleman ) a ferics of filver and gold probef ,
with circular knobs ; the knobs varying from the full fi/c
of the urethra to what will jutl pafs the narrowcft ftridturf.
By fucceflively introducing fmaller balls, I afcertain the de-
gree of ftrifture by the ball which paflcs eafily ; and 1 am
lecure of being in the paftage by paffing the probe onward,
when it has got beyond the ftrifturc. Then by the flight
feeling of reliftance in palling the ball, and in withdrawing
it again through the obftjuftion, I afcertain the extent of
the contraftion. If the ball of this probe be liable, like
the point of the bougie, to enter one of the lacuna;, or, on
pafling it, to rub upon its edge, yet, by fcchng whether the
lame rcughnefs or difficulty attends the withdrawing of the
bulb of the probe as when it pafl"ed downward, we m.iy be
aftured whether there be a ilrifture of the canal, or whether
3 T 2 the

URETHRA.

the obftruAion be not caufed merely by the lacuna."
Oper. Surgery, vol. i. p. 104.

This author further obferves; that as the lacuna opens
in a diredlion towards the orifice of the urethra, its edge
cannot catch the probe when this is withdrawn, at which
period a uniform fmoothnefs muft be felt, unlefs there be
difeafe. When there is an irregular hardening of the
urethra for a confiderable extent, the probe is faid to move
along it with difSculty ; but no fooner has it pafTed the ob-
ftruftion, than it moves on with freedom. Likely as thefe
ball-probes for the urethra at firft feem to be to afford de-
firable information refpefting tiie fpecies of ftriftnre, they
are at prefent not much ufed by furgical praftitioners. In
feft, in praftice tliey do not anfwer ; and it is the contrac-
tile power of the urethra, or (if others vnll not allow it) it
is the aftion of the mufcles contiguous to this pafTage, which
fometimes ftops the eafy introduftion of the probe even
when there is no permanent ftrifture whatever, and which
makes it more difficult to afcertain the nature and extent of
the obftruftion than would otherwife be the cafe.

That great utility in praftice would be derived from being
able to learn the nature of the flrifture, muil be as obvious
as the faft, that a cauilic bougie is not at all calculated to
remove the obftruftion when it is of any extent. Such an
ir^ftrument (we mean particularly a lunar cauftic one) could
only aft on the anterior part of the contraftion, without
prefenting any profpeft of being fufficiently efficacious to
burn its way, by repeated applications, through the whole
extent of the ftrifturc. Even could we imagine that it had
this power, our judgment and common fenfe would revolt at
the doftrine of this being the proper plan to be purfued.
The common bougie, on the other hand, is introduced
thi-ough the whole extent of the ftrifture, and afting like a
wedge on every part of it, produces a general dilatation of
the obftruAion. Wlien the ftrifture is attended with a coni-
cal lefTening of the canal in front of it, a common bougie
muit alfo merit a preference.

Treatnwnt with the common Bougie This inftrument afts

by producing a mechanical dilatation of the ftrifture. As
It operates, however, on bving matter, it either makes the
dilated part adapt itfelf to its new pofition, or recede by
ulceration. If the cafe is one that will allow even the
fmalleft bougie to be introduced through the ftrifture, the
cure may be confidered to be within our power. In many
cafes in which the ftrifture is confiderable, a great deal of
trouble is given by occafional fpafms, which either prevent
the introduftion of the bougies altogether, or only allow a
very fmall one to pafs. In fuch cafes, Mr. Hunter was
fometimes able to make the bougie pafs, by rubbing the
perineum with one hand, while he pufhed forward the
bougie with the other. He alfo frequently fucceeded by
lettmg the bougie remain clofe to the ftrifture a little
while, and then pufhing it forward. The fpafm has
fometimes been removed by dipping the penis in cold
water.

It is fometimes difBcult to know, whether a fmall bougie
has pafTed through a ftrifture, or only bent. In this cafe, a
common-fized bougie fhould be previoufly introduced to
learn the fituation of the ilrifture ; and, afterwards, when
the end of the fmall bougie is known to have reached the
obftruftion, the furgeon fhould pufh the inftrument forward
very gently, and for a fhort time. If the bougie enters the
petris further, he may know whether it has entered the
ftrifture by removing the prefTure from the Liougie ; for, if
this recoil, it has not paffed, but only bent. After all,
however, every praftical furgeon knows, that it is fome-
times incorreft to take even fuch a criterion, and a very

fmall bougie frequently bends, and yet does not afterwards
recoil in the leaft.

When the bougie has paffed a little way through the
ftrifture, and remained there a fliort time, we fhould with-
draw it, and examine its extremity. If this fhould be flat-
tened, grooved, or have its waxen coat pufhed up for fome
extent ; or, if there fhould be a circular impreflion on the
bougie, or only a dent on one fide made by the ftrifture, we
may be fure that the inftrument has paffed as far as thofe
appearances and impreffions extend.

Now it becomes necefTary to introduce another bougie of
exaftly the fame fize, and let it remain as long as the patient
experiences no particular inconvenience.

When the end of the firft bougie is blunted, we may be
fure that it has not paffed the ftrifture at all.

The beft time for wearing bougies is when the patient is
in bed in the morning, or when he has an opportunity of
keeping himfelf perfeftly quiet. The bougie fhould be
gradually increafed in fize, as the ftrifture dilates, till the
largetl one can eafily pafs, and its ufe fhould be continued
for three or four weeks afterwards, in order to habituate the
parts to their new ftate.

It is well known that ftriftures are very liable to return,
and hence the treatment with common bougies has been
accufed of inefScacy. We have known, however, fome
cafes in which the cure lafted many years ; and others in
which the ftrifture returned, although cauftic bougies had
been employed. One reafon why the difeafe often relapfed
in former times was, becaufe furgeons had no correft
notions refpefting the naturally capacious diameter of the
urethra, and confequently they never increafed the fize of
tlie bougie, as far as it ought to have been, in proportion as
the difeafe gave way. In the employment of cauftic
bougies, on the other hand, furgeons have always preferred
large ones ; and, if thefe inftruments ever render the cure
more durable, we conceive that the fuccefs is in a great
meafure afcribable to this circumftance.

Common bougies have one advantage over thofe armed
with lunar cauftic ; iiiz. that of being fometimes capable of
afting upon feveral ftriftures at once, when they are mtro-
duced into the urethra ; a thing which is impofQble in the
other method.

Treatment with Elaftic Gum Catheters and Bougies. — Per-
haps there is no plan of treating ftriftures in the urethra
which is fo mild and unirritating as that with inftruments
coated with elaftic gum. It is the common method of
treatment followed in France, where cauftic bougies appear
to be entirely abandoned. The celebrated Default, vpho
had confiderable fuccefs in the treatment of ftriftures, rarely
employed any means of cure except an elaftic gum catheter.
That this inftrument can frequently be introduced through
a ftrifture, even when nothing elfe will pafs, feems well
known to every praftitioner in furgery ; for, whether he is
an advocate for one method of cure or another, he no fooner
fails in his attempts to get through a ftrifture, than he tries
what can be done with a gum catheter. It is quite unne-
ceffary to dwell long on the mode of curing ftriftures with
this inftrument, or the elaftic gum bougie. The cure is ef-
fefted on the principle of dilatation ; the very fame prin-
ciple on which the common bougie operates. The catheter
will fometimes pafs without the ftilet, when it will not dofo
with It. This inftrument, being much lefs irritating than a
common bougie, can be longer worn without inconvenience,
efpecially as the patient can alfo void his urine without
taking it out. Indeed, it may be worn feveral days to-
gether, if judged advifable ; but we believe it is generally
better to withdraw it fooner, and endeavour to get in as

quickly

UUHTHRA.

quickly as pofTible other elallic gum catlictcrs ol larger fize.
The elaftic gum bougie fometimes will not pafs a ftrifture
in the membranous part of the urethra, owing to the elaili-
city of the inftrument tending to keep its point from af-
cending over the ridge in the canal. In fome cafes we have
found them on this account not to anfwer, and have been
obliged to ufc either a common bougie, or an elaftic catheter
containing a wire.

Treatment •with Bougies armed •with Nitrate of Silver. — The
praAice of applying cauilic to Itridlurus was known to
Wifeman, who is jultly elleemed the father of Englifli fur-
gery. The cauftic which he ufed was the common red
precipitate, and he introduced it into the urethra by means
of a cannula. It appears that Mr. Hunter was not aware
that any propofal of the kind had ever been made by others,
when he firlt conceived the projeft of curing ftridlures in
the urethra with caulHc. It was only afterwards that he
learned what Wifeman had done ; and there can be no
doubt, that if the idea had not exilled previoufly, we (hould
ftill have derived it from the fertile genius of Mr. Hunter.
The inftruments with which he employed cauftic coiififted
of a filver cannula and a ililet. One end of the ftilet had
a fmall bulb, which tilled up the end of the cannula, and
made it pafs more ealily down to the ftriclure. The other
end was a port crayon, containing the piece of cauftic
which was introduced through tlie cannula, and applied to
the ftrifture. The application having been made, the port
cray«n was drawn back into the cannula, and the whole
taken out of the urethra.

It is obfervcd by fir Everard Home, that the foregoing
method of ufing cauftic was found in pradlice to be liable to
a variety of objedlions. No filver cannula could be well
adapted to the flexible canal of the urethra. Hence, when
the cauftic was applied, and any degree of prefTure exerted,
the efleift of the cauftic was ncceflarily produced upon the
angle, between the ftridture and fide of the urethra, and not
upon the middle of the ftrifture, the part intended to be de-
ftroyed. Mr. Hunter not only faw the inconveniences of
the cannula, but he adluaUy endeavoured to obviate them
by devifing a more Ample and commodious method of ap-
plying cauftic accurately to the centre of the ftridture. The
following is the improved mode, as explained by fir
E. Home : Take a bougie of a fize that can be readily
pafTed down to the ftri£iure, and infert a fmall piece of
lunar cauftic into the end of it, expofing the furface of the
cauftic, but fiirrounding it every where laterally with the
fubftance of the bougie. This (hould be done fome little
time before it is ufed ; for the materials of which the bougie
is compofed become warm and foft by being handled in the
infcrtion of the cauftic ; and, therefore, the hold which the
bougie has of the cauftic is rendered more fccure by the in-
ftrument being allowed to cool and become hardened.

This bougie is to be oiled, but before pafliiig it, a com-
mon bougie of the fame fize is to be introduced down to
the ftrifturc, in order to clear the canal, and to mcafure cx-
aftly the diftance of the llrifture from the external orifice.
This diftance being marked upon the armed bougie, the
latter is to be paffed down to the ftrifture as foon as the
common one is withdrawn. In its paft^agc the cauftic can
fcarcely come into contaft with any part of the ll:iiiigof the
urethra, as the point of the bougie, of wiiich the cauftic
forms the central part, always moves in the middle line of
the canal ; and indeed the qiiickiiefs with which it is con-
veyed to the ftridlure muft alfo prevent any injury of the
membrane.

When the armed bougie is in contaft with the flrifturc,
it is to be ftcadily retained there, with a moderate degree of

5

prefTure at firft, which is to be allerwards diminifhcd, or
elfe it would bend the bougie when this becomes foftened
by the warmth of the urethra. The time which it it to re-
main depends a good deal upon the fenfations of the patient,
and the length of time the parts have been difeafed ; but on
the firft trial it fhould be lefs than a minuie, as it then com-
monly gives greater pain than at any fubfequent application.
Every other day is generally as often as the cauftic bougie
can be ufed with prudence. However, in obftinate cafcs,
fir E. Home has fometimes employed it every day.

The bougie, which is introduced into the urethra previoufly
to the armed one, fliould be made of foft materials, in order
that it may mould itfelf to the form of ihe paiTage, and
communicate fome information relative to the extent, degree,
and pofition of the ftridlure.

The pain arifing from the application of the nitrate of
filver, or lunar cauftic, to ftiittures, is reprefented by fir
E. Home as much more moderate than might a priori be ap-
prehended- This gentleman has even related inftances, in
which the piece of cauftic flipped out of the bougie, and
remained in the urethra ; yet without occafioning any very
fevere fymptoms.

In the courfe of the ufe of cauftic bougies, efpecially
when the patient is guilty of any imprudence, it is poffible
for fome uncommon fymptoms to arife.

The firft is a fwelliug in the perineum. It is very apt to
be brought on when the furgeon is endeavouring to remove
that part of the ftriclure whicii is nearcft to the fides of the
urethra. The fwelling, which is of confiderable fize, is to-
tally different from that which is produced by the irritation
of the long continuance of bougies in the paflage, and
which ends in an abfcefs. It is entirely caufed by blood ex-
travafated in the cellular membrane, and which is readily ab-
forbed. The inflammation is alfo flight, and foon fubfides.
A fecond effeft of cauftic, in fome particular cafes, is a
very profufe hemorrhage. According to fir E. Home, the
bleeding never occurs with violence, except when tlie tinc-
ture h.is been completely dettroyed. This gentleman has
related feveral examples of fuch hemorrhage, and others are
on record. See Edinb. Med. and Surg. .lourn. vol. v.

P-333-.

A third ill confequence, fometimes induced by the ufe of
armed bougies, is llrangury. According to fir E. Home,
it is not common for cauftic to produce this effeft. On the
contrary, he ftales, that in many inftances it removes it, by
taking off' fpafmodic aftion from the ftrifture. Patients,
however, who are fubjeft to occafioiial retentions of urine
from the ufe of common bougies, are alio not lefs liable to
the complaint when they are ufiiig armed ones ; and fome-
times they I'uffer in a ftill worfe degree.

In certain conftitutions, it appears alfo, that the applica-
tion of cauftic to a ftrifture brings on an attack of ague.
This effed't is faid to be moll common in patients who have
paft a good deal of their life in hot climates. It fometimes
happens, however, in perlons who have never been out of
England. We faw in St. Bartholomew's hofpital, a fevr
years .igo, an elderly man who had very bad ftriftures, for
which the cauftic was ufed. After the plan had been fol- '
lowed about a fortnight, a ferious fliivering fit came on di-
redly after the application of the bougie. The method
was difcontinued for a time, and the man's hcalth'got rather
better. The cauftic was now ag.iin reforted to, and again
a moR violent rigour immediately followed, an. I the febrile
difpofition which took place proved fatal in a couple of
days.

Caufl:ic bougies ar" ut prefent much lefs employed than
they were ten or fifteen years ago. In France, however, and

upon

URETHRA.

upon the continent in general, the praftice never gained any
partifans. The great thing which rendered the plan a fa-
vourite one with many furgeons feme time ago, depended
upon its alleged fuperiority in radically curing ftriftures,
and leaving no chance of a relapfe. We believe, however,
that this was only a fuppofition ; for we have feen feveral re-
turns of ftrifture after the ufe of cauftic ; and, if the dif-
eafe fhould recur rather lefs frequently on the whole, the fuc-
cefs may be very well afcribed to the larger fize of the armed
bougies ordinarily employed. In fhort, we have no doubt,
that common bougies would permanently cure ftriftures
quite as well as any armed ones, if care were taken to in-
creafe the fize of them in a proper degree, in proportion as
the obftruftion gives way.

For thofe ftriftures, however, which are like what would
be produced by tying a piece of packthread round the
urethra, we think armed bougies generally anfwer very well.
They have alfo been particularly recommended for irritable
ftriftures, the irritability of which is faid to be deftroyed
with the difeafed part of the canal. There are fome cafes
in which no bougie nor catheter, of the fmalleft fize what-
ever, can be got through the obftniftion. Here the fur-
geon has the choice of ufing the armed bougie ; of exciting
ulceration of the ftrifture with the preffure of a common
one ; or of imitating the French, and fome of our own fur-
geons, in boldly forcing a way through the obftrudiion with
a conical catheter, of which we (hall prefently fpeak.

Treatment of Slridures -with other Bougies, firmed mth the

Caiiftic Potajfa Mr. Whately confiders flriftures of the

urethra, not merely as contradled fibres, but as really difeafed
portions of the membrane lining that canal. Hence he has
propofed a remedy, calculated, as he thinks, both to remove
the difeafed affeftion, and to dilate the contradled part,
without putting the patient to the inconvenience of wearing
a bougie. Such a remedy he thinks cauftic, when it isjudi-
cioufly ufed. But his great objeft is to recommend the em-
ployment of the cauftic potaffa, or kah purum, in a parti-
cular manner, as being, according to his own account, more
efficacious, and lefs painful and hazardous, than bougies
armed with lunar cauftic.

Before the cauftic potafla is employed, the urethra ought
to be rendered fufficiently capacious to admit a bougie above
the fmalleft fize into the bladder ; and the ftriftures, if very
irritable, are to have this irritability previoufly leflened by
the ufe of common bougies.

The following is the manner of arming a bougie with this
cauftic, according to Mr. Whately's defcription. Put a
fmall quantity of the cauftic upon a piece of ftrong paper,
and break it with a hammer into little bits, about the fize of
large and fmall pin's heads. When thus broken, it fhould
be kept for ufe in a phial, clofed with a ground ftopper.
The bougie muft have a proper degree of curvature given
to it, by drawing it feveral times between the finger and
thumb of the left hand, and it ftiould be juft large enough
to enter the ftridlure with fome degree of tightnefs. Then
let it be palTed gently into the urethra, and when its point
flops at the ftrifture, which it almoft always does before it
will enter it, make a notch with the finger-nail on the upper
portion of the bougie, eraftly half an inch from the extre-
mity of the penis. When the bougie is withdrawn, a fmall
hole, about the fixteenth part of an inch deep, ftiould be
made at the extremity of its rounded end. Some of the
broken cauftic fhould then be put upon a piece of paper ;
and a bit, fmaller than the fmajleft pin's head, is to be fe-
Icfted for the firft application. Let this be inferted into the
hole of the bougie with a pocket-knife, and pufhcd into it
with the blunt end of a pin, fo as to place the cauftic rather

below the margin of the hole. In order to prevent the po-
taffa from coming out, the hole is then to be contrafted a
little with the finger, and the remaining vacancy is to be
filled viith hog's-lard. The bougie, being then oiled, is to be
palTed, with the curvature upward, to the anterior pai-t of
the ftrifture, the fituation of which has been afcertained be-
forehand, and the bougie marked as already explained. The
inftrument fhould reil there for a few feconds, for the pur-
pofe of letting the cauftic begin to diffolve. It fhould then
be very gently pulhed forward, about one-eighth of an inch,
when there muft be another flop for a fecond or two. The
bougie fhould next be carried forward in the fame gentle
manner, till it has got through the ftrifture. After this, it
fhould be immediately withdrawn, by a very gentle motion,
to the part at which it was firft made to reft awhile. It is
next to be very flowly paffed through the ftrifture a fecond
time ; but vnthout letting the bougie ftop in its paffage. If
pain or faintnefs arife, the operation is now to end, and the
bougie is to be immediately withdrawn ; but if no fuch
effefts be produced, the inftrument may be paffed and with-
drawn once or twice more.

Mr. Whately direfts the application to be repeated once
every feven days ; and if the ftrifture be found dilated, the
bougie muft be proportionally increafed in fize every time.
The piece of cauftic, in no cafes whatever, ought to be
larger than a common pin's head.

By proceeding in the way above related, Mr. Whately
conceives that the cauftic will be equally difFufed over every
part of the ftriftured furface, and that the application will
only abrade the membrane of the ftrifture, without pro-
ducing a flough.

It deferves notice, that this method of treatment feems
httle adapted to ftriftures, which are confined, as it were, to
a pomt of the urethra ; the cafes which are alfo the moft fre-
quent, if we are to credit the authority of Mr. Hunter.
The poffibihty of applying the cauftic accurately to the
place intended has always appeared to us doubtful ; and,
indeed, notwithftanding there are fome good furgeons, who
occafionally try the plan and think it anfwers, we arc inclined
to afcribe more to the paffage of the bougie itfelf than to
any effeft of the little bit of cauftic on the ftrifture.

Treatment of StriSures with metallic Bougies. — For fome
years paft, a new plan has prevailed of treating ftriftures in
the urethra with bougies, compofedof a foft, flexible metal.
The iuftruments alfohave a highly pohftied furface,of a filvery
hue ; and as the diameter of fome of them is confiderable, they
poffefs a fufficient degree of firmnefs, both for introduftion,
and for retaining the curve of the patient's urethra. This
laft circumftance, indeed, is conCdered by fome praftitioners
a great advantage, exclufively belonging to metallic bougies.
Hence, as foon as they have received the curvature which is
judged to fuit the patient beft, they are carefully preferved
in this form throughout the cure, and are kept in a cafe
which alfo has a bent ihape. Formerly, we have heard of
objeftions to thefe inftruments, on the ground of their being
hable to break in the urethra ; but, although they are now
often ufed, we have not been acquainted latterly with fuch an
accident. Perhaps this is to be imputed to their prefent
compofition, which is firmer and lefs flexible than it ufed to
be fome years ago. Many patients bear the employment of
metallic bougies better than any others. It feems only ne-
ceffary to add, that they effeft a cure on the principle of di-
latation, like common bougies.

Treatment of StriHures with a conical Silver Catheter. — It
is remarkable that the French furgeons, who have always ob-
jefted to the ufe of armed bougies, which appear to them too
violent a means of cure, have fet the example of treating

ftriftures

URETHRA.

lliidures in the urethra on the 'principle of actual force.
We cannot explain this matter to the reader better than by
quoting what Mr. Crofs, an intelligent forgeon at Norwich,
who lately vitited the hofpitals of Paris, has faid upon the
fubje<ft. « When I firft went to La Charite, (fays this
gentleman,) out of fifty-three male patients in the furgical
ward, there were five cafes of ftridlure of the urethra, and
three or four of difeafes of the telticles. In the treatment
of the former complaint, the cauftic bougie is not ufed in
any of the hofpitals, and it was cenfured by all the furgeons
I met with, as ' a "very dangerous and harjh remedy,' which
I believe moft of them have never given a trial to. It ap-
pears to me, however, that the Parifian method of treating
many cafes of llrifture in the urethra is not more mild than
the ufe of the cauftic." Mr. Crofs then recites a cafe
which he faw in La Charite. A man who had had for a long
while a permanent (Iriclure, had been repeatedly treated for it.
There was difficulty of makiug water, but not complete re-
tention. Unfuccefsful attempts were made, for feveraldays,
to pafs an inftrument into the bladder by gentle means. The
patient was ftill able to void his urine, although with great
pain and difficulty. M. Roux took, a conical iilver catheter,
with a very flight curvature, and an extremity almoft pointed,
and by force regularly applied, he made his way into the
bladder in fpite of all oppofition. He took care to keep
the inftrument central, and to judge of the direftion of die
point by the lateral rings. The rule mentioned by M. Roux,
for commencing the great depreffion of the outer extremity
of the inftrument, was when, by the finger in the reftum,
he could feel the point to have reached the apex of the prof-
tate. He gave great pain to the patient, but fucceeded in
getting the inftrument into the bladder. The urine in the
bladder was not fuffered to flow out immediately, the cathe-
ter being left in the urethra, and its end plugged up with a
piece of wood. Mr. Crofs well obferves, that M. Roux
afted very judicioufly in direfting the catheter to be kept dc-
prefled between the thighs, becaufe from its fhortncfs, and
the fmallnefs of its curvature, the bringing of the outer
extremity of the inftrument up to the abdomen would have
drawn the other extremity out of the bladder.

Three or four days are the time M. Roux commonly keeps
the conical catheter in the paffage ; but this patient fuffered
fo intolerably, that it was taken out at the end of four and
twenty hours. An claftic gum catheter, of rather a fmall fize,
was immediately introduced without difficulty ; its extremity
faftened to the abdomen ; and its orifice plugged up, in order
that the urine might be allowed to flow only at certain pe-
riods. The next day the patient was comparatively cafy.
On the fourth day there was a fwelling of the tefticle, fcro-
tum, and perineum. A poultice was applied, and the claftic
catheter continued. In four days more the fwelling of the
parts had fubfided, and the poultice was no longer neceflary.
A fre/h gum catheter of a larger fize was introduced. Suffice
it here to add, that in about fix weeks a catheter of the
largeft fize could be introduced.

Another cafe, fays Mr. Crofs, went on lofs favourably.
The foncL- con'tque had been employed, and a gum catlieter

introduced ; but in lefs than a week the patient, believing
he could make water without the inftrument, took it out
himfelf. The next day, an cffufion of urine in the fcrotum
had taken place, and the fluid was freely let out by two long
incifions. The claftic catheter, however, could not be in-
troduced again. The urine now came away in drops from
the urethra. The free incifions in the fcrotum prevented
Houghing ; but the patient, who was very weak, and in
bad health, died in a few days. It was, obfervcs Mr.

Crofs, an inveterate cafe of llridurc, and tlie patient would
probably have died under any treatment. DiffeAion (hewed
a difeafed bladder, whofc coats were above half an inch in
thicknefs ; a cartilaginous ftrifturc and extenfive finufcs
communicating with the once-membranous part of the
urethra.

" The effefting of a fpeedy cure, in bad cafes of ftric-
ture," is the argument advanced by the French furgeons
for the ufe of the conical catheter, where that of elaftic gum
cannot be introduced without its affiftance. They tell ui,
fays Mr. Crofs, even of bad cafes being cured, or greatly
relieved, in a month or fix weeks ; and certainly in one cafe,
under M. Roux, a catheter of the largeft fize could be re-
ceived by the urethra, a month from the introdudion of the
conical catheter.

M. Roux afl"ured Mr. Crofs, that he had never feen any
inflammation or irritation from this treatment, which was not
readily managed and fubdued. In his clinical lefture, how-
ever, he mentioned two fatal cafes, which he had witnefled,
and examined after death. In one of thefe, on taking out
the fonde conlque d' argent the third or fourth day after its
introduAion, the furgeon could not introduce the gum
catheter : in attempting to do which, faid M. Roux, another
paifage feemed to have been made. Extravafation of the
urine, floughing, and death enfued. The fecond cafe was
fomewhat fimilar ; peritoneal inflammation was the im-
mediate caufe of its fatal termination, the inftrument hav-
ing pafted between the pubes and anterior part of the
bladder.

Whoever defires more information refpefting this violent
mode of treating ftriftures, muft confult Mr. Crofs's pub-
lication. Enough, we conceive, has been faid to prove
that it is a dangerous plan, which can only be juftifiable in
the moft inveterate and obftinate cafes. It feems that, in
fiich examples, the late John Hunter alfo ufed the filver
catheter with confiderable force ; and the praftice of Mr.
Pearfon and of Cooper is likewife cited, as a fanAion of this
bold mode of proceeding. The French even fometimes
prefer this way of punfturing the bladder, the catheter be-
ing forced through the proftate gland ; and we have heard of
one or two diftinguiflied furgeons in this country, who never
perform any of the ordinary methods of punifturing the
bladder, but invariably fuccecd in getting a catheter into
that organ, by forcing the inftrument forward through the
proftate gland. See Hunter's Treatife on the Venereal
Difeafe. Whately's improved Plan of treating Striftures.
Firft Lines of Surgery, edit. 3. Sir E. Home's Praftical
Obf. on Striftures. C. Bell's Letters on Dif. of the
Urethra. Crofs's Sketches of the Medical Schools of
Paris, &c.

Urethra, Imperforate. Children, when firft born, are
fometimes incapable of making water, in confequence of the
prepuce or urethra being imperforate. In the firft cafe,
the nurfe takes notice that the child's linen is not wet, and
the extremity of the penis prcfents a foft, oblong, ftiining,
tranfparcnt tumour, occafioned by the colledlion of the urine
between the prepuce and the glans. Relief is to be given

by making an incifion into the anterior and inferior part of
the fwelling, and thus opening the prepuce. The frefli-cut
furfaces are then to be kept apart with a doffil of lint, until
healed. When the prepuce is very long, it is even recom-
mended to cut off a piece of it, in order to remove all rifle
of a phymofis.

When the inability to evacuate the urine depends upon an
imperforate ftatc of the canal of the inethra, the membrane
which clofco its orificc'is to be opened with a lancet, and a

piece

URETHRA.

piece of lint in'roduced between the fid«s of tlie pundure,
until they are cicatrized.

In the female fubjeft, the meatus urinarius is fometimes
found imperforate, though lefs frequently fo than the vagina.
Aa foon as a furgeon is apprifed of the caufe of a young
female child not being able to void its urine, he is to divide
the membrane which clofes the orifice of the meatus uri-
narius. The frequent evacuation of the urine, and the in-
troduftion of a fmall doffil of lint, will prevent the fides of
the incifion from growing together again. An imperforate
urethra in the female fubjeft has been known to give rife to
an urinary fiftula at the narel. In this cafe, the retained
fl-uid makes its way by the urachus to the umbilicus. The
urachus, which in the adult is folid and ligamentous, con-
tains in fome fubjefts an inconfiderable cavity, which afcends
more or lefs towards the navel. It is conceivable, that in
fuch individuals, who are analogous to quadrupeds, in which
the urachus is a true canal, the urine may afcend along this
procefs to the navel, elevate the (Icin there, and at length
makes its way out, and caufe a fiftula in the fame fituation.
Even when the urachus is folid, it is poffible that the lining
of the bladder may be propelled in this direftion, and pro-
trude alfo at the umbilicus, where it may afterwards burft.
However it may be, nothing is more certain than the pofli-
bihty of the urine afcending along the urachus, and the
formation of an urinary fiftula at the navel, in young female
children, in whom the urethra is imperforate. Cabrol's
twentieth obfervatiou aff^ords a complete proof of the fadt.
In a cafe of the fame kind, we could not alfo do better than
imitate the praftice, which this praftitioner adopted. It
confifted in firft eftabhfliing the natural paflage for the urine
by a fuitable incifion, and the ufe of an elaftic gum catheter.
A ligature was then applied round the fungous protube-
rance at the navel, where the urine had been previoufly dif-
charged. Perhaps, however, the latter proceeding would
generally be unneceflary, becaufe, unlefs the fiftula had ex-
ifted very long, it would fpontaneoufly heal, on the urine
finding its natural outlet.

Ukethra, Orifice of. Mi/placed. In fpeaking of malform-
ations of this paflage, it deferves notice that the orifice of
the urethra is not always found fituated at the anterior part
of the glans. This particular cafe, which is not very un-
common, is termed by furgeons hypofpadias. It prefents
the following varieties : — Sometimes the orifice of the urethra
is below the glans ; fometimes it is very far back, near the
crura of the penis, but ftill at the under furface of this organ.
There are alfo cafes, in wliich the urethra is found fituated
above the corpora cavernofa ; and the malformation ought
then to be called epifpadlas. Richerand mentions having
feen a remarkable inftance of this defcription in a young
confcript. The penis was extremely fliort ; fo much fo,
that, at firft view, there feemed to be only the glans, which,
in the flaccid ftate of the parts, was the only thing vifible in
front of the pubes. Along the upper part of the bafe of
the glans there was a fiffure, which extended through the
flcin of the dorfum of the penis, refembling a vulva of about
an inch in length. The malformation, termed hfptfpadias,
caufes no impediment to the evacuation of the urine ; and it
is even aflerted, that it does not certainly deprive the indi-
vidual of the generative power. The truth of this obferva-
ti6n muft depend very much upon the exaft fituation of the
orifice of the urethra ; for if it were towards the perineum,
impotence muft be the confequence. In this latter kind of
cafe alfo, no attempt at a cure would be prafticable ;
though, perhaps, when the orifice is near the glans, fome-
thing might be done, with a view of forming a continuation

of the paflage to its proper extent. Such, however, would
be the tendency of any new opening to clofe again, that the
refult would be very uncertain ; and we believe that the re-
cords of furgery evince no fafts in favour of the trial.

There is another ferious malformation of the urethra,
which confifts in a preternatural ftiortnefs of it. The canal
does indeed extend to the glans penis, where it terminates in
the ufual way ; but its aftual length does not correfpond
with that of the corpora cavernofa. Hence, a permanent
curvature of the penis is produced, and the perfetEl ereftiou
of this organ is hindered. The cafe is faid to be entirely
incurable.

Urethra, Calculi lodged in. Stones of moderate fize
may efcape from the bladder, and, lodging in diff"erent parts
of the urethra, may occafion great pain, and a difiiculty of
making water. An inftance has been recently publiftied, in
which a ftone in the urethra was miftaken for a ftrifture,
and the cauftic aftually applied. (See Marcet on Calculous
Diforders, p. 9.) Whatever may be their fituation in this
canal, their evacuation ought to be promoted by all fuch
means as tend to relax the paflage ; as bleeding, the warm
bath, fomentations to the perineum, diuretic drinks, and
the injeftion of oil into the paflage. Thefe means are to be
affifted by the gentle and fliilfuUy direfted prefliire of the
fingers, applied juft behind the foreign body. When a
very fmall calculus is fufpefted to be in the bladder, and it
will not pafs through the uretlua, M. Delpech has lately
propofed dilating the paflage as much as poflible with elaftic
gum catheters ; and when the largeft inftrument can be in-
troduced, he thinks a good chance of the calculus being
voided might be obtained, by fuddenly withdrawing the
large catheter, and defiring the patient to void his urine as
forcibly as poflible. Particular forceps have likewife been
conftrufted for the extraftion of calculi from the urethra ;
but they feldom anfwer, except when the foreign body is
near the orifice, and would foon efcape of itfelf. A to-
bacco clyfter has been known to effeft. the difcharge of a
calculus from the urethra. See Edinb. Med. Surg. Journ.
vol. xii. p. 373.

When all the foregoing proceedings are ineffeftual, and
the patient fuffers a good deal of pain and inconvenience, it
becomes the duty of the furgeon to cut down to the calculus,
and extraft it. The patient fliould then wear an elaftic gum
catheter for a few days, until the opening is healed. The
vn-iter of this article was once confulted by a gentleman's
coachman, who had contrived to let a large head-drefs pin
flip a confiderable way into the urethra, fo that he could
not get it out again. The point of the inftrument, in faft,
was more than three inches from the orifice of the urethra.
Its extraftion was eafily accompliftied, by puftiing its point
through the urethra, when it was taken hold of, and with-
drawn as far as it could be in this manner. The head of
the pin was then puftied towards the mouth of the canal,
and the whole inftrument extradled.

Urethra, Falfe Pajfage in. One of the greateft evils,
arifing from the unfliiltul and too violent ufe of catheters,
bougies, and other inilruments, is the formation of a new or
falfe paflage, by the rupture of the urethra. Whenever an
inftrument is afterwards introduced, it does not follow the
courfe of the urethra, but enters the ruptured opening.
Thus, the difficulty of curing the ftrifture, if there be one,
is ferioufly increafed, becaufe the furgeon can hardly ever
get the bougie to reach it again ; and if his objeft is to pafs
an inftrument into the bladder, he is equally fruftrated.
Nothing feems more likely to caufe a falfe paflage, than the
violent ufe of the conical filver catheter, in cafes of bad

fl.iifturt6 !

U 11 G

U R I

fttiftures ; a plan which is now in vogue at Puris, and of
which we have abeady delivered an account in a foregoing
column. The formation of a falfe paffagc is alfo a dan-
gerous accident, inafmuch as it may give rile to an extrava-
fjtion of the urine, floughing of th^ perineum and fcrotum,
and even death itfelf.

When a furgeon has reafon to fufpeft that there is a recent
falfe paffage, perhaps his wifeft plan is to defift from the intro-
duction of inftrumeuts into the urethra, and keep the patient
very quiet for a few days, in order to take the chance of
the breach of continuity being repaired. If, however, the
urine fhould be effufed, he would be warranted in attempt-
ing to pafs an elaltic gum catheter, without any delay, in
the hope of (lopping the increafe of the extrav.ifation.
Were the effufed fluid confiderable, he would alfo be called
upon to make immediately one or two free incilions, for the
fame purpofe. Should he be fo fortunate as to fucceed in
getting a catheter introduced, the patient muft be directed
to wear it for feveral days, without interruption. In this
manner, the urine would be conveniently difcharged, and the
falfe paffage perchance heal up.

Mr. Hunter has advifed the performance of the following
operation for the cure of a falfe paffage : — Pafs a ftaff
into the urethra, as far as it will go, which will probably be
to the bottom of the new paffage ; and this, we may be
fure, is beyond the llrifture. Feel for the end of the in-
flrument externally, and cut upon it, making the wound
about an inch long, if the difeafe be before the fcrotum ;
and an inch and a half, or more, if in the perineum. If the
new paffage be between the urethra and body of the penis,
you will moft. probably get into the found urethra, before
you come to the inftrument, or new paffage. If fo, in-
troduce a probe into the urethra, through the wound, and
pafs it towards the glans penis, or, in other words, towards
the ftrifture. When it meets with an ob(lru6tion, this muft
be the ftriclure, which is now to be got through, and after-
wards dilated. To complete the operation, withdraw the
probe, and, inftead of it, introduce a cannula forward to
the ftrifture. Then pafs another cannula from the glans
downward, till the two tubes arc oppofite each other, hav-
ing the ftrifture between them. While an affiftant liolds
the cannulsE in this pofition, the ftrifture is to be perforated
with a Iharp inftrument, introduced thnnigh the upper can-
nula. A bougie is then to be introduced into tlic cannnix,
through tlie perforated ftrifture, and the tubes are to be
withdrawn. The bougie is now to be paffed into the blad-
der, and worn. Inftead of bougies, modern fiirgeons would
now invariably prefer, in fuch cafes, claftic gum catheters,
which allow the patient to make water witli convenience,
create lefs irritation than common bougies, and can be worn
for a longer time, which are great conliderations, in addi-
tion to the important advantaf^e of keeping the urine from
paffing either through the wound, or the falfe ])anHgc.
Befides the foregoing flcps, it would be neceffary, in fomc
old cafes, to lay open the falfe paffage before it would
heal.

URGAS, in ^Indent Geogr/iphy, a town of Hifpania, in
Bcetica, at fome diftance to the left of Boctis, and weft of
Corduba, belonging to the Turduli, furnamcd Alba by
Pliny.

URGEL, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia,
the fee of a bifhop, niffragan of Tarragona ; 65 miles
N.N.W. of Barcelona. N. lat. 42° 24'. E. long. 1° 22'.

URGENUMj^i, m /Indent Geogniphy, a town of Gallia
Narbonnenlis, accordmg to Strabo : the Ernagium of Pto-
lemy.

Vol, XXrVII.

URGHENTZ, or Urgentz, in Geography. See Uk-

KO\JE.

URGI, in Ancient Geography, a people of European
Sarmatia, between the Danube and the Boryfthenes.

URGNANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Serio ; 5 miles S. of Bergamo.

URGO, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituatcd on the
coaft of Etruiia. Pliny fays that it was larger than the
ifland Plantaria, and that it took the name of Gorgon.

URI, a people of India, on the bank and towards the
fource of the river Indus. Pliny.

Uni, in Geography, a canton of Sv/itzerland, bounded
on the north by Schweitz, on the eaft by Glaris, on the
fouth by the Italian bailiwicks, and on the weft by Ilndcr-
walden, about 60 miles in length, and 28 in breadth. It
confifls almoft every where of high mountains and deep
valleys ; the fummits of the former of which are perpe-
tually covered with ice and fnow. The loftieft among
them, and indeed the higheft in Europe, is that of St. Go-
thard. On the Alps in this canton, during the fummer, are
fattened many thoufand heads of cattle ; and the cheefe is
famed for its goodnefa. The vales between the high moun-
tains here in fummer are very hot and fertile, when not ex-
pofed to the northern winds ; among the mountains too
are found numbers of beautiful cryftals ; the greateft part
of which are bought up, and fent off to Italy to be wrought.
In this canton are only market-towiis, villages, and fcat-
te^ed houfes ; and the inhabitants, being inured to a rough
and hard way of living, are hardy, vigorous, and brave,
and ftrenuous affertors of that hberty which was fo dearly
purchafed by their patriotic anceftors. They are all Roman
Catholics. They were once as a free people, immediately
under the jurifdiftion of the empire. An union between
Ilri, Schweitz, and Underwalden, for throwing off the
Auflrian yoke, was effefted in the beginning of the year
1308 ; and in 13 15, thefe three cantons entered into a per-
petual alliance. At that time Uri held the firft place among
the confederates, liut at prefent only the fourth, though
among the fix leffer cantons it is fty'ed the firft. Its govern-
ment is democratical, like that of Srhivritz ; which fee.

Thefe two cantons, including their fubjefts, contain about
50,000 fouls ; and, in cafe of neceffity, could furnifh above
i2,ooo militia. The fame kind of foil, and the fame pro-
duftions, are common to the two cantons : the whole
country, being rugged and mountanious, confifts chiefly of
pafture, produces little corn, and has no vines. The natives,
liowcver, have improved a barren f<nl into a wonderful ilate
of fertility. The purity, or, as fome would call it, the
auflerity of morals, wliich flill prevails among thefe people,
cannot eafily be conceived by the inhabitants of opulent
cities. The beautiful defcription given in Goldfmilh's
" Traveller" is peculiarly appropriate to thefe people.

" Dear is that ffied to which his foul conforms.
And dear that hill which lifts him to the ftorms ;
And, as a child, when fearing founds moleil.
Clings clofe and clofer to the mother's breaft :
So tlie loud torrent, and the whirlwind's roar,
But bind him to his native mountains more."

The capital of this canton is Altorf.

URIA, in Ancient Geogrr.phy, a town of Italy, in Apu-
lia.— Alfo, a town of Italy, in Mcffapia, upon the Ap-
pian way. (Strabo.) Herodotus calls it Hyria, ar.d fays
that it was founded by the Cretans, about a century before
tlio fiegc of Troy. — Alfo, the name of a lake of Arnrnania.

URIAS, afmall gidf of Italy, difficuh of entr.incr.

3U URIBACO,

U R I

V K I

URIBACO, in Ichthyology, the name of a Brafilian fea-
fifh, efteemed a very well-tafted and wholefome one. It is
fomewhat of the figure of the perch ; its back is rigid, and
its belly is fomewhat protuberant. It grows to ten ox twelve
inches long. Its teeth are fmall and fliarp, and the ends of
its gills and gill-fins terminate in a triangular point : its belly-
fins are fuilained by a very rigid and ftrong fpine : its long
fin, behind the anus, is fupported by flexile and fhort fpines ;
it has only one fin on the back, equally broad, and, reach-
ing nearly to the tail, fupported by prickly rays ; its tail is
deeply forked ; its fcales arc of a fine filvery white, with a
faint caft of pale but bright red ; its belly-fins are white,
and its back-fin and tail reddith : its fide-hnes are broad, and
of a fine red ; over thefe and under them, near the tail, there
is on each fide a large black fpot. Margraave. Ray's
Ichtliyol. p. 338.

URIC Acid, ill Chmijlry. This fubftance was difcovered
by Scheele in 1776. The French chemifts named it I'ltbic
acid, from its being a common ingredient in urinary calcuh,
but Dr. Pearfon fubfequently changed its name to that by
which it 13 at prefi;nt generally known. The original name,
however, is likely to be again adopted, as Dr. Marcet has
adhered to it in his recent work upon urinary calculi.

Uric acid feparates fpontaneoufly from fome urine in the
form of red granular cryllals ; or it may be procured more
readily in this impure Hate by the addition of either of the
mineral acids to the urine. The bert way of obtaining it in
quantity, however, is to diffolve urinary calculi compofed
chiefly of it in an alkahne lixivium, and to precipitate it
from this by a mineral acid. Uric acid, thus obtained,
and afterwards repeatedly well wafhed, has the following
properties.

It appears in the form of a beautiful white powder,
which feels rather harlh, but not gritty, and is deflitnte both
of tafte and fmell. According to Dr. Henry, it difTolves
in about 1 150 times its weight of water at 21°, or in about
1720 times at 60'^. In boiling water it is more foluble, and
its folution faintly reddens litmus. It readily diffolvcs in fo-
lutions of the fixed alkalies, but not fo readily in ammonia.
It is incapable of decompofing the alkaline carbonates, or
any earthy or metallic fait. The nitric acid difTolves it, and
when this folution is evaporated to drynefs, it afTumes a beau-
tiful pink colour, which becomes of a fine carmine hue on
the addition of water. This colour is uot permanent if expofed
to theaftion of the air ; but paper ftainedwith it, and dried
arid kept in clofe veflels, retains the colour for a long time.
Chlorine produces a fimilar effeft upon this acid ; an effecl
which is quite peculiar, and therefore charafteriftic of it.
On being fubjefted to heat, uric acid emits a ftrong odour,
and yields a large proportion of pruffic acid. Submitted to
diftillation in clofe veifels, it yields a principle of a peculiar
nature, which Dr. Henry has afcertained to be a diftinft
acid. According to Dr. Prout's analyfis, uric acid con-
fifts of

i atom or i volume of hydrogen 1.25") o fhydr.
2 atoms or 2 volumes of carbon 15.00 ( ^ carb.

I atom or i volume of oxygen
1 item or I volume of azote

10.00

43-75

oxyg.
azote

2.857
34.286
22.857
40.000

Dr. P., therefore, feems difpofed to confider it as com-
pofed of one atom or volume of cyanogen, and one atom or
Yolume of water.

Uric acid combines with the alkalies and alkahne earths,
ar.d forms a fet of falts, none of which are very interefting,

I

except the fuperurate of foda, which conllitutes the goiily
calculus, or chalkjlone. The urates may be formed by boil-
ing the bafe with an excefs of acid in a proper quantity of
water, filtering the folution, and evaporating it to drynefj.
The urates of potafti, foda, ammonia, barytes, Itrontites,
lime, magnefia, and alumina, obtained by the preceding
procefs, are neutral, have neither tafte nor fmell, and can
Icarcely be diftinguifhed from uric acid itfelf. They dilFolve
with great difficulty in water, urate of ammonia being moft
foluble, and urate of barytes the leaft. They all appear,
however, to form fubfalts much more foluble than the
neutral falts. See'UKlNARY Calculi.

URICACHI, in Geography, a town of New Navarre ;
160 miles S.S.E. of Cafa Grande.

URICONIUM, ViROCONlUM, or Vriocontum, in An-
cient Geography, a town of Great Britain, in the fecond
Itin. of Antonine, between Rutanium {near Wem) and
Uxacona (near Sheriff Hales). It belonged to the Cor-
navii, and was fituated at Wroxeter, in Shropfhire, on the
N.E. fide of the Severn, about three miles from Shrewf-
bury ; which is fuppofed to have rifen out of the ruins of
that ancient city. At Wroxeter many Roman coins have
been found, and the veftiges of the walls and ramparts of
Uriconium are ftill vifible. It is highly probable, that the
neighbouring mountain, the Wrekin, derives its name from
Uriconium ; for it preferves the ancient Britifh name
Urecon.

URIE Water, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which
runs into the Don, near Inverarie.

URIES, Cape, a cape on the N. coaft of Staten ifland.
See States" Ifland.

URIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Loiret ; 6 miles S. of Pithiviers.

URIGO, a burning with a cauftic, or cautery.
VRIHASPATI, in JJlronomy, is the Hindoo name of
the planet Jupiter. In an invocation to the different planets,
given in the feventh volume of the Afiatic Refearches, he is
thus addreffed : " O Vrihafpati ! fprung from eternal truth,
confer on us abundantly that various wealth, which the moft
venerable of beings may revere ; which ffiines glorious among
all people." IntelleAual wealth is probably here meant ;
Vrihafpati being preceptor to the gods, the moft venerable
of beings. He is alio their meffenger in intercourfe be-
tween the three principal deities, being proverbial for elo-
quence. A cycle is called after Vrihafpati ; and it is the
name of a celebrated legiflator ; fo that this name, originally
probably of fome highly gifted perlon, occurs very fre-
quently in aftronomical and legal points ; though in others,
whatever hiftorical fafts may be connefted with it, he is
hidden in the veil of mythological fable. ( See Sani, the
Saturn of the Hindoo zodiac. ) As with the weftern aftro-
logers, Friday is with the Hindoos the day of Vrihafpati,
or Jupiter. (See Zodiac.) He is reprefented of golden
afpeft, clothed in red, bearing a lotos, and a ftaff in his
hands ; and fometimes mounted on a boar. Many of the
Hindoo deities have vehicles afligned them, which are called
■vahan. See under that word for an enumeration of many of
them.

Under our article Sultee, the authority of Vrihafpati as
a legiflator is quoted ; as it is very frequently in Cole-
brooke's valuable digeft of Hindoo law. In the article SiVA,
that important perfon of the Hindoo triad is faid to guide
the motions of the planet Jupiter, as Viflinu does thofe of
the fun, and Brahma of Sani, or Saturn. And under
Tara we have given a legend, fufBciently ridiculous, if
taken literally, of Vrihafpati having begotten a monkey fo

named ;

U R I

U R I

named ; but we refer to the article defcriptive of the cauft
of fo llrange a fiftion.

The name of Vrihafpati occurs often in tlie Vedas ; a
proof of the early age of the perfon, whoever he was, that
firft bore the name. He had a daughter named Romafa,
married to the king Bhavayavya ; but we have no particulars
of their hiftory. Angiras, one of the holy perfons to whom
the Veda was revealed, is fometimes called father of Vrihaf-
pati ; other authorities fay Devala was his father.

In the Ramayana, Vrihafpati is called Vachafpati, and
noticed as proverbial for eloquence. The name may be
tranflated lord of fpeech. See Vac ii.

\J RIM and T/jummim, ^''^r^ D'Tltf. q- d. light and
perfeflion, the name of a kind of ornament belonging to
the habit of the Jewilh high-priell ; in virtue of which he
gave oracular anfwers to the people.

The high prielts of the Jews, we are told, confulted God
in the moil important affairs of their commonwealth, and re-
ceived anfwers by the urim and thummim. What thefe
were is difputod among the critics : fome take them to be
the twelve precious iloues in the prieft-plate of the high-
prieft, on which were engraven the names of the twelve
tribes of Ifrael ; and they maintain that the oracle gave its
anfwer to any queftion propofed, by caufing fuch letters in
them to (liine with fuperior luftre, or to appear prominent
above tlic reil, as formed the words of the anfwer ; or by
an audible divine voice pronouncing the words, the high-
prieft was prevented from milfaking the anf.ver. .Jofcphus,
and fome others, imagine, the anfwer was returned by the
ftones of the bieaft-plate appearing with an unufual hiftre,
when it was favourable, or in tlie contrary cafe, dim. Others
fuppofe, that the urim and thummim were fomethingenclofed
between the folding of the breail -plate ; this fome will have
to be the tetragrammaton, or the word nin'> Jehovah.
Chriftophorus de Caftro, and after him Dr. Spencer, main-
tain them to be two little images fhut up in the doubling
of the breail -plate, which gave the oracular anfwer from
thence by an articulate voice. Accordingly, they derive
them from the Egyptians, who confulted their lares, and
had an oracle, or teraphim, which they called truth. This
opinion, however, ha? been fufficiently confuted by the
learned Dr. Pococke, Comment, on Hoiea, chap. iii. 4. and
by Witfius in his jEgyptiaca, lib. ii. cap. 3. 10, 11, 12.
The more common opinion among Chridians concerning the
oracle by urim and thummim, and which Dr. Prideaux
efpoufes, is, that wlien the high-prielt appeared before
the veil, clollicd with his ephod and breall-plate, to a(lc
counfel of God, the aniwer was given with an audible voice
from the mercy-feat, within tlie veil : but, it has been ob-
fcrved, that this account will by no means agree with the
hiftory of David's confulling the oracle by Abiathar ;
I Sam. xxiii. 9. 11. chap. xxx. 7, 8. bocaufe the ark, on
which was the mercy-feat, was then at Kirjathjearim ; where-
as Davic! was In tlio one cale at Ziklag, and in the other in
the foivll of Hareth. Braunius and Hottinger have adopted
another opinion : tliey fupjxjfe, that wlien Mofes is com-
manded to put in the breall-plate the urim and thummin,
fignifyiiig li^^hls and pcrfedioiis in the plural number, it was
meant that lie fiaould make choice of the moll perfeft fet of
llones, and have them fo jiolilhed as to give the brightell
luftre : and on this hypothelis, the ufe of the urim and
thummim, or of thefe exqnifitely polilhed jewels, was only
to be a fymbol of the divine prefence, and of the light and
pcrfeftion of the proplietic infpiration : and as fuch, con-
Ilantly to be worn by the high-priell in the cxercife of his
lacred fundtion, cfpccialiy m confulling tlie oracle. See

Prideaux's Connexion, vol. i, p. 123, &c. Jfnningj'i
Jewilh Ant. vol. i. p.233, &c.

Diodorus Siculu'J relates, that there was alfo a ceremonv
in ufe among the Egyptians, whole priacipal minifter cf
jullice wore a collar of precious Hones about his neck, which
was called ccP.r^ux, or truth.

URIMA, in Anciiril Geography, a town of Afia, fituated
on the wellern bank of the Euphrates, S.E. of Samofata.

URIMAO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Mcchoacan ; 35 miles N. of Zacatula.

URINAL, in Domcjlic Economy, a vefTel fit to receive
and hold urine ; and ufed accordingly for the conveniency of
lick perfons. It is ufually of glafs, and crooked ; and
fometimes it is tilled with milk, to ali'uage the pain of the
gravel.

Urinal, in Chemtjlry, is an oblong glafs veflcl, ufed for
making fohitions, and lo called from its refemblance to tlio
glaifes in which urine is fet to fettle, for the inl'peftion of tlie
phylician.

URIN.'IRIUM, in Agriculture, a name fometimes ap-
plied to a fort of refervoir, or place conftrutled in the
ground for the reception of urine, and the liquid matters dif-
charged from the ftables, cattle-lheds, pig-ftie3, and other
places fituated about the farm -yard.

It may be noticed, that a balon or receptacle of this nature
is elTentialto every well-contrived farm-yard ; as by blending «
vegetable, earthy, and other fimilar materials with thefc
hquids, a vaft iiicreafe of valuable manure may be readily
and conveniently provided. Thefe bafons (liould always be
formed in the molt (hady parts of fuch yards or places, and
be well connected with the buildings dellined for the horfes,
cattle, pigs, and other forts of live-Hock. In particular
fituations, too, they may be fo contrived as to be capable of
being dilchargod and thrown over the grals-lands that may lie
below them. An uleful and well-contrived cavity or refer-
voir of this fort is defcribed by Mr. Pew in the feventh volume
of the Bath Letters and Papers, in which the cow and other
cattle-ftalls are faid to be placed on the fide of a nap, or fmall
elevation ; and that, by means of gutters formed behind, the
liquor is conveyed into a link or drain, which runs under tlip
liable, where,by the help of another drain or link, it meets with
the liable liquor ; and thefe, with that from the pig-Hies, run
through an under-ground drain into the receptacle or refer-
voir. It is the pradtice of tlie proprietor, it is faid, to put
all forts of refule vegetable and animal matters into tliis re-
ceptacle, where it quickly rots ; and when the weather turns
moill, he has il llirred well up with poles, when it is dif-
charged over a meadow that lies below, or any particular
part of it, by means of trenches cut for the purpofe, which
is in this way rendered, it is ad'erled, allonilliingly fertile and
productive, as well as much more early than even watircd
lands. It is fuggelled, further, that this plan might he ex-
tended, by having the ftables, in fuch cales, placed on llie
centres of the knolls, as in this cafe three or fiur ri'fcrvoirs
might be formed ; and that by Hopping fome drains, and
opening others, the Huid contents might be diredcd one year
to one lidc and another year to another fide, as circumllanccs
might render necefldry.

Thefe kinds of reiervoirs are fometimes fo fituated in ro
fpedt to the dung-Heads, as to have pumps fixed in them for
throwing the urine and liquid matters over the manure heaps,
as by that means much walte of fuch matters is prevented,
and the dung greatly improved. Befides, in this way, fuch
fluid materials can be the n.oll readily difperfed over dilfi'^vnt
forts of rich earthy fubllances, and the increale of manure
3 U 2 be

U R 1

U R I

be thereby the moft fully and conveniently promoted. See
Manure and YARD-Diing.

URINARIUS Meatus, in Anatomy, the uretlira of the
female. See Urethra.

URINARY Absce.sses, in Surgery, are fo called when an
extravafation of urine in the cellular membrane of the fcro-
tum, penis, perineum, &c. excites fuppuration in the parts,
fo that purulent matter and urine are found mixed together
in the tumour. Such an effulion of urine always arifes from a
breach of continuity in the bladder or urethra, moft fre-
quently in confequence of tlie dillcntion of that vifcus in ob-
itinate, protrafled, and improperly treated retentions of
urine ; or in confequence of abfcelTes, which form in the
<:ourfe of the urethra, and burll into that canal. The
making of a faife pafiage in the urethra, by the unll<ilful ufe
of bougies and catheters, ami the laceration of this tube by
forcible contufions, are alfo common caufes of an extravafa-
tion of urine. There is not in tlie whole body any fluid,
whofe extravafation produces more lerious mifchief than the
urine. If it be not promptly difchargisd, it foon excites a
putrid fuppuration in the cellular membrane containing it ;
makes this part flough ; caufes mortification of the ikin ;
and a gangrenous inflammation of every ftrufture with which
it comes into contaft.

AVhen the opening, by which the urine has efcaped
from the bladder, is fituated either in this vifcus or the
urethra, there are invariably two principal indications to
be fulfilled. The firft is to prevent the further increafe
of the extravaiation, by introducing a catheter, drawing
off the urine, and defiring the patient to wear the inllru-
ment. The fecond indication is to give an outlet to the
effufed urine ; fo that the mifchief, likely to refult from its
prefence in the cellular membrane, may be leffened as much as
poflible. This is efFefted by fuitable incifions, which alfo
have the good effeft of tending to hinder the urine from
fpreading more extenfively amongll parts, in which it would
be furc to produce inflammation, abfcefles, and gangrene.

The manner of opening fiich collections varies according
as the urine may be in one cavity, or widely eftufed in the
cellular membrane. In the firft cafe, a fimple incifion, the
whole length of the cavity, will fuffice for emptying and
healing it. In the fecond, if the extravafation is extenfive,
the incifions muft be multiplied. It would be abfurd to
fpare the parts ; for all thofe with which the urine has come
into contaft feldom efcape mortification. The incifions
which are made hardly ever have the effcft of faving them ;
but, by accelerating the difcharge of putrid fanies and ftag-
nant urine, they prevent the mifchief which would originate
from their further lodgment. If thefe incifions, however,
were praftifed a few hours after the extravafation, and before
fuppuration, the parts might be completely freed from urine
and preferved. When the operation is at all delayed, their
deftruftion is inevitable. The approach of mortification is
indicated by the crepitation under the bifi;oury, reiembling
the kind of noife produced by tearing parchment. The
extent and depth of the incifions muft be proportioned to
ihofe of the abfcefs. When the extravafation occupies the
fcrotum, long deep fcanficatiuns fiiould be made in that part,
as well as in the ikin of the penis, and in every place where
the urine is effufed.

Praftitioners, unaccuftomed to fee fuch difeafes, would
be alarmed at the extent of the fore produced by the repara-
tion of the efchars. Sometimes the whole fcrotum, fliin of
the penis, and that of the groins, perineum, and upper part
of the tliigh, mortify, and the naked tefticles hang by the
fpermatic cords in the midft of this enormous ulcer. It is

hardly conceivable how cicatrization could take place over
the expofed tefticles ; but the refources of nature are un-
limited. She unitco the tefticles and the cords to the fubja-
cent parts ; and, drawing the ftin from the circumference to
the centre of the ulcer, fhe covers thefe organs again, and
furnifties them with a fort of new fcrotum. This ftate-
ment is founded upon numerous cafes, in which nature
always followed this courfe. The cicatrization of the ulcer
is even more expeditious than might be expedfed, confider-
ing its extent. In all this bufinefs, what does art do i If
the introduftion of the catheter be excepted, which, indeed,
is abfolutely neceflary for the radical cure, her afliftance is very
limited, and almoft nothing, in the generality of inftances ;
for when the patients are not exhaufted by the tcdioufnefs
of the diforder, when they are of a good conttitution, and '
in the prime of hfe, they get well as quickly and certainly,
with the aid of a good diet and fimple dreffings, as when
they take internal medicines, and ufe a multiplicity of com-
pound topical applications. The praftice of Default at the
Hotel-Dieu confifted in applying emollient poultices, until
the (loughs were detached. The ulcer was then fometinies
dreffed with pledgets charged with ftyrax ; but frequently
mere dry hnt was ufed, and continued till the cure was com-
pleted. If any comphcation occurred in the courfe of the
treatment, fuitable remedies were prefcribed for it. Thus
when proftration of ftrength, and tendency to floughing
exifted, bark, cordials, and anlifeptics were ordered. But
in every cafe, the catheter is the eftcntial means of cure ;
without it, the treatment is almoft always imperfeft, and the
ulcer will not heal without leaving feveral urinary fiftulae.
See CEuvres Chirurgicales de Default, par Bichat, torn. iii.
p. 277— 287.

Urinary Calculi. The formation of concretions in the
urinary paffages being occafioned by the precipitation and
confolidation of particular ingredients in the urine, calculi
muft of courfe be liable to occur in any of the cavities to
which the urine has accefs. In faft, experience proves that
they are frequently met with in the kidneys, ureters, bladder,
and nrethra. It is corrimonly believed, that moft of them
are originally formed in tlie kidneys, from which organs they
afterwards defcend with the urine into the other mentioned
parts. We muft however regard, as exceptions to this ob-
fervation, the cafes in which calculi are formed round foreign
bodies, introduced into the bladder through the urethra, the
digeftive organs, or fome accidental wound. In the centre
of urinary calcuh, furgeons have often met with bullets,
fphnters of bone, bits of wood, pins, &c. Nor is it necef-
fary for fuch foreign bodies to be large, in order to produce
this effedt : a clot of blood, or a little bit of chaff', if not
very foon voided, appears to be capable of caufing a preci-
pitation of the urinary ialts.

That urinary calcuh are in many inftances originally pro-
duced in the kidney, we have the moft unequivocal proofs ;
firft, from the (evere pain which the paffage of fuch foreign
bodies down the ureter always excites ; and, fecondly, fro.ti
their being often difcovered in the infundibula and pelvis of
that vifcus after death. Tiiis laft faA is well illuftrated in
the firft plate of Dr. Marcet's intereftiiig Effay on the Che-
mical Hiftory and Medical Treatment of Calculous Difor-
ders. The engraving is taken from a preparation in the
mufeum of Guy's hoipital. In this inftance, there were feve-
ral calculi clofely preffed againft each other ; but, in another
example, drawn from a fpecimen in Mr. Abernethy's mu-
feum, the renal concretion was compofed of a fingle mafe,
which reprefented a complete caft ot the pelvis and part of
the infundibula of the kidney. In this form of the difeafe,

the

URINARY CALCULI.

the kidney lofcs nt lad all vefliges of its natural ilrufture,
and is converted into a kind ot cyil, tiUed with the ex-
traneous fubftancc. As Dr. Marrct obferves, when fuch a
complete alteration of ftrufture takes place, the fecrction
of urine muft of courfe be entirely carried on by the other
kidney. This, however, in fome inftances, is attended
with fo little inconvenience as almoft to cfcape notice ; and
it fometimes even happens, that both kidneys are difeafed in
a very great degree, and yet life is preferved for a confidcr-
able time. Op. cit. p. 3, 4.

Calculi are fometimes found in the ureters, cfpecially
at their upper part ; but it is not fuppofed that they are
in general originally formed in that lituation ; an event
not likely to happen, unlefs there be fome caufe ob-
llrudling or retarding the defcent of the urine through thofe
tubes. The common belief is, that all calculi found in the
ureters are firft produced in the kidneys, from which they
afterwards defcend in <he courfe of the urine.

The generality of calculi, however, which leave the kid-
ney, are of fmall fize, and confequently, after a time, and
exciting fome paui and inconvenience, they ufually get into
the cavity of the bladder. Indeed, as Dr. Marcet remarks,
the bladder is the moil frequent feat of calculi, not only
becaufe all urinary concretions, or their nuclei, formed
in the kidneys tend to fall into that organ, but alfo becaufe
a Hone may be, and probably often is, originally formed in
the bladder itfelf.

It is, however, in the infundjbula and pelvis of the kid-
ney, that the firft nuclei of urinary calculi are commonly
produced. Renal concretions vary confiderably in their
number, fize, and fhape. In fome cafes, a fingle fmall cal-
culus has been found occupying one of the foregoing fitua-
tions ; while, in other inftances, an innumerable coUeftiou
ot calculous fubftaiices are obferved filling the whole of the
cavity of the pelvis and infundibula of the kidney, diitend-
ing its parietes, and even obftrufting the paffage of the urine
out of this vifcus, which is converted into a fort of mem-
branous cyil. Laftly, a fingle ftone in the kidney may ac-
quire a very large fize there ; or a great number of fmall
calculi, in the fame fituation, may become cemented toge-
ther by the depofition of frefh concreting matter between
them, fo as to form one mafs of enormous dimenfions, and
the fhape of which invariably correfponds to the fpace in
which it is, as it were, moulded. Hence it is, that renal
calculi often prefent a variety of odd irregular figures, re-
fembling thofe commonly obferved in fpecimens of coral.

We have already remarked, that urinary concretions of
large fize very often exiil in the kidney, without their pre-
fence being indicated by any external circumilances, or at-
tended with any fymptoms, fufliciently unequivocal to con-
ftitute a ground for fufpefling the importance of their caufe.
On the other hand, it is very ufual for renal calculi, of m.id-
dling dimenfions, to excite ferious and alarming complaints.
The reafon of this difference becomes obvious, when it is
recollefted that fmallilli concretions are rcadilv carried with
the urine into the ureter, and become fixed in the narrow
portion of the tube. But very large calculi can be contained
only in the upper part of this canal, where its parietes arc
more yielduig, and the fpace in them more capacious.

Calculi of middling fize, in tlieir paffage through the
ureter, caufe, at firft, a feeling of heavinels, or an indeter-
minate fenfe of uneafinefs, and an obtufe pain in the region
of the correfponding kidney. Thefc complaints occur at
intervals of greater or Icfs duration. At length, the pain
grows more urgent and annoying, attended « itli flatulence,
heartburn, frequent vomiting, painful letraftion of the lef-
ticlc, and fometimes acute fever. The patient makes water
6

frequently, and in fmall quantities at a time ; and the urine
is high-coloured and bloody. The patient cannot fit upright,
his body being bent forwards towards the afl'efted fide.
Thcfe fymptoms may have more or lefs duration, and then
fuddenly ceafe. They may alfo fubfide and recur feveral
times fuccelFively, v^-ith intervals of fome days. In the latter
cafe, the pain is felt at each attack to be fituated lower in
the track of the ureter. Laftly, when the fymptoms havt
entirely difappcared, the urine is more abundant, not fo high
coloured, and eafily difcharged, tlie ftream fometimes bring-
ing out with it the urinary concretion, which has now en-
tered the bladder.

Suppuration of the kidney, and an abfcefs in the lumbar
region, in confequence of renal calculi, are not very common
events. This, however, is the only cafe of the kind, in
which the interpofition of furgery can be ufeful. By ad-
verting to previous circumftances, and the irregularity of the
pain about the kidney, the praAitioncr may fufpcft the
nature of a phlegmonous tumour in the fituation of this
vifcus. Whatever may be his conjcftures, however, he muft
carefully abftain from the ufe of liis lancet, until purulent
matter is obvioufly under the integuments. He may then
fafely make an opening, from which urine and pus will be
difcharged, and through which the calculi themfelves may
fometimes be felt and extrafted. If they ftiould not be
readily touched with a probe, let not the furgeon raftily con-
ceive, that he is juftified in endeavouring to difcover them
with his knife. Their fituation may be fuch as to bafRe aU
his endeavours, and the operation itfelf might caufe a moft
dangerous hemorrhage, and other fatal mifchief. The open-
ing of an abfcefs of the kidney may remain a long while fif-
tulous, and the circumftance may indeed warrant the con-
clufion, that the healing is prevented by the prefence of fome
extraneous fubftances ; but a prudent praftitioner will never
think of performing any operation for their extraction, be-
fore nature has brought them tolerably near to the furface.

Urinary calculi, which form upon foreign bodies acciden-
tally introduced into the bladder, and afting as nuclei, are
always fingle, unlefs the number of foreign bodies themfelves
happen to be greater. It is curious alfo to find, from the ob-
fervations of Dr. Marcet, that, in fuch inftances, the depofi-
tion moft frequently, if not always, coiififts of the earthy phof-
phates, and cfpecially of the fufible calculus. But when
calculi originate from a particular diathefis, there may be
many of them lodged in the bladder at the fame time. Seve-
ral diftindl nuclei may defcend fucceffively from the kidneys,
and each may increafe in a feparate manner. Sometimes,
however, calculi in the bladder, which were at firll diilinft
and unconnefted, become afterwards cemented together, fo
as to make only one mafs.

The magnitude of calculi in the bladder is generally in an
inverfe ratio to their number. Some hundreds have been
found in one bladder, but they were not larger than a pea.
Others of fo large a fize have been met with, that ttiey were
more than fix inches in diameter. In Fourcroy's mufeum,
and in that of the F.cnle de Mcdccine at Paris, may be feen
fome calculi which filled the whole cavity of the bladder ;
and in the Phil. Tranf. for 1809, the late fir James Earle
has dcfcribed an enormous llone, which he extraded after
death from the bladder of a gentleman who had been unfnc-
cefsfuUy cut for it. Tliis calculus weighed three pounds four
ounces, and was of an oval Ihajie, its long axis mcaluring fix-
teen inches. It was of the fulible kind. Their aver,ige fize
may be compared with that of a chefnut, a walnut, or a
fmall hen's egg. Their weight differs from a few grains to
upwards of fifty ounces. Conunon ilones of the bl.idder,
however, weigh from two to fi.\ ounces. Their weight is

not

URINARY CALCULI.

not always proportioned to their fize. Subftances of dif-
ferent qualities enter into their compofition, and diverfify
their heavinefs. Thus, the falts which have filica for their
bafe, and which are very uncommon, render fuch calculi as
contain them the heavieft of all in proportion to their fize.
On the other hand, fome urinary falts cryftallize when pre-
cipitated : of this kind is the ammoniaco-magnefian phof-
phate, the cryftals of which frequently leave confiderable
interfpaces, which are not filled up by the fubfequent pre-
cipitations.

The urinary falts, in calculous patients, are not conti-
nually precipitated in the fame quantities : in fome cafes,
indeed, the procefs appeai-s to be even fufpended tor a con-
fiderable time. Hence, a ftone of middling fize, already
formed, may increafe but very flovvly ; and it has atlually
happened, that a calculus, which could be plainly felt with
a found, has remained more than ten years in the bladder,
and yet, after all this time, been only of a moderate fize.

According to Dr. Marcet, the form of urinary calcuh is
moftly fpheroidal, fometimes eg'^-fhaped, but often flattened
on two lides like an almond. P. 50.

Sometimes the calculous matter, which defcends from the
kidneys, is in the form of minute fpherical grains, which
have a fingular tendency to unite either to each other, or to
calculi already lodged in the bladder.

When there are feveral loofc calcuh in the bladder tog;c-
ther, they feldom lie long in contaft with each other, while
their fize is diminutive, but are inceffantly changing their
fituation as the patient moves about or alters the pofition of
his body. Hence, their increafe is at firll: regular and uni-
form ; but when they have attained a more confiderable fize,
or by their numbers campofe a large mafs, their relative
fituation is more permanent, and many of their furfaccs,
being in this manner ufually covered, no longer receive any
additional depofitions. Every other part of thefe calcidi,
however, goes on increafing. It is thus that Hones witii
furfaces correfponding to thole of other Hones are produced,
and which are aptly denominated by the French writers
"pierres afacettes." This (hape necelTarily indicates the pre-
fence of feveral calculi. A different form, however, is by
no means a certain criterion of the ftone being fingle.

Calculi alfo occafionally occur which are angular, and
fometimes almoft cubic ; but, as Dr. Marcet obferyes, this
is a rare occurrence. The fame phyfician has likewife given
the engraving of a fpecies of calculus which fomewhat re-
fembles a pear, with a circular protuberance at its broader
end, apparently moulded in the neck of the bladder.

This writer alfo particularly calls our attention to the
variety in the colours and furfaces of calcuh, which often
afford indications of their chemical nature. " When they
have a brownifh or fawn colour, fomewhat like mahogany
wood, with a fmooth though fometimes tubercnlated furface,
they almoft always confift of lithic acid. When cut open,
they appear to be formed of concenb-ic layers, fometimes
homogeneous, fometimes alternating with other fubftances.
The colour, however, cannot be confidered as a certain cri-
terion, fince other kinds of calculi may often be coloured in
the bladder in a fimilar manner, by bloody mucous or other
vitiated fecretions.

" When calculi are white, or greyifii-white, they always
confift of earthy phofphates. This is particularly the cafe
with the fpecies called fufible. And when they are dark-
brown or almoft black, hard in their texture, and covered
with tubercles or protuberances, they are generally of the
fpecies which has been diftinguiftied by the name of mtdherry,
and confifts of oxalate of lime.

" Calculi have fometimes an uneven cryftalline furface,

ftudded with fhining tranfparent particles. This appearance
always denotes the prefence of the ammoniaco-magnefian
phofphate." Marcet, p. 52.

A large calculus, efpecially when it has a rough irregular
furface, produces a great deal of irritation of the bladder,
which contrafts more clofely round it. The contaft, how-
ever, is remarked to be particularly exaft at the tranfverfe
line, which extends between the terminations of the two
ureters in the bladder, a part of this organ which generally
becomes more thickened than the reft. Sometime?, indeed,
the cavity of the bladder is almoft entirely effaced, and the
urine can be retained only a very Ihort time, or, if it be not
evacuated, it fpreads uniformly round the calculus, efpe-
cially above and below the above-defcribed tranfverfe projec-
tion, which is lefs yielding than other parts of this organ.
Hence, the furface of the ftone, towards the orifices of the
ureters, does not enlarge fo faft as the other fides of it, and
a circular groove is produced, giving- the foreign body the
fhape of a calabafii. Such calculi are generally very large,
and fometimes even of enormous fize. In the latter circum-
ftance, the foreign body fills the cavity of the bladder fo com-
pletely, that there is no fpace left for the lodgment of the
urine there, which fluid then generally paffes along a fort of
groove, fituated in a line reaching from the lower termina-
tion of the ureter to the neck of the bladder. This ilate is
of courfe accompanied with a complete incontinence.

Urinary calculi are not always loofe and moveable in the
cavity of the bladder, being fometimes fixed in various vrays
to certain points of the circumference of this organ.

1. When a calculus has reached that part of the lower
termination of the ureter, which paffes obhquely between
the coats of the bladder, it may obftruft the inferior orifice
of the canal, and produce an accumulation of urine above it.
The diltention thus arifing may lead to the formation of a
cavity betwixt the coats of the bladder, where the calculus
is lodged. In faft, calculi have fometimes been found
fixed in a cavity of this defcription, the infide of which
communicates both with the lower end of the ureter and
with the bladder. In fuch a fituation, calculi have alfo
been known to attain a confiderable fize.

2. It fometimes happens, that an urinary calculus de-
fcends to the very bottom of the ureter, and one end of it
projefts fom.e way into the cavity of the bladder ; but the
other end cannot difengage itfelf from the tube. If things
remain in this ftate long, the confequence is, that the ftone
grows larger at its two extremities, while the part which is
clofely embraced bv the lower termination of the ureter
remains much narrower than the reft of the foreign body.

3. Sometimes, in confequence of the diftention of the
urine or other caufes, the inner membrane of the bladder
protrudes between the fafciculi of its mufcular coat, in the
form of pouches or cyfts, which are of different fizes, and
occafionally numerous. SmaU calculi, after getting into
thefe cyfts, frequently attain a very large fize ; and as the
inner coat of the bladder more readily yields than the muf-
cular fibres admit of feparation, the fundus of fuch pouches
becomes capacious, while their orifice remains of a diminu-
tive fize. Hence, a very fmall part of a ftone thus encyfted
is naked in the cavity of the bladder, and fometimes the
whole of the extraneous body is concealed under a fort of
moveable fold of the mucous membrane.

4. There are on record very authentic cafes, proving that
calculi, fome of which were of confiderable magnitude, have
been fixed and lodged in a cavity that coufifted of the upper
portion of the bladder, feparated from the reft of this vifcus
by a circular contraction. Difficult as it may be to account
for fuch fafts, the truth of them is unqueiliouable.

5. The

URINARY CALCULI.

5. The tranfvcrfe projeflion of the bladder, between the
lower terminations of the ureters, is fomctimes fo confider-
able, as to conftitute a kind of partition, and divide the in-
ferior part of the bladder into two cavities. From this par-
tition, large fungi have fometimes been found projefting,
wliich materially increafed ihe depth of the two cavities
betwixt which it was placed. In thefe cavities, ftones
have been obferved, which were of courfe completely
feparated.

6. Sometimes calculi in the bladder are found to be ad-
herent to the inner furface of this organ. The irritation
of the foreign body having excited ulceration, fungi arife,
which grow into the cavities and irregularities obfervable in
fome urinary calculi, and thus produce a mechanical fort of
adhefion.

When the bladder protrudes from the abdomen, fo as to
form hernia, a ftone is occafionally fituated in the difplaced
portion of that vifcus. It is a circumflance that has the
fame effeft as the encyfted Hate of a calculus ; for the
foreign body is thereby fixed, and it cannot be propelled
towards the neck of the bladder at the period when the
urine is difcharged. It fhould alfo be known, that in cafes
of prolapfus of the uterus, when the bladder is drawn down-
wards, it has fometimes been found to contain a ftone at the
loweft part of it. The poflibility of the complication of
a calculus, with fuch difplacements of the bladder, ought
to be well remembered, fince, if the nature of the cafe be
detefted, its treatment becomes materially fimplified.

The fymptoms of a ftone in the bladder have been de-
tailed in the article Lithotomy, and we ftiall therefore not
repeat them in the prefent place. They are all fo equivo-
cal, and bear fo great a rcfemblance to the effefts of fevcral
other difordcrs, that they cannot be depended upon, and
confequeutly no furgeon will venture to pronounce pofi-
tively, that there is a calculus in the bladder, unlefs he can
feel it with a found. (See Searching.) As for the
operation, it is always totally unjiiftifiable, if the furgeon
cannot plainly feel the calculus immediately before he
begins his inciiions.

The caufes of the formation of urinary calculi is a fub-
jeft which is ftill quite obfcurc. The conjectures which
have been ftarted refpefting thecff'cft of particular kinds of
food, drink, air, &c. do not appear to reft upon a good
foundation. We may lay down the following obfcrvations,
however, as tolerably correft.

1. If a foreign body be introduced into a cavity, which
is naturally a receptacle for riie urine, whatever may be the
nature of the immerfed fubftance, it is lure to become in-
crufted with tlie urinary falls, without any change however
in its compolition. In this cafe, the obfcrvations of Dr.
Marcet tend to prove that the concretion moftly, if not
always, confiftsof the earthy phofphatcs, and particularly of
the ammoniaco-magnefian pholphate. In this inftance, there
is not the leall realon for lufpedting the operation of any
peculiar diathefis in producing the calculus, fince the pre-
fence of the foreign body, which forms the nucleus for it,
would occafion the fame confequence in all defcriptions of
patients.

2. There are fome countries where calculi are exceed-
ingly common ; others where they are very rare, and yet one
cannot explain the diff^crence by any geographical circum-
ftancc v/hich is conllant, or by any particularity in the con-
ftitutions of the inhabitants. Calculi are found to be un-
common both in very cold and very hot countries.

3. When the urinary organs arc not much injured, pa-
tients with ftone may be healthy in every other rcfpcft.

4. Subjefts, indeed, gifted with the ftrongeft conftitu-
tions, are liable to urinary calcuh, quite independently of
the accidental introduftion of any foreign body into the
urinary organs. In thefe cafes, the origin of the complaint
is to be afcribed to a peculiar diathefis, the nature of which
is at prefent entirely unknown.

5. Women have been thought to be lefs liable than men
to urinary calculi ; but yet it is a point which is by no
means certain. The qucftion, indeed, ftill continues thus :
Are women in reality lefs liable than men to urinary calcu-
li ? Or do they only fuffer lefs frequently from the ilifordcr
in confequertce of the facility with which the calculi are ge-
nerally diicharged through the fhort and capacious canal of

the meatus urinarius ?

6. Childhood and infancy prefent numerous inftances of
urinary calculi ; but, according to Delpech, relapfes are
feldom obferved at thefe periods of life : that is to fay, an
entirely frefti ftone is hardly ever formed again. If a return
of the complaint happens, the quicknefs of the recurrence,
and an attentive examination of the calculus, will in general
fufSciently prove, either that the ftone has formed round a
fragment which had not been extrafted in the previous
operation, or that it was already completely formed at the
fame period, but inadvertently left behind.

On the fubjeft of the frequency of the ftone in children,
Dr. Marcet thinks that this is the cafe only among the poor
clafles. He remarks, that in the higher ranks, or even in
the loweft clafTes, provided they are well fed, the fame fre-
quency is not obferved. " In the Foundling Hofpital, for
inftance, within the laft twenty-feven years, during which
lijl children have been admitted, only three cafes of
ftone have occurred, all of' which were among childreii
while at nurfe in the country. And in the Military
Afylum at Chelfea, which contains about 1250 children,
and into which upwards of 6000 of them have been al-
ready admitted, no more than one fingle cafe of ftone
has occurred." See Marcet's Efl'ay on Calculous Dif-
orders, p. 36.

7. Youths and adults are not very commonly troubled
with calcuh, even tliough they may have been thus a/flifted
in their infancy or childhood.

8. Old men are much more liable to the diforder, and in
them the difpofition to it continues through life. Hence,
in fnch patients, relapfes are very frequent. Delpech,
Precis Elcm. des Mai. Chir. t. ii. p. 193, &c.

Of all the writers who have inveftigated the caufes of
urinary calculi, none have intcrefted us fo much as Dr.
Marcet. This able phyfician has endeavoured to eftimate
the comparative frequency of the difcafe in various countries,
and in the dift'erent ftations of life, and to determine
whether its frequency be influenced by varieties of climate
or fituation, or by peculiarities in our habits and occupa-
tions. He inftituted inquiries at all the great hofpitals of
the metropolis, in the hope of getting at fome ufeful records
concerning the vail number of patients on whom lithotomy
had been performed in thofe eftablifliments. In London, he
found it impoITible to obtain all the particulars of fuch cafes,
as no entry of them was preferved. The Norwich hofpital,
however, afforded him fome details, wiiich arc interefting.
All the calculi, which have been extrafted in that holpital
for the laft forty-four years, and which amount to jo6,
have been carefully preferved, with the circumftances an-
nexed to each ftone, and the event of the operation diftinftly
recorded. Dr. Marcet has given the refultn of thefe records
in the following tabic :

Returns

URINARY CALCULI.

Returns of the cafes of lithotomy in the Norfolk and
Norwich hofpital, from 1772 to 1816, making a period of
forty-four years :

Number of Operations.

Deaths.

Children
under 14.

Adulis.

Totsl.

Children.

Adults.

Total.

Males
Females

227
8

251

20

478

z8

12
I

56

I

68

2

235 271 506.

13

57

70

It appears, fays Dr. Marcet, from the above table, that
the mean annual number of cafes of lithotomy in the
Norwich hofpital, during the laft forty-four years, has been
iii or 23 in every two years ; and that the total number
of fatal cafes in the 506 operations, is 70, or i in j^, or 4
in 29. It appears alfo, that the proportion of females who
have undergone the operation is to that of males, as 58 to
1000, or about i to 17 ; that the mortahty from the oper-
ation in children was only about i in 18 ; while, in adults,
it was 4 in 19, or nearly quadruple.

From the year 1772 to 1816, the Norwich hofpital has
received 18,859 patients of all kinds, making an average of
428 annual admiflions ; and Dr. Marcet obferves, that the
proportion of 506 operations of lithotomy, out of 18,859
patients, which correfponds to about i in 38, exceeds, in an
aftonifhing degree, that obtained from any of the other pub-
lic inftitutions, vvhofe records he examined.

Next to the records of the Norwich hofpital. Dr. Marcet
derived the moft diftinft information of this kind from Che-
felden, who mentions in his work on anatomy, that, during
the courfe of his public praftice in St. Thomas's hofpital, a
period of about twenty years, he had performed the oper-
ation of the ftone 213 times, and loft only 20 patients.
This was about 2 cafes in 21, which is much lefs than the
common average.

In St. Thomas's hofpital, during the laft ten years, the
operation of lithotomy feems to have been done, on an
average, 1 1 times in each two years ; and i cafe of ftone has
occurred in each 528 patients admitted.

In St. Bartholomew's, lithotomy was performed 56 times
in the years 18 12, 18 13, 18 14, 181 5, and 1816. The an-
nual average about 1 1 , or i in each 340 patients of all
defcriptions.

In Guy's hofpital. Dr. Marcet has reafon to believe that
lithotomy has been performed, on an average, about 9 or 10
times annually, during the laft 20 or 30 years. The pro-
portion of calculous patients there is alfo eftimated at i in
about 300 cafes of all kinds.

Dr. Marcet's inquiries incline him to think, that, on the
whole, the occurrence of hthotomy in the London hofpitals
has for fome years been gradually diminiftiing ; and this he
conceives may be owing partly to a real retluftion in the
frequency of the ftone, from fome alteration in the diet or
habits of the people ; partly to the ufe of appropriate medi-
cines ; and partly to the circumftance of calculous patients
not reforting fo exclufively, as was formerly the cafe, to
the great London hofpitals for the operation.

In the Royal Infirmary at Edinburgh, the average
number of ftone cafes annually, during the laft fix years, is
(aid not to have exceeded two, although about 2000 patients
aft admitted there every year.

Dr. Marcet has been informed by M. Roux, that in La
Charite, at Paris, ten or twelve cafes of ftone occur every
year out of about 2600 patients ; and that the proportion
of deaths from the operation there is i in 5 or 6.

In the H6pital des Enfans Malades, in the fame city,
Dr. Marcet ftates, on the authority of Dr. Biett, that about
lis cafes of ftone are received every year into that eftablifti-
ment, where about 3000 children of both fexes are annually
admitted. There have been only three cafes in females,
and, what is remarkable, only two deaths from the opera-
tion, in the courfe of the laft feven years.

Dr. M-ircet has been acquainted, that at Vienna litho-
tomy is comparatively rare, not on account of the want of
good furgeons, or the unfrequent occurrence of ftone cafes
in that part of the continent, but in confequence of the little
attention paid to this difeafe by the moft eminent furgeons
of the Auftrian capital. It is certainly no cr.-dit to thefe
praftitioners, to find them encouraging Pajola's plan of
operating, which is a revival of one form of that barbarous
method, the apparatus major. The fuccefs w'nich this litho-
tomift is faid to have had is almoft incredible, when his way
of operating is confidered ; for he is ftated to have per-
formed the operation 550 times with fuccefs.

At Geneva, fays Dr. Marcet, in a population of 30,000
fouls, lithotomy, including both public and private pradlice,
has been performed only thirteen times in the laft twenty
years, though good furgeons are never wanting in that town
to perform the operation, when an opportunity occurs.
Out of thefe thirteen patients, feven were not ftriftly
Genevefe, though belonging to the neighbouring diftricts,
and one was an Englifliman ; fo that the difeafe would, at
firft fight, appear to be a rare occurrence at Geneva. But,
continues Dr. Marcet, if the fraallnefs of the Genevefe po-
pulation be taken into account, this proportion of calculous
cafes may not fall very (liort of that obferved in other
places. At Lyons, a populous town, which is not more
than 80 miles diftant from Geneva, the difeafe is ftated to
be rather frequent.

In tropical climates, urinary calculi are almoft unknown ;
and, as Dr. Marcet obferves, we have, in confirmation of
this Angular and important fatl, the recent ilatenient of Dr.
Scott, who, from his long refidence in India, and his well-
known habits of obfervation, may be confidered as one of
the beft authorities. Dr. Scott indeed affirms, that, be-
tween the tropics, he ne%'er met with a fingle inftance of th«
formation of a ftone in the urinary bladder, although he
knew of fome cafes which had been imported, and which
were not cured by climate. See Marcet's Eftay on the
Cliemical Hiftory and Medical Treatment of Calculous
Diforders, chap. 2. London, 1817.

Urinary calculi are faid alfo to be very uncommon in
Spain and Africa. If, however, it be an undoubted faft,
that the diforder is rare in hot climates, ftill it is impoffible
to offer any rational theory of the circumftance, becaufe
the difeafe is likewife unufual in very cold countries, fuch
as Sweden. See Richerand's Nofographie Chir. torn. iii.
p. 528. edit. 4.

With regard to the chemical nature of urinary calculi,
there was nothing known until as late a period as 1776,
vi'hen the celebrated Swedilh chemift, Scheele, publifhed a
paper on the fubjeft, in the Stockholm Tranfattions. In
this effay, he ftated, that all the urinary calculi which he
had examined, confifted of a pecuhar concrete fubftance,
now well known by the name of the lithic or uric acid,
which he alfo ftiewed was foluble in alkaline hxivia. Scheele
further difcovered, that the lithic matter was in fome degree

capable

URINARY CALCULI.

capable of being diflblved m cold water ; that this folution
poffefled acid properties, and, in particular, that of red-
dening litmus ; that it was afted upon in a peculiar manner,
•whenboiled in nitric acid ; and, laftly, that human urine
always contained this fubftance in greater or lefs quantity,
and often let it feparate in the form of a brick-coloured fedi-
ment, by the mere effeft of cooling.

The difcovcry made by Scheele was confirmed by Berg-
mann and Morveau, and the inveftigation of the fubjeft was
afterwards profecuted by others with redoubled ardour.
As profefTor Murray obfer\es, experiments continued to be
repeated and diverfified on thefe concretions, and on their
folvents. At length, it was fully afcertained, that there ex-
ifted others, befides thofe compofed of uric acid ; and, lat-
terly, our knowledge of them has been much extended by
the refearches of Pearfon, Wollafton, Fourcroy, and Vau-
quclin. Several important fafts have alfo been eftabliflied
by the talents and iiiduftry of fome other diftinguiflied men ;
•viz. Dr. Henry of Manchefter, profefTor Brande of the
Royal Inftitution of London, and Dr. Marcet of Guy's
hofpital.

The credit which is due to Dr. Wollafton, for his valu-
able and original difcoveries refpefting urinary calculi, is
very confiderable ; a truth which we have particular pleafure
in recording here, fince his merits have not been fairly ap-
preciated by the French chemifts. Indeed, as Dr. Marcet
obferves, it is the more defirable that his claims fhould be
placed in the cleareft point of view, as the late celebrated
M. Fourcroy, both in his " Syftcme des ConnoifTances
Chimiques," and in his various papers on this particular
fubjeft, has, in a moft unaccountable manner, overlooked
Dr. Wolkilon's labours ; and in defcribing refults, exaftly
fimilar to thofe previoufly obtained and publiflied by the
Englifh chcmift, has claimed them as his own difcoveries.
Yet Dr. WoUafton's paper was printed in our Philofophical
Tranfaftions two years before Fourcroy publifhed his
memoir in the " Annales de Chimie," and three years be-
fore he gave to the world his " Syfteme des ConnoifTances
Chimiques ;" and he difcufTed in thefe works a paper of
Dr. Pearfon on the lithic acid, publifhed in a volume of the
Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1798, fubfequent to that
which contained the account of Dr. WoUafton's difcoveries.
EfTay on Calculous Diforders, p. 60 ; alfo Murray's Syft.
of Chem. vol. iv. p. 636. edit, of 1809.

From what has been ftated, it appears, then, that Scheele
firft difcovered the nature of thofe urinary calculi which
confift of lithic acid ; but that Dr. W'oUafton lirft afcer-
tained the nature of feveral other kinds, fome of which have
alfo been defcribed at a later period by Fourcroy and Vau-
quelin. On the wliole, there are live fpecies of concretions,
whofe chemical properties were firft pointed out by Dr.
Wollafton, and no Icfs than four belong to the urinary or-
gans. Thefe are, ill, Gouty concretions; 2dly, The
fufiblc calculus ; 3dly, The mulberry calculus ; 4tlily, The
calculus of the proftate gland ; Jthly, The cyltic oxyd,
which laft was difcovered in 18 10.

Dr. Marcet, in his late ingenious cffay, arranges urinary
calculi under the following heads :

1. The lithic calculus.

2. The bone-earth calculus, principally confifting of
phofphate of lime.

3. The ammoniaco-magnefian phofphate, or calculus in
which this triple fait obvioufly prevails.

4. The fufible calculus, confifting of a mixture of the two
former.

5. The mulberry calculus, or that compofed of oxalate
of lime.

Vol. XXXVII.

6. The cyftic calculus, confifting of tlie fubftance called
by Dr. Wollafton cyftic oxyd.

7. The alternating calculus, or concretion compofed of
two or more different fpecies, arranged in alternate layers.

8. The compound calculus, the ingredients of which are
fo intimately mixed, as not to be feparable without chemical
analyfis.

9. Calculus of the proftate gland.

Dr. Marcet likewifc defcribes two other fpecimens, which
are not referrible to any of the foregoing fpecies.

1. Lithic or Uric Acid Calculus. — The lithic acid forms a
hard, inodorous concretion, of a yellowifh or brown colour,
fimilar to that of wood, of various (hades. According to
profefTor Murray, calculi of this kind are in fine, clofe layers,
fibrous, or radiated, and generally fmooth on their furface,
though fometimes a little rough. They are rather brittle,
and have a fpecific gravity, varying from 1.276 to 1.786,
but ufually above 1.500. One part of lithic acid is faid to
difTolve in 1720 parts of cold water, and 1150 parts of
boiling water (Marcet, p. 65.); and tliis folution turns
vegetable blues to a red colour. When it has been diffolved
in boiling water, fmall yellowifli cryftals are depofited as the
fluid becomes cold. Lithic acid calculi blacken, but are
not melted by the blow-pipe, emitting a peculiar animal
fmell, and gradually evaporating, until a fmall quantity of
white afh remains, which is alkaUne. By diftillation, they
yield ammonia and prufTic acid. They are foluble, in the
cold, in a folution of pure potafTa, or foda ; and from the
folution, a precipitate of a fine white powder is thrown down
by the acids. Lime-water like wife difTolves them, but more
fparingly. In folutions of the alkaline carbonates, they re-
main, according to Scheele, unchunged : according to the
experiments of Dr. Egan, however, they are difTolved even
by a weak folution, and alfo when the acid is fuperfaturated
by carbonic acid. (Tranf. of Irifli Acad. 1805.) They
are not much afted upon by ammonia. They are not fo-
luble either in the muriatic or fulphuric acid ; though they
are fo in the nitric, when afTifted by heat ; and the refidue
of this folution, when evaporated to drynefs, affumes a re-
markably bright pink colour, which diiappears on adding
cither an acid or an alkali. In many of thefe calculi, the
lithic acid is nearly pure ; in others, there is an intermixture
of other ingredients, particularly of phofphate of lime, and
phofphate of ammonia and magnefia ; and, in almoft all of
them, there is a porticfti of animal matter, which occafions
the fmell, when they are burnt, and tlie lofs in their ana-
lyfis. See Murray's Chemiflry, vol. iv. p. 640 ; and Mar-
cet's EfTay on the Chem. and Med. Hift. of Calculous
Diforders.

2. Bone-earth, or Phofphate of Lime Calculus. — The ex-
iftence of phofphate of lime in urinary calculi had been men-
tioned by Bergmann and others, when Dr. Wollafton firft
afcertained that fome calculi are entirely compofed of it,
forming a diftinft fpecies of thefe concretions. From the
obfervations of the laft mentioned eminent chcmift, it ap-
pears that this fubftance fometimes compofes the entire
calculus ; though, in more common inftances, it is mixed
with other ingredients, particularly with uric acid, and with
phofphate of magnefia and ammonia. In the firft cafe, th«
calculus is defcribed as being of a pale brown colour, and fo
fmooth as to appear polifhed. When fawn through, it is
found very regularly laminated, and the laminx, in jjeneral,
adhere fo flightly to each other, as to feparate with eafc
into concentric crufts. It difi'olves entirely, though (lowly,
in muriatic or nitric acid. Expofed to the flame of the
blow-pipe, it is at firft Higlitly charred, but foon becomes
perfectly white, retaining itb form, until urged with the ut-

3 X moft

URINARY CALCULI.

moft heat rom a common blow-pipe, when it may be com-
pletely fufed. It appears to be more fufible than the phof-
phate of lime, which forms the bafis of bone ; a circum-
ftance which Dr. WoUafton afcribes to the latter containing
a larger quantity of lime. (Phil. Tranf. 1797.) Calculi,
altogether compofeJ of phofphate of lime, are rather un-
common : with this fubftance there arc ufually other ingre-
dients, efpecially the phofphates of magnefia and ammonia,
and lithic acid.

3. Triple CalciAus, or Ammnniaco-magnefmn Phofphate

The exiftence of this calculus in the inteilines of animals was
firft pointed out by Fourcroy ; but its being a conftituent
part of fome urinary calculi of the human fubjeft was ori-
ginally afcertained by Dr. Wollafton. ( Phil. Tranf. 1 797. )
Calculous mafles, confifting folely of this fubftance, are
perhaps never met with ; but concretions often occur, in
which it obvioully prevails ; and, as Dr. Marcet obferves,
" this triple fait frequently appears alfo in the form of mi-
nute fparkling cryftals, difFufed over the furface, or between
the inteilines of other calculous laminje. Calculi, in which
this triple fait prevails, are generally whiter and lefs com-
paft than thofe of the former cLfs. When the blow-pipe
is applied, an ammoniacal fmell is perceived, the fragment
diminifhes in fi?e ; and if the heat be ftrongly urged, it
ultimately undergoes an imperfeft fufion, being reduced to
the ftate of phofphate of magnefia." (P. 69.) Dr. Wol-
lafton defcribes the form of the cryftals of this fait, as being
a fhort trilateral prifni, having one angle a right angle, and
the other two equal, terminated by a pyramid of three or
fix fides. Thefe cryftals, as Dr. Marcet has explained, are
but very fparingly foluble in water, but very readily in moft,
if not all, the acids ; and on precipitation, they realTume the
cryftalline form. From the folutions of thefe cryftals in
muriatic acid, fal ammoniac may be obtained by fubhmation.
Solutions of cauftic alkalies difengage ammonia from the
triple fait, the alkali combining with a portion of the phof-
plioric acid.

4. The fufibh Calculus Mr. Tennant firft difcovered

that this fubftance was different from the lithic acid, and
that, when urged by the blow-pipe, inftead of being nearly
confumed, a large part of it melted into a white vitreous
globule. The nature of the fufible calculus was afterwards
more fully inveftigated and explained by Dr. Wollafton.
(Phil. Tranf. 1797.) According to the excellent defcrip-
tion lately given of this calculus by Dr. Marcet, it is com-
monly whiter and more friable than any other fpecies. It
fotmetimes refembles a mafs of chalk, leaving a white duft
on the fingers, and feparates eafily into layers or laminx,
the interftices of which arc often ftudded with fparkhng
cryftals of tlie triple phofphate. At other times, it appears
in the form of a fpongy and very friable whitifti mafs, in
which the laminated ftrufture is not obvious. Calculi of
this kind often acquire a very large fize, and they are apt
to mould themfelves in the contrafted cavity of the bladder,
affuming a peculiarity of form, which Dr. Marcet has never
obferved in any of the other fpecies of calculi, and which
confifts in the ftone terminating, at its broader end, in a
kind of peduncle, correfponding to the neck of the bladder.
The chemical compofitiou of the fufible calculus is a mixture
of the triple phofphate and phofphate of lime. Thefe two
falts, which, when feparatc, are infulible, or nearly fo, when
mixed together and urged by the blow-pipe, eafily run into
a vitreous globule. The compofition of this fubftance, fays
Dr. Marcet, may be ftiewn in various ways. Thus, if it
be pulverized, and acetic acid poured upon it, the triple
cryftals will be readily diftblved, while the phofphate of
lime will fcarcely be aftcd upon j after which the muriatic
9

acid will readily diflblve the latter phofphate, leaving a
ft'i^U refidue, confifting of lithic acid, a portion of which is
alv 'ays found mixed with the fufible calculus.

It is an obfervation made by the fame interefting writer,
that many of the calculi which form round extraneous bodies
in the bladder, are of the fufible kind. The fame thing is
remarked with refpeft to the calculous matter fometimes de-
pofited between the prepuce and glans. For many other
particulars, refpefling the fufible calculus, we refer to Dr.
Marcet's Eftay and Dr. WoIIafton's paper in the Phil.
Tranf.

5. Mulberry Calculus, or Oxalate of Lime This is moftly

of a dark brown colour, and frequently its interior is grey.
Its furface is ufually uneven, prefenting tubercles more or
lefs prominent, frequently rounded, fometimes pointed, and
either rough or poliftied. It is very hard, dif&cult to faw,
and appears to confift of fucceilive unequal layers. Except-
ing the few ftones which contain a proportion of filica, it ia
the heavieft of the urinary concretions. Though this calcu-
lus has been named mulierry, from its refemblance to that
fruit, yet, as Dr. Marcet has obferved, there are many con-
cretions of this clafs which, far from having the mulberry
appearance, are remarkably fmooth and pale-coloured, as
may be feen in plate 8, fig. 6. of that gentleman's eflay.

According to Mr. Brande, perfons who have voided this
fpecies of calculus, are much lefs liable to a return of the
complaint, than other patients who difcharge lithic calculi.
Phil. Tranf. 1808.

With regard to chemical charafters (fays profeffor Mur-
ray), it is lefs affefted by the application of the ufual re-
agents than any other calculus. The pure alkaline folutions
have no effeft upon it, and the acids dilTolve it with great
difficulty. When it is reduced, however, to fine powder,
both muriatic and nitric acid diftblve it flowly. The folu-
tions of the alkaline carbonates decompofe it, as Fourcroy
and Vauquelin have obferved ; and this alfords us the eafieft
method of analyfing it. The calculus in powder being di-
gefted in the folution, carbonate of lime is foon formed,
which remains infoluble, and is eafily diftinguilhed by the
effervefcence produced by the addition of weak acetic acid,
while there is obtained in folution the compound of oxalic
acid with the alkah of the alkaline carbonate. From this,
the oxalic acid may be precipitated by the acetate of lead, or
of barytes ; and this oxalate, thus formed, may be after-
wards decompofed by lulphuric acid. Another method of
analyfing this calculus is by expofure to heat : its acid is
decompofed, and by raifing the heat fufficiently, pure lime
is obtained, amounting to about a third of the weight of
the calculus. According to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, the
oxalate of lime calculus contains more animal matter than
any other. This animal niaf ' :r appeared to them to be a
mixture of albumen and ure;. The compofition of a calcu-
lus of this fpecies, analyfec by Mr. Brande, was oxalate of
lime 65 grains, uric acid 16 grains, phofphate of lime 15
grains, animal matter 4 grains.

6. The Cyflic Oxyd was firft defcribed by Dr. Wollafton
in the Phil. Tranf. for 1810. In external appearance, it
bears a greater refemblance to the triple phofphate of mag-
nefia, than any other fort of calculus. It is however more
compaft, and does not confift of diftinft laminae, but ap-
pears as one mafs confufedly cryftallized throughout its fub-
ftance. It has a yellowifti femi-tranfparency, and a peculiar
glifteaing luftre. Under the blow-pipe, it gives a fingularly
fetid fmell, quite diftinft from that of lithic acid, or the
fmell of prulfic acid. Diftilled in clofe veffels, it yields fetid
carbonate of ammonia, partly fluid and partly folid, a/id a
hea»y fetid oil ; and there remains a black fpongy coal,

which

URINARY CALCULI.

which is much {miller than that left by lithic acrid. Water,
alcohol, acetic, tartaric, aiul citric acids, and faturated car-
bonate of ammonia, can only diffolve a very fliglit propor-
tion of it. The folvents of it, on the other hand, are
numerous ; as, for inftance, the muriatic, nitric, fulphuric,
phofphoric, and oxalic acids ; potalh, ioda, aiiinioiiia, and
lime-water, and even the neutral carbonates of potadi and
foda. When, therefore, it is intended to icparate it from
acids, the neutral carbonate of ammonia is beft adapted to
the purpofe, as it is not capable of rediffolving tlie precipi-
tate even when added in excefs ; and, for the fame reafon,
the acetic and citric acids are befl luited to precipitate it
from alkalies.

In confequence of the difpolltion of this fpecies of cal-
culus to unite both with acids and alkalies, in common with
other oxyds, and the faft of its alfo containing oxygen, (as
is proved by the formation of carbonic acid in diRillation,)
Dr. WoUafton named it an oxyd, and the term c^ic was
added from its having been originally found only in the blad-
der in two examples. Dr. Marcet, however, has fubfe-
quently met with no lefs than three inftanccs of calculi
formed of cyftic oxyd, all of which were unqueftionably of
renai origin.

7. Compound Calculi in dlftinB Layers. — Lithic ftrata fre-
quently alternate with layers of oxalate of lime, or with the
phofphates. Sometimes alfo the mulberry alternates with
the phofphates, and, in a few inftanccs, three or even four
fpecies of calculi occur in the fame Hone difpofed in diftinft
concentric lamins. For fpecimens of thefe fafts, we refer
to Dr. Marcet's interefting effay, in which varieties of fuch
calculi are correAly delineated and coloured.

8. Compound Calculi -with their Ingredients intimately mixed.
— Under this title, Dr. Marcet comprehends certain calculi,
which have no charafteriftic feature, by which they can be
confidered as diftinftly belonging to any of the other clafles.
He obferves, that they may fometimes be recognized by
their more or lefs irregular figure, and their lefs determined
colour, by their being lefs diftinftly if at all ftratified, and
by their often pofTcfling a confiderable hardnefs. By chemi-
cal analyfis confufed refults are obtained. See Marcet's
Effay on the Chem. and Med. Hift. of Calc. Diforders,
p. 90.

9. Calculi of the Projlate Gland. — The compofition of
thefe calculi is faid to have been firft explained by Dr. Wol-
lafton. (See Phil. Tranf. for 1797.) They all confift of
phofphate of lime, the earth not being redundant as in
bones. Their fize varies from that of a pin's head to that
of a hazel-nut. Their form is more or lefs fpheroidal, and
they are of a yellowilh-brown colour.

Fourcroy has defcribcd a fpecies of urinary calculus,
which is charafterized by its being compofed of the urate
of ammonia. Dr. WoUafton, Mr. Brande, and Dr. Marcet
have not, however, fatisfaftorily afccrtained the prefence
of this fnbftance in any of the concretions which they havo
exammed. It is alfo to be rccollefted, that urea and the
triple phofphate, both of which afford ammonia, arc fre-
quently prefent in lithic calculi, and they may have given
rife to the analytical refults from which the cxiftence of urate
of ammonia has been inferred. Brande in Phil. Trar.f. 1808.
Marcet's ElTay, p. 93.

Dr. Marcet has met with two fpecimens of urinary cal-
culi entirely different from any which have hitherto been
noticed. One of thefe he propofcs to name xanthic oxyd,
from |x»9of, yellonu, becaufe one of its moft charaftcriftic
properties is that of forming a lemon-coloured compound,
when aftcd upon by nitric acid. The chemical properties
of the other new calculus, mentioned by Dr. Marcet, cor-

rcfpond to thofe of fibrine, and he therefore fuggpefts the
propriety of dillinguiftiing it by the tt^vmfbrinous. For a
particular defcription of thefe new fubftances, we refer to
this gentleman's effay.

In addition to the remarks which have been off"ered in the
article Lithotcmv, on the fubjedl of lithontriptic medi-
cines, we mean to fay very little in the prefent place. Who-
ever ftudics the chemical properties of the' urine will learn,
that '• if any alkali (a few drops of ammonia for inftance)
be added to recent urine, a white cloud appears, and a fedi-
ment, confifting of phofphate of lime, with fome ammoniaco-
magnefian phofphate, fubfides, in the proportion of about two
grains of the precipitate from four ounces of urine. Lime-
water produces a precipitate of a fimilar kind, which is ftill
more copious ; for the lime, in combining with the excefs of
phofphoric, and perhaps alfo of lactic acid, not only precipi-
tates the phofphate of lime which thefe acids held in folution,
but it decompofes the other phofphates, thus generating an
additional quantity of the phofphate of lime, which is alfo
depofited.

" If, on the contrary (fays Dr. Marcet), a fmall quantity
of any acid, either the phoiphoric, the muriatic, or, indeed,
even common vinegar, be added to recent healthy urine, and
the mixture be allowed to ftaud for one or two days, fmall
reddifh cryftalline particles of lithic acid will be gradually
depofited on the inner furface of the veflel.

" It is on thefe two general fafts, that our principles of
chemical treatment ultimately reft. Whenever the lithic fe-
cretion predominates, the alkalies are the appropriate reme-
dies, and the acids, particularly the muriatic, are the agents
to be reforted to, when the calcareous or magnefian falts
prevail in the depofit." P. 147, 148.

It is a fa£l perfeftly well afcertained, that the alkalies
taken into the ftomach reach the urinary paflages through the
medium of the circulation ; and it is alfo ftrongly fufpeAed,
that the acids likewife do fo, though this circumftance may
not be fo well proved. Unfortunately, the quantity of either
alkalies or acids, which thus mixes with the urine, is fo
fmall, that no imprefiion is made upon calculi of magnitude.
The experience of Dr. Marcet and others, however, has
clearly afcertained that fuch medicines are often capable of
checking a tendency to the formation of ftone, and fome-
times of bringing on a calculous depofit depending upon the
altered ftate of the fyftem. This writer, indeed, exjft-efTes
his decided opinion, that even fuppofing not an atom of
alkali or acid ever reached the bladder, ftill it would not be
unreafonable to expeft that thefe remedies may refpeftivcly
produce the defired changes during the firft ftages of alllmi-
lation, in one cafe by neutralizing any morbid excefs of acid
in the primse vix, and in the other by checking a tendency
to alkalcfcence, or otherwife difturbing thofe affinities which,
in the fubfcquent proceflcs of aftimilation and fecretion, give
rife to calculous affeAions. P. 153.

When muriatic acid is prefcribed, from five to twenty-five
drops may be given two or three times a day, diluted with a
fufficient quantity of water.

The beft way of taking the alkalies is by drinking foda-
watcr as a common beverage. It is afterted, however, on
the authority of fir G. Blane, that when the alkalies are
combined with citric acid, as in the ordinary faline draught,
they alfo have the cfft'ift of depriving tlie urine of its acid
properties.

Dr. Marcet, with every appearance of probabihty, refers
to c.irbonic acid itfelf no folvent power, and he does not
even adopt Mr. Brande's opinion, th.it this acid paflTes into
the unne, when patients drink fluids which arc impregnated
with it.

3X2 Sir

U R I

U R I

Sir E. Home and Mr. Hatchett firft fuggefted the utility
of giving magnefia in cafes of ftone, and the propofal was
communicated to the public by Mr. Brande. ( Phil. Tranf.
1810. ) It is, as Dr. Marcet obferves, often found advan-
tageous in long protrafted cafes, in which the conftant ufe of
the fubcarbonated or cauftic alkalies would injure the fto-
mach. But, he properly remarks, that if magnefia is fome-
times beneficial, it has of late years often done harm. For,
as this earth is the bafe of one of the moft common fpecies
of calculi, the ammoniaco-magnefian phofphate, there is
nearly an even chance, when magnefia is prefcribed, without
any pretious knowledge of the nature of the calculus, that
it will prove injurious. Magnefia alfo, when obftinately ad-
miniftered,fometimes forms large maflesin the inteftinal canal,
caufing ferious diftrefs, and even fatal confequences.

According to Dr. Prout, purgatives will fometimes ftop
calculous depofitions, efpecially in children ; and Dr. Henry,
of Nfenchefter, has obferved, that a quack medicine, com-
pofed of turpentine and opium, will occafionally produce a
plentiful difcharge of lithic acid from the bladder.

For many of the foregoing obfervations, we are indebted
to Dr. Marcet's interefting Eflay on the Chemical and Medi-
cal Treatment of Calculous Diforders, London, 1817. Some
other remarks on injedlions, as a means of difTolving calculi
in the bladder, and on hthontriptics in general, will be
found in the article Lithotomy.

Urinary FiJluU. See Fistul.e In Perinao, and Um-
NARY Abjceffes.

Urinary Paffage. See Urethra.
URINE, in Phyfiology, the fluid fecreted by the kidney.
See Kidney.

Urine, Bloody. See Hematuria.
Urine, Incontinence of. An incontinence of urine is
when this fluid comes away from the patient involuntarily,
without his having any power of retaining it. The difordcr
is one to which children are particularly liable ; adults are
lefs frequently afiliiEled with it ; and it is a cafe which feldom
occurs in perfons of very advanced years. The latter afler-
tion, as Default remarks, mud appear erroneous to thofe
who frequently meet with old perfons unable to retain their
urine, were it not well afcert oined, that patients often millake
for an incontinence of urine the overflowing of this fluid
out of the urethra, in cafes of retention, of which that occur-
rence is only a fymptom. There are even fome furgeons,
fays Default, who imbibe this popular error, and feem
unaware that an involuntary difcharge of urine may exift
together with a retention, and be the efleft of it, as is gene-
rally the cafe in fuch retentions as depend upon weaknefs
and paralyfis of the bladder. In thefe inftances, the dif-
tended fibres of this vifcus reaft upon the urine which then
iflues from the urethra, until the refiftance of the fphinfter
and of the canal is in equilibrium with the expelUng power.
Sometimes the urine even dribbles awav inceffantly, which
happens whenever the aftion of the bladder has been com-
pletely deftroyed ; for, in tliis ftate, this vifcus being con-
Ilantly full, cannot receive any more of the urine that is
brought to it by the ureters, unlefs an equal quantity at the
fame time efcape through t!ie urethra. This is a cafe
which will more properly fall under confideration in the ar-
ticle Urine, Retention of, and we need not therefore dwell
upon it at prefent.

The caufes of an incontinence of urine, properly fo called,
are diametrically different from thofe of a retention. The
latter cafe happens whenever the bladder becomes weak, and
the refifl:ance in the urethra increafed. An incontinence, on
the other hand, arifes either from the expelling power of the
bladder being augmented, while the rcfiitance in the urethra

is not proportionably increafed ; or from the reQftance
being leflened, while the expelling force remains unchanged.
According to thefe principles, it is eafy to explain why the
diforder fliould be moll common in children. At this age,
it is well known that there is more irritability than at any
other period of fife. It is alfo well knowi; that the expul-
fion of the urine is entirely effefted by mufcular aftion,
while the refiftance is merely owing to the fphinfter veficse,
the levatores ani, and perhaps to a few other inconfiderable
fafcicuh of mufcular fibres ; for the different curvatmes of
the urethra, and the contraftile power of this tube itfelf, can
make but a paffive and feeble refiftance to the iffue of the
urine. An incontinence happens in children, becaufe the
bladder contrafts fo fuddenly and forcibly, that its contents
are voided almoft before thefe young fubjefts are aware of
any defire to make water, and without their being able to
reilrain the evacuation. There are alfo many children who,
from indolence or careleffnefs, do not make water imme-
diately the firft calls of nature incite them, and who after-
wards, being urgently prefled, wet their clothes. In other
young fubjetts, the fenfation which makes the bladder con-
traft, and accompanies the expulfion of the urine, is fo flight,
that the funAion is performed without any formal adl of the
will, without even exciting an impreffion fufficiently ftrong
to difturb fleep. This is the cafe with fuch children as are
troubled only with an incontinence of urine in the night-time.
Increafing years, by diminifliing the irritability of the blad-
der, and making man more attentive to his neceflities, ufually
bring about a cure of the infirmity, which feldom continues
till the patient has attained the adult ftate.

It muft not be fuppofed, however, that no period of life
excepting childhood can be ;iffliftcd with the complaint.
Other ages are alfo liable ; but then the diforder almoft al-
ways depends upon a defeft of refiftance to the iffue of the
urine, and it may be occafioned by weaknefs, or paralyfis of
the fphinfter veficx, or levatores ani : fometimes, alfo, by
a forcible dilatation of the urethra, and lofs of its elaf-
ticity. Frequently all thefe caufes are at the fame time
concerned.

A calculus, a fungus, or any other extraneous body of an
irregular fliape, may be fixed in the neck of the bladder, and
not accurately filling it, may allow the urine to efcape at the
fides ; or the foreign body may even form forts of channels,
through which the fluid pafles.

Frequently, alfo, a violent contufion or forcible diftention
of the iphintter is followed by an incontinence of urine.
The complaint ufed to be very common formerly after the
mode of lithotomy called the apparatus major ; and it is
even at prefent not an unufual confequence of the extraftion
of calculi from females by the dilatation of the meatus urina-
rius. (See Lithotomy.) The neck of the bladder and
the urethra are forcibly diftended in thefe operations, and,
confequently, they lofe their contrattile power, continue di-
lated, and no longer duly oppofe the efcape of the urine.

Women who have had difficult labours, and in whom the
child's head, by compreffing the neck of the bladder, has
ferioufly contufed and weakened this part, are alfo fubjeft
to a fpecies of incontinence of urine ; which, however, is in
general only experienced when they laugh, or make any
confiderable exertion.

Moil authors, who have treated of incontinence of urine,
have relattd, that perfons afflifted with palfy and apoplexy
are very liable to the complaint. But, as we have already
explained, they have heremiftaken what the French furgeons
aptly call the "retention d' urine avec regorgement," for an
incontinence. In this fort of cafe, the fame writers have
attributed the involuntary difcharge of the urine to paralyfis

of

URJNE.

of the fphinfler of the bladder ; but they have not remem-
bered that the bladder itfelf alfo participates in the paralytic
affeftion ; for tiie f^hinfter not being a particular mufcle,
but only a fafcicilus of flefhy tibres, formed, as Default
obferves, by the junftion of thofe which compofe the inner
layer of the mnfcular coat of the bladder, it can only be
weakened in the fame degree, and at tlie fame time, as the
reft of this organ. Bcfides, fays Default, we have proved,
and all phyfiologifts admit the faift, that the aftion of
the bladder is abfolutely neceflary for the expulfion of the
urine, and that an inert condition of this vifcus is always fol-
lowed by a retention.

An incontinence of urine is not attended with fo much
danger as a retention. It is, however, a moft afflifting in-
firmity to a pcrfon obliged to mix with fociety : his clothes
being continually wet with urine, the ftench which he carries
about with bin is equally an annoyance to himfelf, and every
body elfe who approaches him.

An incontinence of urine in children ufually gets well of
itfelf as they grow up. When they wet their beds really
from idlenefs and careleflnefs, moderate chattifcment may be
proper, inafmuch as the fear of correftion will make them
pay more attention to the earlieft fenfations of the defire to
make water. We fear, however, that this doftrine is carried
to rather an unjuftifiable extent, particularly in fchools ; and,
at all events, punifhment in fuch cafes fliould never be fevere,
as, in ninety cafes out of a hundred, the diforder is a true
infirmity, arifing from the caufes already indicated, and not
from indolence ; the fuppofed crime taking place, in
faft, when the child is afleep, and unconfcious of what is
happening.

When an incontinence of urine depends upon an cxceflive
irritability, in which ftate the bladder is forced to contrail
by a very fmall quantity of urine in it, and involuntarily
overcome the refiftance of the urethra, an endeavour fliould
be made to lelfen fuch irritability by the ufe of the warm or
cold bath, fea-bathing, mucilaginous drinks, &c. If the
accident fhould happen only in the night-time, the child
fhould not take any drink for fome time before being put to
bed ; fhould empty the bladder before going to fleep ; and,
if neceffary, be taken up in the night to do the fame thing
again.

When the incontinence depends on a want of aiflion in
the parts producing the refiftance in the urethra, tonics may
be externally and internally employed. They feldom fuc-
ceed, however, when the diforder is of long (landing. In
this circumftance, palliative means muft be reforted to ; viz.
inftruments calculated to comprefs the urethra, and intercept
the pafl'age of the urine. This objeft is more difficult to
accomplifh in women than men ; but it may be done by-
means of an inftrument which coiififts of an elaftic hoop,
which goes round the pelvis, and from the middle of which,
in front, a curved elaftic piece of (leel defcends, and termi-
nates in a fmall comprefs, which is contrived to cover accu-
rately the orifice of the meatus urinarius. See CEuvres
Chir. de Default, par Bichat, t. iii. p. 95, &c.

The apphcation of blifters to the facrum has often proved
very cffcftual in curing incontinence of uiinc, both when the
complaint feemingly arofe from excefiive irritability of the
bladder, or from paralyfis and lofs of tone in this organ, and
the parts which naturally refift the expulfion of the urine
from it. The reader will find fome very intcrefting cafes of
this kind in the Medical Obfervations and Inquiries.

UlUNE, Retention of. When, from any particular caufe,
the urine cannot be difcharged from the bladder through
the urethra, it accumulates in that receptacle, which it gra-
dually diftends fometimes even to an incredible magnitude.

The difeafe has been defcribed by the ancients under the

generic name of ifchuria. Certain writers make a diftinc-
tion between this diforder and other cafes, to which they
apply tiie terms dyfury and Jlrangury ; while others have
confidered thefe lail only as different kinds of retention of
urine. Some furgeons always mean by dyfury the cafe in
which the urine is difcharged with great pain and difficulty ;
and by the wordjlran^ury, the example in which the evacu-
ation can be made only by drops ; while they reftrift
ifchuria to the form of the difeafe in wliich no urine at all
can be voided. Default very jullly imputed this variety in
the fymptoms to different degrees of the fame difeafe, and
he therefore, with much propriety, preferred the diviiion
into the complete and incomplete retentions nf urine.

As Mr. Hey has obferved, the diftinftion which has
fometimes been made between a fupprcjfion and retention of
urine, is practical and judicious. The former moft properly
points out a defeft in tlie fecretion of the kidneys ; the latter
an inability of expelling the urine when fccreted. We alfo
like the following iimple and plain definition : " The difeafe
(fays he), of which I am fpeaking, under the term retention
of urine, is an inabihty, whether total or partial, of expeUing
by natural efforts the urine contained in the bladder." Praft.
Obf. in Surgery, p. 389. edit. 2.

When the urine is retained in the bladder, the parietes of
this organ fuffer from diilention, and after the tone of its
mufcular fibres has been flraincd, it can make only a feeble
refiftance to its further dilatation, and fometimes it becomes
of confiderable lize. In an infant a year and a half old, it
has been known to contain a pint of urine ; and in adults,
fix or feven pints. The bladder, thus didended, has been
found to fill not only the cavity of the pelvis, but to rife up
into the abdomen higher than the navel. It has fometimes
been obferved to extend itfelf even througli the abdominal
rings, fo as to conftitute a fcrotal rupture ; or under the
crural arcli into the groin. Such elongations of the blad-
der, it is true, are not very common ; yet many inllances
of them are recorded in the Memoirs of the French Aca-
demy of Surgery. In ordinary cafes of retention of urine,
the natural fhape of the bladder does not undergo any ma-
terial change ; but ftill all its dimenfions do not increafe in
the fame proportion. It fpreads more from below upward
than in any other direftion. Its inferior portion becomes
broader, and more deeply fituated, preffing downwards and
forwards the perineum ; and propelling, in women, the va-
gina backwards ; or, in the male fubjed, the rettum. In
thefe latter tubes, it forn^s a fwelling, which either com-
pletely or partially obftrufts them, and interrupts the paf-
fage of the feces thrcugh the reftum. The pofterior part
of the bladder, which is covered by the peritoneum, lifts
upward and backward the mafs of fmall inteftines, and rifes
into the cavity of the belly. The extreme part of its
fundus mounts above the os pubis, and, as it were, in-
finuates itfelf between the peritoneum, which it raifes, and
the abdominal mufcles. Indeed, t!ie anterior and fupcrior
portion of the bladder forms a fwelling in the hypogaftric
region, and is in aftual contact with the redi and tranf-
verfales mufcles, with which it is connefled by means of a
loofe cellular fubftance. The knowledge of this lall difpo-
fition of the parts is of great importance to tiie furgcon,
fince it leads him to underlland, tliat the liladder admits of
being pundured, without any danger ot wounding the peri-
toneum, and caufing an extravafation ot urine. It is not
uncommon ( fays Default ) to find in bladders, which have
fnffered fuch diilention, cells or pouches often containing
calculi, and fituated between the fafciculi of Hefliy fibres.
See UniNARV Calculi.

5 Whi-n

URINE.

When the urine has diftended the bladder to the utmoft,
aad the obltruAion in the urethra continues unremoved,
that fluid next coUefts in the ureters, which in their turn
become dilated. The fort of valve which covers their ter-
mination in the bladder difappears, and the opening, by
which each of thefe tubes communicates with this recep-
tacle, fometimes becomes nearly an inch in diameter. As
the diforder advances, no more urine can at length defcend
from the kidneys, and the fecretion is totally fupprefled.

To the well-informed furgeon, the diagnofis of a reten-
tion of urine is generally attended with no difficulty ; but
the cafe is far otherwife to the man whofe experience and
attention to the fubjec^ have been very circumfcribed.
What Default has called the rational fymptoms are numerous ;
but yet moft of them are of an equivocal nature : as, for
inftance, the ftoppage of the difcharge of urine for one or
feveral days ; its evacuation by drops, or in very fmall quan-
tities at a time ; continual inclination to make water ; the
efforts which precede the performance of this funftion ; the
defire which the patient Hill feels to empty the bladder,
after he has voided nearly as much urine as in the natural
ftate ; a diminution either of the force, or ftream of the
urine ; a fenfation of weight about the perineum, tenefmus,
conftipation, hemorrhoids. To thefe fymptoms are to be
added, acute pain in the hypogaftric region, extending
along the urethra to the extremity of the glans penis, and after-
wards towards the kidneys, fometimes attended with ftupor
and numbnefs of the thighs. The pain is rendered much
worfe when the patient walks about, coughs, or keeps him-
felf in an ereft pofition ; and it is leflened when he bends his
body forward, and relaxes the mufcles of the abdomen.
Laftly, we have to join to the foregoing fymptoms, fever,
naufea, laborious rcfpiration, and perfpiration, that is faid to
poffefs a decided urinary odour.

All thefe rational fymptoms, as they were denominated by
Default, are vague and uncertain. The whole of them to-
gether can only afford more or lefs probable conjeftures re-
fpefting the exiftence of a retention of urine. The certainty
of the thing can never be made out, unlefs there be com-
bined with the preceding defcription of complaints an ob-
vious and manifeft tumour, formed by the bladder, not only
above the pubes, but likewifein the reftum of the male, and
in the vagina of the female fubjeA. The fwelhng above the
OS pub'.s varies confiderably in its fize. Sometimes it reaches
above the navel. It is circumfcribed, and unattended with
any alteration in the colour of the Ikin, or any hardnefs
at Us circumference. It is more expanded below than
above, elaftic, and free from tendernefs ; except it be
preffed upon with force, and then the propenfity to make
water is increafed, and fometimes a few drops are even urged
out of the urethra.

The fwelling in the reftum or vagina is readily difcover-
ed by manual examination. It is fituated only at the anterior
fide of thefe cavities ; and, like the hypogaftric tumour, it is
every where elaftic, equal, and free from any particular in-
durations.

Another pathognomonic fymptom, deferving the utmoft
attention of the practitioner, is the fluAuation, or rather the
fort of undulation, which is perceptible on alternately
preffing upon both the fwellings. Thefe, however, do not
conftantly exift ; for, as Default remarks, retentions of
urine, even of the moft complete kind, have been known to
occur, where the bladder, not being very extenfible, hardly
contained a few fpoonfuls of urine.

Mr. Hey has not adverted to the fweUing in the reftum,
or vagina ; nor to the cafes of contrafted bladder, where,
of cpurfe, the information derived in ordinary inftanees from

the tumour above the pubes, could not be acquired ; but,
in other refpefts, his obfervations on the diagnofis are prafti-
cal and correft. According to this experienced writer, the
charaAeriftic fymptom of a retention of urine, previous to
the introduftion of the catheter, is a diftention of the blad-
der (to be perceived by an examination of the hypogaftrium),
after the patient has difcharged all the urine which he is ca-
pable of expelling.

" As this complaint may fubfift when the flow of urine
from the bladder is by no means totally fuppreffed, great
caution is required to avoid miftakes on this fubjeft.

" Violent efforts to make Water are often excited at inter-
vals ; and during thefe ilrainings, fmall quantities of urine
are expelled. Under thefe circumftances, the diforder may
be miftaken for the ftrangury.

" At other times, a morbid retention of urine fubfifts,
when the patient can make water with a ftream, and dif-
charge a quantity equal to that which is commonly dif-
charged by a perfon in health- Under this circumftance, I
have known the pain in the hypogaftrium, and diftention of
the bladder, continue till the patient was relieved by the
catheter.

" And, laftly, it fometimes happens that, when the
bladder has fuffered its utmoft diftention, the urine runs off
by the urethra as faft as it is brought into the bladder by the
ureters. I have (fays Mr. Hey) repeatedly known this cir-
cumftance caufe a ferious mifapprehenfion of the true nature
of the difeafe.

" In every cafe of retention of urine which I have feen,
the difeafe might be afcertained by an examination of the hy-
pogaftrium, taken in conneftion with the other fymptoms.
The diftended bladder forms there a hard and circumfcribed
tumour, giving pain to the patient when preffed with the
hand. Some obfcurity may arife upon the examination of a
very corpulent perfon ; but in all doubtful cafes, the catheter
fliould be introduced." Praft. Obf. p. 389.

A retention of urine is always a ferious difeafe, and when
it is complete, it demands the moft prompt fuccour. When
relief is too long deferred, the confequences are truly afflift-
ing ; for, when the bladder continues for a time pretematu-
rally diftended, it lofes its contraftile power, which it re-
covers with difficulty. Irritated alfo by the quantity, and
perhaps by the quality of the confined fluid, it foon becomes
affefted with inflammation and gangrenous mifchief.

Sometimes the bladder burfts, and the urine is extravafated
in the cellular membrane of the pelvis ; fpreading behind the
peritoneum as far up as the loins ; producing fwellings in the
perineum ; and becoming effiifed alfo in the fcrotum, com-
mon integuments of the penis, and upper part of the thighs.
Indeed, as Default remarks, the urine has fometimes been
known to be effufed in the parietes of the abdomen, as far up
as the fides of the cheft, producing gangrenous abfceffes and
fiftulae of the parts. To thefe evils are to be added others,
arifing from the total interruption of the fecretion of urine,
and from the abforption of a part of that which is confined
in the bladder.

In the treatment of every retention of urine, there are two
principal indications. The firft is to give fpeedy iffue to this
fluid, in order to prevent the foregoing difaftrous confe-
quences ; the fecond is to obviate the caufes which prevent
its expulfion from the bladder. At prefent we ftiall confi-
der only the firft of thefe indications, as the fecond can be
more appropriately treated of when we come to notice the
various caufes of the complaint.

The urine is commonly let out of the bladder by the in-
troduftion of an inftrument termed a catheter. Default con-
fiders this operation in two points of view ; firft, when the

urethra

URINE.

Urethra is unobllruAed, and tlie iiiflrument can be intro-
duced without refinance ; and, fecondly, when there exifts
an impediment to its intr»duftion. As the hiftory of thefe
obftacles cannot be feparated from that of the caufes of the
diforder, we fhall follow Default, and now only take into
confideration the operation of introducing the catheter when
the urethra is pervious. What ougiit to be the conduft of
the furgeon under other circumftanceB will be noticed
hereafter.

With refpeft to catheters, three things are to be confi-
dered : l, the inilrumcnt itfelf ; 2, the manner of intro-
ducing it ; and, 3, the line of conduft to be purfued after
its introduftion.

Catheters were anciently compofed of copper : Celfus
knew of no other kind. As thefe, however, had the incon-
venience of becoming incrufted with verdigreafe, they at
length fell into difufe, and others, made of filver, were fub-
ftituted for them. This change had been made as early as the
time of the Arabian praftitioners, and it lUll receives the
approbation of the bell modern fnrgeons.

Catheters vary confiderably in their length. For an adult
female fubjeft, they fiiould be about fix inches long ; and
for young girls, four or five. For grown-up men, the length
ought to be about ten inches and a half; an'9 for male chil-
dren and boys, fix or eight inches. Thefe are the ordinary
lengths. There is alfo much diverfity in the fize or thick-
nefs of the inftrument. For a woman, the diameter ought
to be about two lines ; and for young girls, a line and a
half. For male adult fubjefts. Default recommends the
thicknefs of two lines and one-third ; and for boys, that of a
Lne and a half. In general, whenever the urethra is per-
vious, it is better to follow the advice of Default, and em-
ploy a largifh catheter, wliich will enter the paflage more
eafily, not get entangled in the folds of the membranous
lining of tlie canal, and afford a more ready outlet for the
urine. On the other hand, fmall catheters fliould be pre-
ferred, when there are obllruitions and indurations in the
paffage.

Catheters alfo ditfer in rtiape. Thofe which Default ufed
had only a flight curvature of one-tiiird of their length ; a
curvature which began infenfibly from their llraight part,
and continued to their beaks inclufively. The curvature was
alfo regular, fo as to form the fegment of a circle fix inches
in diameter. The female catheter, however, had only a flight
curvature towards its beak ; a fiiape wliich is adapted to the
direftion of the meatus urinarius. Default alfo improved
filver catheters, by caufing them to be made with elliptical
openings at the fides of the beak, with rounded edges, in-
ftead of the longitudinal flits, which were previoufly con-
(Irufted. The inconvenience of thefe flits had been acknow-
ledged by every practitioner in furgery ; the lining of the
urethra haring been frequently entangled in them, pinched
and lacerated, whicii produced acute pain, and fomctimes
profufe hemorrhage. With a view of preventing thefe
evils, Default alfo was careful to fill the elliptical openings
with lard, wliich could not fall into the hollow of the cathe-
ter, as an elaftic gum bougie was patfed into the cavity of
th)l inftrument, in order to hinder the occurrence, and was
not withdrawn before the end of the catheter was aAually in
the bladder. See QEuvres Chir. de Default, t. iii. p. iiS,
&c.

Befides filver, or inflexible catheters, furgeons now fre-
quently employ flexible catheters, made of elallic gum.
Thefe laft inllruments, indeed, are of fo much importance,
tliat they may be faid to conftitute one of the greatell im-
provements in modern furgery. They are flateil to have
been originally invented by a Frenchman of ihc name of

Bernard. Imperfcft attempts, however, li»d been made by
others, at an earlier period,io invent catheters poffeffiiig the
property of flexibility. Van Helmont propofed the ufe of
catheters made of iiorn ; but this fubflance was found to be
too fliff, and to become very quickly incrulled with depo-
fitions from the urine. Fabricius ab Aquapendente recom-
mended the employment of flexible catheters made of
leather ; but thefe were objeftionable, as they were very
foon foftened by the urine and mucus of the urethra, fo that
they flirivelled up, and were rendered impervious. There
were alfo other flexible catheters, formerly tried, which were
compofed of fpiral fprings of filver wire, covered, with the
fliins of particular animals. Thefe laft were found to fpoil
very quickly, in confequence of putrefaAion ; and when left
in the urethra any time, the beak was fometimes entirely fe-
parated from the reft of the inftrument, and left behind.

The elaftic gum catheters now in ufe are liable to none of
the preceding inconveniences. They are formed of filk
tubes exprefsly woven for the purpofe, and covered with
a coat of elaftic gum. They are fufficiently flexible to
accommodate themfelves to the different curvatures of the
urethra ; they arc not foftened by the urine, and they con-
ftantly remain with their cavity unobliterated. Their fmooth
and pohfhed furface makes them continue a long while free
from incruftations of the urine. Sometimes they are intro-
duced without a ftilet or wire, which is paftcd into their
canal, for the purpofe of giving them a certain curvature,
and greater degree of firmnefs. This plan is adopted when
the catheter will not pafs with the ftilet ; but, in general,
the ftilet is employed and withdrawn as foon as the tube is in
the bladder.

There are two methods of introducing a catheter ; viz.
with the concavity turned towards the abdomen ; or, on the
other hand, with the concavity of the inftrument turned
downwards in the firft ftage of the operation. The latter
plan of courfe requires the inftrument to be turned as foon as
its beak has arrived in the perineum ; and, confequently, the
French furgeons diftinguifh this method by the name of the
" tour de maitre." The operation of introducing a cathe-
ter, or catheterifm, as it is fometimes termed, may be prac-
tifcd either when tlie patient is fitting up or lying down :
the laft pofitioii, however, is accounted the moft favourable.
When tlie catiicter is introduced, with its concavity turned
upward, and the patient is in the recumbent pofture, the
thighs are to be feparated, and the legs moderately bent.
The furgeon is to draw back the prepuce, and to hold the
penis between the thumb and fore-finger of his left hand,
which are to be applied on each fide of the corona glandis,
and not at all to the under furface of the penis ; as this would
prefs upon the urethra, and obftruA the entrance of the ca-
theter. The handle of the inftrument being now held pa-
rallel to the axis of the body, its beak is to be introduced
into the urethra. While the penis is extended and drawn
forward, as it were, over the catheter, the latter inftrument
is to be gently puflied on, until its beak has .irrived as far as
the arch of the pubes. At this particular moment, tlie handle
is to be depicfled towards the patient's thighs, and the ma-
noeuvre, well managed, generally at once directs the end of
the catheter, through tlie prollatic portion of the urethra,
into the cavity of the bladder.

When the catheter is to be introduced with its concavity
turned downwards, or by the " tour de maitre," the beak
of it is to be palled into the urethra, and the penis drawn
forwards over it, as it were, jull as in the foregoing method.
As foon, however, as the end of the catheter has reached
the point at which the canal begins to form a curve under
the pubes, the furgeon is to make the penis and the inftru-
ment

URINE.

ment perform a femicircular movement, by inclining thera ceffantly a pot for its reception. The bed praftlce, there

towards the oppofite groin, and thence towards the abdo-
men. In the execution of this manoeuvre, care is to be
taken to keep the beak of the catheter ftationary, fo that it
may be the centre of the movement, and fimply revolve
upon itfelf. The handle of the inilrument is then to be de-
preffed, and the operation finiftied exaftly in the fame man-
ner as when the other mode is purfued.

As Default properly obferves, the only circumftance in
tsrhich the two methods differ is, that, in one, the fame
thing is performed by two movements, which is <lone in the
other by one ; fo that the operation is protrafted, and ren

fore, feems to be that of letting out all the urine, as foon as
the catheter is introduced, and then clofing the inftrument
until the bladder has become moderately diftended again.
Experience proves, that fuch moderate diftention and relaxa-
tion of the mufcular fibres of the bladder, alternately kept
up, have the fame good efFefts on the organ, as moderate
exercife has upon other parts of the body.

When an elaftic gum catheter is ufed, care muft be taken
that it does not pafs unncceffarily far into the bladder ; and
if it be too long, a part of it ought to be cut off.

When a catheter is to be left in the urethra, it fhould al-

dered inore difEcult and painful. Hence, the majority of ways be properly fixed with a narrow piece of tape, or elfe

good furgeons never praftife the " tour de maitre," except it is apt to flip out, or fometimes even to pafs too far down

when their patients are either corpulent, or placed in the the paffage. Some furgeons ufe cotton thread for this pur-

pofition ufually chofen for lithotomy, when the other mode pofe : they firft fatten it to the rings, or round the outer

of introducing the catheter would be lefs convenient. portion of the catheter, and then carry its two ends fome

When the urethra is free from obftruftion, an experienced way along the dorfum of the penis, when a fort of noofe is

furgeon can generally fucceed in introducing a catheter into made, and the thread carried round the part and tied,

the bladder, without any difficulty or force. But this When a filver catheter is employed, a tape or narrow rib-

operation, which is fo eafy to furgeons accuftomed to it,
frequently proves extremely difficult to young praftitioners,
who, inflead of guiding the inftrument in the courfe of the
urethra, create obftacles by preffing its beak againft the
parietes of this canal, or entangling the inftrument in folds
of its membranous hning. When this happens, it muft be
withdrawn a little, in order to be pufhed on again, with its
direftion fomewhat altered. If this fecond attempt fhould
not anfwer better than the firft, and the catheter fhould be
flopped in the perineum, the furgeon muft apply his fingers
to the latter part, in order to difcover towards which fide
the beak of the catheter has deviated, and to guide it pro-
perly as it pafTes further.

band is paffed through each of the rings, and conveyed to
the right and left fide of the pelvis, where it may be faf-
tened to a circular bandage. But there are numerous me-
thods of fixing, which need not be fpecified ; for, although
they ai-e of importance, the principles, which ought to be
obferved in adopting them, are the main things to be under-
ftood. Thefe are, firft, never to fix a catheter in fuch a
way, that too much of the inftrument projefts into the
cavity of the bladder ; and, fecondly, to be careful that
the thread, or tape, which is applied, will not chafe and
irritate the parts.

Having premifed thefe general obfervations on the chief
indication in cafes of retention of urine, viz. that of giving

When the catheter cannot be got through the portion of ifTue to this fluid, we next follow Default, in order to con-

the urethra, which is contiguous to the re&um, the fore- fider the particular modifications to which the indication is

finger ought to be introduced into the bowel, for the pur- liable ; a fubjeft which cannot be comprehended, without

pole of fupporting the end of the inftrument, and rendering treating alfo of the caufes of the difeafe.
the coats of the inteftine fomewhat tenfe, by drawing them i. Of the Retention of Urine to -which Perfnns of advanced

a httle downward and forward. If all thefe expedients Age are liable. — Old men are fo frequently afflifted with re-

Ihould fail, the catheter fhould be changed for one of larger
or fmaller fize, or of another curvature. A gum elaftic
catheter ought alfo to be tried, without the ftilet. In no
cafe, however, is it juftifiable to pufh forward the catheter
with much force, left the urethra ftiould be lacerated, and a
falfe paflage produced.

The depth to which the catheter has entered, the ceffa-
tion of any feeling of refiftance to the motions of the beak,
when revolved upon its axis, and the iffue of the urine, are
the circumftances by which the furgeon knows that the in-
ftrument has paffed into the bladder.

According to the experience of Default, the praftice of
ktting out gradually only a part of the urine, after the ca-
theter has been introduced, is on every account wrong and
detrimental. He alfo difapproves of running into the op-
pofite extreme, that is to fay, of letting the urine flow out
of the bladder, through a catheter, as faft as it arrives in
this receptacle : as, by the laft praftice, the bladder is con-
ftantly kept in a ilate of relaxation, its fibres cannot recover
their proper tone. When alfo the bladder is continually
empty, it comes into contaft with the end of the catheter ;
a circumftance which has fometimes caufed confiderable irri-
tation, pain, and even ulceration of that vifcus. Befides
thefe inconveniences, there are other objeAions : the ca-
theter becomes fooner obftruAed witli mucus, and covered;
with incruftations, than when it is clofed with the ftilet.
The patients are likewife compelled to remain in bed, where
they are either wet with their urine, or obliged to have in-

tention of urine, that the diforder is generally allowed to be
one of the grievances to which their period of life is parti-
cularly expofed. The bladder, hke the reft of the body,
becoming lefs irritable, is no longer duly ftimulated by the
prefence of the urine, and is only apprifed of the neceffity
of emptying itfelf by the painful fenfation arifing from the
diftention of its coats. It then contrafts ; but, to ufe De-
fault's expreffion, its elongated fibres have hardly force
enough to overcome the natural reaftion oppofed to them
by the canal of the urethra. There is almofl an equilibrium
betwixt the power and the refiftance, and the urine could
not riow out, if it were not for the affiftance derived from
the powerful aftion of the abdominal mufcles. Nor is tbe
expulfion of the urine even now complete, fince the bladder
no longer retains fufficient contraftile power to efface the
whole of its cavity. Some drops of the urine, after each
evacuation, are ftiU left undifcharged, and already conftitute
an incipient retention. The quantity daily augments, and
the fibres of the bladder becoming habituated to the pre-
fence of the urine, it happens at length that, at each eva-
cuation, not m.ore than half the fluid contained in this organ
is aftually voided.

According to the obfervations of Default, all old men
are not equally liable to the complaint. It particularly at-
tacks thofe who are of a phlegmatic temperament, plethoric,
and of fedentai-y and fludions habits. It alfo efpecially
afflifts thofe who, from careleffnefs or indolence, do not
give themfelves time to expel the laft drops of urine ; and

others,

URINE.

others, who make a praftice of voiding tlieir urine into a
pot as they lie in bed, inllead of getting up to make the
evacuation. •' Although," fays Bicliat, " the latter fad
may not be explicable upon any phyfiological principles, its
truth is fufficiently eftablifhed by clinical obfervalion, and
we cannot doubt its rcahty." Thus, the hillory of the
patients' lives, their ago, and kind of conftitntioiis, form fo
many grouncs for fufpetling the nature of this fpecies of
retention of urine ; but the fufpicion is changed into cer-
tainty, when the following circumllances are joined with the
ufual fymptoms of a retention of urine in the bladder.

The patients declare that they have never had in the
urethra, or neighbouring parts, any afFcftion capable of
impeding the ilTue of the urine ; that this fluid has always
come away freely, and in a full ilream ; but tliat, although
the Uream was undiminifhed, the urine could not be dif-
charged with the fame force, nor to the fame diftance, as
formerly. At length, inllead of defcribing an arch as it
flows out, it falls down perpendicularly between the legs.
Towards the clofe of the evacuation", the patient alfo is no
longer fenfible of the fii:al cojitraclile effort of the bladder
to expel the lad portion of the urine ; a particular fenfation,
of which he ufed to be confcious in his younger days.
When he is about to make water, he likevvife rijids that he
has to wait fome time before the evacuation commences.
As the diforder increafes, he begins to perceive that he can-
not make water without conliderable efforts ; that the
quantity of urine, voided each time, manifeftly decreafes ;
that the defire to empty the bladder becomes more and more
frequent ; and, lalUy, that the urine only comes away by
drops, and that an incontinence has fucceeded to a re-
tention.

In this flate, the patient's fufferings are not very great.
The tumour, formed by the bladder above the pubes, is al-
moft indolent ; and, if it be preii'ed upon with fome force,
a certain quantity of urine is difchargcd from the urethra.

The retention of urine arifing from old age is feldom
complete : the urine, after having filled and diflendcd the
bladder, dribbles out of the urethra, fo that the patient
voids as much of this fluid in a given time as he does in a
Hate of health. Nor is this fpecies of retention of urine
commonly attended with very urgent fymptoms. It docs
not occafion, like complete retentions, a fuppreflion of the
urinary fccrction in the kidneys ; and as the urine efcapes
through t!ie urethra, after the bladder is diftcndcd to a cer-
tain degree, the diforder is lefs apt to produce a rupture of
this organ, and dangerous extravafations of the urine. The
fwelling of the bladder then continues, without the patient
being lerioufly annoyed, except by a fenfe of weight about
the pubes and perineum. Sabatier has feen patients, who
have laboured under the difeafe fix months, without ever
having fufpefted its nature. The efcape of the urine has
indeed fomctimes deceived furgeons, and led them to con-
fider the fwelling to be of a totally different character.
Sabatier once attended a lady, who had been recommended
to refort to a dillant town, in order to try the effeft of its
mineral waters in difperfing a fwelling brought on during
her confinement in childbed, and wliich proved to be no-
thing more than a diRention of the bladder with urine. .

There are many old men who have been troubled with
this fort of retention of urine a long time, and yet make no
endeavour to get relief, fuppofing that the infirmity is na-
tural to their period of life. The uriii", however, llagnat-
ing in the bladd -r, undergoes a decompolition, and the coats
of that organ itfelf at length become difeafed.

This cafe prefents two indications, I'/'s. to evacuate the
urine, and to rcllorc the tone of the bladder ; frequently,
Vol. XXXVII.

both thefe things may be accompliflied by the fume means.
When the retention is incipient, and the bladder is merely
in an inactive ftate, its proper aftion may often be rcllored
by laying cold apphcations upon the hypogaltric region, or
the thighs, and by the patient going from a warm into a
cool place, in order to make water.

The patient muft alfo be ilridlly careful not to defer
making water immediately the Icalt inclination is felt to do
fo ; for, when the call of nature is not at once attended to,
the dillended fibres of the bladder lofe their fenfibility more
and more ; the defire to make water fubfidcs ; and the re-
tention, which at firfl confifled of only a few drops, very
foon becomes complete. It would then be in vain, as De-
fault obferves, to have recourfe to the means which have
been above recommended. No flimuhis will now make the
bladder contratl with fufficient force to expel the mafs of
m-ine which it contains, and the catheter is the only thing
by which this fluid can be difcharged. This artificial m.ode
of evacuation, however, only affords momentary relief ; for,
as the relaxed fibres of the bladder are flow in recovering
their natural tone, the patient would necefTaiily fall into the
fame condition again, if the employment of the catheter
were not continued. Hence, it is abfolutely indifpenfable
either to leave this inflrument in tlie bladder, or to introduce
it as often as the patient has occafion to make water. When
there is a Ikilful furgcon conftantly at hand, or when the
patient knows how to pafs the catheter himfelf. Default
thinks it better only to introduce the inflrument when the
bladder is to be emptied ; by which means, the incon-
venience arifing from the continual prefcncc of a foreign
body is avoided. In this cafe, either a filver catheter or an
elaflic gum one may be ufed with equal advantage ; but if
the inflrument is to be kept in the bladder, that made of
elaflic gum, and provided with a curved ftilet, is to be pre-
ferred. Whatever fort of inflrument is ufed, however, ex-
perience fully proves, that in old fubjedls, in whom tlie
canal is as it were flaccid, a large catheter enters more
eafily, and with lefs pain, than one of fmaller diameter.

As the treatment of the complaint mull be continued for
a long while, and the bladder feldom pcrfedlly regains its
proper tone in old age, the patient fliould be inilrufted how
to introduce the catlieter himfelf, and he is to pafs it when-
ever he wants to make water. After a certain time, how-
ever, he may try if he can empty the bladder without this
inflrument. When he finds that he can expel the urine, he
fliould certify himfelf by means of the catheter, that the lall
drops of this fluid are duly voided. Should they not be fo,
he muH perfevere in the ufe of that inllrnment. Without
this precaution, fays Default, the retenlion will foon attain
the fame pitch again, at which it was on firll commencing
the treatment.

In this fort of retention of urine, it luisbcen propofed to
throw into the bladder a variety of ailringent injcAions,
made with the fulphate of iron, decodion of bark, &c.
Default tried them, but never found much good from their
ufe.

Warm, balfamic, diuretic medicines, cold bathing, and
liniments containing the tinftura lyttx, have likcwile been
praifed ; but, according to Default, thefe means frequently
prove Inirlful to perfons of advanced years, .ind arc leldotn
ufcful. He rellricted his own practice to the ufe of the
catheter, which, when Ikilfnlly employed, often rcllored the
tone of the bladder; and when it failed, other means alio
were ineffectual.

2. Ri'hiilion of Urhit from Debauchery. — This cafe, as De-
fault obfirvcs, is very analogou . to th.il which dviv.iuU upon
old age ; both of them are \\mcoimcdted with any previous
3 Y difeafe

URINE.

difeafe of the bladder, and limply originate from general
languor and debility. Their commencement is indicated by
the fame circumftances, their progrefs is iimilar, they ex-
hibit refembling fymptoms, and they merely differ in their
predifpofing caufe ; the defeft of irritability being in one
cafe the confequence of old age, in the other that of intem-
perance. In the former inftance, the diforder depends upon
a decrepitude, the natural effett of advanced age ; in the
other, it arifes, as it were, from a premature and unnatural
old age. Nothing is more weakening to the conftitution
than an immoderate indulgence in venereal pleafures. From
this kind of excefs, the bladder, as well as other organs, be-
comes lefs irritable, and is at length rendered totally inca-
pable of expellmg the whole of the urine. Hence originates
a retention. It is unnecefTary here to repeat the diagpoftic
figns of this diforder, depending upon weaknefs of the
bladder. The hiitory of the cafe can alone difcriminate it
from that which is produced by old age. The prognofis,
however, is not fo unfavourable as in the other example ;
for, when the patient is gifted with a ftroug conftitution,
and he has not been too much reduced, the complaint may
be radically cured.

An elaftic gum catheter left in the bladder is here, ac-
cording to Default, one of the moft powerful means of
rehef which can be employed. It not only has the advan-
tage of affording a ready outlet for the urine, exciting the
irritability of the bladder, and promoting the aftion of its ,
mufcular fibres ; but its continual prcfence in the urethra
hinders the patient from yielding to thofe depraved habits,
which are the very caufe of the diforder. The latter ufe of
the catheter is the more worthy of confideration, inafmuch
as it is proved by experience, that moft patients, who are
not reftrained by this obflaclc, cannot rcfift the force of
habit, though fully aware of the dangers.

Together with the employment of the elaftic gum cathe-
ter, every endeavour (hould be made to ftrengthqn the
patient, and obviate the general relaxation and debility of
the parts. Cold bathing, fteel medicines, and cinchona, are
the means which are ufually preferred. The patient ought
likewife to have the advantage of a falubrious air, nutritious
and eafily digeftible food, undifturbed fleep, plenty of exer-
cife, regular evacuations, tranquillity of mind ; and more
efpecially lie ought to be diverted from what has been the
caufe of his iiidifpofition.

3. Relention of Urine from the immoderate Ufe of Diuretics.
— This is the next cafe which Default confiders. Diuretics,
both cold and warm, taken in excefs, may equally occafion
the diforder. He conceived that, by the former, the fibres
of the bladder were hurtfully relaxed ; and that, by the lat-
ter, their proper fenfibility was gradually deftroyed. In
this laft circumftance, the bladder being habituated to the
impreflion of ftimulating diuretics, is, when thefe are dif-
continued, not fufficiently irritated by the urine to contraft,
and it no longer obeys the calls of nature. Default has the
candour, however, to acknowledge that the foregoing theory
is rather founded upon reafon than experience ; he even
confelfes that he has met with no example eftabliftiing its
reality, but he thought there was fome probabihty in it,
deduced from the well-known effeAs of ftrong liquors on the
ftomach.

If we exclude from confideration the information refpeft-
ing the nature and quantity of the drink which the patient
has been taking, before the funftions of the urinary organs
were difturbed, there are abfolutely no circumftances, nor
fymptoms, by which this fpecies of retention of urine can
be diftinguiflied from that induced by old age and intem-
perance ; nor is the local treatment to be different from

what has been advifed for the above cafes. Befides the ufe
of the elaftic gum catheter, the furgeon muft recommend
cold bathing ; the throwing of ice-cold water on the abdo-
m^, perineum, and thighs ; the application to the fame
parts of comprefles wet with vinegar ; dry friftion on the
hypogaftric region ; or ftimulating liniments, containing am-
monia or the tinftura lytts. Should all thefe means prove
ineffe£lual, a blifter may be laid over the facrum and lower
part of the loins ; and it may either be kept open, or healed
and then apphed again, as Default particularly advifed.

4. Retention of Urine from an AffcBion of the Nerves of the
Bladder. — Thefe nerves may be affefted either at their origin,
or in the courfe of their diftribution. Injuries of the brain
arc feldom followed by a retention ot urine ; but the com-
plaint often accompanies thofe ot the fpinal marrow. A
concuflion of this medullary fubftance, from blows or falls
upon the vertebral column ; the injury which it fuffers in
fraftures and diflocations of the vertebrae, or from a violent
ftrain of the back ; its compreffion by blood, purulent mat-
ter, or other fluid etfufed in the vertebral canal ; and the
effefts which a caries of the fpine has upon it, may all ope-
rate as fo many caufes of a retention of urine. Tliis form
of the complaint may alfo be the confequence of tumours
lituated in the track of the nerves which are diftributed to
the bladder. It is not neceffary that all the nerves, which
ramify on this organ, be affefted before the complaint is oc-
cafioned ; for the compreffion of fome of the nervous fila-
ments is adequate to weaken the action of the bladder, and
render it incapable of overcoming the natural refiftance to
the difcharge of the urine.

When a retention of urine is caufed by an affeftion of the
fpinal marrow, an infenfibility and weaknefs of the lower
extremities are almoil always concomitant fymptoms. The
patients fnffer very little ; moft of them are ignorant of their
condition, and do not complain of any thing being wrong in
the funftions of the urinary organs. The furgeon, aware that
a retention of urine is a very common occurrence in thefe cafes,
fliould examine whether any interruption of the evacuation
prevails, either by feeling the ftate of the abdomen juft above
the pubes, or by introducing a catheter.

As this fpecies of retention of urine is only fymptomatic,
and not dependent upon any previous defeft in the bladder,
it is not in itfelf alarming ; but, with reference to the caufe
that has produced it, it is exceedingly dangerous. Affec-
tions of the fpine, compHcated with injury of the fpinal
marrow, are frequently fatal. By means of a catheter, it is
always eafy to relieve the inconveniences arifing from the
bladder not contrafting, and thus fulfil the only indication
which this fort of retention of urine prefents, okz. the eva-
cuation of the urine. But thefe means are merely palhative,
and the bladder will not recover its contraftile power until
the caufes of its weaknefs are removed. The laft then is
the main objeft in the treatment, which muft vary according
to the nature and extent of the diforder.

The confidei-ation in detail of all the means which may be
requiilte for the relief of the different accidents and difeafes
of the fpine, would form too long a fubjeft to be brought
into the prefent article. (See Fractures and Luxations
of tfie Vertehrit, and Spine, Difeafe and Curvature of.) We
Ihall merely obferve here, that Default had a high opinion
of the utility of cupping in fhocks and concuffions of the
fpinal marrow. This was done on the part of the back
which had been ftruck, or in its vicinity ; and the fcarifica-
tions were multiphed accordirj to the ftrength of the
patient. The plan was fometimes r..neated the fame day,
and fpr feveral days in fucceffion ; anu when the patient
could not bear the lofs of more blood, dry cupping was

employed.

URINE.

emiiloycd. In caries of the fpine, Default alfo gave a pre-
ference to the ufe of tlie moxa, inllead of caullic.

5. Retention of Urine brought on by Dijlentton of the Fibres
of the Bladder. — As Default obferves, this fpecies of reten-
tion of urine may be called fecondary, fince it is invariably
preceded and produced by a primary retention. It follows
of courfe, that its remote caufcs confift of all thofe circum-
ftanccs which may bring on the other forms of the com-
plaint ; but its immediate caufe altogether depends upon the
weaknefs and lofs of irritability in the bladder, occafioned
by the immoderate diftention of its coats. Thus, we fre-
quently find the diforder occur in perfons who, from bafh-
fulnefs, indolence, or intenfe occupation, negleft to make
water when they firft have the deiire, or who cannot for a
time empty the bladder, in confequence of fome temporary
obftruftion in the urethra. Although the impediment to
the efcape of the urine no longer exifts, and the bladder is
in other refpetts found, yet as this organ has been weakened
by the excefTivc diltention of its coats, it cannot contrail
with fufficicnt force to obliterate the whole of its cavity, and
expel the lall portion of urine.

The indication in this cafe is very fimple, for there is not
here, as in other retentions of urine, anotlier difeafe to be
remedied. The catheter, when left in the bladder, generally
proves adequate to the reftoration of the tone and contraftile
force of this vifcus. Default alfo conceived, that the objeft
might be promoted by the exhibition of warm diuretics, and
the employment of tonic injeAions, and other ftrengthening
means. Before the catheter is difcontinned, the furgeon
ought to be fure that the bladder can completely expel the
whole of the urine, without the aid of this inftrament ; for
it is impoflible to fpecify any particular period when the
bladder will regain its power of contracting. The time
will vary according to the duration of the difeafe, and the
age and conllituticn of the patient. In fome perfons, a
cure is effe£led in a few days ; in fome, not till after feve-
ral weeks or months ; and in others, the contraftile funAion
of the bladder is fo irremediably deftroyed, that the catheter
is neceflary during the rcil of the patient's life.

6. Retention of Urine from Inflammation of the Bladder. —
The majority of authors who have written on the difeafes
of the urinary organs, fays Default, have afcribed different
effedts to an inflammation of the neck of the bladder, and
to the fame afieftion of the body of this vifcus. They have
in facl regarded the firll occurrence as one of the caufes of
retention, and the lall as a caufe of incontinence of urine.
It has been imagined, that an inflamed highly fenfible blad-
der, inftead of being weakened in this flate, acquired an in-
crcafe of energy, and contradtcd with greater than ordinary
vigour. But, even if we had not been undeceived upon this
fubjedl by the obfervation of retentions of urine, wiiich
could be referred to nothing but inflammation of tlie bladder,
flill analogy would have proteftcd ns from error. We never
find an inflamed mufclc contraift, and if we oblige it to adl,
its aftion is always weak. Default alfo conllantly noticed,
in opening the bodies of perfons who had died of inflammation
in the abdomen, that the inflamed intellincs were dillcnded,
and not diminilhed and contraiited.

Plethoric bilious fubjedls, with full habits, are particularly
liable to this fpecies of retention. It is alfo frequently oc-
cafioned by the abufe of wine or other fpirituous liquors,
heating diiirt tic drinks, or the external or internal emphiy-
ment of cantharides. This form of the complaint makes its
attack fiiddenly, and may be recognized; itl, By the fre-
quent deiire to make water. 2dly, By the acute pain in tiic
region of the bladder; pain which is iiicreafed by the eflorts
to make water, and which fhools up to the loins and along

the urethra to the end of the glans. ^dly. By the frequency
and liardiiefs of the pulfe, and other fymptoms of fever.
4thly, By the aggravation of the pain, when the hypogaflric
region is handled or preffed upon. 5tlily, By the eafy paf-
fage of a catheter into the bladder. 6thly, By the acute
pain which is excited by the inflrument touching the infidc
of the bladder, ythly. By the red inflammatory colour of
the urine. 8thly, By the abfence of all thofe fymptoms
which peculiarly characlerizc other cafes of retention.

This form of the diforder demands the mofl prompt affift-
ance. The urine, the prefence of which is a new fource of
irritation, fliould be immediately drawn off* The catheter
fhould be introduced with great gentlenefs, and merely far
enough to let its eye get beyond the neck of the bladder, as
its beak might other wife ferioufly irritate this vifcus, the
lining of which is now extremely fenfible.

After the urine had been difcharged. Default ufed to
throw in mucilaginous injeftions ; but of thefe we entertain
no opinion. The inflammation of the bladder is to be re-
filled by the mofl powerful antiphlogiftic remedies, fuch as
repeated venefedlion, the apphcation of leeches to the peri-
neum and hypogaftric region, the warm bath, glyflers, , fo-
mentations on the abdomen, and cold mucilaginous beverages.
When, notwithllanding thefe means, the inflammation in-
creafes, extends to the other abdominal vifcera attended with
hiccough and vomiting, and continues beyond the fixth day,
the patient's life is in extreme danger, and death almoft in-
etitable.

7. Retention of Urine from Hernia of the Bladder. — The
fecond volume of the Memoirs of the French Academy of
Surgery prefents us with numerous inllances of this fpecies
of retention of urine. We there learn that it is a fymptom
almoll conllantly attending hernia of the bladder. But the
weaknefs of this organ is not always the fole caufe ; for the
urethra itfelf alfo makes greater refillance than natural to
the ilfue of the urine. The neck and adjoining part of the
bladder are drawn out of their right pofition by the portion
of this organ which protrudes. Hence, the beginning of
the urethra alfo undergoes an elongation, and a change of
its curvature, by being preffed towards the fymphyfis of the
pubes, and its diameter is likcwife diminilhed. The urine
may alfo be detained in the pouch compofing the hernia, in
confequence of the communication between thts and the other
part of the bladder biiing too diminirtive. This ftate, indeed, is
very common, and it accounts for thofe partial retentions of
urine which take place only in the protruded portion of the
bladder, and not in that of the receptacle which lies within
the pelvis. Sometimes, however, fuch retentions depend
upon the preffure of the abdominal mufclcs being removed,
and upon weaknefs of the protruded part of the bladder.
At the fame time, it rarely happens that the rcll of this or-
gan, fituated in the pelvis, can itfelf expel the lall drops of
the urine whicii it contains. Its complete contraiflion can-
not be accompliflied without great difficulty ; and, in the
end, it almolt invariably follows that the urine is retained in
both the protruded and unprotruded portions of the
bladder.

When a retention, ariling from a hernia of the bladder, is
complete, and occurs in both parts of this organ, there is,
in addition to the fymptoms common toother retentions pro-
dnced by weaknefs of the bladder, a more or Kfs confider-
able fweiliiig in tlie fitualion of the hernia. The tumour is
unattended with any change of the colour of the fl<in ; is
not very lender on being handled ; and it prefents a feeling
of fluftuation, fonutimes obfcure, foinotinies very dilliiiifl.
When tlic fwelling is prclVed upon, the defire to make water
is excited or incrcafcd, and occafioiially a few drops cfcapc
3 Y 2 from

URINE.

from the urethra. As foon as the urine has been drawn off
with a catheter, the part of the bladder which is out of the
pelvis fubfides.on the patient being put into a pofture m which
fuch portion of the bladder is higher than the reft of this
organ within the pelvis. The hernial tumour feems then to
be compofed of thick membranes, which are foftiih, move-
able, but yet incapable of being reduced. It is alfo fome
time in enlarging again ; and, after its re-appearance, it
prefents the fame fymptoms as before. , , •

When the retention of urine is confined to the hernia, and
the opening, by which this communicates with the pelvis, is
free, the tumour is indolent, increafing when the patient
empties the other part of the bladder, and fubfiding after
the evacuation. As foon, however, as this is finifhed, the
patient feels a defire to make water again ; fo that there is a
fort of interval in the completion of this funftion. But,
ihould the communication with the pelvis not be open
enough, the iwelling would be incompreffible, or it could
not be made to fubfide without a good deal of force. Were
it ftrangulated, the circumftance would be indicated by the
tenfion of the fweUing, pain, heat, fever, and hiccough,
fucceeded by vomiting.

The ftrll indication is to difcharge the urine with a cathe-
ter, or by compreffmg the hernial tumour ; but thefe expe-
dients are only palhative. When the difeafe is recent, and
the protruded portion of the bladder fmall and reducible,
the part ought to be returned and kept up with a trufs, by
which means a perfeft cure may be effefted. When the
part is adherent and irreducible, the fwcllmg ought to be
emptied, and a fufpenfory bandage made to tit and fupport
it. If the hernia were in this way gradually got into the ab-
dominal ring again, a trufs would afterwards be requifite.
Propofals have been made to endeavour to excite the adhefive
inflammation in the cavity of the protruded part of the
bladder, by methodical compreflion, gradually increafed, and
obliterate the poucli in which the urine is lodged out of the
pelvis. Although Default thought the attempt cautioufly
made juftitiable, he deemed the refult very uncertain.

Were the retention of urine accompanied with a ftran-
gulated ftate of the protruded bladder, and the contents
could not be prefted into the other part of this organ, a
punfture of the fwelling with a trocar might be proper. But
if there were an enterocele alfo prefent, as often happens,
this operation would be attended with rid-: of injuring the
inteftine. Hence Default preferred opening the tumour by
a careful incifion ; and he even approved of cutting away the
protruded cyft, if the communication betwixt it and the reft
of the bladder were obliterated.

8. Retention of Urine catifed by Difplacement of the Vifcera

of the Pelvis Thefe difplacemcnts, which may occalion a

retention of urine, are a retroverfion, prolapfus, or inverfion
of the uterus, and a prolapfus of the vagina and reftum.
When the intimate connexions of the bladder with the uterus
and vagina in the female, and with the reftum in the male,
are confidercd, it is obvious that thefe latter parts cannot be
difplaced without drawing along with them the bladder ; and
that in this ftate, whatever may be its contraftile power, it
cannot contraft compbtcly upon itfelf, fo as to expel the
whole of the urine. To this deficient aftion of the bladder
is neceft"arily joined an increale of refiftance on the part of
the urethra. The beginning of this canal, being drawn by
the bladder, changes its accuftomed direftion, and fuch
alteration cannot be made without the fides of the tube
being prefled together, and thus a more or lels confiderable
obftacle formed to the paffage of the urine. It is in this
manner that, in the retroverted uterus, the os tinea-, being
carried up above the pubes, drags along with it the pofterior

lO

fide of the bladder, which, in its turn, draws after it the
commencement of the urethra, pulls it upwards, and in-
creafes the curvature which this canal defcribes under the
fymphyfis of the pubes, againft which it is forcibly applied*

In a prolapfus or inverfion of the womb, vagina, and
reftum, the back part of the bladder, inftead of being
drawn upward and forward, is pulled downward and back-
ward, and the curvature of the urethra is totally altered.
Below the pubes, the bladder forms a copvexity, and not a
large concavity, as in the inftance of a retroverfion of the
womb. This pofition of the parts ftiould al^fays be recol-
lefted in paffing tlie catheter, as it ftiews what curvature and
direftion fliould be given to the inftrument, in order to faci-
litate its introduftion.

The retention of urine, arifing from difplacement of the
vifcera, may always be eafily diftinguiftied from the other fpe-
cies of tliis diforder. The fymptoms, however, by which
it is charaAerized, have been detailed in other articles, to
which the reader is referred. See Prolapsus Am, Pro-
lapsus Uteri, Vagina, Uterus, Retroverfion of, iSjc.

Thefe kinds of retention of urine are not frequently fol-
lowed by any very bad confequences. It is generally fuffi-
cient to reftify the wrong pofition of the bladder, and com-
mencement of the urethra, by the redudlion of the difplaced
vifcera, and a cme is then a matter of courfe, unlefs the
exceflive diftention of the fibres of the bladder has in-
duced confiderable weaknefs in the parietes of this organ.
When this is the cafe, we muft haverecourfe to the particu-
lar means which have been recommended for this caufe of the
difeafe. The reduftion of the vifcera ufually conftitutei the
firft indication.

For an account of the manner of doing this, we muft refer
to the above-mentioned articles. When the redutlion can-
not be immediately accompUftied, or when it fails in direftly
relieving the retention of urine and fymptoms depending
upon it, the catheter is to be ufed. Frequently, when the
urine has been drawn off, the reduftion becomes more
eafy ; but fometimes the altered diredlion of the urethra
makes the introduftion of the catheter difficult ; nor can
fuccefs be obtained, except by accommodating this inftru-
ment to the faulty ftate of the canal. For example, in the
retroverfion of the uterus, a catheter very much curved an-
fwers better than a ftraight one, like that ordinarily ufed for
females.

A curved catheter, fays Default, alfo anfwers in cafes of
prolapfus uteri, &c.; but with this difference, that, in a re-
troverfion, the concavity of the inftrument muft be turned
towards the pubes, but, in the prolapfus, towards the
anus. Sometimes the catheter will not pafs unlefs it be ro-
tated, as it were ; and fometimes, when a filver catheter
cannot in any manner be introduced, one made of elaftic
gum, which adapts itfelf better to the curvature of the
canal, will readily enter.

W^ere every effort to reduce the vifcera and get a cathe-
ter into the bladder to fail, at the fame time that a rifle of
this vifcus burfting prevailed, the operation of punfturing
it would become indifpenfably neceffary. See Paracen-
tesis of the Bladder.

9. Retention of Urine from the Preffure of the Uterus, or

Vagina, on the Neck of the Bladder It is alleged, that in

pregnancy there are two periods when women are particu-
larly liable to a retention of urine ; i>iz. during the fourth
month, and at the time of labour. In order to have an ex-
aft idea of this cafe, we muft remember that, in the firft
months after conception, the uterus continues to lie concealed
in the pelvis ; that it does not afcend above this cavity till the
fifth month, or later ; that, at this period, as its fize and

weight

URINE.

weight have progreffively increafed, it defcends lower into the
vagina, and comprelTcs, in the manner of a wedge, the reftum,
which is fituated behind ; while it preflcs tlie neck of the
bladder and urethra, which are in front, againil the lymphyfis
of the pubes, fometimes in fucli a degree, as entirely to
clofe them, and ftop the pafTage of the urine tln-ough
them.

From this account of the progrefs of the gravid uterus,
the mechanifm of this fpecies of retention of urine appears
fo fimple, and, as it were, natural, that one would expeft to
find the diforder frequently happen in the fourth and fifth
months of pregnancy ; yet, out of a great number of
women who had been delivered in the Hotel-Dieu at Paris,
Default did not meet with a fingle one who had been thus
affefted. He does not, however, prefume to afTert, that the
complaint may not occur ; but he believes, that the manner
in which the uterus enlarges mull almoft always proteft tlie
neck of the bladder and urethra from compreflion. In faft,
fays he, it is well known that the increafe of this vifcus begins
at its fundus, and then extends to its body, while the cervix
retains its fize and length until the fixth month, when the
uterus, being too large to be contained in the leffer pelvis,
mounts up above the fuperior aperture.

As this vifcus is larger at its fundus than its cervix, while
fituated within the cavity of the pelvis, it muft rather com-
prefs the ureters and body of the bladder than the neck of
this organ and the urethra, above which the moll bulky por-
tion of the uterus is always fituated, unlefs there be a com-
plete prolapfus of this organ. Although moft writers have
fpoken of a retention of urine as being often occafioncdby the
lodgment of the head of the fiEtus, yet, according to Default,
not a fingle inrtance occurred at the Hotel-Dieu, duringeight
or ten years, in which fpace of time fifteen or fixteen hundred
patients were there delivered. Therefore, without denying
altogether the poffibility of the cafe, he conceives himfelt
juftified in concluding that it is much lefs common tlian is
ufually fuppofed. It is true, fays he, women often complain
of a defire to make water when the head of the child continues
a long while in the pafTage ; and fuch defire may have led fome
carelefs pra6litioners to imagine that it proceeded from a
full ilate of the bladder, who ought to have known that any
irritation about this organ would caufe the fame kind of fen-
fation.

When the pofition of the head of the child, at the time of
its being wedged in the leffer pelvis, is confidered with re-
gard to the bladder, it appears that the body of this laft
organ and the ureters are more expofed to compreflion than
the urethra and neck of the bladder. Default even thought
it probable, tliat the urine, far from accumulating in this re-
ceptacle, could not defcend into it, and was confined in the
ureters.

This conjefture feemed to Default the more likely, inaf-
much as a retention of urine is more frequently a confequcnce
of, than an attendant upon, the lodgment of the child's
head in the pafFagc. The complaint then comes not from
any obftruAion of the meatus urinarius, but from wcakncfs
of the bladder, which has fuffered contufion, which fome-
times caufes Houghs between the vagina and bladder, and
produces urinary fiflulx, always difficult of cure, and often
incurable.

Were, however, a retention of urine to happen at one of
the above periods of pregnancy, the diagnofis of it would
be obvious enough. The ftate and pofition of the uterus,
or the fituation of the head of the infant, could cafily bo
afcertaincd by manual examination ; and the patient would be
able to fay whether the paifage of urine had been prcyioufly

free, and whether fhc knows of any other caufe that can im-
pede the evacuation.

Frequent inclination to make water, and none of the urine
at the fame time coming away, are, in this cafe, very equivocal
figns of a retention ; for, as Default remarks, any irritation
of the bladder will caufe the firlt fymptom, and the lafl may
depend upon compreflion of the ureters.

If the complaint were caufed, as is fuppofed, by the pref-
fure of the uterus upon the neck of the bladder and the
urethra, about the fourth month of pregnancy, we could
not expeft the diforder to be permanently relieved before tiie
enlarged uterus had rifen out of the pelvis. Until tliis had
happened, tlie practitioner could only endeavour to facilitate
the evacuation of urine by prefTuig the uterus away from the
neck of the bladder and urethra, by introducing his finger
fufficiently high behind, and a little on one fide of the fym-
phyfis pubis. Should this method fail, it would beneceffary
to have recourfe to the catheter.

Were the retention of urine produced by the child's head,
delivery Ihould be expedited by changing the pofition of the
head with the forceps, &c. If the labour fhould ilill feem
likely to be lingering, the urine ought to be drawn off with
a catheter.

Befides the diftention of the uterus and vagina in pregnancy
and parturition, there are other conditions of thele organs
which may give rife to a retention of urine. This diforder
fometimes arifes from the prefence of various kinds of tu-
mours, or colleftions of blood or water in the uterus, or
ovary ; and it occafionally proceeds from diftention of the
vagina with the menflrual difcharge, the ufe of pefTaries,
&c.

As this laft kind of retention of urine is only fymptomatic,
the prognofis muft be more or lefs unfavourable, according
as the difeafe, of which it is a fymptom, may happen to be
more or lefs ferious. It is of itfelf not very dangerous, be-
caufe, by drawing ofl" the urine with a catheter, it is .ilways
praAicable to prevent or remove tlie inconveniences which it
caufes. But even the ufe of the catlieter is not alw.iys ne-
ceffary, efpccially when tlic caufe of the retention of urine
is eafily removable, and tlie tone of the bladder is not im-
paired. Tliis is generally the cafe when the complaint is in-
duced by a peffary, or colleAion of blood in the vagina.
In other examples, in which the caufe of the difficulty of
making water cannot be immediately obviated, as in feveral
cafes of tumours, the catheter muft be employed. In
fcirrhous and cancerous difeafes of the uterus, alfo, this in-
ftrument is tlie only means of relieving the retention of urine,
as nature and art can do little for the removal of the caufe.
It ought to be known, however, that, as thefe laft difeafes
increafe, an incontinence often fucceeds to a retention of
urine, in confequcnce of ulceration taking place between the
upper furface of the vagina and the lower part of the
bladder.

lo. Relenlion of Urine from Prejfure nf the Ridum upon lh»
Neck of the Bladder. — AbfcefTes in the vicinity of this in-
teftine, hemorrhoidal tumours, alvine concretions, and the
feirrho-contraftod ftate of the gut, &c. may bring on a re-
tention of urine by making prcfl'ure on the neck of the
bhidder. The irritation, alio, exifting in ihefe cafes, may
tend to produce the complaint by exciting a fpafmodic con-
tr.idion of the urethra. Here the relief of the obflruc-
tioii of the lu-ine is to be effcded by removing or curing the
other diforder, which opemtes as its caufe. If this cannot
bo immediately accomplilhed, the catheter muft be ufed,
though, in fcveml inftances, it will be better to avoid even
the irritation of the catheter, and try the cfTcds of blccd-

URINE.

ing, the warm bath, aiiJ opium, which will frequently
enable the patient to make water. The lad means, how-
ever, will not fuffice, when the caufe of the retention is
likely to continue any length of time.

11. Retention of Urine from Tumours Jituatcd in the
Bladder. — Fungous difeafes, carcinoma, and hydatids, fays
Default, are the principal tumours which may caufe a reten-
tion of urine. Of all the difeafes of the bladder, there are
none which are fo afflifting as fungous tumours ; fortu-
nately, they are not frequent. Default, however, had feen
feveral cafes in the dead fubjeft. By the introduction of
a found into the bladder, the prefence of a fungus might

•be fufpefted ; fomething unufual would be felt ; but the
cafe could hardly be difcriminated from an induration of the
coats of the bladder, or other forts of tumours of this vif-
cus. The caufes and mode of curing the affliftion are
equally unknown. In one inftance, however, in which the
fungous excrefcence had a narrow bafe. Default is faid to
have made an incifion into the bladder, .and extrafted the
fwelling with a pair of forceps. No hemorrhage, nor any
other bad fymptoms, eufued.

In carcinomatous difeafes of the bladder, the ufe of the
catheter is necelTary, at lead, until, by the progrefs of the
diforder, ulcerated commuaications are formed betvvixt that
organ and the rectum, or uterus and vagina.

12. Retention of Urine from foreign Bodies in the Bladder.
— When the urine is obftruAed by a calculus at the neck
of the bladder, the patient, by altering his pofition, fre-
quently changes the fituation of the ftone, and he is imme-
diately able to make water again. This expedient, how-
ever, will only procure relief while the calculus is loofe in
the cavity of the bladder ; for, after it has become fixed in
the commencement of the urethra, it muft either be pufhed
back with a catheter, or extrafted by a kind of operation
refembling the apparatus minor. See Lithotomy.

Default never met with any cafe in which the bladder con-
tained worms ; but he was aware of there being many fuch
inftances on record. Tulpius, Schenckius, Bianchi, &c.
have been eye-witneffes of the occurrence. Thefe worms
are not all alike ; fome refemble fcarabasi, fome are like
afcarides, and others have the appearance of lumbrici.
Ruyfch and Hagendorn affirm, that they have feen fom.e
which had wings, and were able to fly as foon as they were
voided. An interefling paper on this fuhjeft was publilhed
about fix years ago by Mr. Lawrence, who met with an
example in which an undefcnbed fpecies of worms was
abundantly voided from the bladder. " The origin of thofe
animals (fays Mr. Lawrence}, which inhabit the internal
parts of living bodies, is involved in much obfcurity. Al-
though the inteftinal worms appear manifellly, from their
peculiar form, confiftence, and organs, to be particularly
defigned for thofe fituation s in which they are found ; al-
though they have generative organs, and no fimilar animals
are known to exift out of living bodies ; yet, it has been
generally conceived, that the genus from which they fpring
enter from the mouth. The production of hydatids in va-
rious parts of the body cannot, however, be accounted for
on fuch a fuppofition ; neither can we very eafily conceive
that ova (hould enter from without into the urinary organs."
The following fads, alfo ftated by Goeze, (as Mr.
Lawrence obferves,') entirely overturn this opinion. Pro-
felfor Brendel, of Gottiagen, found afcarides in the redlum
of an immature embryo. Blumenbach difcovercd tsnias in
the inteflinal canal of young dogs a few hours after birth. Sec.
Verfuch cmcr naturgefchichte dcr Eingeweidcwiirmer,
V' S5-

7

The cafe which Mr. Lawrence has recorded is interefting,
as it exhibits an unqueftionable inllance of peculiar and
undefcribed worms voided from the urinary palfages. This
gentleman fays, that he knew of no other cafe in which a
dillintt fpecies of worm has been clearly proved to corae
from the bladder. Moil of the cafes publifhed were in-
ftances of common inteftinal round worms, which fometimes
perforate the inteftines, and are difcharged by abfcelFes, or
get into the bladder, after the formation of adhefions be-
twixt this organ and the bowels. In other inftances,
coagula of blood, mucus, or portions of the mucous coat of
the bladder, have been miftaken for worms ; and, as Mr.
Lawrence further obferves, fome of the defcriptions can
apply only to larva? of infefts. Two fpecimens of this laft
fort he has feen himfelf, which were fent from the country as
worms voided from the bladder. See Medico-Chir. Tranf.
vol. ii. p. 382, &c.

In whatever way thefe animals get into the bladder, a re-
tention of urine may be produced, either when they are
numerous, or when there is only one prefent, but large
enough to obftruft the vefical orifice of the urethra. In the
very curious example related by Mr. Lawrence, the paflage
of the urine was obftrufted, and the ufe of the catheter con-
tinually neceffary. The oil of turpentine was given in-
ternally, with fome appearance of benefit at firft ; but it
afterwards brought on febrile fymptoms and eryfipelas, and
its exhibition could not be kept up. It was then injefted
into the bladder, with an equal part of water. This rather
accelerated the difcharge of the worms ; but they came
away at times whether the injedlion was ufed or not, and as
this means produced the eryfipelatous indifpofition again, it
was left off. Olive oil was afterwards injefted ; the irrita-
tion after it was lefs, and the fits of pain about the bladder
lefs violent. It was calculated, that at the time when Mr.
Lawrence was writing the particulars of the cafe, from 800
to 1000 worms had been difcharged. For a detail of the
fymptoms, and a particular defcription of the worms them-
felves, we muft refer to the above-mentioned pubhcation.

According to the obfervations of Default, a retention of
urine is frequently occafioned by coagula of blood in the
bladder. The blood is faid fometimes to come from the
kidneys, fometimes from the bladder, and fometimes it even
regurgitates from the urethra. While fluid, it may be ex-
pelled with the urine ; but when coagulated, it is no longer
capable of being difcharged. It is the blood which gets
into the bladder after wounds, or the operation of lithotomyj
that is moft difpofed to coagulate.

The diagnofis of a retention of urine, produced by coagu-
la of blood, is not very clear. The ifl^ue of blood with the
urine might raife fufpicions ; but there could be no cer-
tainty of the nature of the cafe, until the catheter v;ere in-
troduced. If the clots of blood Ihould be too large to pafs
through this inftrument, lukewarm water fhould be injefted
into the bladder, for the purpofe of loofening and diflblving
the coagula.

We fliall merely notice one more example of retention of
urine, arifing from the prefence of extraneous fubftances in
the bladder ; we mean that in which a piece of bougie has
flipped into this vifcus. It has frequently happened, that
entire bougies, which were not properly fixed, have glided
into the bladder. As Default obferves, the urethra appears
to poflefs a kind of antiperiilaltic aftion, by which it tends
to draw into the bladder whatever fubftances it includes ;
for, fays he, it is conftantly noticed, that when thefe fub-
ftances are once within the urethra, if they be not expelled
by the current of urine, they always advance towards the

bladder.

URINE,

bladder. This circumftance cannot be accounted for by
their weight, and it mull be atciibcd to a contractile power
of the urethra.

T!ie bougies formerly made, and particularly metallic
ones, and catheters made of fpiral wire fprings, frequently
broke, and thus pieces of thefe inilrumeuts were often left
in the bhidder. Such an accident, however, is much lefs
common now, that the fabrication of all forts of bougies
and catheters has been brought to a high Hate of per-
feftion.

Tlie infinuation of thefe foreign bodies into the bladder is
a ferious occurrence both for the patient and furgeon. The
former cannot avoid the confequence, which will fooner or
later originate from the extraneous fubllance, except by
fubmitting to a dangerous and painful ope/ation : the latter
will be accufed of being the author of all the evil, and will
find it difficult to exculpate himlelf. In order to do away
the neceffity of cutting into the bladder, in fuch cafes,
Default propofed the ufe of fmall fpring forceps, pafled
into the bladder through a cannula ; but although the in-
ilrument feemed to anfwer on the dead fubjeA, there
have hitherto been no inftances of its doing fo on living
patients.

We next proceed to notice the retentions of urine arifing
from afteftions of the urethra.

13. Reteri/ion of Urine from Iiiflammation oj the Urethra. —
It is cafy, fays Default, to conceive how inflammation of
the urethra may occafion a retention of urine. In order to
underlland the mechanifm of the cafe, we need only re-
member tlie axiom in chiri.rgical pathology, tliat inflam-
mation never exifts without a fwelling of the inflamed part,
and that every tumefaflion of tlie lining of the urethra muft
neceffarily diminifh its diameter. Inflammation of the
urethra is moll commonly produced by the external appli-
cation, or internal exhibition, of cantharides, gonorrluea, the
unfliilful ufe of the catheter, the employment of flimulating
injeftions, bougies, &c., together with the lefTening of the
canal by the eff'eA of fwelling ; there can alfo be no doubt,
that, in many of thefe inilances, a fpafmodic contradlion of
the urethra and neck of the bladder alfo contributes to the
retention of urine. Default, indeed, entertained the opinion
that inflamed parts, endued v\ith a contrattile power, were
not difpofed to contraft in that ilate ; yet, it fliould be re-
coUefted, that even admitting this to be true, it feldom
happens that the whole length of the urethra is inflamed,
and that the rell may be afFefted with a fpafmodic aclion.
The eflFefts of opium, tobacco, and other antifpafmodics,
often evinced in immediately relieving thefe kinds of reten-
tion of urine, feem indeed to leave no doubt refpefting the
cxiftence of a fort of fpafm in the pafl^age. Whatever may be
the caufe of the inflammation of the urethra, the diagnolis is
free from all obfcurity. Befides the general fymptoms of
inflammation, the patient complains of a fcalding fenfation
in the paflage ; he experiences a great deal of fmarting,
which is fometimes infupportable when he makes water ;
the penis becomes in fome degree fwollen, and more ten-
der ; and a very little prefTure on the urethra gives acute
pain. In the mean time, the llream of urine becomes gra-
tlually but yet quickly lefli-'ued ; and at lengtli this fluid can
only be voided in a very narrow current, or only by drops,
and often not at all.

The difordcr is to be treated on antiphlogiflic principles.
Diluting, cooling, mucilaginous beverages, venefedion,
leeches to the perinruni, the warm-bath, opium, fonu-nt-
ationb to this part and the penis, are the means wliicii
ufually fufHce to give relief. Winn inflanunation exills in
the urethra, it is always delirable to avoid, as long as pof-

fible, the employment of catheters, which create irritation,
and of courfe increafe the caufe of tlie retention. It is par-
ticularly in cafes of this defcription, and in the retentions of
urine arifing from ilridures, that Mr. Earle has fuggefted
the ufe of tobacco in the form of clyfters ; a method dc-
ferving adoption when the means above enumerated are una-
vailing, and preferable to the ufe of the catheter, becaufe
not occafioning any increafe of irritation and inflammation
in the urethra. See Medical and Chir. Tranf. vol. vi.
p. 82, &c.

To this propofal we fliall advert again, in confidering the
retention originating from ftriclures. When, in confe-
quence of inflammation, however, an abfcefs forms in the
vicinity of the urethra, and burlls into this canal, the ufe of
an elailic gum catheter is proper, in order to prevent tlie
urine from infmuating itfelf into the cavity wliich contains
the pus.

14. Retention of Urine from Laceration of the Urethra. —
The urethra is fometimes ruptured by violent contufions on
the perineum, and the rough and unfliilful ufe of metallic
catheters. The confequences ufually are, an extravafation
of urine in the cellular membrane of tlie fcrotum and penis ;
a cop.fiderable dark -coloured fwelling of thefe parts, often
followed by floughing ; and retention of urine. RefpeCting
fuch cafes, we fliall merely obferve, that the treatment
ought to confill in introducing an elailic gum catheter into
the bladder, and keeping it there until the breach of con-
tinuity in the canal is repaired. At the fame time, the evils
threatened from the efFufion of the urine are to be lefTened
as much as pofhble, by making two or three free incifions
in a depending part of the fwelling produced by the extra-
vafation. The tumour fliould ali^o be well fomented, and
antiphlogiftic means adopted.

15. Retention of Urine arijmg from Tumours Jttuated in iht
Perineum, In the Scrotum, or on the Penis. — No confiderable
tumour can form in any of thefe fituations, without making
more or lefs prefl"ure on the canal of the urethra. Whether
fuch fwelling proceed from a fimple tumcfaftion of the
parts, or from a colleftion of any fluid in a cavity, or from the
lodgment of an extraneous body, the effeft will be tlie fame.
A retention of urine has been obferved to arife from phleg-
monous fwellings and abfceflls, extravafations of blood,
and urinary tumours and calculi formed in the perineum and
fcrotum. The diforder has alfo been known to be caufed
by a farcoccle, hydrocele, a very large fcrotal hernia, an
aneurifm of the corpus cavernofum, a ligature on the
penis, &c.

We (hall not repeat what has been already faid refpefting
the fymptoms of a retention of urine originating from alTec-
tions of the reAuin. The impediment to the evacuation
will be known to depend upon one of the caufcs above
fpecified, if the patient could make water quite freely before
fuch caufe exifted, and no other reafori can be alllgned for
theobllacle. Of courfe, the radical cure of all fuch reten-
tions of urine can oiily be accoinpliflied by curing the other
difeafe, on which they are dependent. However, until the
caufe can be obviated, the urine mull be drawn oil with a
catheter. Elailic gum catheters ufuallv enter more eafily
tli.in thofe made of filver, as, by their flexibility, they ac-
commodate ihemfelves better to any deviation of the urethra
from its ordinary dirertion. Default particularly recom-
mended a catheter of luidilling fize to be leleCled, and in.
troduccd armed with its llilet, until it Hopped in the canal ;
when he advifed withdrawing the llilel for about an inch, in
order to leave the beak of the inllniment qi'ite free, fo that
it might follow the curve of the urethra. Then the tube and
the ililet are to be puflted further into the canal ; care being

taken,

URINE.

taken, however, to keep the ftilet drawn back fome diftance
from the extremity of the inftrument. By thefe precau-
tions, fays Default, the catheter may always be got into the
bladder. Should the introduAion prove neither painful nor
difficult. Default thought it would be better not to annoy
the patient by making him continually wear the inftrument,
unlefs its prefence in the urethra were eftentially neceffary to
deftroy the caufe of the retention of urine, as it would be
in the inftance of urinary fwellings.

1 6. Ri-tent'wn of Urine from D'lfeafe of the ProflaU

Gland. As Default remarks, it would be fuperfluous to

endeavour to prove by examples the reahty of this fpecies of
retention of urine. If the faft were not eftablifhed by a
multitude of obfervations, we (hould be convinced, by advert-
ing to the relation of the proftate gland with the commence-
ment of the urethra, and underftanding how this canal is
only compofed of a dehcate membrane, that the gland coidd
not be affefted with fwelling, without leffening in fome de-
gree the tube which it embraces.

An enlargement of the proftate gland may depend on in-
flammation, abfcefles, calculi formed within its fubftance,
a varicofe fwelling of the veffels which furround it, or on a
fcirrlious tumour and induration of it.

When a retention of urine arifes from inflammation of the
proftate, it makes its attack very fuddenly, and rapidly
increafes. The patient at firft complains of a fenfe of heat
and weight about the perineum, and very foon afterwards
of a continual throbbing pain about the neck of the bladder.
This pain is feverely increafed, when the patient goes to
ftool ; and he is afflifted with tenefmus, and frequent in-
clination to make water. He feels alfo as if a large mafs
of excrement filled the extremity of the reftum, and were
ready to come out. When the finger is introduced into
the bowel, the projeftion of the proftate can be felt at
its anterior part. J. L. Petit adds another fign of a fwell-
ino- of this gland : " Si I'on eft curieux de voir les nialades
alter a la felle, lorfqu'ils rendent des excremens durs, on
trouvera que la partie interieure du boudin forme par les
matieres fecales, fera creufee, comme ayant pafle fur !a
faillie, que forme la proftate dans la partie antcrieure du
reftum." Bichat conceives, however, that fuch an appear-
ance may be obliterated in the paftage of the excrement
through the fphinfter ani. When the patient attempts to
make water, it is a long while before the firft drops come
out ; and if he fhould now increafe the efforts, he makes an
additional impediment, by puftiing the fvvoUen proftate more
and more againft the neck of the bladder, the aperture of
which becomes ftopped up, and no water can be voided,
until the efforts are leffened. The ftream of urine is fmaller,
and the pain arifing from its expulfion more acute, in pro-
portion as the inflammation of the proftate is more confider-
able. We may alfo add, as a particular fymptom of this
fort of retention of urine, that if an attempt be made to in-
troduce a catheter, it paffes without the leaft refiftance as
far as the proftate, where it ftops, and caufes great pain.
The pulfe is hard and frequent ; there is much thirft ; and
all the ufual fymptoms of fever prevail.

This kind of retention of urine, as well as all thofe which
originate from an enlargement of the proftate gland, or
other obftruftions in the canal, are, according to Default,
generally more dangerous than other cafes, which merely
depend upon the weaknefs of the bladder, and in which
there is very little riflt of this vifcus giving way.

When the ui-ethra is free from obftruftion, the urine,
after diftending the bladder to a certain degree, generally
oozes through that canal ; and the patient may live in this
condition for years, without any alarming confequences.

But the cafe is different, when the retention of urine de-
pends upon any ftoppage or ilrifture in the urethra. The
urine does not then partially efcape ; this fluid ftagnates in
the bladder ; the diftention increafes ; and if fpeedy relief
be not afforded, that vifcus inflames and floughs, and a
perilous effufion of its contents enfues.

In the retention arifing from inflammation of the proftate,
the indication is obvious : it is to ufe every poflible means
of refolving the inflammation. Venefedlion, leeches to the
vicinity of the anus, the warm bath, emollient clyfters, and
poultices, are the remedies which ieem moft eligible. Thefe
muft be affifted with a regimen ftriftly antiphlogiftic.

It muft be confeffed, however, that the efficacy of thefe
means is often too flow, and the fymptoms too urgent, to
allow us to wait for the urine to flow of itfelf. Frequently,
alfo, the tone of the bladder is fo much weakened by the
diitention, that this organ cannot expel its contents. The
catheter muft then be employed ; but the conlraftion of
that part of the urethra which runs through the proftate,
fometimes renders the introduction of this inftrument diffi-
cult, and always very painful.

According to Default, a large catheter generally anfwers
better than a fmall one, and it may either be of filver or
elaftic gum. The latter, though the beft for the purpofe
of being kept in the paffage, has not always fufficient firm-
nefs to get through the obftruftion in the canal, not even
with the aid of the ftilet. In this refpeft, a filver catheter is
fometimes preferable. But whatever may be the kind of
catheter employed, it generally paffes as far as the proftate
with perfe£l facility, where it is ftopped, not only by the
narrownefs, but alfo by the new curvature, of the paffage :
for the proftate cannot be enlarged, without puftiing for-
wards and upwards, or to one fide, that portion of the
urethra behind which it is fituated. This circumftance
ought never to be forgotten, in regulating the length and
dirtftion of the beak of the catheter, which Ihould alfo be
longer, have a more confidcrable curvature, and be more
elevated, at the time of its introduftion, than in other cafes
of obftruftion in the urethra.

In fwellings of the proftate gland, Mr. Hey has parti-
cularly pointed out one advantage which belongs to elaftic
catheters, viz.. that their curvature may be increafed while
they are in the urethra. This gentleman was introducing
an elaftic gum catheter in a patient, whofe proftate gland was
much enlarged, and finding fome obllruttion near the neck
of the bladder, he withdrew the ftilet ; in doing which, he
accidentally repreffed the tube, which then went into the
bladder. In faft, he found that the adl of withdrawing the
ftilet increafes the curvature, and hfts up the point of the
catheter. Praft. Obf. in Surgery, p. 399. edit. 2.

After being tolerably certain, fays Delault, that the end
of the catheter correfponds exactly to the direction of the
urethra, and that the obftacle to its entrance into the bladder
only depends upon the narrownefs of the paffage, we may,
without being too fearful of making a falfe paffage, forcibly
pufh forward the catheter. This inftrument will certainly
rather dilate a canal, that already exifts, than form a new
paffage for itfelf. Default confcffes, however, that this
plan would be attended with great danger in the hands of
young inexperienced furgeons ; and he adds, that it is only
fit to be praftifed by thofe, who, combining great ex-
perience in the ufe of the catheter with an accurate know-
ledge of the different curvatures of the urethra, have at
length attained that degree of ftill, winch never lets them
lofe fight of the fituation and direction of the beak of the
catheter. For, fays he, if, wiiile tiie inftrument is forced
forward, the beak fhould be inclined too low, or to one

fide.

URINE.

fide, &c. a falfe pafTage wOuld inevitably be occafioned by
a laceration t>f the membranous portion of the urethra ; an
accident which is always of a ferious nature, increafing the
inflammation of the proftate, and rendering the introduc-
tion of the catheter more difficult. This bold praftice,
fnggeftcd by Default, is frequently purfued by Boyer and
Ronx, and fometimes in this country by Mr. A. Cooper,
Mr. Pearfon, &c. (See Crofs's Medical Sketches of
Paris. ) We have indeed heard, that Mr. Thomas Blizard,
and fome other furgeons in London, always force their way
through the proftate gland with a conical filver catheter, in
preference to punfturing the bladder, when no inllrument can
be introduced through the urethra in a gentle manner. The
urine afterwards paffes through this fort of falfe paffage,
feemingly as well as through the natural one.

We have not, however, brought our own minds to think
that much good is ever likely to refult from tliis exertion of
violence in the urethra : therefore, when the cafe is urgent,
and no catheter can be introduced through the natural
canal, we (hould prefer punfturing the bladder, which, in
thefe cafes, ihould always be done above the pubes. See
Paracentesis nf the Bladder.

Notwithftanding the many examples of the fuccefs that
has attended this operation, the proceeding, as Default ob-
ferves, has its dangers ; and, coafequently, it flionld never
be reforted to, before repeated unavading attempts have
been made to get a catheter into the bladder ; nor before a
trial has been made, whether a bougie left in the paffage a few
hours will not bring on an evacuation of the urine ; an event
which has often happened, even though the inftrument did
not pafs beyond the obftruftion.- Punfturing the bladder,
in fuch cafes, fhould alfo never be determined upon, without
a previous confultation with another praftitioner, efpecially
if one be at hand, who has had greater experience in the ufe
of the catheter.

When a catheter has been introduced, ought it to be left
in the bladder, or witiidrawn, after the difcharge of the
urine ? Its prefence no doubt will increafe the irritation
about the neck of the bladder ; but, on tlie other hand, if
it be taken out, the furgeon may not be able to introduce it
again. No general precept, fays Default, can be laid
down on this point. The courfe which the praftitioncr will
purfue muft depend upon the difficulty he has experienced
in getting the inftrument into the bladder, and upon the
confidence which he may have in his own (kill, and which is
deduced from conilant fuccefs in analogous inftaiices.

According to Default, when an abfccfs follows inflam-
mation of the proftate, the body of the gland itfelf does not
fuppurate, but only the fnrroundiiig parts, and the cellular
fubftance, whicli connefts its lobes together. This, at leaft,
was what was obfervcd in examining feveral dead fubjedls,
who were publicly opened in the amphitheatre of the
Hotel-Dicu. When the fymptoms of inflammation have
lafted a week, and all this lime have continued to increafe ;
when, after this period, they have abated a little, and then
become violent again ; and when the febrile fymptoms get
worfe in the evening, and have been preceded by fltiverings ;
there is realon to fufpcft the formation of matter. It can-
not be known whether the pus is coUefted in one particular
place, or diftufed. When the matter is external to the
gland, the cafe is lefs ferious than when it occupies the
cellular fubftance connefting the lobes. According to De-
fault, the latter form of the difeafe fcldom gets well. There
are no peculiar fymptoms which denote it ; the matter does
not readily make its way outward ; and the ftate of things
is not clear enough to admit of an incilion being made. Be-
tides, Default doubted whether an incifiou could be of

Vol. XXXV II.

much ufe, fince it would probably only let out the matter
in its vicinity.

Things are different when the pus is coUefted in one place,
and is more fuperficial. If fituated between the gland and
neck of the bladder, it will often fpontaneoufiy burft into
this vifeus, or it may be let out with the pomt of the cathe-
ter. It will then either be difcharged through the inftru-
ment, or come away with the urine. Should the abfcefs lie
near the rectum and perineum, and admit of being diftinftly
felt, a free opening would expedite the cure.

In all thefe cafes, the ufe of the catheter is requifite, in
order to let out the urine ; and as the inftrument muft be left
in the paflage fome time, one made of elaftic gum is to be
preferred.

When the abfcefs burfts of itfelf, either into the urethra
or bladder, the catheter muft be kept in as long as pus con-
tinues to be difcharged with the urine. In the latter cafe,
however, Default chiefly ufed the inftrument for the pur-
pofe of throwing mucilaginous injeftions into the bladder,
which many furgeons would not confider necefTary.

Morgagni has taken notice of the retentions of urine
arifing from the prefence of calculi in the proftate gland.
The nature of thefe concretions we have already defcribed
in a preceding article. See Urinary Calculi.

CalcuH alio fometimes form after lithotomy, when the
outer part of the wound heals fooner than the bottom. A
kind of urinary fiftula tlien forms ; and as the extraneous
fubftance is conftantly expofed to the contatt of frefti urine,
it may increafe to a very large fize. The diagnofis of prof-
tatic calculi is feldom very clear. A retention of urine, and
an impediment to the emiffion of the femen, are only fymp-
toms which are common to feveral other afFeftions of the
proftate gland and urethra. When the finger is introduced
into the reftum, the gland may indeed be felt to be enlarged,
but the nature and caufe of fuch enlargement cannot in gene-
ral be diftinguiflied. In one inftance, however, lately re-
corded by Dr. Marcet, the calculi could be plainly felt
through the coats of the redlum, and a propofal was made
to extrad them by an incifion in that fituation ; but the
patient did not accede to fo judicious a meafure. ( Med. and
Chem. Ilift. of Calculous Difordere, Lond. 1817.) When
a calculus projefts from the proftate into the urethra, the
end of a found will ftiike againft it ; but then it can rarely
be known whether the extraneous fubftance may not be a
calculus that has pafted out of the bladder into the urethra,
or lies clofe to the neck of this vifeus.

Whether the cafe be of one defcription or the other, how-
ever, the treatment flionld be the fame ; i)/z. the calculus
fliould be extracted by an incifion, refembling that praAifed
in the lateral operation.

Another fpecies of retention of urine is that produced by
a confiderable varicofc aff'eftiou of the veft'els fiuroundinj*
the proftate gland, which part is alfo generally fomewhat
enlarged. In this cafe, the water ftiould be drawn off with
an elaftic gum catheter, which fliould be kept in the lu-ethra ;
and a large inftrument is to be preferred to a fmaller one.
For an account of the fymptoms of this cafe, we muft refer
to Default's Oiuvres Chir. t. 3. p. 234. The portion of the
urethra wliicii pafles tiirougii the proftate, is afterwards to
be gradually dilated with bougies or elallic catlielcrs, which
are to be worn a long while, and cleaned and changed at
proper intervals.

A fcirrhous induration and enlargement of the proftate
gland form another very common difeafe in old fubjetls. The
fi/.c and hardnefs of the gland are faid to vary conliderably,
according to the duration of the complaint. It has often
been found as hard as a cartilage ; more commonly its ftruc-
3 Z tnrc

URINE.

ture prefents an appearance as if filled with a firm tough
lymph. Sometimes the part is two or three times as large
as natural, and J. L. Petit once faw it as large as the fid.
In feme inftances, only a part of it is fcirrhous ; in others,
the whole of it is thus affefted. The hardened gland can be
felt in the reftum, and the examination does not give much
pain.

A retention of urine is an ordinary fymptom of a fcirrhua
of the proftate ; the catheter is alfo here neceffary, and the
introdudtion of it is often attended with greater difficulty
than in otlier afFeftions of this gland. As the induration of
the part does not allow it to yield, fmall catheters are better
than thofe of large fize. It alfo frequently happens, that
confiderable force muft be iifed ; and as this cannot^be done
with elaftic catheters, a filver catheter, of the fize ufed for
children, was recommended by Default. The moderns fome-
times employ a conical filver catheter, as we have already
noticed. Sometimes, however, no inflrument can be intro-
duced unlefs it be rotated, in doing which it is effential to
recoUeft that the urethra in thefe cafes makes a very fudden
turn upward before it terminates in the bladder.

After the filver catheter has been worn three or four days,
the canal is ufually freer, fo that one made of elaftic gum
will now admit of being palled. This lafl. mull in general
be continually employed for four or five weeks, and in the
mean while attempts ihould be made to check the difeafe in
the proftate by the exhibition of mercurials, conium, &c.
Suppofitories of hemlock have alfo been particularly recom-
mended. Some of Mr. Hunter's remarks on this complaint
will be found in the article Prostate GlatuI, Difeafe of.

17. Retention of Urine brought on by Stridures This is

another cafe, which we deem neceffar-y to notice in this work.
The common nature, moft frequent fituation, and different
methods of treating ftriftures in the urethra, have been al-
ready explained. (See Urethra, 5'/r/i?arfj q/". ) Perfons
who have been long fubjeft to ftriftures in the urethra, but
who are ftill able to void their urine in a fmall ftream, are
liable, from accidental caufes, to have a complete retention,
and are incapable of expelling the contents of the bladder.
This arifes in fome cafes from the diameter of the urethra
being ftill further diminifhed by attacks of inflammation, but
more frequently from the fpafmodic ftate of the urethra and
mufcles of the perineum. The fame effeft may be produced
by fuch patients retaining their urine too long after the firft
defire to void it is experienced. It happens not unfrequently,
that the permanent ftrifture may be of fuch a nature, as not
to admit of the introduftion of any inftrument into the
bladder, even under the moft favourable circumftances. A
fpafmodic ftate of the urethra, as Mr. Earle has further ob-
ferved, would not facilitate fuch attempts. Other cafes
again occur, in which perhaps an inftrument can be pafFed,
when the urethra is in a more tranquil ftate, but where it
would be highly injudicious, and often imprafticable to in-
troduce fuch inftrunients under circumftances of irritation,
by which attempts the fpafm would be increafed, and the
patient rendered liable to returns of retention, even were
we to fucceed in the firft inftance.

In all fuch cafes, it is, as Mr. Earle remark?, highly de-
firable to overcome the retention by other means than the in-
troduftion of inftruments. For this purpofe purgatives,
general and local bleeding, warm-baths, the tinftura opii,
and tinftura fern muriatis, are commonly reforted to. With
refpeft to purgatives, their aftion neceffarily requires more
time than, from the urgency of the fymptoms, is frequently
admiffible. The other remedies arc highly ufeful, and will
frequently fulfil every indication. Sometimes, however,
they are unavailing, and we are compelled to refort to ope-

rations for relieving the diftended bladder. Mr. Earle then
proceeds to recommend the ufe of tobacco in the form of an
enema, either of fmoke or the decoftion, which he found, in
fome cafes which are detailed, a powerful and expeditious
means of relieving the retention of urine, when other more
common remedies had failed. See Medico-Chir. Tranf.
vol. vi. p. 84, &c.

18. Retention of Urine produced by foreign Bodies in the
Urethra. — Moft of the foreign bodies, occalionally met with
in the bladder, may caufe a retention of urine, when they
are lodged and ftopped in the urethra. Thus, calculi,
bougies, &c. fixed in this canal, may become obftacles to
the tranfmilFion of the urine through it. The means which
have been recommended for promoting the removal of fuch
extraneous fubftances are numerous. Some advife oily in-
jeftions to be thrown into the urethra, in order to make its
iurface 'more flippery, while others think it better to dilate
the canal as much as poftible with catgut bougies. The
ancients propdfed the trial of fuftion. But, fays Default,
thefe and other fimilar means are ineffeftual, when the foreign
body is clofely embraced by the urethra. In this cafe, he
obferves, if the extraneous fubftance cannot be puftied for-
ward with the fingers applied externally, an endeavour may
be made to extraft it with the forceps, invented for the pur-
pofe by Mr. Hunter, and which are contained in a cannula.
When, however, the foreign body is too large to be got
out in this manner, it muft be extrafted by an incifion. The
wound of the operation will afterwards be found to heal up
very well, if care be taken to keep an elaftic catheter in the
urethra, in order to prevent the urine from coming into con-
taft with the cut part. There has lately been publiftied a
cafe of calculus in the urethra, attended with dyfury, where
almoft inftantaneous relief was obtained from the exhibition
of an enema of tobacco. The patient foon felt a ftrong de-
fire to void his urine, and " upon making the attempt, a
large calculus came rolling along the urethra, with complete
rehef of all his complaints." See Edinb. Med. and Surg.
Journal, vol. xii. p. 373.

Urine, SvppreJJion of, in Animals, a difeafe arifing from
the want of making water in c»nfequence of fome afteftion
of the pai'ts concerned in pafling it. The complaint is
caufed, according to lome, either by inflammation obftruft-
ing the funftions of the kidneys, or by the ureters being
obitrufted by ftones, fmall gravel, or other fuch foreign
matters, or when affefted with any numbnefs, or other de-
feft, that may difable them in their office of feparating the
urine from the blood. In this laft cafe, the bladder is, for
the moft part, empty, fo that the animals make no motions
to pafs urine, but ftand in the ftraddling manner, as in other
diforders of the urinary paftages, when the bladder is full or
the urethra inflamed ; this is particularly the cafe in the horfe
kind of animals ; and if they continue a few days in this
condition, without the fecretion of urine, their bodies are
liable to fwell to a very great degree, and they, in this fort
of animals, often break out univerfally in blotches and die,
unlefs fpeedy relief be afforded. Where the difeafe is caufed
by ftrangury, it is commonly attended with a partial, if not
a complete fuppreflion of urine, but in general without much
appearance of fever, though there arc figns of uneafinefs
and irritation with lofs of appetite. The diforder may be
produced from different other caufes, as from whatever has
a tendency to affedl the parts about the neck of the bladder,
fuch as certain articles of food, blows, a fpafmodic ftate of
the mufcles inducing contraftion in them, and fome others.

In the cure of the difeafe, it will firft moftly be neceffary,
in cafes where there is a tendency to indammation, to take
away a few pints of blood in proportioii to the ftate of the

affeftion

URINE.

affeftioii and the fi/.e of the animal. Where horfes are fub-
jeA to an obilniClion in the paffagcs of the urine from cal-
culi, but which is rarely the cafe, the proper method of cure
is, according to fome, to begin with ftrong diuretic remedies,
in conneftion with ftimulating clyfters ; and if there fhould
be any fufpicion of inflammation either in the kidneys or
ureters, it may be proper to bleed in a plentiful manner, to
the amount in fome cafes of three or four pints. And balls
compofed of the following ingredients are likewife advifcd
to be given and repeated two or three times the firft day,
and as often the next, as in fuch cafes no time is to be loft ;
far, if the horfc or other animal does not ftale or pafs urine
in the courfe of thirty hours, the cafe is moftly defperate :
Juniper-berries in fine powder, an ounce ; focotrine aloes
and nitre in powder, each fix drachms ; oil of turpentine,
three drachms, and of amber and juniper, each two drachms ;
liquorice powder and treacle, fufficient quantities to form a
mafs of fuitable confiftence for being divided into two balls,
to be given at one time as above.

At the fame time a clyfter prepared in the following man-
ner may be thrown up with great benefit : Barbadoes aloes,
two ounces ; the fame quantity of turpentine, beaten up
with the yolks of eggs ; half an ounce of powdered jalap ;
four ounces of nitre, and juniper and bay berries bruifed,
each a fmall handful ; infufed in two quarts of a decoftion
of marlhmaliows, to which is then added a pint of linfeed
oil.

Where thefe remedies fail in removing the complaint, the
horfe or other animal's loins are advifed to be rubbed with a
mixture of oil of turpentine and of amber, and to lay a ca-
taplafm over the fmall of the back and kidneys, formed of
pounded garlick, muftard-feed, camphor, and foap. This,
it is thought, may prove beneficial as a ftimulant to the kid-
neys, in cafe they happen to be deficient in nervous in-
fluence ; and that, in cafe of inflammation, the fame remedy
may aft as a bliiter without the danger of producing a ftran-
gury, and in that way too be of fervice. It fhould be
fpread on a coarfe flannel cloth doubled, bound on with a
broad woollen roller, and renewed once in two days, until
the horfe or other animal comes to ftale or pafs urine freely:
calomel too in the quantity of a drachm and a half or twa
drachms, made up into a ball, and repeated every two days,
once or twice, may be of ufe in cafes where the kidneys are
not inflamed ; after which the horfe or other animal may be
purged gently where it is neceflary.

In cafes where the fuppreffion of urine is caufed by or at-
tended with ftrangury, after bleeding and opening the bowels
when neccfTary, a ball, compofed in the manner dircftcd be-
low, and given in a pint of the decoftion, once or twice in
the day, as there may be occafion, will often be found very
beneficial : pure opium in powder, half a drachm ; camphor
rubbed into a powder, three drachms ; nitre in powder, half
an ounce ; common foap, fix drachms ; balfam capivi fuf-
ficient to make them into a ball.

In preparing the decoftion, four ounces of linfeed and
the fame quantity of mallow root bruifed, with three ounces
and a half of gvim arabic, fliould in the whole be boiled for
a few minutes in three pints of water, and the liquor then
ftrained oS for ufe as above.

Wet cloths frequently fqueczcd out of a warm decoftion
of chamomile, and other fimilar herbs and flowers, may often
be applied with great benefit to the parts between the legs,
near to the neck of the bladder.

The animals ftiould have maflice of bran, malt, and other
fuch matters, occafionally given to them, with warm water or
oatmeal gruel for drink.

By thefe means, afFeftions of this fort may commonly bp
fpeedily removed without any great difficulty.

Ultr.vK, Chemical Properties of. Perhaps no animal pro-
duft has more attrafted the attention of chemifts than the
urine, not only on account of its fuppofed conneftion with
difeafcs, but alio on account of its compound nature, and
Angular chemical properties. The older chemifts, Brandt,
Kunckel, Boyle, &c. were led to examine its nature chiefly
on account of the phofphorus which they extrafted from it.
Since their time others have examined it with different and
various views, among whom may be mentioned Boerhaave,
Haller, MargrafF, Pott, Rouelle jun., Cruickflianks, Four-
croy and Vauquelin, Prouft, Klaproth, and more lately
Berzelius, who has given by far the beft and moft rational
account of this fluid which has yet been publiflied.

Frefh human urine differs confiderably in its appearance,
according to the ftate of a perfon's health, his food, or the
period at which it has been voided. In general, the urine of
a perfon in health, voided in the morning, is a tranfparent
liquid of a light amber colour, an aromatic odour, refem-
bling that of violets, and a difagreeable tafte. When it
cools, the aromatic fmell leaves it, and is fucceeded by an-
other, well known by the name of urinous. In two or three
days this is fucceeded by another, which has been compared
to that of four milk. This alfo gradually difappears, and i«
finally fucceeded by a fetid alkaline odour.

Frefli urine, juft voided, reddens turnfole paper, and there-
fore contains a free acid. The fpecific gravity of urine,
according to Mr. Cruickfhanks, varies from I.OOJ to 1.033.
According to the recent experiments of Dr. Scudamore, the
fpecific gravity of healthy urine lies between 1. 010 and
1. 015. The fpecific gravity of morbid urine, according to
the fame author, is frequently as high as 1.030, and occa-
fionally as high as 1.040.

We fliall give the refults of Berzelius's analyfis of this
fluid, and afterwards make fome remarks upon the more im-
portant ingredients contained in it. According to this accu-
rate chemift, 1 000 parts of urine are compofed of

Water

Urea - -

Sul])hateof potafli . . - - -

Sulphate of foda ------

Phofphate of fuda . - . - -

Muriate of foda -.--..
Phofphate of ammonia - . - . .

Muriate of ammonia - - . . -
Free laftic acid -.--.. "j
Laftate of ammonia . - . - .
Animal matter foluble in alcohol, and ufually ac

companying the laftates - . . .
Animal matter infoluble in alcohol -
Urea, not feparable from the preceding - - J

Earthy phofphatcs, with a trace of fluate of lime
Uric acid -------

Mucus of the bladder

Silex ........

933.00
30.10

3-7 «
3.16
2.94

4-45
1.65

50

'7-'4

J. 00
1. 00

0.32
0.03

1000.00

Of this analyfis, Berzelius remarks, that " the relative pro-
portions of the ingredients probably vary independently of
difeafe. I believe, however, tliat in urine they are never
very different, unlefs from pathological caufe«, whicli ma-
terially affcft the health."

Of thefe numerous ingredients we (hall briefly fpeak of
3 Z 2 the

URINE.

the acids only of the urine, having treated at length of urea
in its proper place.

The acids of the urine may be conlidered as of two kinds,
thofe peculiar to it, and gener .ted in the aA of fecretion ;
and thofe common to it and the blood, and which of courfe
pre-exilled in that fluid. In the firft clafs are comprifed the
fulphuric acid, the uric acid, and occafionally the benzoic
and carbonic acids ; in the fecond, the phofphoric and lattic
acids, which appear to be more abundant in the urine than
the blood, and confequently may be fuppofed to be formed in
part in the kidneys alfo ; in the third, the muriatic and fluoric
acids which appear to pafs from the blood to the urine without
any increafe from the kidney. As by the laws of chemical
affinity thefe acids will unite with any alkaUne bafe that may
be prefent, and faturate themfelves with it in the order of the
force of their refpedtive affinities, it mud follow, as juftly
obferved by Berzelius, that when the quantity of alkali is
infufficicnt to faturate all the acids prefent, the weakeft acids
muft be thofe that will remain uncombined, and will confe-
quently impart to the urine their peculiarly acid charafters.
Tiiefe therefore muft necefTarily be the laftic and the uric
acids.

The fuljfhuric acid does not exift in the blood, but it is
found in confiderable quantity in the urine. Rouelle fenior
long ago pointed out this faft, but it feems to have been re-
garded by fubfequcnt chemifts rather as an accidental than as
a conftant occurrence. Berzelius, however, has flievvn the
contrary, and Hates that he has good reafon for believing that
this acid is an eflential conftituent of the urine. The fame
excellent chemift alfo has fliewn that the whole of the fulphur
contained in the blood is not acidified in the kidneys, but
that a portion of it ftill remains in an unaltered though com-
bined ifate in the urine.

The leading properties of the uric acid have been difcuflfed
under its proper head ; we fliall therefore confine ourfelves
here to a few circumftances connefted with its formation and
reparation from the urine. The red cryftalline depofit, or gra-
▼tl, which occurs in urine that has been kept for a few days,
confifts chiefly of uric acid united with the colouring matter
of the urine, or, according to Berzelius, with ammonia. What
is termed alfo the pink, or lateritious fediment , a fubftance fre-
quently formed ui derangements of the digeftive organs, and
efpecially in gout, and which was formerly confidered a dif-
tinft principle by Prouft, who named it the rofacic acid, has
been lately fhewn to confift chiefly of uric acid, combined
with colouring matter and foda.

The benzoic acid, according to Scheele, is fometimes found
in the urine of infants. Berzelius, however, has never been
able to deteft it, and feems to doubt if it ever exifts in healdiy
human urine.

With refpeft to the carlotuc acid, Berzelius feems to doubt
if it ever exifts in healthy unne, and fuppofes its occafional
prefence to arife from the decompofition of urea. Dr. Mar-
cet ftates that he has fometimes found traces of carbonic
acid in the urine, and fometimes not ; and concludes, " that
the evolution of this gas from the urine, whether arifing
from the prefence of uncombined carbonic acid, or from
fome decompofition of the animal matter contained in that
fluid, depends upon certain ftates of the body at the moment
the urine is fecreted, rather than upon the introduftion of the
gafeous acid through the digeftive organs."

The phofphoric acid, for the reafons before mentioned, can
hardly be ever fuppofed to exift in urine in the free ftate.
Its faJts, however, form very important ingredients of that
fluid. What is ieirasA tvhite gravel, or /and, ufually con-
fifts of the phofphate of magnefia and ammonia, and of the

I

phofphate of li.me, and are perhaps chiefly formed in thtf
kidney.

To the laliic acid, and the peculiar animal matters which
accompany it, Berzelius afcribes chiefly the acid properties,
as well as the peculiar colour and fmell of the urine.

The mnriatic acid, and its compounds, the muriates of
foda and ammonia, exift in the urine, (more efpecially the
muriate of foda, ) in confiderable quantity. The muriate of
foda is probably never a product of fecretion, but derived
from the blood. The origin of the muriate of ammonia is
more obfcure.

The prefence of a fmall portion of xhejluoric acid m urine
in combination with lime has been demonftrated by Berze-
lius ; but the exiftenceof this principle, as well as oi fdex in
the urine, refts at prefent, we believe, upon his authority
alone.

The urine is not only liable to be much modified by difeafe,
but from the fame caufe occafionally contains fubftances
which never exift in it in a healthy ftate. The principal of
thefe are albumen, faccharine matter, and oxahc acid, all
which, as well as others, probably depend either upon a
fufpenfion or perverfion of the fecreting powers of the
kidney.

Thus the albumen feems to be derived at once from the
blood. The faccharine matter, as ftated under Urea, ap-
pears to be formed by fome unknown procefs from that fub.
ftance, while the oxalic acid is probably derived from the
fame fource.

The above obfervations apply to the human urine ; we
come now to make a few remarks upon the urine of other
animals ; a moft extenfive field of refearch, but which has
not at prefent been much inveftigated.

Urine of the Lion and Tiger The urines of thefe ani-
mals, according to Vauquelin, clofely refemble one another,
and hkewife bear fome analogy to the human urine ; they
differ from it, however, in the following effential points :
they contain no uric acid, nor any combination of that prin-
ciple, as might have been expefted from the food on which
thefe animals live. They contain, however, a great propor-
tion of urea, though very httle muriate of foda. They
have a peculiar fetid fmell, which is derived, in part, pro-
bably from the ammonia developed from the decompofition
of the urea. This fmell is well known to be common to the
urine of all the fehne animals, and may in every inftance be
fuppofed to be owing to a fimilar caufe.

The urines of the horf- and cow do not differ much from
one another, according to the fame chemift. Both become
muddy in coohng ; both are alkaline, and contain a large
proportion of carbonate of lime, benzoic acid, and urea, but
no uric acid. One thoufand parts of the urine of the horfe,
according to Fourcroy andVauquehn, are compofed of

Water and mucus . . -

Urea ------

Carbonate of lime - . .

Benzoate of foda - - - -

Carbonate of foda - . -

Muriate of potafti ...

The urine of the camel has been examined by Rouelle.
Its odour refembles that of the cow. Its colour is that of
beer ; it is not mucilaginous, and does not depofit carbonate
of lime. It is alkaline, and contains the carbonate, fulphate,
and muriate of potafti, and urea. Mr. Brande, who has

fince

URINE.

fince examined this fluid, thought he difcovered in it traces
of uric acid.

The urine of the beaver has been examined by Vauquclin.
It bears a ftron£r refemblance to the urine of herbivorous
animals in general. It contains carbonate of hme, held in
folution by excefs of carbonic acid ; alfo benzoic and acetic
acids, urea, muriate of foda, and fulphate of potafh, but
no uric acid nor phofphates. It contains, liowcver, muriate
of ammonia, and carbonate and acetate of magnefia, accord-
ing to tUe fame chemift, though we think the exiftence of the
laft principle is doubtful. The fpecimen examined by Vau-
quelin alfo afforded diltinft traces of the colouring prin-
ciple of the willow bark, on which this animal feeds.

The urine of the rabbil has been examined by the fame
chemift, who found this, as well as the urine of the guinea
pig, to refemble very clofely the urines of the herbivorous
quadrupeds above defcribed.

The fame indefatigable chemift alfo, affifted by Four-
croy, has examined the urine of domejiic foiuh , in which they
found uric acid, a faft which has been confirmed by fuc-
ceeding chemifts. They alfo found the fame acid in great
abundance in the excremtnts of a South-fea bird, called
guaito.

Laftly, Dr. Prout has given the following analyfis of the
excrements, or urine, of the boa conjirldor. One hundred
parts were found to confift of

Uric acid 90.16

Potalh 3.45

Ammonia ....... i.yo

Sulphate of potafh, with a trace of muriate of foda .95
Phofphate of lime ..... T

Carbonate of lime ..... J. .80

Magnefia J

Animal matter, conCfting of mucus, and a little'
colouring matter .....

2.94

The uric acid, in this inftance, was in combination with
the potafh and ammonia, and was eafily obtained in a per-
feftly pure ftatc by the ufual proceffes.

Hence it appears that the urine of quadrupeds agrees with
the human urine, in containing urea ; but materially differs
from it, in being without phofplioric or uric acid, and in
containing an excefs of carbonic acid : while the urines of
birds and ferpents feem to cont.iin an excefs of uric acid, and
a deficiency of the other ingredients exilting in the human
urine.

Urine, in Agrkullure, the faline fluid fccreted from the
blood of animals by the kidneys, and difcharged by the canal
of the urethra, which is highly ufeful as manure in different
cafes, in promoting vegetation, and incrcafing the fertihty
of land. It is, indeed, in this laft way, of great ufe, in
improving moil forts of foil. Bcfides its value in other in-
tentions too, Cohimella has afferted, that old urine is excel-
lent when applied to the roots of trees. Hartlib alfo has
much commended the Dutch for preferving the urine of
cows as carefully as they do the dung, for enriching their
lands.

This is therefore a fluid which is capable of being cm-
ployed with great fuccefs and benefit both on meadow
and on arable land, and which affords uncommon fertihty
and improvement to both in many cafes. In the former
cafe, the beft time for fprinkling or applying the liquid over
the land, is fnppofed by fome to be during tlie winter
months, when the rains will have the moft power in wafhing

the fertilizing parts of it into the foil ; or, the land may be
fpriiikled over with it, early in the fpring, juft before it is
laid or fhut up for hay ; becaufe no cattle will touch the
grafs fo long as the faline matters adhere to the blades
of it. Another circumftance which is neceffary to be at-
tended to in fuch cafes, in order to make the moil of this
very valuable fluid manure, is, that it be carried out to the
meadow and pafture-grounds that are intended to be dreffed
with it, in a dry time, as the urine and farm-yard Liquor in
the refervoirs is at fuch periods the moft ftrongly impreg-
nated with faline and other matters, as may be known by
the deep brown or biackilh colour that is prefent. All
fuch refervoirs or ponds, as are appropriated for the recep-
tion of it, (hould conitantly be kept, in fome meafure, in a
ftate of readinefs for the purpofe, at fuch feafons ; and the
lands may be fprinkled or moillened as often as occafion
may render it neceffary or proper.

The praftice of moft modern farmers in refpeft to pre-
ferving urine is, it is faid, as oppofite as poffible ; for they
not only fuffer that of their cattle to flow away, but have
generally their dung-heaps fo fituated that they are drenched
and impoverifhed by rain, which conveys their moft valuable
ingredients into the next river. The more heavy and cum-
berfome materials, which the water can neither diffolve nor
fweep away, are frequently, it is faid, alone referved,
to be bellowed, at a great expence, on the defrauded
land.

It is conceived by a writer in the fourth volume of Com.
munications to the Board of Agriculture, that the quantity
of moft valuable manure which may thus be carried away,
is much greater than is perhaps imagined. Lately, the
writer obtained more than half an ounce of a dry fetid
fubftance from one quart of human urine. Suppofing the
urine of cattle, it is faid, to be equally produAive, every
hogfhead of it which flows out of a farm-yard, without
even any impregnation from the dung-heap, carries away
feven and a half pounds of folid matter. This (hould in-
duce farmers in all cafes to walle hquors of this fort as bttle
as poffible, and to convert them as much as can be to the
improvement of land, and earthy fubftances as manure, for
applying upon it.

It is remarked that urine is very liable to change, and to
undergo the putrefadlive procefs ; and that that of car-
nivorous animals does it more rapidly than that of the grami-
nivorous kind. That in proportion as there is more gela-
tine and albumen in urine, fo in proportion does it putrefy
more quickly. That the forts of urine that contain moil
albumen, gelatine, and urea, arc the beft as manures ; and
that all urine contains the effential elements of vegetables in
a Hate of folution. That as during the putrcfaflion of urine,
the greateft part of the foluble animal matter that it contains
is deftroyed, it fliould, of courfe, it is faid, be ufed as frefh
as poffible ; but that if not mixed with folid matter, it
fliould be diluted with water, as when pure it contains too
large a quantity of animal matter to form a proper fluid
nonrifhment for abforption by the roots of plants. The
ancients had, however, a notion of ufing urine ftalc : but of
mixing it with rich earthy matters, which is probably the
beft and moft economical mode of applying it, they had, it
would feem, no idea.

Putrid urine, it is faid, abounds in ammoniacal falls ; and
that though lefs aftive than frcfli urine, is a very powerful
manure.

In fome northern diftrifts very great improtcment is pro-
duced on grafs land by the application of urine and dung-
liquor in the beginning of the autumn, as about November.
The fluid is conveyed and applied to the land by means of

a rum-

U R 1

a rum-puncheon, which is mounted on wheels, being filled
by large pails with long handles. Two perfons, a man and
boy, are employed in the work. One puncheon full is ca-
pable of doing forty-fix rods (of feven yards) forward, and
three yards in breadth. In this way, it is very readily and
conveniently made ufe of, when applied in the liquid ftate.
The writer of the Agricultural Report of the County of
Peebles obferves, that the urine of cattle, until of late too
much neglefted, is now more attended to : it is coUefted by
earth laid down to abforb it, as well as the liquids that run
off from the dungileads, or it is received into a pit furnifhed
with a pump. Some coUeA it in the firil manner, and
apply it to the land by putting it into a puncheon mounted
as above, and furnifhed at the hindermoft end with a pipe,
terminating in a large rofe, fomewhat like that of a watering
pan. It is drawn over the field by one horfe, and the urine
from the rofe befprinkles to the breadth of nine feet, fo that
an eighteen-feet ridge is done in the going and returning of
the carriage. It is obferved, too, that as urine is of a
fcorching quality, it is unfafe to apply it to any growing
crop, in great heat or drought ; fo that, in general, it is un-
advifeable fo to apply it after the month of May. That it
ought not to be applied to any land in winter, from its being
fo eafily wafhed away by rains ; and never on wet lands,
earlier than the month of March ; and then only in dry
weather. That it may be laid on fallow, at any time when
it is dry enough to abforb it readily. That, in dry warm
weather, it is advantageoufly thrown over dunghills, efpe-
cially thofe of the compoft kind.

Notwithllanding thefe remarks on the great ufe of urine,
it is ftated in the feventh volume of the Bath Letters and
Papers, that an attentive and dihgent farmer took the trouble
one year to carry out all the liable liquor alone, but without
obferving any good effefts from it, and that another perfon
was known to him wlio had done the fame thing without
any better iuccels. The time, manner, or fort of land to
which it was applied are not, however, mentioned, which
would probably have explained the reafon of its want of
fuccefs in fuch cafes.

Urine, Salt of. See Fuftble Salt.

URINOUS Salts are the fame with what we otherwife
call alkaline falts, or alkalies.

There are two kinds of urinous falts, the one Jixt, the
other •volatile. The fixt pretail in plants, and the volatile
in animals.

They are called urinous, in refpecl of their tafte and
fmell, which bear fome refemblance to thofe of urine.

URIPA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the diocefe
of Cufco ; 1 20 miles W.N.W. of Cufco.

URIQUE, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Cinaloa ; 120 miles N.E. of Cinaloa.

URISAL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up-
land ; 6 miles N. of Stockholm.

VRISHADWAJA, a name of the Hindoo deity Siva.
It is a compound word, meaning he who rides a bull ; this
animal being the vehicle on which that deity rides.

VRITRA, a demon, according to Hindoo legends,
flain by their god Indra, regent of the firmament, who is
thence named Vritrahan. See Indra.

URITANUS Acer, in Anc'unt Geography, a territory
of Italv, mentioned by Appian and Velleius Paterculus.

URITH, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes ufed to
fignify the bindings of hedges in thofe of the llafF and band
or rife kind. See Fence and Hedge.

URITZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Loire ; 14 miles N.N.E. of Ancenis.

URIVES, in Rural Eeonomy, a term fometimes applied

U R U

to the nets which are ufed to catch hawks, and other fimilar
birds of prey with, in different places.

URIUM, in A'cient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
Bcetica, on the confines of Lufitania, belonging to the Tur-
ditani. Ptolemy. — Alfo, one of two rivers of Bcetica, be-
tween the Axas and the Bcctis.

URIUM KAN, in Geography, a river of Ruflia, which
runs into the Arguna, N. lat. 51° 55'. E. long. 124° 15'.

URJUP, or Urup, one of the Kurile iflands, diftant
from Shirpo Oi 25 verils. This ifland is larger than moft
of the others, being 200 verfts long, and 20 broad. Its
mountains are high, with bald heads ; they are very fteep,
and about them are deep glens. On the north coaft lie four
fmall ifles almoft contiguous. In the vales, and befide the
llreams, a plain is occafionally feen ; and in the valleys as
well as on the mountains, and indeed over the whole ifland
on the north and eaft fides, are high foreils of birches,
elders, the forbus fylveftris, and iturdy rattans. On the
{hores and in the valley-plains the herbs flioot to an uncom-
mon height. Confiderable ftreams flow from the mountains
into tiie fea, and yield a variety of fifh. In the northern
part, about the middle of the ifland, is an inland fea, which
difcharges its waters by a level fiream into the ocean ; which
itream teems with fifli. The ifland aboimds with rats, and
with red and white foxes. In the clefts of the mountains is
found ore, fuch as copper pyrites mixed with quartz, ful-
phur pyrites as hard as lleel, with quartz, and a poor cop-
per pyrites in a calcareous gangue. This ifland is only
frequented for taking the foxes. Tooke's Ruff. vol. i.

URK, a fmall ifland in the Zuyder Zee ; 11 miles E. of
Enckhuyten.

URKEND, or UzKUND, or Adercantl, a town of Tur-
keftan ; 90 miles N.E. of Toncat.

URKOK, a town of Bengal ; 14 miles N. of Doefa.

URKONGE, or KoRKANJE, or Orkanje, or Urgentz,
a town of ACa, and capital of Charafm, on a branch of the
Jihon, which runs into the lake Aral. In the year 122 1,
this place was befieged by the troops of Jenghiz Khan, and
after an obftinate defence, and the death of tlie governor, the
inhabitants let fire to their houfes : thofe who remained after
the flaughter which followed the furrender were condemned
to flavery ; 320 miles W.N.W. of Samarcand. N. lat. 42°
35'. E. long. 58° 30'.

URKUP, or YuKKUP, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Caramania, on the Kizil-ermuk ; 10 miles W.S.W. of
Tocat. N. lat. 38° 37'. E.long. 34° 18'.

URLINGFORD, a fmall town of the county of Kil-
kenny, Ireland; about lo miles S.W. from Durrow.

URLIUTIUPSKOI, a fort of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Kolivan, on the eaft fide of the Irtifch. N. lat.
53° 36'- E. long. 75° 34'.

URMIAH, or Urumea, a diftrift of Perfia, in the

province of Azerbijan Alfo, an ancient city of the fame

province, the Thebarma of Strabo, and fuppofed birth-place
of Zoroafter, fituated on a noble plain, which is fertilized
by the river Shar, and on the fouth-w\;ft of the lake to which
it gives name. This town is diilant 32 furfungs from Ta-
breez, and contains a population of 12,000 fouls. It is de-
fended by a ftrong wall and deep ditch, that may be filled
with water from the river, and the vicinity produces wine
and corn in abundance. It cannot boaft of a fingle river of

confequence. N. lat. 37°. E. long. 45° 40' Alfo, a

lake generally believed to be the Spauto of Strabo, and
Marcianus of Ptolemy, about 8c furfungs or 300 miles in
circumference. The water is more fahne than the fea, and
it emits a difagreeable fulphurous fmell, fo that no fifti can
live in it. Some fay that the furface is occafionally in-
<) crufted

URN

U R N

crulled willi fait ; but this is not always, if ever, the cafe.
On one of the iflands in the lake ( for there are fevcral ) Ho-
laku built a fortrefs, in wliich he fecured the fpoil he had
collected during his conquefts. The largeft of thcfe iflands
forms, in the dry feafon, a kind of peninfnla, and is 25 miles
in circumference ; only inhabited by wild aflfes, dter, and
many other kinds of gan-.e. In fl<irting the northern fide
of the lake, which is of an elliptic fliape, we meet the town
and diftrict of Si Bulagh (the cold llrcam). It is 12 fur-
fungs from Maraga, and poneffed by the Kurdifli tribe of
Meekree. Maraga (which fee), fuppofed to be the Ga-
marga of Diodorus, has a fpacious bazaar ; is enconipaffed
with a high wall, and is pleafantly fituated in a low valley,
at the extremity of a well-cultivated plain, opening to the
lake, from which Maraga is didant 9 or 10 miles. The
town has about 15,000 inliabitants, a glafs manufaftory, a
handfome public bath, and near it an obfervatory built on
the top of a mountain by Holaku, for his friend Nafer a
Deen, the moft famous alironomer of his time, who here
formed the tables known by his name. The elevated
country in the vicinity of lake Unimea was the feat of the
AfTaflins, finally extirpated by Holaku. M'Kinneir's
Perfia.

URMUK, ^ fmall ifland in the Red fca, near the coaft
of Arabia ; 3 n i' s S.S.W. of Loheia.

URMUND, a lown of France, in the department of the
Lower Metile ; 10 miles N N.E. of Maeftricht.

URN, Urna, a k'nd of vafe, of a roundifli form, but
biggeft in the middle, hke the common pitchers ; now fcl-
dom lifted, but m the way of ornament over chimney-pieces,
in buffets, &c. ; or, by way of acroters, at the tops of
buildings, funeral monuments, &c.

The great ufe of urns, among the ancients, was to pre-
ferve the afties of the dead, after they were burnt ; for
which rcafon they were called cineraria, and urnit clnerar'te ;
and were placed foraetimes under the tomb-ftone, upon
which the epitaph was cut, and fometimes prcferved in
vaults in their own houffS.

Urns were alfo ufed, at their facrifices, to put liquid
things in. They were alfo of ufe in the fortes Prtncji'inie,
or calling of lots. At Rome, alfo, the cuftom was to ab-
folve or condemn the accufed, by the fuffrages, or calculi,
which the judges call into the judicatory urn.

Virgil reprefents Minos, the judge of hell, (baking the
urn, to decide the lots of mankind — Quejiior Minos urnam
movet.

The urn is ftill the attribute of rivers, which are painted
leaning on urns, reprefenting their fourccs by the waters
flowing from them. We find them reprefented, in the fame
manner, on antique medals, and relievos.

Thefe veflels are frequent in many parts of this kingdom,
where there have been Roman ftations, and are of very
various kinds and manner of workmanlbip.

Dr. I.iller, who was very fortunate in his refearchcs into
the ftrufture and differences of thcfe remains of antiquity,
obferved, that in Yorkfhirc, where there are great numbers
found, there were met witli three very different kinds, as to
their matter and tempers.

I. A blueifh-grey fort, which had a great quantity of
coarfe fand wrought in among the clay. 2. A fort of the
fame blueifli colour, but containing a fand of a much finer
kind, and full of mica, and probably made of a clay na-
turally fandy, or a fine fmooth and lliff loam. And, 3. A
red fort, made of a fine pure clay, with little or no mixture
of fand. Thcfe are throughout of a fine red colour hke
bole, and many of them arc elegantly adorned with figures

in bafib rehevo, and ufually thcfe have ou the botloui, or
elfe on the cover, the name of the workman, which fome
have miftaken for the name of the perfon whofes alhes they
inclofe ; but this mull be an error, fincc great numbers of
pots and urns arc found with the fame name. Thofe arc
varnifhcd all over, both infide and out, with a varnilh of a
bright red colour.

The fevcral matters of thefe urns informed this ingenious
inquirer of the place where they were made ; which he found
to be in the fame county on fand-hills, now never ufed as
potteries ; but, as he well obferves, the difference is very
great between the potteries of thofe days and of ours, fince
we, who ufe great quantities of clay, and but little fand,
ereft thefe works where there is much clay, and bring the
fmall quantity of fand we ufe to it ; whereas the Romans,
on the other hand, who ufed much fand, and but httle clay,
naturally eltablifhed their works where there was plenty of
fand, and brought their clay to it.

The Roman urns differ from the earthen-ware made at
this time in feveral particulars. 1. They have no lead-
glazing, which feems a modern invention, and is, in many
refpefts, a very bad one. ( See Glazing. \ 2. They are
compofed of a far larger quantity of fand than clay. And,
3. They are baked not in an open fire, as our common
earthen-ware, but have been inclofed in large earthen veflels,
to defend them from the immediate contaC\ of the flames ;
and hence it is, that the natural colour of the clay they are
made of is not altered in them.

The red urns feem to have been the mafter-piece of the
workmen, and to have employed their greateft art ; the em-
boffed work upon them is often very beautiful, and their
coral-like glazing is more beautiful tlian any thing of the
modern times, and feems to have been done by dipping them
all over in fome appropriated liquor, and afterwards baking
them in the clofe manner before defcribed. This has cer-
tainly been the method they ufed, fince the fragments of
thefe large coffins, or cafes, are found near all the Roman
potteries. Hooke's Philofophical Colleftions, p. 87.

The Romans, and moll other nations, contented them-
felves to make their funeral urns of potters' ware, or baked
earth ; but we find there have been lome people who have
made them of gold, on particular occafions. In the year
1685, as a peafant of the illnnd of Funen was ploughing a
piece of land, which had before lain barren, he turned up
no lefs than fix golden fcpulchral urns. They were all full
of 3 greyifh fubliance, which fome took to be a grey earth ;
but it was much more probably alhes.

Thefe are all preferved at this time in the mufeum of the
king of Denmark at Copenhagen ; the largelt of them
weighs two ounces and a half, and the others about two
ounces and one drachm each. Wormius, and fome others,
give accounts, that it was an ancient cuftom among the
northern nations to burn their dead, and when they were
great perfons to coUeft their allies, and bury them in
golden urns ; and the finding of thcfe feems an evident proof
of the truth of that account.

Thefe urns were very thin, and each had three rings of
gold about their necks, and fevcral circles, one within
another, with one common centre carved on the outfide
round the body of the urn. They held about five ounces
of liquids a-piece, or a little more than that ; one near fix
ounces.

Sepulchral urns of cry Hal were alfo not uncommon ; the
fame mufeum has fome of thefe ; they arc of a conic figure,
and Inive ufually a gold wire wound round them. Urns of
tliii kind have been found buried in fome parts of Norway.

Urns

URN

U*ns of another kind were thofc which they called lachry-
males, or the tear-urns : thefe were contrived to receive the
tears of the friends of the deceafed, which were afterwards
mingled with the afhes of the burnt corpfe. Thefe were
made of various materials, and of various (hapes and fizes,
according to the fancy of particular people. Phil. Tranf.
N* 285.

Urns, Fa/es, &c. in Ornamental Gardening, objefts ufed
for the purpofe of beauty in fome cafes of this fort of gar-
dening. It has been obferved by Mr. Loudon, in his work
on farming and improving country refidences, that thefe are
materials which fliould be introduced with caution ; and
that none of the others require fo much tafte and judgment
to manage them with propriety as urns, ftatues, bufts, mo-
numents, and infcriplions. The introduftion of ftatues,
except among works of the moft artificial kind, is feldom
or ever, it is faid, to be allowed; as when they ob-
trude themfelves among natural beauties, they always
difturb the train of ideas that ought to be excited in the
mind, and in general deftroy the charafter of the fcenery.
In the fame way, urns, bufts, monuments, and other fuch
figures, in flower-gardens, are, it is thought, quite mif-
placed, as may be felt in many fuch, by any pcrfon capable
of attending to his own mind, and who undcrftands the prin-
ciples of tafte. The obvious intention of fuch appendages
is, it is fuppofed, to recal to mind the virtues, qualities, or
aftions of thofe for whom they were erefted. Now, it is
faid, this requires time, feclufion, and undifturbed attention,
which muft either render all the flowers and other decora-
tions of the ornamental garden of no eff"eft ; or, if they have
effcdl, it can only be to interrupt the train of ideas excited
by the other. As the garden, and the produftions of na-
ture in it, are what are intended to intereft the Ipeftator, it
is plain, the writer thinks, that the others (hould not be in-
troduced. This reafoning, while on the one hand it fliews
the abfurdity of fuch a praftice, on the other, it is faid,
direfts that urns, monuments, and fuch like figures, fhould
only be placed in folitary and unfrequented parts, where the
mind is naturally led to contemplate, and where the remem-
brance of the virtvies of great men, or the worth of relations
now no more, afford proper fubjefts of contemplation.
But ^ven in places apparently folitary, or fecluded, thefe
have been introduced in fo afteded or improper a manner,
as to furnilh reafon, it is faid, for the greateft caution in
future.

Though ftatues may fometimes come in well in fublime
produAions of architefture, they can feldom raifc any
fubhme emotion, when they become principal in any fcenery,
as when they are ufed among trees, flowers, or in (lirub-
bcries. If placed among fuch fcenery to be admired as
works of art, as fine pieces of fculpture, they will never, it
is faid, fufficiently intereft any but fuch contrafted con-
noifl^eurs as would not enjoy the other objeds, and would
much diftraft the attention of men of true tafte, as is the cale
with thofe in many places.

Infcriptions, merely as fuch, it is faid, are in general def-
picable refources, and only indicate conceit and want of
mind. If the infcription be appofite, we are nuich better
pleafed to feel or recollect the coincidence on reading, it is
faid, than to be told it by others ; if it be foreign, or far
fetched, it argues a grofs defeft in thofe who placed it
there, and ferves to excite ridicule ; if it be merely a
whim or fancy, as where an urn or feat in a pleafurc-
ground exhibits in large letters fomething trifling, it is
difgufting.

Urn, Urna, was alfo a Roman meafure for liquid things ;

U R Q

containing about three gallons and a half of Englifti wine
meafure.

The urn was half the amphora, and four times the
congius.

UROCRITERIUM, or Urocrisia, compounded of
ii(ov, urine, and xfnn^ioi, criterion, mark, fign, a cajiing of
water, or giving judgment on difeafes by the fight of water.
See Urine.

Hence, alfo, uromancy, urofcopy, &c.

UROGALLUS Major, in Ornithology. See Tetrao,
and alfo Cock of the Mountain, and Grouse.

Urogallus Minor. See Tetrao, and alfo Grouse.

UROMASTIX, in Zoology, a name ufed by fome au-
thors for that fort of hzard called cordylus.

UROPIGIUM, in Ornithology, or rump, is that part of
birds which is furnilhed with two glands, fecreting a fattifli
liquor from an orifice in each, and which the birds exprefs
with their bills, in order to oil the difcompofed parts of their
feathers.

UROS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in Ligu-
ria, W. of Cariftum.

UROSPERMUM, in Botany, from otfa, a tail, and
o-TEf/ia, feed, a name which originated with Scopoli, and is
retained by .Juffieu for the Arnopogon of recent authors ;
fee that genus, defcribed at length, at the end of our article
Tragopogon.

UROTAL, in Mythology, a name given among the Ara-
bians to Dionyfius, or Bacchus, under which appellation
they worftiipped the fun. See Voffius de Idol. 1. I. c. 8.

UROTCHITSCHE Tasciiti, in Geography, a moun-
tain of RufGa, on the north coaft of the fea of Aral. N.
lat. 45° 30'. E. long. 60° 14'.

UROV, a river of RufGa, which runs into the Argunia,
near Urovka.

UROVKA, a town of Ruffia, on the Argunia, on the
borders of China; 120 miles E. of Stretenflf.

VROW-FiSH, in Ichthyology, the name of a frefh-water
fifh of the malacoftomous, or, as we call it, the leather-
mouthed kind, caught in the lakes and rivers of Germany,
and efteemed a very delicate fifli.

It is fomething like the Englifli rudd or finfcale, but its
body is fomewhat longer, in proportion to its breadth ; its
back is brown, and its belly yellow ; the belly-fins near the
anus are a httle reddifli, but all the reft are brown ; the fcales
are large and filvery, and the irifes of the eyes have each, in
their lower part, a blood-coloured fpot ; the tail is forked ;
and its ufua! fize is about feven or eight inches, though it is
fometimes caught confiderably larger. Willughby's Hift.
Pifc. p. 253.

URPANUS, in Ancient Geography, a confiderable river
of Pannonia, which difcharged itfelf into the Danube.

URPHA, in Geography. See OuRFA.

URQUHART, aparifliin the fliire of Elgin, Scotland,
is fituated on the coaft of the Moray Firth, between the
rivers Loffie and Spey, and extends about four miles in
length, and three in breadth ; but contains no creek or land-
ing place of any knid. The north-weft part is flat, and the
foil fandy, rifing only a few feet above the level of the fea ;
and probably has been formerly inundated, as there are evi-
dent marks of the fea having receded from the coaft. The
remainder of the parifli is more elevated, and of an unequal
furface : the air is mild and falubrious ; the roads are in ex-
cellent repair ; and the church is in good condition. The
loch of Cotts, which is about a mile in circuit, contains pike
only ; it is frequented in winter by a great number of fwans ;
and in the fpring and autumn by vaft flocks of wild fowls.

In

U R Q

U R S

In the population return of 1811, this parifh is dated to
contain 229 houfcs, and 936 inhabitants. Four-fifths of the
parirti is the property of the earl of Fife, whofe plantations
cover an extent of 2478 acres, and add greatly to the beauty
and ornament of the country. Innes-houfe, one of the nu-
merous feats of the earl, is a noble manfion : it was formerly
the refidence of the ancient family of Innes, whofe annals are
marked with fignal calamities. A priory was founded in this
parirti fo early as the year 1125, by king David I.; the
fcite has been recently converted into an arable field ; and the
name of Abbey-Well, which the country-people ftill give to
the fountain that fupplied the monks with water, is the only
memorial now remaining. — Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806.
Carhfle's Topographical Diftionary of Scotland, 181 3.

Urquhart is alfo the name of a parirti, now united with
that of Glen-Morifton, in the rtiire of Invernefs, Scotland.
The united parirties occupy an extent of 30 miles in length,
and from 8 to 12 miles in breadth. By the return of the
year 181 1, the population is dated to be 2446 ; the number of
houfes482. The church is fituated at Kilmore, in Urquhart :
at Meikly, fix miles up the country, is a good chapel ; and
in Glen-Moridon are two refpeftable meeting-houfes, where
the duty is performed by a miffionary minider. The fur-
face is, in general, mountainous, but comprehends the two
raileys of Urquhart and Glen-Moridon, which extend in a
wedernly direftion from loch Nefs, nearly parallel to each
other, and feparated by a ridge of lofty mountains ; the
highed of which, Mealfuarmhonie, is elevated 3060 feet
above the level of the fea. Urquhart is a rich, though not a
deep, loam, and uncommonly fruitful ; the foil of Glen-
Moridon is very inferior, being light and fandy. Three
rivers pafs through thefe parirties, the Morildon, Emeric, and
Coiltie ; they all fall into loch Nefs, and in their courfe
form feveral magnificent cafcades. The roads and bridges
are in good repair ; and at Borlem, a fubdantial bridge of
three arches has been recently built over the Coiltie. On a
rocky promontory, on the W. fide of loch Nefs, are the ruins
of Urquhart- cadle : the loch warties the ead wall, and the
other three fides were fortified with a ftrong rampart, a ditch,
and a drawbridge. Within the walls were accommodations
for five hundred men. This cadle was a royal fort, and was
granted by king James IV. in 1509, with the lorddiip of
Urquhart, to fir John Grant, chief of that ancient family,
and ancedor to the prefent earl of Seafield. In the valley
oppofite to the cadle are the remains of a religious fioufe
which belonged to the knights templars ; and the fcite is dill
called " The Temple." At Corrymony, in Glen-Moridon,
are to be fcen vediges of a drnidical temple, in which the
middle of the circle is occupied by a cairn of loofe dones,on
the fummit of which is one very large done. — Gazetteer of
Scotland, 1806. Beauties of Scotland, vol. v., Invernefs-
(hire, 1808. Carlirte's Topographical Diftionary of Scot-
land, 181 3.

Urquhart is alfo a parirti, now united with that of
Logie-Weder, fituated partly in the rtiire of Nairn, and
partly in the rtiire of Rofs, Scotland. It extends about
nine miles in length, and four in breadth ; lying along the
eadern fide of the Firth of Cromarty, and terminated by
the river Conan, which here difchargcs itfelf into that arm
of the fea. The furfacc is level, diverCficd by fertile fields,
and (heltered by plantations. A new church has been lately
built, on a more eligible fituntion than the old ftnifture.
The population of the united parirties was dated, in the re-
turn of the year 181 i, to be, for that part in the rtiire of
Nairn, 15 10, occupying 369 lioufes, and for the part in
Rofsrtiire, 2664, in 634 houfes; making a total of 1003
Vol. XXXVII.

houfes, and 4174 ihhabitants. The property of the whole
is divided among three heritors, who all portefs elegant feat*.
Thefe are, Findon, the property of fir Roderick Macken-
zie, of Scattwell : on this edate is a fmall market-town, on
the high road from Dingwall to Cromarty, where four an-
nual fairs are held : Ferrintorti, belonging to Mr. Forbes of
CuUodcn ; this barony long enjoyed the exclufive privilege of
didilling whi/ky without being fubjcft to the excife laws ;
but in 1786 the right was refumed by government, the fupe-
riorof the barony being allowed 20,000/. as a compenfation :
and Conan-fidc, the feat of fir Heftor Mackenzie, of Gair-
loch, on whofe edate are plantations of firs and fored-trees,
of confiderable extent, and in a flourirtiing condition Ga-
zetteer of Scotland, 1806. Carlirte's Topographical Dic-
tionary of Scotland, 1813.

URRIN, a river of the county of Wexford, Ireland,
which joins the Slaney, a little fouth of Ennifcorthy.

URRIS Head, a cape of the county of Mayo, Ireland)
the northern point of the peninfula of the Mullet. N. lat.
54=17'. W. long. 9° 51'.

URRISBEG, a mountain of Ireland, in the county of
Galway, near the fea-coad ; 38 miles W. of Galvvay.

URROLA, a river of Spain, in Guipufcoa, wliichruns
into the fea, between the Orio and the Deva.

URROZ, a town of Spain, in Navarre ; 12 miles S.S.E.
of Pamplona.

URRY, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes applied to
a fort of blue or black clay, lying near a vein of coal.

URSA, in AJlronomy, the Bear, a name common to two
condellations of the northern hemifphere, near the pole ; dif-
tinguirtied by Major and Minor,

Uksa Major, or the Great Bear, according to Ptole-
my's Catalogue, confids of 35 dars ; according to Tycho's,
of 56 ; according to Hevelius's, of 73 ; but in the Britan-
nic Catalogue, we have 87. See Constellation.

Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, called alfo Charles's Wain ;
and, by the Greeks, Cynofura ; and us neighbourhood to
the north pole gives the denomination apHTo-r, bear, to it.
Ptolemy makes it confift of 8 dars ; Tycho, of 7 ; He-
velius, of 1 2 ; but Mr. Flamfieed of 24. See Constel-
lation.

Ursa, Cape, in Geography, a cape of Sicily, on the N.
coad. N. lat. 38« 18'. E. long. 13° 11'.

URSAKOWA, a town of Prudia, in the territory of
Culm ; 15 miles N.E. of Thorn.

URSCH ENDOW, a town of Audrian Poland, in G.v
licia ; 28 miles S.W. of Lublin.

URSEL, a town of Germany, in the county of Ko-
nigdein ; 5 miles E.N.E. of Konigdein.

LIRSENTANI, in /Indent Geography, a people of Italy,
in the interior of Lucania. Pliny.,

URSEOLA, or Ursolis, a town of Gallia Narbon-
nenfis, upon the route from Milan to Vienna, in parting by
the Cottian Alps. See Ursoi.i.

URSEREN, in Geography, a celebrated valley of Swit-
zerland, into which is an opening by a fubtcrrancan paflage,
through a rock of granite, called " Urner-loch," 9 feet
broad, 10 high, and 220 long. In this valley are four vil-
lages, viz. Urfcren, Hopital, Rcalp, and Zandorf, which
form a fmall republic under the proteftion of Uri. Its ter-
ritory is about nine miles in length, .ind two in breadth, and
contains about 1300 inhabitants. The people, in their ge-
neral artembly, elc6t their " Talamman," or thief, and alfo
fomc other niagidratcs ; and there is a permanent council of
fifteen members, who artemblc in each of the dillcrent dif-
4 A trifle.

U R S

ti-ids. The people enjoy great privileges, but are not abfo-
lutely independent ; for in civil caufes an appeal lies from
their courts of juftice to Altdorf, and in criminal proceed-
ings, two deputies from the government of Uri are prefent
at the trial, and deliver to the judges of the valley the opi-
nion of the council of Altdorf. This valley, though ele-
vated and cold, affords excellent pafture. Above the village
of Urferen is a fmall plantation of pines, the only wood in
the valley, excepting a fmall quantity of underwood and
itubbed willows, that feather the banks of the Reufs. In
the adjacent country there are feveral mines of cryllal, a con-
liderable quantity of which is exported. The language of
the natives is a kind of provincial German, but alraoil every
perfon fpeaks Italian.

The valley of Urferen is furrounded by high mountains,
covered with pafture, terminating in barren rocks, in many
parts capped with fnow. Coxc's Switzerland, vol. i.

URSHULT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 22 miles S. of Wexio.

URSIGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares ;
16 miles W. of Morzapour.

URSINIA, in Botany, lo named by Gartner, appears
to have been intended as a tribute to the memory of the
Rev. John Henry Urlinus, formerly a clergyman at Ratif-
bon, author of a learned odlavo volume, entitled Arbor.'him
Bibliciim, publidied at Nuremberg in 1685, after its author's
deceafe, in 1667. Gsrtn. v. 2. 462. t. 174. Poiret in
Lamarck Did. v. 8. 256. This is the fame genus with Mr.
Brown's Sphenogyne, (fee that article,) under which it
ought to have been cited as a fynonym. We know not why
its earlier name was changed, the labours of Urfmus, though
geuerally compilations, undoubtedly entitling him to fuch a
memorial. There was alfo a Leonard Urfmus, profelfor of
Botany at Leipfic, who died in 1664, at the age of forty-
fix, having written upon the Tuhp, and on the White Lily,
with a double flower ; but thefe treatifes were merely acade-
mical effays, probably of no great moment. See Dryander's
Bibl. Bankf. v. 3. 260, and Haller's Bibl. Bot. v. i. 536,
and v. 2. 685.

URSINJAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of F.irs, principally diftinguilhed for a ftrong and
narrow defile, bearing the fame name. This pafs is on the
diredt road leading from Shirauz to Kerman ; 58 miles
from the former, and 100 from Robat, the eaftern frontier
of Fars. It is nearly two miles long, and not exceeding
fifty yards in breadth. In fome places, the mountains on
either fide rife perpendicularly to a great height ; and, in the
opinion of Mr. Pottinger, the place might be defended, with
a very fmall force, againft any number of men. The coun-
try between this and Robat is tolerably cultivated, and in
fome places very pifturefque.

URSINS, Jean-Jouvenal des, in Biography, a prelate
and hiftorian of the 15th century, was advanced to feveral
pofts, civil and ecclefiaftical, and in 1449 became archbifhop
of Rheims, under which charafler he confecrated Lewis XI.
In confequence of his revifion, in concert with other prelates,
of the fentence pronounced againft the maid of Orleans, it
was revoked. His learning and epifcopal virtues eftabliihed
a refpeftable character ; and he clofed his life at the age of
eighty -five, in the year 1473. His " Hiftory of the Reign
of Charles VI., from 1380 to 1422," is faid to be written
with correftnefs and integrity. It was firft pubhlhed by
Theodore Godefroi, in 16 14, 410.; and an improved edition
by his fon appeared in 1653, fol. Moreri. Nouv. Did.
Hill.

U 11 s

URSINUS, FuLVius. See Orsini.
Ursinus, Zachaky, whofe family name was Beer, or
Bear, a German Proteftant divine, was born at Breflau
in 1534, and in the courfc of feven years' ftudy at Witten-
berg, recommended himfelf by his abilities and diligence to
Melandhon, who was then principal of the univerfity. He
accompanied his tutor to the conference at Worms in 1557,
and having vifited Calvin at Geneva, ftudied Hebrew at
Paris under the learned Mercer. In the follownng year, he
accepted an invitation from the magiftrates at Breflau to be-
come reftor of their public fchool ; but here a complaint
was lodged againft him by fome Lutheran niinifters, ou
account of his explanation of the article on the Lord's
Supper, in a book of Melanfthon's, which they conceived
to be inconfiftent with the true principles of Lutheranifm.
Although he defended himfelf by a trad on the Lord's
Supper and Baptifm, the ftorm continued, fo that he applied
for a difmiflion from the magiftrates, and returned to Zurich.
In 1561, he was invited to Heidelberg, and was made profef-
for in the college of Sapientia. In 1562, he obtained the
honour of D.D., and that of the profefforlhip of " Loco-
rum Communium," or of common places ; and in this year he
drew up the Heidelberg, or Palatine catechifm, publilbing
alfo, by order of the eledor FredericIII. an apology for it, in
anfwer to the remarks of fome Lutheran theologians. To the
eledor, he rendered eflential fervice in forming the plans and
ftatutes of feveral fchools which he founded ; and continued
ac Heidelberg till Frederic's death, in 1577. By his fuc-
cefTor, Lewis, who was a ftrid Lutheran, Urfinus was dif-
miffed ; and afterwards fettled at Neuftadt, as theological
profeiTor in a feminary founded by prince Cafimir, the fon of
Frederic. Here he alfo gave private ledures on logic, and
publifhed feveral works ; but intenfe application haftened his
death, which took place in 1583, when he had attained the
age of forty-nine years. He was eminently learned, and an
excellent teacher : in his difpofition modeft, but irritable.
His various writings were collefted after his death, and pub-
bhftied in 161 1 at Heidelberg, in 3 vols, folio. Bayle. Gen.
Biog.

Ursinus, Benjamin, originally Behr, a German ma-
thematician, was born at Sprottaw, in Silefia, in 1587 ; and
refided for a long time as tutor to two young noblemen,
along with Kepler, whom he aflifted in the conftrudion of the
Rudolphine tables, firil at Prague, and then at Lintz, in
Bohemia. In the latter place, he was teacher of mathema-
tics ; and from thence he removed to Frankfort on the
Oder, to undertake a fimilar charge ; and here he died in
1633. If 1628, or 1629, he publiflied, at Cologne, his
" Curfus Mathematicus," containing Napier's logarithms, and
fome additional tables of proportional parts ; and in 1 624,
he printed, at the fame place, his " Trigonometria," with a
table of natural fines and their logarithms, in Napier's form,
to every ten feconds in the quadrant, the computation of
which was a work of great labour. Haller. Gen. Biog.

URSITZ, St., or St. Urfinne, or Sonderfitz, in Geogra-
phy, a town of France, in the department of the Upper
Rhine ; 20 miles S.W. of Bale. N. lat. 47° 25'. E. long.
7° 6'.

URSKOG, a town of Norway, on the Glanmen ; 44
miles N.N.E. of Frederickftadt.

URSNACH, a town of the Helvetian republic, in the
canton of Appenzel ; 8 miles S.W. of Appenzel.

URSO, [OJura or Ofana,) m Ancient Geography, a town
of Hifpania, in Bostica, fituated towards the welt. It had
the title of a republic in an infcription ; and its medals,

badly

U R S

U R S

hadly executed, had on one fide an unknown head, and on
the other a fphynx.

URSOLI, a place that occurs in the Itin. of Anton, be-
tween Valence and Vienne.

URSPERG, in Geography, a princely abbey of Germany ;
l6 miles VV.S.W. of Augfburg.

URSULA, St., a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 8 miles
W.S.W. of Marburg.

URSULINES, an order of nuns, who obfervc the rule
of St. Auguftine ; and are chiefly noted for taking on them
the education and inftruftion of young maids.

They take their name from their inftitutrefs St. Urfula,
and are clothed in white, or black.

This inftiuite was lirft eilablilhed in Italy by Angelus de
Brefcia, in 1537; it was afterwards approved in 1544, by
pope Paul III. and united in one nunnery by folemn vows,
by Gregory XIII. The Urfulines of France were founded
in 161 1 by Magdalen Lhuillier, lad)' of St. Beuve. Their
chief houfe is at Paris, whence they have fpread through
other parts of the kingdom.

URSUS, Bear, in Zoology, a genus of the clafs of Mam-
malia and order of Feras, the charafters of which are, that
the front teeth are fix both above and below, excavated
within alternately ; the two lateral ones of the lower jaw
longer than the reft and lobated, with fmaller or fecondary
teeth at their internal bafes ; the canine teeth are folitary ;
the grinders are five or fix on each fide, the firft approxi-
mated to the canine teeth ; the tongue is fmooth ; the
fnout prominent ; eyes furniflied with a niftitating membrane.
Gmeliii enumerates eight fpecies, befides feveral varieties :
•viz..

Arctos. Blackifh -brown bear, with abrupt tail. This
is the urfuB of Gefner, Aldrovandus, Ray, &c. the ours of
Buffon, and brown bear of Pennant. The varieties men-
tioned by Gmelin are the black bear with a fmaller black
body, the brown bear with a brown and ferruginous body,
the white bear with black body and white hairs intermixed,
and the variegated bear with a body of various colours.
The common bear, with fome variations as to fize and co-
lour, is a native of almoft all the northern parts of Europe
and Afia, and is faid to be found in fome of the Indian
idands, as Ceylon, &c.; and the brown bear is alfo foinid in
fome of the northern parts of America, where it dellroys
cattle ; but this is a different fpecies from the American
black bear, which is not carnivorous. The common bear
inhabits woods and unfrequented places, and feeds chiefly on
roots, fruits, and other vegetables, occafionally preying on
animals. In the Alpine regions, the bear is brown ; in fome
other parts of Europe, black ; and in fome parts of Nor-
way of a grey colour, and even perfcftly white. The
brown, the black, the grey, and the white land bears, are all
of the fame fpecies : though it is obfcrved, that the brown
and the black varieties differ in their mode of life; the black
confining itfelf almoft wholly to vegetable food ; whereas the
brown bear frequently attacks and preys upon other animals,
and deftroys lambs, kids, and even fonietimes cattle, fuck-
ing the blood like the cat and weafel tribes. Linnius
adds, that the bear has a mode of blowing up his prey, and
of hiding or burying a part of it. Bears are faid to be
fond of honey, and to climb trees in fearch of it among the
nefls of wild bees. They fomctimcs take up their rcfidence
in the hollows of very large trees. They will alfo catch and
devour filh, occafionally frequenting the banks of rivers for
th.1t purpofe.

The bear paffes a confiderablc part of the winter in a ftatc
of repofe and abftinence, emerging from his den occafionally
at diftaiit intervals, and then conccahng himfelf in his retreat

till tlie approach of the vernal feafon. The females continue in
this ftate longer than the males, and during this period bring
forth their young, which are commonly two in number.
The young, though not fhapelefs animals, as fome have er-
roneoudy conceived, differ in their afpeft from the grown
animal, the fnout being much fiiarper, and their colour yel-
lowifli ; and they are faid to be blind for nearly a month.

Ami'RIcanus. The black bear, with ferruginous cheeks
and throat ; the black bear of Pennant. This, fays Dr.
Shaw, is a fpecies diftinft from the black bear of Europe,
and has a long pointed nofe, and narrow forehead ; the hair
of a gloffy black colour, fmoother and (horter than that of
the European kind, and is generally fmaller than the Eu-
ropean bear. This animal inhabits all the northern parts of
America, and occafionally migrates to the more foutherly
parts in fearch of food, which is faid to be entirely vege-
table ; and it is affirmed, that when urged by extreme
hunger, they will difregard all animal food whenever they
can obtain a fupply of roots and grain. They, however,
fometimes deftroy fifli, and particularly herrings, when they
come up into the creeks in ftioals. Tiiey are faid to con-
tinue in their winter retreats, either in dens beneath the fnow
under ground, or in the hollows of old trees, for the fpace
of five or fix weeks without food. The yellow bear from
Carolina is fuppofed to be a variety of the former : it is
rather fmaller than the European bears, with a more agree-
able countenance, and is perfeftly tame and fociable ; the
colour being of a lively bright orange, inclining to reddifh ;
the hair is thick, long, and iilky.

Maritimus. White bear, with elongated neck and head,
and abrupt tail : the urfus maritimus albus major arfticus
of Martens Spitzbergen, the ours blanc of Buffon, and the
Polar bear of Pennant. (See Polar, or White Biar.)
Thefe bears, when on land, feed on deer and other animals,
as hares, birds, &c. and various kinds of berries. They
are faid to be frequently feen in Greenland in large droves,
allured by the fcent of the flefti of feals, and will fometimes
furround the habitations of the natives, and attempt to break
in ; and it is added, that the moll fuccefsful method of
repelling them is by the fmell of burnt feathers. They
grow extremely fat, a hundred pounds of fat having been
taken from a fingle beaft. The llelh is coarfe, but the (kin
is valued for coverings of various kinds, and the Green-
landers often wear it for clothing. Thele lliins were for-
merly offered by the hunters in the ardtic regions to the high
altars of cathedrals and other churches, for the priell to
(land on during the celebration of mafs in winter. The fplit
tendons are faid to form an excellent thread. Pennant and
Shaw. For the method of hunting the bear, fee Bi;ar.

MelES. The Badger (which fee) with unmarked tail,
body cinereous or grey above, black below, and a longitu-
dinal black band through the eyes and ears. The common
badger is the melcs of Gefner, the taxus of Aldrovandus, and
the blaireau of Buffon. This animal is an inhabitant of all
the temperate parts of Europe and Afia : its form is clumfy,
being thick-necked and thick-bodied, with very fliort legs.
It commonly lodge- in a hole under-ground, whence it
emerges in the night in quell of food, which confills chiefly
of roots and fruits, and occafionally of frogs, worms, &c.
Its eyes are fmall, and its ears fliort and round ; and the claws
of its fore-feet are very long and llraight, which latter circum-
ftance has induced Pennant to rank it under a genus dillinit
from that of urfus or bear. Some have, without juft rcifon,
diftingnidicd between the fow-badger and the dog-badger,
the difference being merely fcxual. The hair is thick ; the
teeth, legs, and claws, arc very ftrong; fo that it defends il-
felf vigoroufly when attacked. The young badger may be

4 A 2 cafily

U R S

eafily tamed, and it generally prefers raw fiefh to every other
food in a ftate of captivity. It is a cleanly animal, and
keeps its habitation very neat. The female produces about
three or four young. Like the bear, this animal is fond of
honey, and will attack hives in order to obtain it. Pennant
will not admit the badger to be a carnivorous animal, though
BufFon aflerts, that it drags young rabbits out of their bur-
rows, and feizes birds, eggs, fnakes, and many other animals,
for feeding her young. The badger fleeps much, efpecially
in winter, confining himfelf to his den in a ftate of femi-
torpidity. Ridinger has figured a Angular variety of badger,
of a white colour, with brown and reddifh patches. Gmelin
mentions two varieties, one white above and below yellowilh ;
and the other fpotted, white with reddifh and brown fpots.
The former is found in New York ; the latter is very rarely
I met with in forefts, in the fiffures of rocks and ftones. For
the method of hunting the badger, fee Hunting.

Labradorius. The badger with the tip of the tail vil-
lous, and of a brownifh-yellow colour ; the throat, breaft, and
abdomen white, and the feet four-toed : it is the pale yel-
lowifh-grey badger, with the throat and belly white, and
the head ftriped with black. This is the American badger
of Pennant and carcajou of BufTon : and fo much refembles
the common, that it may be taken for a variety of it. This
fpecics is rather fcarce in America. It is found in the
neighbourhood of Hudfon's bay, and in Terra di Labrador,
and, according to Pennant, as low as Pennfylvania, where it
is called the ground hog. A variety of this occurs in fome
parts of America, with the under parts flightly tinged with
yellow : it is the firft variety of common badger mentioned
by Gmelin.

LoTOR. The bear with annulated tail, and black tranf-
verfe band acrofs the eyes. This is the bear with a long tail
of the Stockholm afts 1747, the bear with annulated varie-
gated tail of Briffon, the mapach of Fernand and Nieremb.,
the raton of Buffon, the coati of Ray, &c. and the raccoon
of Kalm, Pennant, &c. See Rackgom.

Luscus. The bear with a long tail, ferruginous body,
duflcy fnout, the forehead and lateral part of the body
whitifii. This is the quick-hatch or wolverene of Edwards,
and the wolverene of Pennant. Dr. Shaw fuggefts, that it
is merely a variety of the next fpecies. It is about twice
the fize of the common fox, and the defcription given of it
by Edwards is as follows : — All the fnout, upper and under
jaw, as far as the eyes, is of a black colour ; the forehead
above becomes gradually of a whitilh colour ; the eyes are
of a dark colour ; the throat and lower fide of the neck
white, the firft fpotted with black, having fome tranfvcrfe
bars of black on the under fide of the neck ; the ears are
fmall and round, appearing but little longer than the hair
that grows on the head ; they arc covered with ftiort brown
hair ; the hind part of the head and neck, the whole body
both above and beneath, the legs and tail, are all of a brown
or chefnut-cclour, clouded lighter and darker, -viz.. the up-
per fide of the neck and beginning of tlie back is dufl<y, or
very dark brown, which gradually changes to a lighter or
more pleafant brown in the middle of the back ; this colour
again grows by degrees darker, till it becomes almoft black
in the hind part of the back ; the tail towards the tip be-
comes of a duflcy-colour ; it hath a broad bar of very light
afti-colourcd brown pafGng round the body, beginning at
each (houlder, proceeding on the fides backwards, and meet-
ing on the rump, juft above the tail, where it is broadeft.
The fur on the whole body is pretty long, and feems not to
lie fo flat to the (liin as in fome animals. All the feet, as
far as the heel or firft joint, are covered with (hort black

10

U R S

hair, wliich gradually becomes brown above the knees ; the
claws are of a light horn-colour ; it hath on each foot for-
wards four toes ; the hind feet have five toes each.

GuLO. The bear with tail of the fame colour, rufous-
brown body, and middle of the back black. The gulo of
Gefn. and Aldrov., and the glutton of BufFon. It is confi-
derably larger than a badger, but varying in fize : the
muzzle, as far as beyond the eyes, is blackilh-brown, and
covered with hard fiiining hair ; over the forehead, down the
fides of the head between the eyes and ears, runs a whitifh
or a(h-coloured band or fillet ; the top of the head and
whole length of the back are black-brown, the colour
widening fomewhat over the fides as it pafles on, and again
leflening or contrafting towards the tail ; or the defcription
might be given in other words, by faying, that the colour
of the body is a fine glcffy black-brown, with a ferruginous
tinge along the fides, fo as to form a broad lateral zone ;
but it is to be obferved, that the animal varies coiifiderably
in colour ; fometimes appearing black, with a fubferru-
ginous lateral band ; and at other times of a chefnut-colour ;
the feet are black. Agreeably to its name, it has the cha-
racter of being very voracious, preying indifcriminately both
on frefh food and carrion. One of thefe animals would eat
thirteen pounds of flefh in a day, without being fatisfied.
It attacks deer, birds, field-mice, &c. and even fometimes
the larger cattle ; and is faid to fit on the branches of trees,
and fuddenly to fpring down on fuch animals as happen to
pafs beneath ; tearing them, and fucking the blood, till
they fall down through faintnefs, when it begins to devour
the fpoil. In whiter, it feeks out and catches ptarmigans
under the fnow. What it cannot devour at once it is faid
to hide under ground, or in the cavity of fome tree. It is
faid to be an animal of uncommon fiercenefs and ftrength ;
and will fometimes difpute the prey both with the wolf and
bear. It is alfo extremely fetid. It breeds once a year,
and brings from two to four young at a litter. The fur is
much ufed for muffs, linings. Sec. Thofe fkins are faid to
be preferred which have leaft of the ferruginous tinge ; and
for this reafon the Siberian variety, which is blacker than
the reft, is moft efteemed. The glutton is a native of the
moft northern parts of Europe and Afia, and is found in
Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Siberia, as well as in fome
of the Alpine regions, and in the forefts of Poland and
Courland, and in the northern parts of America.

In'dicus. The badger white above and black beneath,
firft defcribed by Pennant from a fpecimen brought from
India, and in the pofFeffion of the late Mr. John Hunter.
It had five toes on each foot, with long, ftraight claws ; the
head fmall, the nofe pointed, with fcarcely any appearance
of external ears ; the colour of the nofe, and face a little be-
yond the eyes, black ; the crown, upper part of the neck,
back, and upper part of the tail, white, inchning to greyifh;
the legs, thighs, breaft, belly, fides, and under part of the
tail, black. Its food is ilefti, and its difpofition lively and
playful. Dr. Shaw obferves, that this animal feems to be
nearly allied to the genus viverra ; and particularly to the
fpecies V. mellivora and V. capenfis. See Viverra.

URTAMSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the
government of Tobolfl<, on the Oby ; 52 miles W. of
Tomdi.

URTICA, in Botany, an ancient name, derived from
uro, to burn, or fting, and alluding to that property, for
which the original and familiar fpecies of this genus, our
common Nettles, are univerfally known. For the mode in
which this ftinging is accomphfhed, fee Pubescenxe. A
great proportion of the fpecies, however, are fimply downy,

and

URTICA.

and liarmlefs. — Linn. Gen. 486. Schreb. 633. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 4. 347. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit.
1014. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 233. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 5. 261. Purdi 112. JulT. 403. Tourii. t. 308.
Poiret in Lamarck Dift. v. 4. 636. Lamarck lUullr.
t. 761. G;Ertn. t. 119. — Clafs and order, Alonoirla Te-
trandr'ta. Nat. Ord. Scahridn, Linn. Urtica, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of four roundifh, con-
cave, obtufe leaves. Cor. Petals none. Neftary, the rudi-
ment of a germen, central, fmall, pitcher-fhaped, undivided,

foliis ; Dodart Mem., Amfterdam edition, G^^. t. 38.
f. 2.) — Leaves oppofitc, ovate, nearly entire. Heads of
fruit globofc. — The native country of this fpecies is not
known, but the plant occurs frequently, as an annual weed,
in cultivated ground, in England as well as in France, and
is, to ufe the words of Dodart, more diilici'.k to deftroy
than to raife. Linnseus jufUy thought the prdcnt a doubtful
fpecies, there being no difference between it and the fore-
going, except the nearly entire kavcs, and more flcnder
habit. The late Mr. Davall gathered a wild fpecimen near

tapering at the bafe. Stam. Filaments four, awl-(haped, Martigny, in Switzerland, of what he took for U. pilullfcra,

fpreading, the length of the calyx, and oppofite to its but whicli feems to us U. Dodartii, more ferrated than

leaves ; anthers of two globular cells. ufual, though Hill very unlike the broad coarfe peftinated

Female, generally on the fame plant. Cat. Perianth of ferratures of the pUuUfera or balearica, to which this fpeci-

two ovate, concave, ereft, permanent valves. Cor. none, men, neverthelefs, betrays an affinity, and confirms the fuf-

Linn.

Sp. PI. 1395.

Bot.

t. 148. Mill.

f. I.

(U. romana;

Lob.

Ic. 522. U.

Willd. n.

Pifl. Germen fuperior, ovate ; flyle none ; ftigma downy.
Peric. none, except the clofcd calyx. Seed folitary, ovate,
compreffed, blunt-edged, polifhed.

Elf. Ch. Male, Calyx of four leaves. Corolla none.
Rudiment of a germen cup-fhaped.

Female, Calyx of two leaves. Corolla none. Seed one,
fuperior, polifhed.

Seft. I. Leaves oppofite.
I. U. pUullfera. Roman Nettle.
Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl.
Illuflr. t. 79. Dodart Mem. t. 38.
Ger. Em. 706. Fuchf. Hift. ic6.
prima ; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 469. 1

/S. U. balearica; Linn. Sp. PI. 1395.
Ait. n. 2. " Blackwell Herb. t. 321. f. i."

Leaves oppofite, ovate or fomewhat heart-fhapcd, deeply
ferrated. Heads of fruit globofe. — Native of the fouth of
Europe. Abundant amongll Rones and rubbilh on the
coafts of Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering in June and July,
and laden with ripening feed thr..ugh the autumn. Root
annual. Hirb branched, bufliy, armed in every part with
extremely venomous flings, wliofe wounds are more painful
than thofe of our two common fpecies. The^i-m is bluntly
quadrangular, often purplifh. Leaves ftalked, varying
much in breadth ; fometimes nearly lanceolate ; fomctimts
broadly ovate, or hcart-fhaped, even from the fame feed, or
on the fame plant, fo that U. baharka, which has the latter
charadler, is a mere variety : they are always of a dark and

picion of Linnaeus, of their being all too nearly related.
Haller's having none of thefe fpecies in his work on Swifs
plants, made us anxious to determine Mr. Davall's plant,
and to clear up the citation above mentioned. U. Dodartii
ought no^v perhaps to find a place in the Flora Helvetica,
though Schleicher has it not in his lifts. U. integrifolia,
Lamarck n. 4, we prefume to be a lanceolate-leaved variety
of Dodartii.

3. U. pumila. Dwarf Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI. 139?.
Willd. n. 4. Purfh n. 1. — Leaves oppofite, ovate, blunt-
pointed, three-ribbed, ferrated. Flower-flalks fomewhat
corymbofe, fliorter than the footflalks. — In fhady woods,
among rocks, from Canada to Carolina. Annual, flower-
ing in July. Smooth and fhining, very variable in fize.
Purjh. The Jlem in our fpecimens is fimple, about a fpan
high, fquare, flightly downy, almoft naked in the lower
part. Leaves an inch long, more or lefs, bluntly ferrated,
nearly fmooth and naked ; the lower fooljlalks longeft.
Flowers crowded, as if whorled.

4. U. longifolia. Long-leaved Nettle. Willd. n. 5.
{U. verbafcifolia ; Lamarck n. 21.) — Leaves oppofite,
elliptic-obovate, acute at each end, triple-ribbed, ferrated.
Corymbs axillary, denfe, fhorter than the footftalks. — Ga-
thered by Conimerfon, in the ifland of Mauritius. Accord-
ing to a note, attached to one of Conimerfon's fpecimens,
what Lamarck and Willdenow took for a branch, is nearly
the wliole of the plant, Mi Jlem being fimple, not much
above a foot higli, angular, clothed with minute clofe-

lurid green, copioufly and very coarfely ferrated, rugged, prcfied hairs or briftles, and bearing about four pair of

veiny. Flowers pale green, ou axillary, generally twin, italked, rarely almofl feffik', leaves, four or five inches long,

Jlalks, one of which is panicled, bearing numerous dillant and or.e and a lialf or two inches broad, roughifh on botli

male bloffoms ; the other capitate, with only female ones, fides with minute deprefled briftles. Their ferratures are

The fruit is a very prickly flinging ball, three quarters of fluillow, moft numerons towards the extremity. Flowers

an inch in diameter, compofed of numerous tumid calyces, copious and fmall. Seeds thick-edged. The afpeft of this

each containing a brown feed, like flax, but fmaller, as fpecies is like a Procris or Elatostema (fee the latter

Diofcorides well defcribes it, this plant being, doubllefs, his article). Lamarck's name, verbafcifolia, is changed unwar

firft fpecies of aj(-y.\ujii, or Nettle. Dr. Sibthorp found it rantably for tlie worfe, by Willdenow.

very common in Greece and the Arcliipehigo. Linnxus y. U. cufpidata. Pointed-leaved Nettle. Willd. n. 6.

quotes under U. balearica, U. pilulifera, toliis cordatis cir- (U. lucens; Lamarck n. 22, without any doubt. ) — Leaves

Ci\mieTT3.\.h; Hall. Helv. 2"]. By way of corredlion. Will- oppofite, ovate, pointed, ferrated, three-ribbed, fmooth,

denow inferts «/. />;-. or the firft edition ! But it fhould be and fhining. Corymbs axill.iry, capillary, lax, fpreading.

Hall. Goett. 27, where this paffage niay be found, with a nearly as long as tlic footftalks. — Giitliered by Commerfoii

reference to Dodonaeus, and to Malchant, which fliould be in the Mauritius. The branches are round, purplifh, very

Marchant, or rather perhaps Dodart. This reference, fmooth, leafy. Leaves two or three inches long, ftrongly

however, belongs to U. pilulifera. Schorigenam ; Hort. thougii bhnilly ferrated ; fomewhat hcart-fliaped at the bale ;

Mai. v. 2. t. 39, is moreover quoted, though the plant their points bluntifli and entire. Fuoljlalks varying in length

there figured and defcribed is Tragia involucrata. Such is from one to two inches. Corymbs often in pairs on one

too often the hiflory of fynonyms ! The following fpecies common ftalk, on fome fpecimens much fliorter than the

will fhevv why we judged it neceffary to unravel, with much footftalks. Flowers very fmall. Seeds minute, brown,

labour, the above citation. fcarcely bordered.

2. \J. Dodartii. Dodart's Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI. 1395. 6. V. prdiinciilaris. Long-ftalkcd Netlle. — Leaves op-

Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (U. altera pilulifera, parietarix polite, ovate, pointed, ferrated, thrce-ribbcd, fmooth.

Panicles

URTICA.

Panicles' axillary, racemofe ; their common ftalks longer
than the footllalks, or even the leaves.— Native of Java.
Communicated by Thouin to the younger Lmnzus. We
cannot find any account of this fpecies, which is very dil-
tinft, and among the moft handfome and confpicuous.
The kav^s are three inches long, and half as broad ; their
bafe not heart-fhaped ; their points fmaller than in the laft ;
their ferratures finer and (harper. Flowers in large axillary
panicles, whofe branches are alternate, racemofe, and
tufted ; the male ones thrict as large as in the foregoing,
and their common ftalk ftout, longer than the adjoimng leal
with its footftalk ; the female panicle is lower down, rather
ftiorter than the leaf, with much fmaller flowers.

7. U. crajjifolia. Thick-leaved Nettle. Willd. n. 7 —
" Leaves oppofite, ovate-oblong, acute, three-ribbed, fer-

rated, thickifh ; reticulated and pale beneath. Corymbs ,.,.„, „ „ u ~ n s y

llalked, forked, longer than the leaves. Flowers tufted."— hair^' beneath. Flo-wer-Jtalh axillary, Hender, longer than
Suppofed to be a native of South America. Willdenow the footftalks.
faw only an imperfeft garden fpecimen, with the above
„,m<> TheyZm is flirubby. Z£■a^•fx ftalked, an inch and
" " clothed on both fides with

fmaller, hardly three inches long, tliicker, and reticulated
beneath ; they .ire nearly fmooth to the touch, though
covered with clofe deprelfed bridles, efpecially the upper
furface. The yZoo'frj are very minute, copioufly panicled.
Calyx of the female ones white, with an extremely narrow
reddith border. Sivarti..

12. U.laxa. Spreading Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ.-288.
Willd. n. 12. — Leaves oppofite, ovate; pointed, ferrated.
Stem lax. Flowers dioecious; the male in round heads;
female in cylindrical clufters. — Native of bufhy (hady places,
on the banks of rivers, in Hifpaniola, flowering in the
fpring. The Jlems are from three to five feet high, fmooth,
pale, roundifh, branched ; the branches loofely fpreading
and zigzag. Leaves two or three inches in length, and
nearly half as broad, flirongly ferrated, with three principal
ribs, and two fmall lateral ones, roughifli ; pale and a little

U. d'lffufa. Recumbent Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ.

Willd. n. 13 Leaves oppofite, ovate, acute, fer-

hifpid. Stipulas revolute. Stem procumbent.

Clufters panicled, longer than the leaves Native of ftony

mountains in Jamaica. The_/?fm is flirubby at the bafe.

13

290.
rated.

with a few fcattered harmlefs briftlcs. Footjlalks half as
long as the leaves. Stipulas intrafoliaceous, fmall, cloven,
reflexed. Clujlers axillar)', oppofite, panicled, twice the

a half long, veiny, rather flethy,

fliort hairs, which on the under one are fo copious, as to

give a whitiih hue to that furface. Foot/lalis haU zn mch ^ ^. . ^ - ^ , r , ,

long Corymbs axillan', on long ^alks, reaching beyond procumbent, fending forth numerous fmooth, forked, round

the leaves. Flowers in roundifh heads. branches, lying on the ground in every direftion, to the ex-

8. U. pranJifolia. Great-leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI. tent of two feet, but afcending at their leafy extremities.

l7o6. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 4. ( U. iners racemofa fyl- Z,mwj about_ an inch long, three-ribbed, Jhining, clothed
yatica, folio nervofo ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 124. t. 83. f. 2.)
—Leaves oppofite, ovate, pointed, copioufly ferrated.

Stipulas elliptical, entire, glaucous. Corjmbs much ,,.-(/ ^ . - .. -. . -.

branched, axillary, longer than the footftalks — Native of length of the leaves. Flowers monoecious, very minute.
Jamaica, 'in ftiady woods. Stem from eighteen inches to 14. U. betuUfolia. Birch-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind.

four feet hicrh. Leaves from five inches to a foot or more Occ. 291. Willd. n. 14. — Leaves oppofite, nearly orbi-

in leno-th, three-ribbed, ftalked ; roughifh above ; fmooth cular, fomcwhat heart-fliaped, ferrated. Stipulas oblong,

and gTaucous beneath. Stipulas in pairs within the foot- Clufters compound. Stem nearly proftrate, with long run-

ftalks, permanent, broadly ovate, or fomewhat heart-fliaped, ners — Gathered by Dr. Swartz, in ftony fliady places, near

fmooth, glaucous and purplifti. Flowers brownifli, minute, fprings, on the hiUs of Hifpaniola, flowering in May and

very numerous, tufted. J""^- R""' perenmal, creeping, thread-fliaped. Stems

L U. macrophylla. Doubly -ferrated Japan Nettle, herbaceous, a foot high, lax, fcarcely branched, round,

Thiinb. Jap. 69. Willd. n. 9. — " Leaves oppofite, leafy, fmooth, throwing out very long, flender, brittle

roundifh, doubly ferrated. Flowers panicled." — Found runners from the bottom. Leaves cm long fmooth ftalk-,

near Nagafaki, and in Kofido, in Japan, flowering in Sep- three-ribbed, veiny, fmooth, near an inch broad, deeply

tember and Oaober. The ftem is fquare, furrowed, pur- ferrated ; thofe of the runners nearly feffile. Stipulas

tember and Oftober. The Jlem is fqi
plifti, and like the reft of the plant finely dowfly. Leaves
ftalked, by no means heart-ftiaped, three-ribbed, acute, four
inches wide, rough with hairs, with deep-cut ferratures,
which are feparately ferrated, Footjlalks ftiorter than die
leaves. Panicles axillary. Thunb.

10. U. verticillata. Whorled Nettle. Vahl Symb. v. i.
76. Willd. n. 10. (U. iners; Forflc. ^gypt.-Arab.
j6o.) " Leaves oppofite, ovate, ferrated. Flowers axil-
lary, crowded, feflile."— Native of hills in Arabia Fehx.
Perennial. Stems herbaceous, a foot high, branched,
fquare, flender, moft hairy upwards. Leaves ftalked, an
inch long, bluntly ferrated, fomewhat hairy ; entire at the
bafe; paler beneath. Footjlalks flender, hairy, the length
of the leaves. Flowers fomewhat whorled, hair)-. Vahl.

11. U. reticulata. Net -leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind.

Occ. 286. Willd. n. 11. Ait. n. 5 Leaves oppofite,

elliptic -oblong, acute ; ferrated towards the point ; reti-
culated beneath. Stipulas ovate, entire. Clufters panicled,
about the length of the footftalks.— Native of ftony moun-
tainous places, in the interior of Jamaica, according to Dr.
Swartz, from whom we have a fpecimen. The root is pe-
rennial, with many long tough fibres. This fpecies m many
points approaches U. granSfolia, n. 8, but xhe fern is more
ftirubby, and rather taller, though the leaves are very much

7

whitifh, undivided, obtufe, ereft. Flowers extremely mi-
nute, whitifti, witli reddifh ftalks.

15. U. rufa. Rufty Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 292.
Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 6. — Leaves oppofite, elHptical,
acute, ferrated, triple-ribbed ; their veins hairy. Stipulas
roundifh, permanent. Clufters fliglitly branched. Stem
fhrubby, fhaggy with rufty hairs — Native of ftony moun-
tainous places, in the fouth part of Jamaica, flowering m
fpring. The Jlem is a foot high ; woody, fimple, naked
and fmooth in the lower part ; bufhy above, leafy, and
clothed with long, denfe, rufty down. Leaves three quar-
ters of an inch long, neatly ferrated ; their ftalks half as
long. Stipulas whitifh, clafping the ilem above the foot-
ftalks. Clujlers on long, hairy, axillary ftalks. Flowers
minute ; the male ones largeft, intermixed with the female.
Thefe laft five Weft Indian fpecies are all deftitute of ftings,
as well as grandifolia, n. 8, to which they are more or lefs
akin, though far inferior in fize.

16. U. urens. Small Stinging Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI.

1396. Willd. n. 16. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1236.

Purfli n. 2. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 7c. Fl. Dan. t. 739.

BuUiard t. 230. (U. minor; Ger. Em. 707.
Hift. 108. Brunf. Herb. v. 1. 154. U. tertia
Valgr. v. 2. 471.) — Leaves oppofite, elliptical,

Fuchf.
; Matth.
ftrongiy
ferrated.

URTICA.

ferrated, about five-ribbed. Stipulas lanceolate, reflexed.
Clufters oblong, nearly fimple. — Common throughout Eu-
rope, in cultivated ground, where it proves a molt trouble-
fome annual weed, of quick growth, and very prolific,
often producing two crops in a year. In America it is more
rare. The herb is rather bufhy, bright green, armed all
over with venomous ilings. Leaves an uich or more in
length, coarfely and deeply ferrated, full twice as long as
their footjlalis. Stipulas fmall, narrow, reflexed. Clufters
ilalked, drooping, hardly equal, in general, to the foot-
ftalks, compofed of male and female Jlowers intermixed.
Seeds bordered.

17. U./fatulata. Spatulate Stinging Nettle. (U. minor
urentiffima ; Commerf. MSS.) — Leaves oppofite, orbicu-
lar-heart(haped, deeply ferrated, fliorter than their foot-
rtalks, mo(tly three-ribbed. Clufters capitate, very (hort.
— Gathered by Commerfon at Monte Video. The Jlem is
more elongated, and lefs branched, than in the foregoing,
very denfely leafy. Whole herb plentifully armed with long
venomous ilings. Fooljlalis near an inch long. Leaves
about half that length, with deep-cut, acute, radiating fer-
ratures. The Jlipulas we have not feen. Flowers much
like U. urens, but in (horter tufts, and the feeds appear to
be lefs confpicuoufly bordered. We fufpeft this to be a
perennial fpecies.

18. U. dioica. Great Stinging Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI.
1396. Willd. n. 17. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 1750.
Purfh n. 3. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 69. Fl. Dan. t. 746.
(U. urens ; Ger. Em. 706. U. major ; Fuchf. Hift. 107.
]3runf. Herb. v. i. 151. U. fecunda ; Matth. Valgr. v. 2.
470.) — Leaves oppofite, heart-fhaped, (harply ferrated.
Stipulas ovate,"diftinft, fpreading. Clullers much branched,
in pairs, longer than the footlfalks, moftly dioecious. —
Common in wafte ground, throughout Europe, as well as
in North America and Afia, flowering in the middle of
fummer. The perennial creeping root, larger fize and duller
green of the whole plant, and the large hnmcMxiigJlo'iver-

Jlalks, render this very obvioufly diftinft from n. i6. The
Jlems are three feet, or more, in height. Every part is
armed with ftings. Flowers chiefly male on one plant, fe-
male on another. Calyx of the latter often furnilhed with
a pair of irafleas at its bafe. The iibres of the^em may be
manufaftured into thread, but are inferior to hemp. The
young leaves, boiled in fpring, are not a bad fubftitute for
fpinach, to which herb the Nettle is allied, as well as to the
hemp, in botanical affinity. Leers remarks the two addi-
tional leaves, or braBeas, to the female calyxy in U. urens,
as well as in the prefent fpecies.

19. \J. gracilis. Slender-ftalked Nettle. Ait. ed. i.
v. 3. 341. ed. 2. n. 12. Willd. n. 29. (U. procera ; Willd.
n. 18. Purfh n. 4.) — Leaves oppofite, ovato-lanceolate,
ferrated ; hcart-fliaped at the bafc. Stem and footltalks hif-
pid. Flowers dioecious. Clufters in pairs, fomewhat

branched, about as long as the footltalks Native of Hud-

fon's Bay, from whence it was brought to Kew, in 1782.
Alton. Found by the fides of waters, in rocky fituations,
from Canada to I'ennfylvania, flowering in July and Auguft.
Perennial. The fpccimcn of U. gracilis, m tlie liorbarium
of x\. B. Lambert, cfq., agrees in every refpeft with pro-
cera. Purjh. This being the cafe, we retain, of courfc,
the original name. We have feen no fpccimcn of either
plant. U. procera is defcribcd by Willdcnow as very nearly
related to the common dioica, fo as to be poffibly no more
than a variety ; but differing in its lefs heart-lhapcd haves,
whofe ferratures are fmaller. The fuotjlalls arc fringed with
briftlcs towards the bafe of each li;if, where the dioica is
downy only. The fpiies, or cliijlcrs, moreover, arc lefs

compound, fometimes ihortfer than the footftalks, not
longer.

20. U. morifolia. Mulberry -leaved Nettle. — Leaves
oppofite, heart-lhaped, broadly and bluntly ferrated.
Stipulas ovate, combined, reflexed. Clufters in pairs,
cylindrical, unbranched, drooping. — Sent by Mutis from
Mexico. Linnreus confidered it as U. dioica, from
whicli, when examined, it manifeftly difi^ers in the above
charaAers, and, even at firil fight, in the broad blunt ferra-
tures of the nearly naked, though rough, leaves, whofe
furface is even, not wrinkled, except when very young.
The clujlers are flender, and in our fpecimen entirely female.
Seed nearly orbicular, crowned with a fhort Jlyle.

21. U. chamadryoidei. Germander Nettle. Purfli n. 5.
— " Leaves oppofite, almoft feffile, ovate, ferrated ; briftly
beneath. Tufts of flowers axillary, feffile, nearly globofe,
reflexed. Stem armed with ftings." — On the iflands of
Georgia, St. Simon's, &c. Mr. Lyon. Annual, flower-
ing in May. The leaves are fmall. Stings white, very
confpicuous. Pvrjh.

22. U. membranacea. Wing-ftalked Nettle. Poiret in
Lamarck n. 9. Willd. n. 19. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 340.
(U. caudata ; Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 96. U. dioica 0 ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 1396.) — Leaves oppofite, broadly ovate, fomewhat
heart-ftiaped, coarfely ferrated. Flowers monoecious ; the
male in twin, upright, unbranched, ftalked fpikes, with a
winged receptacle ; female in nearly feffile fpikes, fliorter

than the footftalks Native of the fouth of Europe, the

north of Africa, and the ifle of Bourbon, in which laft
place our fpecimen was gathered by Commerfon. The root
is perennial. Herb ftinging, refembling U. dioica, but
paler, more delicate, of a brighter green ; the leaves alfo
are broader, rounder, lefs ftiarply ferrated, on longer ftalks.
The Jlipulas are alnioll perfe£lly combined, fpreading. The
upright, ilalked, unbranched, hneir male fpiies, with their
membranous-winged receptacle, form the moft remarkable
charafter of the prefent fpecies. They grow in pairs, from
the bofoms of the upper leaves, which they greatly exceed
in length. The female fpiies, fituated lower down, are
much (horter, and lefs confpicuous. Their calyx is downy.

23. U. ferox. Armed Nettle. Fortt. Prodr. 66.
Willd. n. 20. — Leaves oppofite, haftate-heartfliaped, coarfely
toothed, fringed with briftles ; downy beneath. Stipulas
heart-fliaped. Clufters panicled, in pairs, longer than the
footftalks — Gathered by Forfter, in New Zeeland. A
ftirub, whofe branches and footflalls are clothed with hoary
down. The midrib of each leafn befet, on the upper fide,
with rigid briftles ; the under iide is downy. The habit of
the plant refembles U. dioica. IVilldenow.

24. \J. JicifoUa. Fig-leaved Nettle. Lamarck n. 10.
Willd. n. 21. — Leaves oppofite, heart-fliaped, fomewhat
hallate, acutely fivc-lobed, crenate ; downy beneath. Pa-
nicles cymofe, divaricated Gathered by Commerfon, in

the ifle of Bourbon. This appears to be a tree, with thick,
rather flelhy, branches, leafy at their extremities. The
leaves grow on longifli fooljlalis, and are three inches long,
nearly as much in breadth, very irregularly five or feven-
lobed, with taper points ; their upper furface almoft fmooth ;
under clothed with white filky pubcfcence. The fame tree
fometimes bears deeply three-lobed, as deeply pinnatifid,
leaves. Flowers very numerous, fmall, whitilh, in large,
compound, fpreading panicles, fomewhat like the cymes of
Elder, but not fo large.

25. U. cannabina. Hemp-leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI.
1396. Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 9. (U. foliis profunde la-
ciniatis, feniine lini ; Amman. Ruth. 173. t. 25.) — Leaves
oppofite, iu tlu-ec deep pinuntilid fcgracnls. Clufters cy-
lindrical,

URTICA.

lindrical, in pairs, ereft. — Native of Siberia, efpecially
beyond lake Baikal. Miller appears to have had it at Chel-
fea, in 1749. A hardy perennial, five or fix feet high,
flowering from July to September, well compared, in its
foliage, to Hemp. The leaves are of a deep rich green,
rough with very minute points, and a few mai-ginal briftles,
on the upper fide ; fraooth at the back. Footjlalks half the
length of the leaves, armed, like ihojlem, with fcattered,
large, and powerful flings. Clujlers thick, an inch and a
half or two inches long, being about half the length of the
leaves with their footftalks. Floivers stnd fads very large in
proportion to mod of the foregoing. Calyx befet with
flings.

26. U. virgata. Wand-like Nettle. Forll. Prodr. 66.
Willd. n. 23. — " Leaves oppofite, ovate, ferrated, three-
ribbed. Spikes axillary, fohtary, interrupted." — Native
of the Society Ifles. Forjler.

27. U. rugofa. Rugged-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 293. Willd. n. 24 Leaves oppofite, eUiptical, fer-
rated, three-ribbed, rugged. CluiUrs fliort, denfe, termi-
nal. Stem fimple, ereft. — Native of moift ftony places,
about the banks of rivers, in Hifpaniola, flowering in fpring.
Root annual. Stem a foot high, round, downy. Leaves
croffing each other in pairs, ftalked, from one to two inches
long, finely and regularly ferrated, rough but not flinging,
fomewhat plaited at the margin ; hairy beneath. Stipulas
large, ovate. Floivers dioecious, very minute and crowded,
in tufts fhorter than the ftipulas.

28. U. repens. Creeping-ftalked Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 294. Aft. Holm, for 1787. t. I. f. I. Willd. n. 25.
— Leaves oppofite, roundifh-ovate, obtufe, bluntly ferrated,
three-ribbed ; entire at the bafe. Cluflers capitate, axillary,
ftalked. Stem fimple, creeping. — Found on the fandy
banks of rivers in Hifpaniola, flowering in the fpring. The
root is annual and fibrous. Stem a fpan long, creeping clofe
to the ground by means of radicles from each joint. Leaves
hardly an inch long at the utmoft, flightly hairy, not fling-
ing. Footjlalks hairy, fliorter than the leaves. Flowers
monoecious, in little oblong clujlers, on capillary, oppofite
ftalks ; much fhorter than the leaves.

29. U. Jlolonifera. Trailing Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ.
296. Willd. n. 26. — Leaves oppofite, elliptic-oblong,
flightly ferrated. Stem afcending, with radical runners.
Panicles terminal, folitary, dioecious, on flender flalks.
— Found on the rocky banks of rivers, among mofTes, in
the interior part of Hifpaniola. Root perennial. Stem
none, or very fhort ; in Dr. Swartz's fpecimenstwo or three
inches long, fimple, moft leafy at the top, fending out
traihng flioots from the bafe, clothed with very fmall leaves.
The leaves of the main flem are about an inch long, rough
to the touch, and rather downy, but not flinging ; the

footjlalks about the fame length. Stipulas oblong, entire,
membranous, accompanying all the leaves. Floiverjlalks
from the middle of the crowded terminal (not radical)
leaves, which they exceed in length. Flowers green, fmall ;
the male in a roundifh denfe tuft ; female in an oblong, lax,
compound panicle ; on diilinft plants.

30. U. nudicautis. Naked-ftalked Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 311. Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 11. — Leaves chiefly
terminal, oppofite, eUiptic -lanceolate, pointed, three-ribbed,
entire, nearly fmooth. Stem angular ; leaflefs below. Cluf-

ters lateral, dioecious Native of hme-ftone rocks, in the

interior of Jamaica. Root fibrous. Stem one or two feet
high, nearly ereft, fcarcely branched, jointed, angular, and
flriated, contrafted at the joints ; its light-green colour, and
fmooth furface, in fome degree refembhng the ftems of fe-
7eral fpecies of Ep'idendrum, or their allies. Leaves chiefly

about the top of the plant, on fhort ftalks, generally
fmooth and naked, one and a half or two inches long, very-
minutely dotted, deilitute oi Jlipulas. The uppermoft cluf-
ters are axillary, the refl at the joints of the flem, oppofite,
fmall. Flowers minute, white, crowded, very rarely mo-
noecious. Dr. Swartz mentions a variety, with narrower,
fomewhat hifpid, leaves ; longer, more diffufe, clujlers ; and
a lefs naked_^fm.

31. U. lanceolata. Lanceolate-leaved Nettle. Lamarck

n. 15. Willd. n. 28 Leaves oppofite, linear-lanceolate,

three-ribbed, entire, nearly feffile. Cluflers capitate, axil-
lary, folitary. — Native of Hifpaniola. J. Martin. Poiret
fays this fpecies is remarkable, and very diftinft, on ac-
count of its narrow, linear-lanceolate, nearly fefCle, leaves,
lihejlems are weak, herbaceous, naked, almoft cylindrical,
jointed. Leaves about an inch long, and two or three lines
broad, fomewhat wavy at the edges ; paler beneath. By
the defcription, there feems fome reafon to doubt whether
this be diftinft from the laft, but we have feen no fpecimens
of it. On the other hand, nudlcauUs is in the lift of fpecies
unknown to M. Pourret.

32. U. corymbofa. Corymbofe Entire-leaved Nettle.
Lamarck n. 17. Ait. n. 30. — Leaves oppofite, ovate,
pointed, entire ; unequal at the bafe. Corymbs axiUary,
on elongated ftalks. — Native of Guadeloupe. Bad'ier.
Stems very rough, with glandular points. Leaves about
five inches long, and three broad, one fide fhorter than the
other at the bafe ; their furface rough to the touch. Foot-
jlalks very long, but fhorter than the leaves. Corymbs each

on a long, fimple, axiUary common ftalk, probably like our
peduncularis, n. 6.

33. U. Parittaria. Pellitory -leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1397. Willd. n. 31. Ait. n. 13. Swartz Obf. 357.
( Parietaria fohis ex adverfo nafcentibus, urtics racemiferas
flore ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 144. t. 93. f. i.) — Leaves op-
pofite, ovato-lanceolatc, entire. Stem much branched.
Flowers dioecious. — Native of lofty mountains in the Weft
Indies, flowering throughout the year. Stem from two to
eight feet high, ereft ; fomewhat fhrubby in the lower part ;
much branched and herbaceous above, red, quadrangular,
ftriated ; the ultimate branches flender, wavy, leafy, and
fmooth. Leaves ftalked, an inch or inch and a half long,
pointed, three-ribbed, veiny, fringed, very flightly, if at
all, unequal in the two halves : on the fmall flowering
branches one of two oppofite leaves is but a third the fize
of the other. Footjlalks long, red, fpreading. Clujlers
ftalked, axillary, terminal, or oppofite to fome of the
leaves ; their flalks flender, coloured, ereft, fmooth,
quadrangular, longer than the footftalks. Flowers very
fmall. Seed minute, black, fhining. Such is Sloane's and
Swartz's plant, of which we are obliged to the latter for
fpecimens. It is wanting in the Linnxan herbarium.

34. U. ciliaris. Fringed Three-furrowed Nettle. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1396. Willd. n. 32. (Parietaria racemofa, foliis ad
oras villofis ; Plum. Ic. iii. t. 120. f. 2.) — Leaves oppo-
fite, ovate, entire, ftrongly three^ribbed, fringed. Clufters
divaricated, corymbofe, much branched — Native of the
Well Indies, but rare. A fpecimen was given by fir Jofeph
Banks to the younger Linnxus. The branches are very
fmooth, reddifh, obtufely quadrangular. Leaves ftalked,
from one to two inches long, pointed, fmooth, except fome
fcattered and marginal wliite hairs ; the three ribs remark-
ably prominent beneath, and furrowed above. Clujlers axil-
lary, oppofite, ftalked, level-topped, widely fpreading, half
the length of the leaves. The fringe of the latter is far lefs
evident in our fpecimen, than in Plumjer's figure, and yet
we have no doubt of its identity.

35- U.

URTICA.

35. U. hediracca. Ivy-leaved Nettle. Lamarck n. 29 — inches long, covered with minute deprefTed brilllos, and di-
" Leaves oppofite, roundifh-ovate, crenate ; abrupt al the viding at the extremity into many fpreading, oppofite, leafy
bafe. Chillers ftiort, on long llalks." — Native ot" Guade- branches, /-mi-^j hardly an inch long, broadly ovate, fome-
loupe. Richard. A fmall ipcciis, with fibrous roots, and what triple-ribbed, and marked with many tranfverfe veins •
weak_y?imi, two or three inches high, clothed with tine (hort their under fide fmooth, brown or purplifli ; upper bright

hoary hairs. Zc<I^';•x ftalked, fmall, with large notches, like -—'•"" j — :.u ;_...- j /r 1 1 -m • .

t^ofe of Ivy in miniature, with a few fcattered hairs, efpe-
cially on their ribs and footftalks. Floiucrs in little denfe
tufts, on axillary llalks twice the length of the leaves.
Point.

36. L^. rhombsa. Rhomb-leaved Nettle. Linn. Suppl.
417. Willd. n. 33. — Leaves oppofite, rhomboid, entire,
three-ribbed, flat, about the length of their footftalks,

which are longer than the cymofe axill.iry panicles Sent

by Mutis from Mexico. The Jlcm is herbaceous, about a of the leaves fmooth, the under flightly downy ; yet we can-
foot high, much branched, fmooth, leafy. Leaves from not doubt his plant being the fame as ours. He fpeaks of
half an inch to an inch, or rather more, in length, and a variety with narrower, more lanceolate and pointed, leaves,
above half as much acrofs their middle, obtufely pointed at which has not fallen in our way.

green, covered with very minute deprcffed briftles, as in the
laft, which do not interfere with their fmoothnefs to the
touch. Some of ihe footjalks are as long as the correfpond-
ing leaf; others in the fame whorl but half that length.
Fh-wer-Jlalks longer than the longcft. footftalks, flender,
fmooth, folitary, forked at the upper part, bearing feveral
little round tufts of Jlowers, which in our fpecimen are all
female, and in feed ; nor do we find any traces or remains of
male ones. M. Poiret in Lamarck defcribes the upper fide

each end, fmooth and even on both fides, without flings.
St'tpulas ftiort, membranous, abrupt. Floiuer-Jlalks axillary,
folitary or in pairs, fcarcely ever fo long as the footftalks.
Bradeas lanceolate, membranous, at each of their fubdi-
vifions. Flowers crowded into little heads, fmall, monoe-
cious. Seeds elliptical, beaked. The whole plant refembles
a Parietaria.

37. U. eiliata. Speedwell-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 298. Willd. n. 34. — Leaves oppofite, elliptical, three-
ribbed, crenate, fringed, acute at each end ; entire at the
bafe. Stem divaricated. Flowers aggregate, on axillary
ftalks, about the length of the footftalks. — pound in rocky
woods, in the interior of Jamaica. The Jlem is herbaceous,
dividing from the bafe into feveral fmooth, fpreading,

40. \J . fafciculdtn. Tufted Nettle. Poiret in Lamarck
n. H) — " Leaves oppofite, ovate, toothed, on long ftalks.
Flowers tufted at the divifions of the panicle." — Native of
Carolina. M. Poiret fays this is very diftinft from the pre-
ceding. The leaves, like every other part, are fmooth,
much larger than the laft, acute, generally remarkable for
the great length of the fmooth {lender footjlalks. Clujleri
many-flowered, very denfe, crowded, aggregate and axillary,
hardly longer than the footftalks.— We have feen no fpeci-
men anfwering to this defcription, nor is the prefent fpecies
adopted by Willdenow or Purfli ; at leaft not by the above
name.

ifl . \] . fejjilifolia. Seftile-leaved Whorled Nettle. Poiret
in Lamarck n. 30. Willd. n. 37. — Leaves nearly feffilc,

afcending branches, about fix inches high. Leaves an inch lanceolate, fharply ferrated, three or four in a whorl. — Ga

long, not unlike Verotika ujjic'tnalis in general afpect, but
ftiorter, on longifli ftalks, crenate rather than ferrated, mi-
nutely downy, not flinging. Stipulas minute, accompanied
by tufts of hairs. Flowers moft alFuredly axillary, not ter-
minal, forming a kind of umbels, in which the male ones
fecm to occupy the upper part. This fpecies is, as Dr.
Swartz obferves, totally different from the Linnasan U.
ciliaris, but we would beg leave to remark that their names
are too much alike.

38. U. radicans. Parafitical Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ.
299. Willd. 11. 35. — Leaves oppofite, ovate, crenate, (hin-
ing ; flightly wedge-ftiaped at the bafe. Flowers axillary.

thercd by Conimerfon in the ifle of Mauritius. The Jlems
are rather woody, with flraight leafy branches. Leaver
moflly four in each whorl, their teeth, or ferratures, pointed;
both furfaces covered with fliort, whilr, not very evident,
hairs, fuch as are found alfo on the ftem ; the upper fide is
of a fine green ; the under a little reddilh. The /lowers
have not bien obferved, fo that the genus is preiumed from
the habit only.

42. \i. nummularifijliii. Moneywort-lcavcil Nettle. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 301. kA. Holm, for 1787. t. i. f 2. Willd.
n. 38. ( Nummularia faxatilis minima repens, floribus albia,
foliis crenatis villofis ; Sloane .lam. v. i. 208. t. 131. f. 4. )

nearly fcifile. St(-m and branches trailing, with downy ra- — Leaves opjiofite, orbicular, crenate, hairy. Clufters denfe,
dicles. — Native of umbrageous forefts, in the interior of the terminal, monoecious. Stems thread-fliaped, fimple, creep-
northern part of .lamaica, where it trails over the trunks of ing. — Native of fiftures of rocks, among the mountainous
trees, even to their very fummits, thriving plentifully under woods of Jamaica. A pretty little ireopiug fpecies, downy,
their fliade, as well as on the rotten trunks of fallen trees or minutely hairy, all over. The leaves are about half an
in the fame fituations ; but it rarely blon"oms. The fpread- inch in diamutcr, obtufe, bright green, crenate like thofe
ing Jlems are fometimes attached throughout their whole of a Chryfrifplentum ; paler beneatii. Stipulas membranous,
length, by ftiaggy or dowiiy radicles ; they are brittle, fub- whitifti, obtufe. C/u//cr.r from the bofoms of the uppern\oft

divided, with many oppofite leafy branches. Leaves ftalked,
horizontal, obtul^i , half or three-quarters of an inch long ;
their upper furface covered with minute depreffcd briftles,
though not harfli to the touch, nor ftinging. Stipulas
fcarcely difoernible. Flowers minute, green, the male and
female ones in the fame axillary tuft.

^(). V. pnJi.la. Pendulous Nettle. Willd. n. 36. (U.
rupipendia ; Lamarck n. 18. " U. umbcllata ; Dory de St.
Vincent Voy. v. 3. 173.") — Leaves ovate, bluntly ferrated,
generally four in a whorl, on unequal footftalks. Clufters

leaves, eacli of feveral male and {i;m^\cJlowers ; the former
largelt, on longer ftalks ; the l.itler very minute. Seeds
nearly orbicular, brown, lunild.

43. U. depreja. Depreifed Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ.
303. Willd. 11. 39. — Leaves oppofite, roundi(h, crenate,
fmooth. Clufters denfe, terminal, dioecious. Sti-m creep-
ing, fnbdivided — Native of (hady grafly borders of fields,
in the interior of .lamaica. Perennial. Stem three or four
inches long, fucculent, prefTed ciofe to the earth, and fixed
by many fmall radicles. The fliort liranches form a kind of

axillary and terminal, on long folitary ft.ilks, fomewhat co- turf with the adjoining plants. Leaves imA\, ribbed, rather

rymbofe. — Native of the ifles of Mauritius and Bourbon, fucculent, of a brownilh green. Stipulas ov.ite, fmall and

hanging from the rocks in an elegant manner. The root is white. Flowers dioecious, about three to live, in lit lie tcr-

fibrous, apparently perennial. Slims from eight to twelve minal felfile clufters ; the female ones extremely minute.

Vol. XXXVII. 4B Seeds

CRTICA.

Steds roundifh, black. Differs from the laft in its fmooth-
nefs, darker colour, dioecious^^owfrx, and more numerous,
entangled, deprefled, copioufly branched, _y?fmx.

44. U. herniarlfolla. Rupture-wort Nettle. Willd. n. 40.
(U. herniarioides ; Swartz Ind. Occ. 309. Aft. Holm.
for 1787. t. 2. f. I.) — Leaves oppofite, roundifh, entire;
tapering at the bafe : the terminal ones four in a whorl.
Flowers terminal, ftalked, monoecious. Stem thread-fhaped,
difFufe. — Found on large ftones, in the rivers and rivulets of
Hifpaniola. A very fmall, flender, fmooth, trailing, annual
herb, three or four inches long at moll, not much branched.
Leaves ftalked, fomewhat fpatulate, bluntifh, fcarccly two
lines in diameter ; their upper furface covered with depreffed
briftles, as if ftitched, but not rough to the touch. Flowers
exceffively fmall, in little terminal monoecious tufts. Seed
brown.

45. U. microphylla. Small-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 305. Willd. n. 41. Ait. n. 14. (Parielaria micro-
phylla; Linn. Sp. PI. 1492. Am. Acad. v. 5. 412. Her-
niaria lucida aquatica ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 145. t. 93. f. 2.) —
Leaves oppofite or cluftered, ovate, acute, fucculcnt, nearly
entire. Flowers fcattered, dioecious. Stems afcending,
branched in the upper part. — Very common throughout the
Weft Indies, in walle or watery places, or on old walls, &c.
flowering throughout the year. The roots are perennial,
long and capillary. Herb much ftouter and more ereft than
the preceding, about four inches high, with innumerable
minute leaves, refembling that fpecies, but more ovate and
acute, as well as occafionally notched ; their upper fide in
like manner clothed with clofe briftles. Flozvers axillary,
ftalked ; the male largeft, reddifh ; the female on a feparate
plant, with (horter ftalks, crowded, very minute. Seed
roundifti, pohfhed.

46. U. trianthemoldes, Purflane-leaved Nettle. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 307. Willd. n. 42 — Leaves oppofite, obovate,
obtufe, entire ; one much fmaller than the other. Flowers
monoecious. Stem ereft, branched. — Native of (hady rocky
places, near rivers, in Hifpaniola. Perennial. Stem herba-
ceous, a foot high, jointed, branched from the bafe, fuccu-
lent and imooth ; ultimate branches alternate, fpreading,
leafy. Leaves ftalked, of a ftiining green, fmooth to the
touch, but ftriated, as it were, with fmall, infeparable, flat-
tened briftles, on the upper fide ; the under being dotted,
and only partially hairy. The largeft leaf of each pair is
not an inch long ; the fmaller fcarcely one-fifth that fize.
Stipulas none. Flonuers numerous, in axillary or lateral tufts,
at each joint of the branches. The female calyx is faid to
confill of three valves.

47. U. Jerrulata. Blunt-notched Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 313. Willd. n. 43. — Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, ab-
ruptly ferrated, nearly feffile ; tapering at the bafe. Heads
of flowers axillary, ftalked. Stem ihrilbby, quadrangular.
— Native of limeftone rocks, in the interior of Jamaica,
flowering in the vernal months. A little, flirubby, bufliy
plant, about a foot high, with fcattered, fquare, roughilh,
but not hairy, leafy brandies. Leaves about an inch long,
dark green, minutely briftly, or ftitched, as it were, on the
upper fide, hke feveral of the foregoing ; paler beneath ;
tapering at the bafe into Ihort footjlalks ; furnilhed in their
upper part with blunt, fomewhat glandular, ferratures.
Flo-u/ers monoecious, their Jlalis red, fiiorter than the leaves ;
the male ones with a red calys.

48. U. lucida. Shining Cut-leaved Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 315. Willd. n. 44. — Leaves oppofite, pinnatifid, fhin-
ing, clothed on both fides with deprefled briftles. Heads
of flowers on axillary ftalks, longer than the leaves. Stem
ihrubby, angular.— Found jji rocky, or wafte places, among

Ji

the cooler mountains of Jamaica, flowering in fpring. A
very pretty little fhrub, the height of the laft, with brown
quadrangular branches. The bright-green fhining leaves,
fcarcely half an inch long, refemble thofe of an Oak, or
rather of Myrica quercifolia, in miniature, their lobes and
finufes being rounded in a fimilar manner. Their flattened
briftles are large in proportion. Flotuer-Jlalh fimple, capil-
lary, each bearing a very fmall head, in which the male and
iemAt Jlonvers are intermixed.

49. U. tr'dobala. Three-lobed Glaucous Nettle. Poiret
in Lamarck n. 14. Willd. n. 45 — Leaves oblong, obtufe,
undivided or three-lobed, ftalked, three or four in a whorl,
hoary with clofe-preffed briftles. Stem round, with quad-
rangular branches. — Gathered in the ifland of Mauritius by
Commerfon, one of whofe fpecimens is before us. This,
hke what M. Poiret examined, is deftitute of fruftification,
but the habit, and efpecially the remarkable deprefled
briftles of the leaves, fo copious as to render the plant
glaucous or hoary, fcarcely allow of a doubt as to the
genus. The Jlem is fomewhat fhrubby, bufhy, of taller
ftature than the two laft ; round, glaucous, and leaflefs be-
low ; furnifhed at the upper part with elongated, fquare,
leafy, oppofite or ternate, branches. Leaves on longifh
ftalks, fpreading, of a greyifh-green, fmooth to the touch,
linear-oblong, rounded at each end, fcarcely an inch in
length ; fome of them quite undivided and entire ; but the
greater part are furnifhed at e.ich fide, about the middle,
with a fmall, fpreading, obtufe lobe. A few of the lower
leaves are oppofite only.

50. U. cuneifolia. Smooth Wedge-leaved Nettle. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 319. Willd. n. 46. — Leaves oppofite, obovate-
wedgefhaped, very fmooth, toothed at the end ; one much
fmaller than the other. Clufters terminal, on capillary
ftalks. Stem fhrubby, round. — Native of raalfy lirae-ftone
rocks, among the mountains of Jamaica. Root creeping.
Stem from three inches to a foot in height, ereft, branched,
ftriated, fmooth. Leaves almoft rlblefs, on very fhort
ftalks, without Jliptdas, one of each pair fix times the fize
of its companion, which is obovate and nearly entire.
Flowers monoecious, in little tufts, not capitate, on foli-
tary, reddifh, fpreading ftalks, from the bofoms of the ter-
minal leaves, which they do not equal in length. Male

Jlowers with a thick red calyx, and white anthers ; female
ones more numerous, and much fmaller. Dr. Swartz men-
tions a dwarf variety, only an inch high, with ovate leaves,
and extremely mmute Jloivcrs. This is one of the very few
fpecies of which we have feen no fpecimens.

51. U. cuneijormis. Roughifh Wedge-leaved Nettle.
Poiret in Lamarck n. 20. Willd. n. 47. — Leaves oppo-
fite, ftalked, obovate-wedgefhaped, ferrated, triple-ribbed,
minutely hairy. Flowers tufted, on fhort axillary ftalks.
Stems fimple, afcending. — Gathered by Commerfon, in the
ifle of Mauritius. Root perennial, creeping. Stems feveral,
about four or five inches high, roundifh, leafy, rather
woody, and numeroufly jointed. Leaves almoft an inch
long, ftrongly ferrated except at the tapering bafe, the op-
pofite ones very flightly unequal in fize. Flowers reddifh,
few together, on lateral ftalks, about the length of the
footftalks.

Seft. 2. Leaves alternate.

52. U. lappulacea. Bur Nettle. Swartz Ind. Occ. 317.
Aft. Holm, for 1787. t. 2. f. 2. Willd. n. 48 — Leaves
alternate, ovate, roughifh, hairy, entire. Flowers terminal,
nearly feffile. Seeds triangular. Stem difFufe. — Very com-
mon iu dry ftony places in Jamaica, flowering in fpring.
The afpeft of the plant is like a Partetaria. Stem trailing,
much branched. Leaves ftalked, from a quarter to three-
quarters

URTICA.

quarters of an inch long, fomewhat hairy, not flinging, im-
perfeftly fringed. Stipuhn none. Flowers crowded be-
tween the terminal leaves, fomewhat racemofe, the male and
female ones together, the latter fcflile. Germens two, one
to each valve, triangular. The permanent valves of the
calyx, fringed with minute hooked briflles, attach themfelves
to any thing that comes in their way, and carry the feeds
along with them. Swartz dcfcribes a fort of rougli cover-
ing to the feeds, ijefides the calyx-valves, and judly remarks
that this Ipecies is a very Angular Urtica, very near the
Farielarix in habit ; and we may add fomewhat Cmilar,
perhaps, in cliarafter.

53. U. glomerata. Tufted-flowered Nettle. Willd.
n. 49. — Leaves alternate, ovate, entire ; rough above ; moft
hairy beneath. Flowers pen tandrous, nearly feffile, in axil-
lary tufts. Stem ercft, with flender elongated branches

Native of the Eaft Indies. Communicated by profelTor
Willdenow himfelf. The Jlem is fomewhat fiirubby, a foot
and a half or two feet high, with alternate, long, flender,
angular, leafy, reddidi branches, downy when young.
Leaves numerous, fcattered, flalked, from half an inch to
an inch, rarely more, in length, bluntilh, three-ribbed ;
dark green, and rough with minute points, as well as a few
hairs, on the upper fide ; paler, and clothed with prominent
briftly hairs, beneath. Flowers reddilh, hairy, monoecious,
ia numerous little round tufts ; the males five-cleft. The
whole plant has altogether the appearance of a Parielaria.

54. U. moUyfima. Silk-leaved Nettle Leaves alternate,

ovato-lanceolate, bluntifh, entire ; foft and downy on both
fides. Flowers nearly feflile, in axillary tufts. Stem ereft,

with downy branches Gathered by Commerfon, in the

iflc of Mauritius. We find no defcription in any author
anfwerable to this plant, though it is a very diftinft fpecies.
The branches have a fhrubby afpe<ft, being flout, angular or
furrowed ; filky, and fometimes zigzag, when young.
Leaves two inches, or two and a half, in length, ovate at
the bafc, tapering to a blunt point, three-ribbed, of a bright
light green ; minutely dotted on the upper fide, and very
hairy on both, with foft filky pubefcence. Fooljlalis one-
third of an inch long, broad, very downy. Flowers nu-
merous, in denfe, globular, axillary tufts, intermixed with
fcaly brafleas. They appear to be all males in our fpeci-
mens, but are in too young a ftate for precife determination.
We have been inclined to fufpeft that this may be the Pa-
rielaria verbafcfoUa of Poiret In Lam. Dicl. v. 5. 16, but
the leaves in our fpecimens are all alternate, ovate, rather
than lanceolate, and blunt, not ftiarp. It is, however, fuf-
ficicntly akin to P. arborea of the fame author, though
abundantly diftinft, to excite this fufpicion. This P. ar-
borea, (Urtiea arborea; Linn. Suppl. 417. L'Herit.
Stirp. t. 20.) is Boehmeria rubefcens, Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4.
344 ; a handfome greenhoufc flirub, flowering copioufly in
the fpring.

55. U. rotundifoUa. Popper-leaved Nettle. Lamnrck

n. 38. Willd. n. 50 Leaves alternate, roundifh-ovate,

pointed, coriaceous, nearly entire, fmooth ; minutely dotted
above. Spikes axillary, aggregate, interrupted. Flowers
in round balls, with linear downy bracleas. — Gathered by
Commerfon, in the ifland of Mauritius. A fine large
(hrubby fpeciis, with the afpcft of a Pepper-vine. The
branches are round, fmooth, hollow. Leaves three inches
long, and two broad, with tiiree ribs, conne£led on the
under fide by tranfverfc parallel veins, and innumerable re-
ticulations ; the upper dotted with minute callous points.
Willdenow miftranflates Poiret, fo ao to dcfcribe tliefe latter
on the under furfacc. Footflalhs above an inch long, very

fmooth. Cluflers, or fpiles, twice thit length, ereft, three
together, unbranched, but formed of fevcral denfe, diflant,
globular, many-flowered heads, interfperfed with long, nar-
row, rufty bradeas. All the flowers appear to be female in
Commerfon's fpecimen, but we cannot clearly afcertain the
generic charafter, fo as to be free from doubt on that fub-
jeft. We fliould gladly have named this fpecies monilifera.

56. U. helerophylla. Various-leaved Nettle. Vahl Symb.
v. I. 76. Willd. n. 51. (U. palmata ; Forfl<. iEgypt.-
Arab. 159. Ana-fchoiigcnam ; Rheede Hort. Malab.
V. 2. 77. t. 41.) — Leaves alternate, ovate, with tooth-like
ferratures ; the upper ones three-lobed. Cluflers axillary,
ftalked, oblong, compound. — Native of Arabia Felix, and
the Eaft Indies. Root apparently annual. Stem fimple,
eighteen inches high, furrowed, fpotted, briftly. Leaves
fomewhat heart-fliaped, pointed, with three principal ribs,
from two to four inches long, and nearly as broad. Foot-

flalks briftly, fliorter than the leaves. Flowers monoecious ;
the males in globofe cluflers ; the females below them ; their
cluflers hifpid and forked when in fruit.

57. U. lefluans. Surinam Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI. 1397.
Willd. n. 52. Ait. n. 15. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3.
72. t. 388? fee n. 66. (Pino, five Urtica; Pif. Brafil.
235.) — Leaves alternate, ovate, ferrated ; minutely heart-
fliaped at the bafe. Cluflers axillary, forked. Fruit in
orbicular corymbs. — Native of Surinam. Linnaeus raifed
it in the Upfal garden. The root is annual or biennial.
Herb flinging, with a furrowed, fimple, hairy flem. Leaves
on long hairy ftalks, larger than thofc of U. dioica, and lefs
deeply or fliarply ferrated ; contradted in a peculiar manner
towards the bafc, where their two fmall lobes make a heart-
like finus. Cluflers in our fpecimen fliorter than the foot-
flallcs, forked and fubdivided ; in Pifo's figure they are
longer, and aflembled about the top of the flem, as in
Jacquin's plant, which latter is faid to have no flinging pro-
perty. Hence arifes a doubt as to his fynonym, which,
without comparing fpecimens, we cannot remove. Pifo
fpeaks of his plant as powerfully flinging, and Linnxus im-
plies the fame in the fpecific name. The briflles on the
leaves indeed appear conflrufted like thofe of our Stinging
Nettles, but thofe of the Jlem look like what Linnseus terms
them, " harmlefs prickles."

58. U. capitata. Many-headed Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI.
1397. Willd. n. 53. Purfli n. 6. — Leaves alternate,
heart-fliaped, ferrated, roughifli, nearly naked. Heads ot
flowers globular, deufely fpiked. Stem fmooth. — In fliady
woods, near rocks, from Canada to Carolina ; perennial,
flowering in June and July. Purfh. This fpecies bears
fome refemblance to U. dioica, or rather to our morifolia,
n. 20 ; but the leaves have three well-marke,d principal ribs,
and are more pointed than in the latter, bcfides being alter-
nate. The clujlers, or rather fpHes, are axillary, ereft, fo-
litary, various in length, compofed of crowded or confluent
heads, of {e{[\\e flowers. Sometimes thefe fpikes afl"ume the
nature of branches, and terminate in a few ^aves ; fometimes
they are much fliorter than the foolflalks. The feeds are
ovate, with a broad tumid border.

59. \] . japonica. Hairy Japan Nettle. Thunb. Jap. 70.
Willd. n. 54. — Leaves alternate, heart-fhapcd, villous, un-
equally ferrated. Flowers in globular, axillary, flalkcd
heads. Stem downy. — Grows near Nagafaki in Japan,
flowering in September and Oftober. The cortical fibre*
ferve to make cables for fmall vcflels. The flem is fquarc,
furrowed, ereft. Leaves an inch and a half long ; paler be-
neath. Foolflalks half that length.

60. U. villofa. Small Shaggy Japan Nettle. Thunb.

4 B 2 Jap.

URTICA.

Jap. 70. Willd. n. ^^ Leaves alternate, heart-ITiaped,

bluntly ferrated, hairy, on very fliort ftalks. Flowers in
feflile,' fcattered, globular heads. — Native of Japan. The
Jiem is herbaceous, round, hardly a fpan high, with alter-
nate wide-fpreading branches. Leaves obtulc, unequal, as
long as the nail. Heads of flowers minute, difpcrfed over
the branches.

61. \5. fejfiiiflora. Den fe-vvhorled Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 321. Willd. n. 56. — Leaves roughiih, elliptical, ta-
pering at each end ; ferrated towards the point : the upper
ones fometimes oppofite. Clufters very (hort, in denfe
axillary whorls. Stem ereft, round, nearly fmooth. — Na-
tive of rocky mountainous places, in the interior of Jamaica.
Root perennial, branched, fibrous. Stem a foot high,
Ihrubby at the bafe, divided upwards, fcarcely roughiih ;
the branches generally, not always, alternate. Leaves two
inches or two inches and a half long, and an inch and a
quarter wide acrofs the middle, fomewhat triple-ribbed,
rather flefhy ; roughiih on the upper fide only, (not ftnig-
ing,) with very minute (hort briftles. Footjlalts an inch or
inch and half long, fmooth. Stipulas none. F/oiuers mo-
noecious, very fmall, forming little denfe w^horls.

62. U. muralts. Arabian Wall Nettle. Vahl Symb.
V. I. 77. Willd. n. 57. (U. parafitica; Forfl<. iEgypl.-
Arab. 160. ; — Leaves alternate, ovate, three-ribbed, downy,
equally ferrated. Stipulas lanceolate, pointed, diftinft.
Clullcrs very fhort, in denfe axillary whorls — Found by
Forflcall, on' the walls of Coffee-gardens, in Arabia. Pe-
rennial. Stem a foot high, round, downy ; hoary in the
upper part. Leaves an inch and a half long, pointed,
fliarply ferrated, clothed with foft (haggy pubefcence, efpe-
cially the upper ones, not dinging ; entire at the bafe and
point. FootJIalks an inch in length. Whorls villous and
hoary. Differs from U. japonica, n. 59, in the equal fer-
ratures, and even furface, of its leaves, as well as in its feflile
heads oi jloivers. Vahl.

63. U. caffra. Caffre's Nettle. Thunb. Prodr. 31.
Willd. n. 58. — Leaves alternate, ovate, fomewhat heart-
fhaped, ferrated. Flowers axillary, feffile. Stem weak,
not quite ereft. — Native of Southern Africa. Thunlerg.

64. U. ruderal'u. Otaheite Nettle. Forft. Prodr. 66.

Willd. n. 59 Leaves alternate, ovate, fomewhat heart-

fhaped, bluntly ferrated, fmooth. Panicles axillary, co-
rymbofe, divaricated, ftalked, nearly equal to the leaves. —
Gathered by Forller in Otaheite and the Society ifles.
His fpecimen before us is a foot long, woody, alternately
fubdivided, and appears to be but a branch of a fhrubby

jiem, of confiderable fize. Willdenow, on the contrary,
fpeaks of the ftems as only a finger's length. The leaves are
above an inch long, on long ftalks ; paler beneath, but we
do not find them at all rough. Panicles on long, fmooth,
angular ftalks. Seeds ovate, bordered, light brown, fome-
what wrinkled.

65. U. lepiofachya. Slender-fpiked Nettle — Leaves al-
ternate, ovate, ferrated ; rough on the upper fide. Spikes
axillary, folitary, fimplc, cyhndrical, downy, on ftalks
much longer tlian the leaves. — Gathered by Commerfon, in
the ifie of Bourbon. We do not find it any where de-
fcribed. The root is perennial, creeping very extenfively.
Herb not Ringing. Stem a foot high, or more, ereft, round,
fimple, leafy, downy or roughifh. Leaves fcattered, an
inch or inch and a half long, on (lender downy and briftly
ftalks, half that length ; their upper furface harfh to the
touch ; under fmoother, but with hairy ribs. Flower-Jlalks
ere£l, three or four inches long, fiender, undivided, from the
bofoms of the fmaller upper leaves, befides a terminal one,
6

larger than the reft ; they are all naked below ; minutely
braCteated in the upper part ; and each terminates in a denfe
fpike of numerous {e^\\e Jloivers, all female, as far as we can
difcern, in our fpecimen. Calyx ovate, turgid, downy.

66. U. divarkata. Wing-ftalked Nettle. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1397. Willd. n. 60. Pur(h n. 7. (U. racemofa
major virginiana, mitior, five minils urens ; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 237. f. 2, excluding the fynonyms.) — Leaves alternate,
ovate, rougliilh, ftrongly ferrated. Clufters coinpouiiJ, di-
varicated, as long as the leaves : male flower-ftalks winged,
wedge-fliaped Gathered in Canada by Kalm, whofc ori-
ginal fpecimen is before us. If Mr. Purfti's plant be the
fame, of which there appears fome doubt, we have his au-
thority for this fpecies inhabiting (hady woods, in rocky
fituations, from Canada to Carolina, flowering in Auguft.
Neither Willdenow nor Poiret ever faw U. divarkata. Its
general afpeft is fo like Jacquin's figure of U. sjluans, fee
n. 57, that we fhould fuppofe that figure belonged to the
prefent fpecies, were the very pecuhar wedge-fhaped,, mem-
branous-winged ftalks, of the mA^jio'wers, there repre'fented.
Thefe could not have efcaped the obferving Jacquin, though
not expreffed by Plukenet, vhofe plant may indeed be dif-
ferent from our's, and yet not the fame with the following.
The ftem of U. divaricata is tawny, ftrongly furrowed,
(lightly prickly. Leaves three or four inches long, ovate,
with a (mall finus at the bafe, pointed, copioufly and ftiarply
ferrated, on briftly footjlalks ; they have fcarcely more than
one principal rib ; they are roughifh on both fides, but ef-
pecially the upper, with extremely minute points, and fome
fcattered briftles. The clujlers are terminal, or at leaft
crowded about the top of the ftem, feveral together, fpread-
ing, ftout, twice compound ; their common ftalks briflly, as
are the partial ones, more or lefs. Thofe of the malejlotuers,
a quarter of an inch long, we have already defcribed ; thefe
flowers are all paft in our fpecimen. The feeds are of
greater diameter than muftard-feed, nearly orbicular, obHque,
comprefled, fmooth, brown, with a curved point ; their
ftalks fhort and fimple. Crt/j.-c very fniall. We hope fome
North American botanift will illuftratc this curious fpecies,
and its fynonyms.

67. \5. canadenjis. Canada Nettle. Linn. Sp. PI. 1397.
Willd. n. 61. Ait. n. 16. Pur(h n. 8. Michaux
Boreal. -Amer. v. 2. 178, excluding Plukenet's fynonym.
(U. racemofa canadenfis ; Dodart Mem., Amfterdam, ed.
631. t. 37. U. virginiana major racemofa mitior, feu
minus urens ; Morif. feft. 11. t. 25. f. 2.^ — Leaves alter-
nate, ovate, fomewliat hairy, ferrated. Stipulas obtufe.
Clufters axillary, compound, fpreading, fhorter than the
leaves ; the lower ones male, feflile ; upper feniale, ftalked.
— Near rivulets, in rocky or fandy fituations, from Canada
to Carolina, efpeciaUy on the mountains, flowering in July
and Auguft. The root is perennial, reddifli, rather woody,
with ftout fibres. Stems four or five feet high, annual, ereft,
fimple, roundifti, ftriated, (lightly briftly ; their fibres
tough. Leaves three or four inches long, pointed, fome-
times a little unequal at the bafe ; flightly hairy on both
fides, rather liarfh to the touch, but not flinging. Foot-
jlalks an inch long, briftly, with a pair of rounded reddifh
Jtipulss at their infertion. Our L;nna:an fpecimen is defti-

tute oifotuers. Dodart compares them to thofe of the
"Common Nettle;" we prefume U. dioica ; and fuch is
nearly their apper-rance in a fpecimen from Jacquin's old
herbarium, at fir J. Banks's, marked by miftake divaricata;
but they are more flenderand branched than in dioica.

68. U. hirfuta. Hairy Arabian Nettle. Vahl Symb.
v. I. 77. WiUd. n. 62. ( U. divaricata ; Forfk. jEgypt.-

Arab.

URTICA.

Arab. l6o. ) — I^eavcs alternate, ovate, fomewhat heart-
iliaped, ftrrated. Stem and footltalks hairy. Stipulas
Jlncar-laiiceolatc. Clullers compound, longer than the
leaves — Native of Arabia. The h'.rbage has no Hinging
quality. The Jltm is but a foot high, moft Iiairy in the
upper part. Leaves about an inch long, acute ; paler be-
neath, with hairy ribs. Footjlalks the lei.gth of the leaves.
Clujlcrs axillary, folitary, Icls compound than in tlie laft,
hairy. Floivtrs tufted.

69. U. capenfis. Horehound-leavcd Cape Nettle. Linn.
Suppl. 417. Willd. n. 63. Thunb. Prodr. 31. — Leaves
alternate, heart-fhaped, crenate ; dowiiy and foft beneath.
Clufters axillary, ercCt, aggregate. Flowers fafciculated. —
Gathered by Thunbcrg, at the Cape of Good Hope. The

Jiem is round, ereft, with fpreading branches, fomewhat
hairy, not dinging. Leaves an inch and a half long, and
nearly as broad, acute, broadly and rather (harply crenate ;
fmoolh above ; dcnfely downy and hoary beneath. Foot-
jlalks downy, about as long as the leaves. Clujlers two
inches or more in length, ftalked, flcnder, cylindrical, un-
branched, compofed of fmall, round, (lightly diitant, tufts
oi Jlowers.

70. \J. argentea. Silvery Cape Nettle. Forft. Prodr. 65.

Willd. n. 64 " Leaves alternate, elliptic-lanceolate, nearly

entire ; glaucous beneath. Spikes axillary, folitary, inter-
rupted."— Native of the Society ifles. Forjler.

71. V.n'fvea. Chinefe White -leaved Nettle. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1398. Willd. n. 65. Ait. n. 17. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
v. 2. 7^. t. 166. ( Ramium majus ; Rumph. Amboyn.
v. 5. 214. t. 79. f. I.) — Leaves alternate, roundilh-ovate,
pomted, toothed, three-ribbed ; fnow-white and downy be-
neath. Cluilers axillary, repeatedly compound. Flowers
fafciculated — Native of China, and the remote illands of
the Eail Indies. Miller appears to have cultivated this
fpecies at Chelfea in 1739, and it ftill exifts there, in the
open border, though generally confidered as a grecnhoufe
or ftove plant. The Jiem is (lirubby, ereft, but little
branched, three or four feet high. Leaves from three to
fix inches long, and three or four in breadth, on long hairy
ftalks ; their upper furface dark-green, opaque, rough to
the touch ; the under clothed with foft, very clofe, pubcf-
cence, of the purell moll brilliant while, marked with three
principal ribs, and many fine veins, all reddiHi or green,
hairy, not downy. Clujlers repeatedly compound, bearing
numerous fmall round heads oi Jlowers, all female in the
fpecimens we have examined. We fee no reafon to doubt
the fynonym of Rumphius, though Jacquin cxprefTes a con-
trary opinion ; led perhaps more by the figure, which is di-
minifhcd and bad, than by the defcription. This Urtica is
a very handfome and fingular plant, well worthy of cultiva-
tion in warm fheltered parts of a flower-garden, or flirub-
bery, at leail in our iouthern counties.

72. U. elata. Jamaica Tree Nettle. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 322. Willd. n. 66. — Leaves alternate, ovate, acute,
ferrated, fomewhat brilUy. Stem arboreous. Clufters
much branched, divaricated, lateral, below the leaves.

Flowers dioecious Native of hills in the fouthern part of

.Jamaica. A tree about ten feet high, whofe Irunk is an inch
or two in diameter, with a imoothilh grey bark, and fprtad-
ing branches, armed when young wilii Hinging brifllc*.
Leaves on tlic young branches only, Italked, pointed, an inch
or two long, witli broad, fometinies (hallow, ferratures ;
green on both fides, and befprinkled, more or lefs, willi fine
hinging bridles, fome of which are marginal. Clujlers on
the naked parts of the branches, from above the Icars left
by the lail year's leaves, an inch long, flendcr, IrilUy.

Fh-wers minute, diftant, feffile. Dr. Swartz never met with

the male blolFoms.

73. \J . caraccalana. Broad-downy-leaved Nettle. .Tacq.
Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 71. t. 386. Willd. n. 67 — Leaves
alternate, heart-fliaped, acutely crenate ; rough above ; foft
and downy beneath. Panicles lateral, leaflefs, forked, diva-
ricated. Flowers capitate, dioecious. Stem arboreous. —
Native of the Caraccas. It flowered in autumn, in the
ftove at Schoenbrun. We find an old fpecimeii, without
name or place of growth, in the Linnaean herbarium. The
Jiem is eight feet high, and an inch thick, round, woody, but
light. Leaves on downy ilalks, broadly heart-lhaped,
from five to eighteen inches long, copioufly but not ftrongly
crenate, furnilhed with one principal rib, which fends off
many obhqucly traniverfe ones ; green on both fides, though
the under is clothed with denfe velvet-bke pubefcence,
which has rather lefs of a flinging property than the hairs
on the foot/lall-s and young branches. Panicles from above
the fears left by lall year's leaves, two or three inches wide,
repeatedly forked, their ilalks white, fmooth and tender.
Flowers purplidi, in fmall round heads. We have feen only
the males, which are four-cleft.

74. U. hacc'ifera. Berry-bearing Nettle. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1398. Willd. n. 68. Ait. n. 18. Jacq. Hort.
Schoenbr. v. 3. 71. t. 387. Andr. Repof. t. 454. Swartz
Obf. 358. (U. arborefcens b ace if era ; Plum. Ic. 259.
t. 260. ) — Leaves alternate, heart-fliaped, toothed, prickly
as well as the Ihrubby ilem. Calyx of the fruit pulpy. —
Native of lofty fhady mountains in South America and
Jamaica ; flowering in the ftove in fummcr. A ftoutyZ>rui^,
or fmall tree, of a coarfe rather fucculeiit habit, armed all
over with copious large venomous prickles, of a conical
figure. Leaves a fpan long, acute, dark-green ; paler be-
neath. Panicles numerous, lateral or axillary, large, droop-
ing, lax, very much branched, with red prickly ftalks.
Flowers fmall, dioecious ; we have feen the female plant
only, and confcquently no perfeft fruit. The Jligma is a
beautiful tuft of radiating hairs. The calyx is permanent,
fwelling, and becoming pulpy, as the yi-f^/ ripens, which is
clearly cxprefled in Phimier's figure.

7J. U. flimulans. Buffalo's Nettle. Linn. Suppl. 418.
Willd. n. 69. — Leaves alternate, oblong, entire ; contracted
and nightly heart-fhaped at the bafe ; roughifh oh the upper
fide. Stem (hrubby, prickly. Panicles axillary, compound,
divaricated, hairy. — Native of Java, where, according to
Thunberg, it is called Bujfclblail, or Buffalo's leaf, being
iifcd to drive thofe animals, by means of the large flings,
with which the branches are armed. Of thefe flings we
find no traces on the dried fpecimen. The branches ace
woody, roiuid ; the young ones leafy, rough to the touch,
with extremely minute points, fuch as are found likewife on
the foliage. The haves are a fpan long, (on ftalks rough
in a fimilar manner, an inch in length,) furnifhed with a
fingle flout mid-rib, which fends off numerous alternate,
tranfverfe veins or ribs ; the under fide is fmooth, rather
pale. Stipulas ovate, membranous, partly hairy, deciduous.
Panicles ftalked, twice the length of the footttalks, with
fomewhat raceniofe branches, clothed witii numerous, ap-
parently ftinginp, briflles. Flowers fomewhat tufted,
Imall, probably diocciouc.

76. U. laurtna. Laurel-leaved Nettle. — Leaves alter-
nate, ovate-oblong, pointed, nearly fnuioth, with fhallow
ferratures. Panicles lateral, divaricated, downy. Flowers

capitate Sent by the late Mr. Clirillopher Smith, from

Amboyna. The jlim is fhrubby or arboreous, with wooily
fohd branches, leafy at the extremity. Leaves deciduous,

about

U R T

U R T

about four inches long, of an elegant, fomewhat elliptical,
taper-pointed form, bordered with fhallow ferratures chiefly
towards the end, and furnifhed, as in the laft, with a fingle
mid-rib, fending off tranfverfe veins ; the upper fide is
fmooth to thetouch, though covered with callous points, even
more minute than in the preceding ; the under paler, fome-
what downy when young, but afterwards Imooth, except
the rib and veins, which are finely hairy. FostJiaHs downy
and hairy, three-quarters of an inch long. Stipulas'nesxV)- as
long, lanceolate, hairy, deciduous. Panicles copious, from
the fears of the naked branches, loft by the laft year's foot-
ftalks, each of feveral ftragghng, flightly divided, racemofe
branches, finely downy, not hairy or ftinging. Flowers in
little round heads, all male in our fpecimen, four-cleft and
tetrandrous.

U- cyl'tndrica, Linn. Sp. PI. 1396 ; fpkata of Thunberg,
which hjapOTiica, Linn. Suppl. 418 ; aitenataoi Linn. Syft.
Veg. which is Parletaria zeylanica, Sp. PI. 1492 ; Interrupta,
Sp. PI. 1398 ; and, as we have ah-eady faid, arborea, Suppl.
417 ; are all referred by Willdenovv to Boehmeria, in his
Sp. PI. v. 4. 340 ; fee tliat article.

Urtica, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the hardy her-
baceous kind, among which the fpecies cultivated are, the
Tartarian or hemp-leaved nettle (U.cannabina) ; the Canada
nettle ( U. canadenfis ) ; and the fnowy Chinefe or white-
leaved nettle (U. nivea).

The firft is a rather curious plant, rifing with many fquare
ftalks to the height of five or fix feet, and flowers hanging
in the form of long catkins near the top parts of them.

The fecond fort, or Canadian nettle, has eredl ftalks two
feet in height, and the flowers produced in the form of
branching upright aments or catkins.

The third fort is perennial, with upright numerous ftalks
three or four feet in height, with the flowers in loofe aments,
the whole plant having a hoary white appearance.

Method of Culture Thefe plants may be increafed by

parting or flipping the roots in the autumn, or early in the
fpring, and planting them out where they are to remain.

The third fort is rather tender, and (hould have a dry fitu-
alion where it is warm and ftieltered, or be kept in pots to
be ftteltered under frames, or in the green-houfe, during the
feverity of the winter feafon.

The two firft forts afford variety in the borders and clumps
of pleafure-grounds, in affemblage with herbaceous plants,
by the fingularity of their manner of flowering, and the laft
among potted plants. They will continue for many years,
efpecially the two firft forts.

Urtica Errans, in Zoology, the name of a fea-animal of
the nature of the common urtica marina in many particu-
lars ; but as that is always fixed down to the rocks, this
fpecies is always found loofe. See the next article.

It has been fuppofed that thefe creatures affecled the fltin
with a pain like that of the ftinging of nettles on touching
them, and even the eyes of thofe who only look attentively
on them ; but M. Reaumur, who faw prodigious numbers
of them on the coafts of Poiftou, declares that he found no
fuch property in any of them, any more than in thofe fixed
to the rocks.

Thefe in fubftance fo much refemble a ftiff jelly, that if
they were called fea-jellies, there would want but a fhort
additional defcription to make them underftood. Their
llefh, if it may be fo called, appears of the colour as well as
the confiftence of a common jelly ; and if a piece of one of
them be taken up, the mere heat of the hand is fufficient to
make it melt away into plain water. Thefe are notwith-
ftanding true and perfeft animals ; and thofe who have been
of a contrary opinion, have not e.%amined them with fuffi-

eient attention. There arc very different figure* among
them ; but this is owing to their being of different fpecies ;
for all thofe of the fame fpecies are ever exaftly of the fame
figure. One great reafon of people's fuppofing them un-
organized bodies, is, that what is feen of them about the
fhores is very often a fragment of a dead animal, not the
wliole of a living one ; and no wonder if all the neceffary
parts of an animal could not be found in fuch a piece of
one.

Though the generality of thefe animals are of the fimple
colour of a jelly, there are fome of a greenifh caft, and
others which have a broad band of a beautifully purple
round their extremity ; and fome are beautifully fpotted
with brown. Their figure is very well expreffed by that
of the head of a large mufhroom ; their upper furface is
convex in the fame manner, and this convexity is greater or
lefs m the different kinds, as it is in the different fpecies of
mufhrooms.

If one of thefe animals be dried in the fun in hot weather,
there remains nothing of it but a fubftance like a thin parch-
ment ; but if one of tlicm be boiled in water, it does not
difTolve away as might have been expefted, but only regu-
larly decreafes in fize ; and when it has become of about one-
fourth of its natural bignefs, it there ftops the decreafe,
and continues nearly of that fize, and after that will not
melt away upon the hand.

All the creatures of this fpecies, which we fee thrown
upon the fhores, are found lifelefs and without motion ; but
there is nothing wonderful in that, becaufe the violent fhocks
and blows which they muft have received, in being dafhed
againft the rocks or fands by the waves, are enough to kill
fo tender an animal. One proof that thefe animals once hved,
is, that all thofe which we find about the fhores are heavier
than the water, and fink to the bottom ; whereas all thofe
feen out at fea, fwim upon the furface ; and this could not
be the cafe in regard to any fubftance heavier than water,
unlefs kept up by fome voluntary motion. This motion
M. Reaumur has obferved to be a reciprocal contraction and
dilatation of the whole body, in the manner of a fyftole
and diaftole. In the contraction, it elevates the convexity of
the body, and in the dilatation it makes it more flat ; and
by continually repeating thefe motions, it keeps above water
as a man does by fwinnuing. Mem. Acad. Par. 1710.

Urtica Marina, the name of a remarkable genus of
aquatic animals, fo called from a fuppofition of their affeft-
ing the flvin on touching them, with a painful fenfation like
that of the flinging of nettles. Thefe are animals of the
loweft clafs, and have by many been reckoned among thofe
creatures called zoophytes, or plant-animals, as fuppofed
to partake of the nature of vegetables and of animals.
Some of the fpecies of this animal are found loofe upon the
fmooth fhores, and fome fixed to the rocks which are always
covered with water. This has given birth to a diftinftion
of them into two clafFes, which is as old as Ariftotle ; thofe
of the one being fuch as move in the open fea, called by
later writers urtic<e fohil<e, and referred by Linn^us to the
genus of medufa, and denominated by the common people
fea-jellies and fea-blubbers ( fee Urtica Errans ) ; and thofe
of the others fuch as are fixed to rocks, and were fuppofed
always to remain immoveably in the fame place, which be-
long to the aftiuia of Linnius. The accurate M. Reau-
mur has obferved, however, that even thefe lail have a
power of a progreffive motion, and are not doomed to an
eternal refidence on the fame fpot. The motion of thefe
creatures is fo flow, that it might eafily pafs unobferved by
lefs accurate obfervers ; this gentleman comparing it to that
of the hour-hand of a clock, and adding, that a journey of

U 11 T

U R T

sn inch takes them up commonly between one and two
hours. He obferves alfo, that many of the fpccics have no
property of llinging, or caufing any painful fenfation on the
flelh.

Dr. Gaertner obferves, that there is not a fmgle fpecies
of tlie urtica marina poHelTed of that flinging quality which
the ancients afcribed to them ; their tentacula indeed feel
rough and clammy, when touched with the finger ; but this
roughnefs is not perceptible, except when the animal at-
tempts to lay hold of the finger ; in which cafe it throws
out of the whole furface of the feeler a number of ex-
tremely minute fuckers, which, fticking fall to the fmall
protuberances of the (Icin, produce the fenfation of a rough-
nefs, which is fo far from being painful, that it even cannot
be called difagreeable.

Thefe creatures occafionally change their bodies into fo
many different forms, that there is no giving any defcription
of their figure. The mod natural and general fhape feemi
that of a truncated cone, the bafe of which is applied
to the rock ; but this bafe is often round, often elliptic, and
often of a perfeftly irregular figure. The furtice of the
top of the cone is not flat, but convex, and has in its centre
an aperture, which the creature makes larger or fmalkr at
pleafure. In fome pofitions, the whole animal not unaptly re-
iembles a purfe, only with this difference, that the body is
not drawn up into any folds or wrinkles by the clofing of
the aperture or mouth. In the middle of this purfe, as we
call it, is placed the body of the creature, touching this outer
covering at the bottom on every fide, and of a conic fij^nrc,
as that is. At its top, however, it is loofe, and (lands
every way free from its covering ; the fides are more or Icfs
diilant from this free or loofe part of the body, as the aper-
ture at the top of the cone is more or Icfs open ; when it is
nearly fhut up, very little of the body of the animal can be
feen ; but when it opens into different widths, more or lefs
of the body becomes vifible ; and when it is at the widcll,
every part of it, and all the horns, are feen perfeftly dif-
tinft. Thefe horns refemble in appearance thofe of the
common fnail ; but in their ufe they feem much more allied
to the pipes or probofcides of the chamoe kind, the annnal
generally throwing out water at them on being touched.
They are placed in three ranges on the internal furface of
the covering, and are very numerous, their whole number
not being lefs than a hundred and fifty.

The creature very often not only opens the outer cover-
ing or purfe to the utmoll width it is capable of, but at the
fame time turns back its extremities : in this cafe, the in-
ternal part, or body, becomes vifible on the furface, and
at the fame time all the horns being, by this bending back
of the fl<in on wliich they grow, thrown into the polhire of
fo many rays, the whole makes a very remarkable figure,
and not unaptly refemblcs an anemony, or fome other fuch
flower, when fully open. Very often alfo there is a great
addition to the beauty of this appearance, by feveral round
veficks of water, which appear blue, or of fome other lively
colour. The general colour of the different fpecies of this ani-
mal, or indeed of the fame fpecirs in diiferent circumllances,
is as variable as the (liape ; fometimes they are feen pellucid
and colourlefs, fometimes white, often yellowilh, lometimes
of a rofe colour ; at other times, they are of a beautiful
green, and often of various fhades of brown. In fome, thefe
colours are equally dilfufed through every part ; in others,
they are only feen in form of fpots and clouds, or variega-
tions ; fometimes thefe are irregularly difpof^-d, fometimes
more regularly, but always with great beauty. The green
ones have ufually a broad hue of blue all round their bafe.

Neither the colour nor fhapes of thefe animals can be any
marks of different fpecies ; but the firmnefs of their flefh
may : in this they remarkably differ one from another, and
this is a difference the more obvious, as their flefh is always
open to the touch, there being no fhell, nor any other hard
fubfl;ance to cover it. However flow the progreflive motion of
this creature is, when examined it is found to depend on a very
remarkable mechanifm, to underlland which we mufl atten-
tively confider what is obvious to the eye in the ftrufture of
the creature, and remember the comparifon of the whole
to a purfe. We find that what refemblcs the bottom of
that purfe is flat, and is fixed to the rock, while the body
is contained in the red of the purfe, but never fills
it, unlefs when the mouth of the purfe or covering is clofe
drawn together. The whole covering is a coUeftion of muf-
cles, which are all tubular. The bafe of the animal never
appears to us, becaufe always fixed down to the rock ; but
when the creature is raifed from that pofition, and the bafe
examined, it appears compofed of a vafl number of tubes
placed one behind another, and running from the centre to
the circumference. Thefe tubes are often filled with an
aqueous liquor, which may be forced out on preffing them.
Befides thefe tubes, there are alfo many circular ones fur-
rounding one another.

The progreflive motion feems to be thus performed :
when the creature has determined which way it will march,
it dillcnds all thofe longitudinal tubes which are on that fide
of its body which is placed toward the point it would move
to ; tlii.s, from its round fhape at the bafe, gives it an oblong
one ; that is, it throws the fore-part fomewhat forward upon
the rock ; and, at the fame time, if the longitudinal tubes
on the oppofite fide of the body be all left empty, and the
circular ones diftended, thefe naturally draw the whole body
toward the fore-part, and thus a fmall advance is made and
prefervcd, and this, often repeated, is the flow progreflion
of this animal. AH this is, however, performed fo very
flowly, that though there is a continual change going on in
the creature, both as to fliape and place, yut it the eye is
kept continually on the object, neither is perceived ; but if
taken off for fome time, and the place and figure both kept
in mind, both will be found to be altered on viewing again.

There is a fpecies of this animal alfo which moves by means
of its horns ; this is known from the reft by the length of
the horns, and their being covered with a glutinous moifture.
This fpecies lives in the cavities and holes of rocks ; and
when it has a mind to move, it turns itfelf bottom upwards,
and crawls flowly on by means of its horns, which then
touch the rock.

The food of the urtica marina is not lefs wonderful than
its ftruclure and motions. It fliould feem very ftrangc that
an animal, foft like this creature, with no feet nor inttru-
merit of that kind to help itfelf with, fhould be .ible to feed
on tho flefh of mufcles, fea-fnails, and other fliell-fifli ; yet
thefe are its conflant food. They find means to take in the
fliell-fifli whole into the body, and then clofe the aperture
fall upon it, fo that it is not to be feen that they h.ive any
fuch thing within them ; they keep them here as long as
t!iey pleafe, and afterwards throw out the empty fliells by
the fame aperture, wiiich they can, as before obferved, widen
and contrail at pleafure. By what menus the urtica is able
to get out the body of thefe lifh, is not known, as it all
pafl'es in the body ; but it very often fails, and the crcatiire
is obliged to throw out the fliell-filh alive ag.iin ; and fome-
times when it has greedily gorged too large a morfcl, and it
is got into a wrong pofition to be thrown out the fame way,
it 19 obliged to let it tlirough the bafe, where there is no

natural

U R T

U R U

natural aperture, and where its paffage muft; be attended
with a terrible wound. The manner in which the larger
fhells are thrown out by the mouth, is by opening it ex-
tremely wide and turning it back, lo that the infide appears
outward for a little way down ; and this motion is alfo ufed
on another very neceflary occafion, the excluding of the
young ones, for thefe animals are viviparous. Mem. Acad.
Par. 1 710.

It has been found that this creature has the remarkable
property of the polype, in reproducing fuch parts as it had
loft. M. Reaumur tried many experiments on the various
fpecies of this, and of the ftar-fifh kind, and found that
whatever parts were cut off, the wound foon healed ; and
M. de Villars had opportunities of watching the whole pro-
greis of the growth of the anin-ials afterwards, and found
that they not only feemed alive and well after cutting, their
wounds foon cicatrizing, but that they, in a very little time,
regained what had been cut off, and became «s perfeft as
before. See ^m-Anemonies.

Dr. Gajrtner refers the urticas mai-inx, or fea-nettles, to
the hydra of Linna;us, commonly called the polype ; for
he fays, that they agree with that genus in the following
general charafters, belides many of its lefs eflential or acci-
dental qualities : they are of a gelatinous fubftance ; they
have only one opening in their bodies which gives a pafTage
to the food, as well as to the excrements of tlie animal ; and
they have alfo a fet of feelers, which furround this opening,
and ferve thefe creatures for claws, to catch their prey with,
and convey it to their mouths. Phil. Tranf. vol. lii. art. 13.
p. 73, &c.

Thefe animals were known to the Greeks and Romans by
the names of ir»!upa S».Aa<7-a-<o-, and pulmo marinus, or fea-
lungs. They attributed medicinal virtues to them. Ac-
cordingly Diofcorides informs us, that if rubbed frefh on
the difeafed part, they cured the gout in the feet, and kibed
heels. .£han fays that they were depilatory, and if mace-
rated in vinegar, would take away the beard. Their phof-
phoric quality was noticed by Pliny, who fays that a ftick
rubbed with tliem will appear to burn, and the wood to
fliine all over : he alfo adds, that when they fink to the
bottom of the fea, they portend a continuance of bad wea-
ther. Pennant's Brit. Zool. vol. iv. p. 59.

URTICjE, ill Botany, fo named from the great genus
Urtica, fee that article, is the 98th natural order in Juf-
fieu's fyftem, the third of his 13th, or laft, clafs. The
charatters of this clafs are given under Euphorbi.t., where
we have ventured to obferve tliat the clafs is by no means a
really natural one. To the order before us, though clogged
with doubtful genera at the end, there is httle or no excep-
tion. It is analogous to the Scabrida of Linnseus, and may
ferve to give an idea of that tribe, which we have omitted in
its proper place.

Juffieu's charafters of his Urtica are thefe.
Flowers monoecious or dioecious, rarely united. Calyx
univerfally of one leaf, divided. Corolla none. The male
jluiiiers with a definite number oi Jlamens, inferted into the
calyx, oppofite to its fegments. Female ones with a foli-
tary fuperior germen ; Jlyle either wanting, or one, or two,
often lateral ; Jligmas often two. Seed one, enclofed in a
brittle cruft, or tunic, either naked, or enclofed in the calyx,
which fometimes turns pulpy. Corculum ftraight or in-
curved, without albumen. The plants are either trees, (hrubs
or herbs ; in fome cafes milky. Lea-ves generally accom-
panied by ftipulas, and either alternate or oppofite. Flowers
lometimes folitary, fometimes racemofe ; in fome genera
feated on a many-flowered catkin-like receptacle ; in others

concealed within a fimple-leaved common involucrum.
Fruit therefore fometimes many-feeded, in confequence of
the affemblage of the feeds of numerous aggregate flowers
in one involucrum or i-eceptacle.

Seft. I . Fln-jjers concealed in a common fimple-leceocd in-
ivilucrum. This contains five genera.

Ficus ; Ambora of Juflieu, which is Mitmridatea of
Commerfon and Schreber, fee that article ; Dorjlenia ;
Hedycaria of Forller, doubtfully placed here by Juflieu, as
he fufpefts it may be more akin to his Anont, or to his
Ranunculaceit ; and, laftly Perebea of Aublet, of which we
have fpoken in its proper place, as a genus undoubtedly of
this order, notwithitanding our prefent incomplete acquaint-
ance with its fruftification.

vSeft. 2. Flowers either fituated on a common many -flonvered
receptacle ; or colleded into heads, with involucral fcales ; or
feparate and fcattered.

Cecropia ; Artncarpus ; Morus ; Elatojlema of Forfter, to
which belongs Procris of Commerfon and Juflieu, as already
mentioned, fee Elatostema ; Eoehmeria of Jacquin.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 340 ; Urtica; Forjhalea ; Parietaria;
PterantJyiis of Forflcall, the Louichea of L'Heritier, Schreb.
Gen. 840 ; Humulus ; Cannabis; ^nd Theligoniim.

Seft. 3. Genera related to Urtiae.

Gunnera, to which we have united Mifandra of Commer-
fon, fee GuNNETiA, and to which alfo the Panke of Feuillee
undoubtedly belongs ; Piper ; Gnetum of Linnjeus, from
which Thoa of Aublet and Juflieu cannot be feparated, fee
Gnetum ; Bagnjfa, Aublet Guian. t. 376 ; Coujfapoa^
Aubl. Guian. t. 362, 363 ; and Pourouma of the fame
author, t. 341 ; the three laft but imperfeftly known.

Ulmus and Celtis are reckoned by Linnaeus amongft his
Scabridie, but Juflieu refers them to the Amentacet ; Bofea
and Acnida, as well as Trophis, are Scabridit of Linnaeus ;
Juflieu confiders the two firft as Atriptices, and the laft
ftands amongft his Pianta: incertit fedis, Jufl". Gen. 442.

Ll^RVASI, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of one of
the numerous race of choriiters, dancers, minftrels, &c. at-
tending on the gods of that polytheiitic and poetical people.
The name of Urvafi does not often occur.

Urvafi is to be clafled among the Upfaras, anfwering to
the Nereids of weftern fable ; as flie arofe from the ocean,
with Rhemba, queen of the Upfaras, and a glorious train,
when churned by the gods and demons, as defcribed in the
article Kijrmavatara.

URUBU, in Ornithology. See VuLTUR.

URUBUARA, or Uruba-cuara, in Geography, a town
of the Brafils, on a river of the fame name, at its union with
the Amazons ; 90 miles \V. of Para.

URL^BUI, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Ama-
zons river ; 100 miles above Pauxis.

URUCUYA, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
St. Francis, S. lat. 15° 20'.

URUGNAY, a river of South America, which rifes
about S. lat. 26^ 30', and runs into the river Plate, S. lat. 34°.

URUGUNDI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Scythia,
on the bank of the Danube. Zofimus.

URUMEA, in Geography. See Urmiah.

URUNC^, or Uruncis, in Ancient Geography, a place
of Germany, between Arialbinum and Moiis Brifacus.
Anton. Itin.

VRUNDI, in Mythology, one of the wives of the Hindoo
deity Krijbna ; which fee.

URUP, in Geography. See Urjup.

URUS, a lake of Rufiia, in the government of Arch-
angel ; 48 miles N. of Schenkurlk.

Urus,

U R U

USA

tTnus, in Natural H't/lory, the name of a fpecies of wild are feen, intermixed with thofe of flags and deer ; feedinp
bull, of a very remarkable fizo and ftrength. Cae-far, in chiefly in the morning and evening, and retirin"- into the
his Commentaries, has defcribcd tiiem as little inferior fliade of the lofty rocks which border the rivers during the
to elephants in fv/.c, and ref^mbling the bull in (hape, heat of the day. They are very wild, and fly from mankind •
figure, and colour. He adds, that they were very fwift but if wounded, they become furious, and purfue their
and fierce, and had lionis very much larger, and very enemy.

different from thofe of the common bull. And Mentzelius The chacc of thefe animals conftitutes a favourite diver-
tells us, that it is a vaft and terrible fpecies of wild bull, fion of the Indians, and they are kdlcd either by fliootinff
common in Livonia, 5:c. and that when killed its brain is them, or by gradually driving them into a fmall fpace bv
found fcented like muflc. Mr. Ray wilhcs very much, that fetting fire to the grafs round the place where a herd is feed-
fome one, who has an opportunity of feeing this creature, ing. They are much terrified by fire, and crowd together
would give a more accurate and perfeft account than thofe to avoid it : they arc then killed by bands of Indians, with-
we already have of it. out any perfonal hazard. On fuch occafions, it is faid that

This aninia' is the bos ferus of Pliny, the bonafus and 1500 or 2000 have fometimes been killed at a time. The
the bifon of Pliny, Gefner, Aldrov. and Linnjeus, the bos flefh is ufed as food, and the fj^ins and hair as commercial
taurus of the Linnxan fyllem v/ith round horns curving commodities, which latter, being of a woolly nature, may be
outer, and loofe dewlap ; and it is the fpecies of Bos from fpun into cloths, gloves, S:c. that are very ftrono-, and ap-
whicli the levcral races of cattle have been gradually derived, pear as if manufaftured from the bed wool. The fleece or
It is found wild in m:.ny parts both of the old and new hair of one of thefe bifons has been known to weigh eight
continent, inhabiting woody regions, and attaining to a fize pounds. Thefe animals are not domefticated bv the Indians
much larger than that of the domefticated or cultivated who have long lived in a favage ftate, and fublift chiefly by
animal. In his wild Itate, the bifon was dillinguiflied, not the chace. The common ox is the bifon reduced to a
only by his bulk, but by the fuperior depth and Ihagginefs domellic ftate. (See Ox and Cattle.) The Indian ox is a
of his hair, which, about the head, neck, and ftioulders, is variety found in many parts of India, and the Indian and
fometimes fo long as to touch the ground ; his horns are African iflands : it is of a reddilh colour, very- large fize
rather fhort, fharp-pointed. extremely ftrong, and fituated and diftinguiflied by a very large protuberance above the
at a diftance from each other at their bafis, hke thofe of ihoulders. (See Zeba.) The loofe-horned ox is found in
the common bull. His colour is fometimes a dark blackifli- Abyffinia and Madagafcar, and is diftinguifhed by its pen-
brown, and fometimes rufous-brown ; his eyes are large and dulous ears, and horns attached only to the il<in, fo as to
fierce ; his hmbs are very ftrong, and his whole afpeil ex- hang down on each fide. The boury is a native of Mada-
tremely favage and gloomy. The principal European re- gafcar and fome other iflands, and is of the fize of a camel
gions where this animal is now found, are the marfliy forefts and of a fnowy-white colour, with a protuberance on the
of Poland, the Carpathian mountains, and Lithuania. Its back. Theox of theifland of Tinian isofa white colour, with
chief Afiatic refidence is the vicinity of Mount Caucafus ; black ears. Pennant's Arftic Zool. and Shaw's Zoology,
but it is alfo found in other parts of Afia. The American VRY, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
bifon differs in no refpeft from the European, except in of the Mofelle ; 8 miles N.E. of Metz.
being more fliaggy, and in having a more protuberant bunch URZ AN, in Atident Gsography, a town of Afia, in the

over the fhoulders ; the fore-parts of the body are very
thick and ftrong ; the hinder parts comparatively weak.
The colour of the American bifon is a reddifli-brown ; and
the hair in winter is of a woolly nature, faUing down over
the eyes, head, and whole fore-parts of the animal. In
fummer, it often becomes wholly naked, particularly on the
hinder parts of the body. It grows to a vaft fize, and has
been fo\md to weigh 1600, and even 2400 pounds; nor
can the ftrongeft man lift one of the fkins from the ground.
It has been a queftion of difficult folution, how thefe ani-

iiiterior of Sufiana. Ptolemy.

URZUM, in Geography, a tow.i of Ruffia, in tlie govern-
ment of Viatka ; 72 miles S. of Viatka.

USA, a town of Japan, in the ifiand of Ximo ; 22 miles
S.S.E. of Kokura.

UsA Baf, a lake of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; c miles
E. of Palatlka.

US AD, a town of RiilTia, in the government of Viatka ;
16 miles S. of Malmifch.

USADIUM Pkomontorium, in Ancient Geography, a

mals migrated from the old to the new world ; but it was promontor)- of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, on thecoaft

probably from the north of Afia, which anciently might of the wcftern ocean.

have been ftocked with them, though they are now extmft USAGE, in Law. See Phescuiption and Custom.
in thofe regions. At that time, the two continents might Usage, in Language. See Langi;age.
have been united between Tfchutkinofs and tlie oppofite Usage, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
headlands of America ; and the many iflands that lie off partment of the Saone and Loire ; 3 miles N. of Loudun.
that promontory, with the Aleutian or New Fox iflands, USALITANUM Oi'Pidim, [Jalloulah,) in Ancient
fomewhat more diftant, might be fragments of land, which Geography, an ancient town in the interior of Africa, men-
joined the two continents, and formed their infular ftate by tioned by Pliny, fituated W.S.W. of Adrumetum.
the mighty convulfion which divided Afia and America. USANAS, in AJlronomy, a Hindoo name of the planet

The American bifon is found in the regions (lOO miles W. Venus, more commonly called Suira ; which fee.

of Hudfon's Bay, and this is its moft northern refidence. USANCE, Uso, in Commerce, is a determinate time fixed

From thence thefe animals occur in large droves as low as for the payment of bills of exchange, reckoned either from

Cibola, in lat. 33" a little N. of California, and alfo in the the day of the bills being accepted, or from the day of their

province of Mivera, in New Mexico ; and immediately to date ; and thus called, becaufe regulated by the ufagr and

the S. of thefe parts the fpecie.s feems immediately to ceafc. cultom of the phaces on which they are drawn. Sec Bn.i,

ifo inhabit Canada, W. of the lakes, and more of Exchange.

Tl

icy

abundantly the rich favannas which border the river Bills of exchange are drawn at one or more nfancc»,

MilTilfippi, and the large riv.-rs that flow into it from the cither from fight, or from date. The Italians fay, ufo

W., in ITpper Louifiana, wiiert innumerable herds of them Joppio, for doulle ufance, or liuo ufanccs.

Vol. XXXVII. 4 C This

USANCE.

This tenn is longer or (horter, according to the different after d^te : the days of grace are eight ; but for promiiTor^'

countries. In France, the ufance for bills drawn from
Spain and Portugal, is fixty days date ; from other countries,
thirty days date. Bills are generally drawn on Amfterdam,
Cadiz, Genoa, Hamburgh, Leghorn, London, Madrid,
Naples, and Venice, at fixty days date. Marfeilles, how-
ever, draws on Genoa at thirty days, and on Leghorn and
Naples, at forty-five days date. Ten days grace are
allowed on bills payable at one or more ufances, at fo many
days date or fight, or on a fpecified day ; but bills drawn
a -uue muft be paid on being prefented. Bills made pay-
able at a fair muft be fettled on the laft day, or on the very
day, if the fair lafts only one day.

At London, the ufance for bills drawn from Holland,
Germany, or France, is one month ; from Spain and Por-
tun-al, two months ; and from Italy, three months ; all after

date.

At Amfterdam, the ufance is, for all Germany and
Switzerland, fourteen days fight ; Dantzic, Konigtberg,
and Riga, one month's fight ; Antwerp, Geneva, London,
and Paris, one month after date ; Italy, Spain, and Portu-
gal, two months after date. Six days of grace are allowed
for the payment of bills of exchange; but the general prac-
tice iu Amfterdam is, that bills payable in banco be pre-
fented for payment the very day on which the written term
is expired. At Antwerp, the ufances and days of grace
are the fame as at Amfterdam. Bills drawn at fight muft
be paid within twenty-four hours after having been pre-
fented.

At Auglburg, the ufance is fifteen days ; half ufance, eight
days; double ufance, thirty days; one and a half ufance,
twenty-three days, after acceptance. Bills iiave from one
to eight days of grace ; for fuch as fall due on tlie Tuofday
muft be paid the next day, but fuch as fall due on the
Wcdnefday are not paid till that day week : however, bills
drawn a vijla, or at iight, muft be paid within twenty-four
hours after being prefented, and alio any other bills which
are not prefented until after the Wednefday fubfequent to
the day on which they become due.

At Bergamo in Italy, the ufance is the fame as at Venice
for foreign bills ; but for bills drawn from Zurich, it is
fifteen days after acceptance. Bills payable a I'ifla, or light,
muft be paid on being prefented ; thofe that are at fome
days fight, or at ufance, muft be paid on the very day
they become due, no days of grace being here allowed.

The ufance for bills drawn on Berlin is fourteen days
after acceptance. Berlin draws on Amfterdam, Brefiau,
Hamburgh, and Leipfic, at four or five weeks date, and at
fight, on London and Paris, at two months date ; the days
of grace by the edid of 1751 are three.

At Bern in Switzerland, there is no law or cuftom re-
fpeding ufance, nor are any days of grace allowed. At
Bologna bills of exchange are paid in banco, except when
they are exprefsly drawn in money Fuori banco, or when
the acceptor and holder of the bill both agree that they
fhall be paid in currency ; in the latter cafe, the payment is
regulated by the Agio on banco. Bills drawn on Bologna

from other parts of Italy are ufually paid eight days after
acceptance, in which neither the day of acceptance nor the
day of payment is included. No other days of grace are
allovred. BiUs payable after date, or on a determined day,
muft be paid the firft day after their written term. Bills
drawn on Bolfano, or Botzen in the Tyrol, are moftly pay-
able at the fairs ; nor have any regulations been made with
regard to the ufance or days of grace. At Bremen, the
ufance for bills drawn from feveral parts of Germany, is
fourteen days fight ; from London and Paris, one month

notes and bills at fhort fight no days of grace are allowed.

The ufance for bills drawn on Breflau is fourteen days after
acceptance ; half ufance, eight days ; and tlie days of grace
are three. For bills, however, payable at the fairs, two of
which are held every year by a royal edift of 1742, no days
of grace are allowed ; but fuch bills muft be fettled on the
laft day of payment in thofe fairs, or elfe be protefted.
Breflau draws on Amfterdam and Hamburgh at fight, or at
four or five weeks date ; on Berlin and Koniglberg at
fight, or eight or twelve days date ; on Vienna, Leipfic, and
other parts of Germany, at ufance of fourteen days fight ;
on Paris and London, at two or three months after date.

At Brunfvvick, the ufance is fourteen days after accept-
ance. Three days are allowed to the holder of a bill to pre-
fent it for payment ; but no days of grace are allowed to
the acceptor. At Cadiz, the ufance is, for bills drawn from
France, one month after date ; but two months for bills
from all the reft of Europe. Six days grace are allowed,
on the laft of which bills muft be either paid or protefted.

In Caftile, a province of Spain, the ufance for bills drawn
from London, Paris, or Genoa, is fixty days ; from
Amfterdam, two months ; and from Rome, three months
after date.

Foreign bills, when they are accepted, have fourteen
days grace allo^-ed, except bills drawn from Rome, which,
as well as bills that have .lot been accepted, muft be either
paid or protefted on the very day on which they are made
payable. Bills draw n from Bilboa are allowed nineteen days ;
and from other parts of Spain, eight days grace. Bills at
fight muft be paid when prefented. At Cologne, the
uiance is fourteen days fight ; fix days grace are allowed ;
and if the fixth fliould fall on a Sunday, or holiday, the bill
muft be either paid, or protefted, on the firft day of bufinefs
following.

Bills between Conftantinople and tlie principal trading
places of Europe are commonly drawn at thirty-one days
fight ; but from one place in Turkey on another, at eleven
days fight. Some European merchants pay their bills on
the very day on which they become due ; and others take
as many days grace as are allowed in their refpeClive
countries.

At Copenhagen, there is no eftabliftied ufance ; but bills
are made payable on a certain day. Eight days grace are
allowed ; and if bills be not paid within that time, they may
be protefted immediately, and the proteft cannot be delayed
beyond the tenth day ; otherwife the holder of the bill is to
bear all rifles and expences. The days of acceptance and
proteft, as alfo Sundays and holidays, are included in the ten
days ; but in Altona, bills may be proteiled en the eleventh
day.

At Dantzic, the ufance is fourteen days after acceptance,
and the days of grace are ten ; and when the tenth day falls
on a Sunday or holiday, the bill muft be paid on the pre-
ceding day. But bills at fight, or fuch as are protefted,
after the days of grace are elapfed, muft be either paid or
protefted within twenty-four hours after being prefented.

which may be done even on a Sunday. Bills at fourteen
days fight have three days grace allowed. Bills drawn in
Dantzic cannot be negociated there a fecond time, but mull
be remitted by the firft holder to the place on which they
are drawn.

In India, the bufinefs of exchange is chiefly carried on be-
tween the three prefidencies ; namely, Bengal, Madras, and
Bombay : which draw on each other at various dates, and
moftly in the denomination of money of the place where the
bill is to be paid ; but as there is always the greateft demand

for

USANCE.

for bills on Bengal, being confidered the capital of the
Euglilh poffeflions in India, the courfe of exchange is nnoflly
in ftvour of tiiat place.

London draws on Bengal in current rupees at 2s. more or
lefs ; or in ficca rupees at (ixteen per cent, above current ;
alfo on Madras in pagodas at 7/. 6d. more or lefs ; and on
Bombay in rupees at 2s. 2il. more or lefs.

Such bills are moftly at fixty or ninety days fight ; but
bills from thofe places on London are generally drawn at
iix, nine, or twelve months fight ; in which cafe the ficca
rupee is valued at 2s. 6J., the pagoda at 8/., and the Bom-
bay rupee at 2s. ^d. ilerling, more or lefs.

The bank of Bengal has been incorporated by a charter
for feven years, granted under the governor-general in coun-
cil, by virtue of the authority veiled in him by the aft of
the 47 Geo. in. c. 28.

The capital of the bank is 5,000,000 ficca rupees, that
is, 50 lacks. It is divided into 500 equal (hares, 100 of
which belong to the government, and the other 400 to
individuals.

The interefl of money in India fluftuates from eight to
twelve per cent, per annum, and it has been even higher ; but
the bank, which engages not to charge above twelve, has
already lowered the rate of interefl, and has in many other
refpefts rendered eflential fcrvice to trade and commerce.

Bills drawn from Rome, or Venice, on Florence, are ac-
cepted on Saturday, and paid on that day fortnight ; birt
bills from Bologna, accepted on Saturday, mull be paid on
the next Saturday following, or be protefted on the fame
day. The ufance with other places is the fame as in Leg-
horn. Florence has no days of grace ; but a bill mull, on
the day it becomes due, be paid or protefted before the de-
parture of the poil for the place where it was drawn.

Bills drawn on Frankfort at one ufance (»'. e. fourteen
days after acceptance), alfo bills drawn at four days or
more after fight, or after date, have four days grace al-
lowed, befides Sundays and holidays. But when a bill has
no acceptor, or when it is payable by the drawer himftlf, if
not honoured when due, and if the firft indorfer, or the per-
fon to whofe order the bill is drawn, refufes to accept it, the
bill mull be protefted on the day when it becomes due.
Neither are any days of grace allowed on bills a vifta (at
fight), or at lefs than four days fight or date. All fuch bills
muft be paid within twenty-four hours of the fpccified
time.

The ufance of bills drawn on Geneva from Holland,
England, and France, is one month of thirty days ; from
Germany and Italy, fifteen days fight. In defedt of pay-
ment on the maturity of a bill, it muft be protefted on the
fifth day afterwards, exclufive of Sundays. Geneva draws
on Amfterdam, Paris, and London, at three months, and
fometimcs at two months date ; on Genoa, Leghorn, Milan,
and Turin, at eight days fight ; on Lyons, at fight and at
the payments. The ufance for bills drawn on Genoa from
Amfterdam, Spain, and Sicily, is two months, and from
London and Lilbon, three months after date ; from Naples,
Ancona, and Trieilc, three weeks fight ; Venice and Rome,
fifteen days ; Augfburg and Vienna, fourteen days ; Leg-
horn, Milan, and Turin, eight days fight. Thirty days are
allowed to the holder of a bill to demand payment ; but no
days of grace are allowed to the acceptor. A bill may be
prefented on the next diiy after it becomes due, thoui;h it is
ufual to delay the proteft till the firft poft day for the place
from which the bill came.

The ufance for bills drawn on Hamburgh from all parts of
Germany is fourteen days fight ; when bills are drawn at
ufance, the day of acceptance i» reckoned for the firft j but

when at any other number of days after fight, the day after
acceptance is reckoned for the firft. The ufance for bills
drawn from England, France, and Holland, is one month ;
from Spain, Portugal, Tricfte, and Italy, two months, after
date. Twelve days of grace are allowed for payment, or
proteft ; the day on which the bill would become due, if
no grace were allowed, is reckoned for the firft day ; and
Sundays and holidays are alfo included in the twelve days.

The exchanges of Ireland arc chiefly with England. The
par of exchange is as their monies; that is, 100/. Englilh =
108/. 6s. 8d. Irifti ; but the courfe of exchange has been
known to vary from loj to 120 per cent. Of late years, the
price has been between 109 and 113. Bills on Dubhn are
moftly drawn at twenty-one days fight, or, what is confidered
as equivalent, at thirty-one days date, and fuch are called
" bills in courfe." If the term be longer, an advance ia
accordingly made in the price of exchange. Thus, bills at
forty-one days date are charged one-eighth per cent, more ;
but, beyond this term, the advance is in a higher propor-
tion, being at the rate of half per cent, per month. Days
of grace, and all other ufagcs and laws of exchange, are
the fame in Ireland as in England, except that when a bill
becomes due on Sunday, it is not cuftomary here to prefent
it on the preceding Saturday, as in England, but on the
Monday following.

At Konigfbcrg, the days of grace are three, as at
Berlin.

The ufance at Leghorn for bills drawn from Amfterdam,
Antwerp, Cadiz, Madrid, Cologne, and Hamburgh, is two
months after date ; from Paris, Lyons, and Marfeilles, tliirty
days after date ; from London and Lilbon, three months
after date ; from Augftjurg and Vienna, twenty-two days
after date ; from Venice, Cremona, Bergamo, Brcfcia, Mo-
dena, and Naples, twenty days after date ; from Bologna,
Fcnara, Lucca, Florence, and Pifa, three days fight ; from
Genoa, Milan, and Turin, eight days fight'; from Sicily,
one month fight, or two months date ; from Sardinia, one
month fight ; from Perugia, five days fight ; from Tarcnto,
Bari, and Lecce, tvventy-feven days fight ; from Rome,
ten days fight, or fifteen days date ; from Ancona and Ri-
mini, ten days fight ; from Switzerland, eight days fight.
No days of grace are allowed on bills ; but they are paid
three times a week at the " Stanza," a place where mer-
chants meet on Mondays, Wednefdays, and Fridays, from
eleven in the forenoon till half paft two in the afternoon :
thus, bills which become due on Tuefdays, Thurfdays, or
Saturdays, are not payable till the following days of meet-
ing and payment.

At the fairs of Leipfic, three of which are held every
year, and each fair lafts fourteen days, bills are prefented
for acceptance in the four firft days of the fair ; and the ac-
ceptance can be delayed, at new-year's fair, which begins
on the I ft of .Tanuary, only till the day before the fecond
proclamation ; but at the other two f.iirs, i. t. the Eaftcr and
Michaelmas fairs, till the Friday in the firft week, at t^n
o'clock in the forenoon at the lateft ; and if the acceptance
fhould not then have taken place, the bills muft be protefted.
The time of payment of bills of exchange is during the five
firft days after the tlofe of the fair is proclaimed ; fo that,
at new-year's fair, payment muft be made on the 12th ef
January at the lateft ; and at the other two fairs, on the
Thurfday in the fecond week ; in default of which, the bills
muft be then protefted before ten o'clock at night, or all
refource ia loft againft the drawer.

The ufance in Leipfic is fourtc/rn days after acceptance.

No days of grace are allowed here ; but on the day a bill

becomes due, the holder muft demand payment ; and in

4 C 2 cafe

USANCE.

cafe of non-payment, he is not permitted to connive at any
dclay, but muit, on the very day, have it protefted, with
intereft, expences, &c. and return the bill the firft oppor-
tunity. If he neglefts any of thefe regulations, he lofes all
claim on the drawer and indorfors. Bills payable a villa,
or on demand, may be prefented and accepted even on a
Sunday or holiday, and muft be paid within twenty-four
hours after acceptance.

The ufance at Lilbon for bills drawn from Spain is fif-
teen days fight ; from London, thirty days fight ; from
Germany and Holland, two months after date ; from France,
fixty days ditto ; from Italy, and alfo Ireland, three months
after date. Six days of grace are allowed on foreign bills,
when they have been accepted ; but unaccepted bills mufl:
be either paid or protefted on the very day when they be-
come due. Bills drawn from any part of the Portuguefe
dominions, both in Europe and in other parts of the world,
are allowed fifteen days grace.

In London, the ufance for bills drawn from Holland,
Germany, or France, is one month ; from Spain and Portu-
gal, two months ; and from Italy, three months ; all after
date. Three days grace are allowed on all bills payable at
ufance, or after date, or at fo many days fight ; but if the
third day (hould fall on a Sunday, payment muft be made
on the preceding Saturday. Bills at figlit, or on demand,
muft be paid on the day when they are prefented.

At Lubec, ufances are the fame as at Hamburgh ; and ten
days grace are allowed.

The ufance, and all other regulations refpefting bills of
exchange, in Lucca, are the fame as in Leghorn.

The ufance at Marfeilles, for bills drawn from Spain and
Portugal, is fixty days ; and from other countries, thirty
days after date. Bills at fight muft be paid on being pre-
fented, and the payment of other bills may be claimed on
the next day after their term is expired ; but it is not cuf-
tomary among the merchants to demand payment till a few
days after, and the bills are not protefted till the ninth or
tenth day. This is alfo with regard to notes payable to
order, for value received in merchandife.

The ufance at Milan, for bills drawn from Genoa, Leg-
horn, Piedmont, and all Lombardy, is eight days fight ;
from Rome, Florence, Auglburg, Vienna, and all Germany,
fifteen days fight ; from Venice, twenty days date ; from
Naples and Sicily, twenty days fight ; from France and
Savoy, one month after date : from Spain, Holland, and
F'.anders, two months ; from I^ondon, three months after
date ; the month always reckoned at thirty days. Bills at
fight muft be paid on being prefented ; bills payable at
ufance, or fome days after date or figlit, muft be paid the
day after their written term ; and if this fiiould fall on a
Sunday or hoHday, payment is to take place on the next
working day. Accordingly no days of grace can be claimed
at Milan ; yet the holder of the bill may grant to the ac-
ceptor of it three days ; in which cafe, however, the bill
muft be carried to the notary of the chamber of commerce,
who writes upon it " feen on fuch a day ;" and when the bill
is afterwards accepted, the acceptance is to be dated from
the day on which it was firft prefented ; but if refuied, the
proteft is to take place on the day marked by tlie notary.
The fame grace may be allowed with regard to payment,
when the bill becomes due ; but any delay is always at the
option of the holder.

Tlie ufance in Naples, for bills drawn from any part of
the kingdom of Naples, is fifteen days after acceptance ;
and from Sicily, Genoa, Venice, Leghorn, and Rome,
twenty-two days; from Spain, two months after date; and
from London, three months. The acceptance is to take

place on the Saturday after the arrival of the port from th?
place where the bill was drawn. But bills payable at fo
many days fight or date muft be accepted or protefted on
being prefented, without any delay. Three days grace are
allowed, except for bills at fight.

The ufance at Novi, in Italy, for bills on Genoa, Milan,
and Bergamo, is twenty days from the clearing day ; on
Florence, Venice, Rome, Lucca, and Bologna, twenty-five
days ; on Naples, Valencia, and Barcelona, thirty-days ; on
Palermo, Meffma, and Madrid, forty-five days ; on Liftjon
and Seville, two months ; all reckoned from the clearing day
inchifive. No days of grace are allowed.

At Nuremberg, the common ufance for bills of exchange
is fifteen days ; half ufance, feven days ; double ditto, thirty
days ; one and a half ditto, twenty-three days ; all reckoned
from the day after acceptance. When bills are payable after
date, the time is reckoned from the day after that on which
the bill was drawn ; Sundays and holidays, and vacations of
the bank, are included. When bills are made payable at
one or more months after date or fight, they become due on
the fame day of the month on which they were drawn or ac-
cepted. Six days grace are allowed ; but none on bills at
fight, or two, three, or four days fight, or at a fhorter date
than half ufance. If a bill payable after date (Tiould not
arrive ui^til after fome of the days of grace are elapfed,
thefe days are not to be reckoned from the arrival of the
bill, but from the day on which it is made payable ; and if
all the fix days fiiould be elapfed, the bill muft be paid
within twenty-four hours of its arrival.

The ufance at Pr.igue is fourteen days after acceptance ;
and three dnys grace are allowed, as in all the Auftriaii
dominions.

Rome draws on Amfterdam, Ancona, Bologna, Florence,
Genoa, Leghorn, London, Lyons and Paris, Madrid, Mi-
lan, Naples, and Venice, at ulance, which is tkree weeks
after acceptance ; but bills on Pans are drawn at thirty-five
or forty days after date. Bills drawn on Rome at ufance
from any part of the ecclefiaftical ftates are accepted on the
Wednefday or the Saturday ; bills from foreign parts are
generally accepted on the Saturday in the week in which
they are received, except thofe from the kingdom of Naples,
which are accepted on the Friday. Protefts for non-ac-
ceptance or non-payment are to take place on thofe days.
The ulance is properly two weeks after acceptance, and it
has been the conftant practice of bankers to pay their bills
at the expiration of the fourteen days ; a week of grace
however is allowed, and merchants and all other traders, ex-
cept bankers, avail themfelves of it. This week is under-
ftood in the following manner : — Bills accepted on a Friday
or Saturday, are paid twenty-one days after acceptance ;
but the period for bills accepted on a Wednefday is only
eighteen days. Bills drawn at fo many days fight muft be
paid on the day their written term expires.

At Rotterdam, fix days grace are allowed ; and when bills
become due during the time the bank remains Ihut, it is not
ufual to demand payment until the third day after the
opening.

Bills drawn in Ruffia, whicii are payable after date, are
allowed ten days grace ; but if payable at fight, three days
only : Sundays and holidays are included in both cafes.
Payment muft be demanded in the morning of th* day the
bill becomes due ; and in cafe of non-payment, the proteft
should take place at lateft cri the following day. The ten days
gracj are allowed, even though the written term of the bill
(hould be elapfed before it is prefented or accepted. But
bills payable at fo many days after fight, are not allowed
any days of grace; and if the acceptance be delayed, the

term

USANCE.

term ij reckoned from the day on wliitli llic bill was pre-
fented. See Rus-sia.

At St. Gall, ill Switzerland, ufaiice is fifteen days ; dou-
ble ufance, tliirty days ; half ufance, eight days ; the day
of prefentation being reckoned the lirll. Three days grace
are allowed on bills drawn at ufance, but two only on bills
payable at a longer or (horter term than ufance. Sundays and
holidays are always included.

The days of grace, and other cuftoms and laws relating to
bills of exchange, are the fame in Scotland as in England.

Bills are drawn in Sicily on Leghorn and Genoa, at ufance
of one month after acceptance, or at two months date, or at
a few days fight ; on Rome, Venice, and Naples, at eight or
fifteen d?.ys fight ; on London, at three mo^iths date. The
ufance for foreign bills, drawn on Palermo and MelTina, is
twenty-one days figiit, including the day of acceptance ;
the ufance for bills between Meffina and Palermo is four ■
days after acceptance. No days of grace are allowed here
in any cafe.

The ufances and days of grace vary in different parts of
Spain ; thus, at Madrid and Seville, the ufance for bills
drawn from England, France, Genoa, and Leghorn, is
fixty days after date ; from Amfterdam, Hamburgh, and
otl'.er places in the north of Europe, two calendar months.

At Cadiz, the ufance from France is one month after date ;
and from the other parts of Europe, fixty days.

At Bilboa, the ufance from France is one month, and
from the other parts of Europe, two month: after date.

At Barcelona, the ufance for all foreign bills is fixty
days after date.

In all parts of Spain, the ufance for bills drawn from
Rome is ninety days after date, without any days of
grace.

The days of grace for all other bills drawn on Madrid,
Seville, Bilboa, and Barcelona, are fourteen days, provided
the bills be accepted before they become due, othcrwife no
days of grace are allowed. Such bills mull be protelled
immediately.

At Cadiz, fix days grace are allowed in all cafes.

In drawing bills of exchange upon Spain, it has become
neccflary, of late years, to write " payable in effeftivc, and
not in vales reales," othcrwife they may be paid in this pa-
per, which is generally at a difcount.

The ufance at Stettin, in Prufhan Pomerania, for bills
drawn from London and France, is one month ; from Am-
fterdam, fix weeks ; from Hamburgh, four weeks, after
date. Stettin draws generally on Amfterdam, Copenhagen,
and Hamburgh, at fix or eight, or fometimcs three or four
weeks date ; on England and France, at two months date.
The days of grace are three, as in Berlin.

The ufance at Strafburg, for bills from Germany, is fif-
teen days after fight ; and from France thirty days after
date. The acceptor of a bill cannot claim any days of
grace ; but the holder may allow ten days, after which the
bill muft be either paid or protefted.

The ufance in Sweden is reckoned at one month after
fight. Six days of grace are allowed for the payment of
bills, Sundays and holidays included ; if the fixth day, how-
ever, (hould fall on a Sunday or holiday, the bill muft be
paid on the i-i-eceding day ; but thofe fix days arc not un-
dcrftood to be granted, except in cafes of neccftity ; and a
perfon who willus to pnferve his credit, mull not claim any
days of grace, but pay his bills on the day they are made
payable.

Bills payable on demand, or at two or three days fight, are
not allowed any days of grace ; bills payable in the middle
of a month become due on the fourteenth, whatever may be

the number of days in that month ; and the fix days of
grace are allowed.

When a bill, payable after date, is uot prefented till two
or three days after its written term is expired, no more days
of grace are allowed than may remain unelapfed at the time
of prefentation.

The ufance at Turin, for bills drawn from London, is
three months after date ; from Holland, two months ; and
from France, one month. The period allowed for the pay-
ment of bills drawn from any other country befidcs the fore-
going, begins on the day they are prefented for acceptance,
and ends on the day when an anfwer can be had, by the re-
gular poll, from the place where the bill was drawn or nc-
gociated. Hence the ufance for bills drawn in Geneva,
Genoa, and Milan, is commonly reckoned at eight days
after fight ; for thofe drawn in Venice, Florence, Leghorn,
Rome, Augft->urg, and Vienna, at fifteen days fight ; and
for thofe drawn in Naples and Sicily, at twenty-one days
fight.

The prefentation for acceptance of a bill payable at a de-
termined period, cannot be delayed beyond two months
after the date of the bill. The fame regulation is obferved
with regard to claiming the difcharge of a bill payable at
fight ; it it is not claimed within tluat period, it is fuppofed
that the neceffary fteps have not been taken to obtain pay-
ment.

The day on which a bill is dated is always reckoned in the
term it has to run.

The holder of a bill, payable after date, is at liberty either
to demand payment when it becomes due, or to wait till the
fifth day ; and if this (hould fall on a Sunday or holiday,
payment is to take place on the next following day of bufi-
nels ; but jills at fight muft be paid when prefented.

The ufance at Venice, for bills drawn from London, is three
months after date ; from Amfterdam, Antwerp, and Ham-
burgh, two months ; from Bergamo, Milan, Modcna, and
Mantua, twenty days after date ; from Augftnirg, Frank-
fort, Genoa, Naples, Bari, St. Gall, Nuremberg, Bol-
lano, and Vienna, fifteen days after acceptance ; from
Rome and Ancona, ten days after acceptance; from Bo-
logna, Ferrara, Lucca, Florence, and Leghorn, fwe days
alter acceptance.

Bills are allowed fix days grace, after which they muft be
ether paid or protefted ; Sundays or holidays are not in-
cluded. Formerly payment could not be claimed, nor a bill
protefted, during the time the bank remained (hut, except
in cafe of a bnrkruptcy ; and if two or three of the days of
grace had elapfed before the bank was ftiut, the remaining
days were reckoned after the opening, fo as to make fix
days in all.

Protefts are made by the fanti or clerks of the commer-
cial college, who enter all the bills they have protefted in
a book, to which evrry merchant has free accefs. Thus
many bills, which would othcrwife be returned, are accepted
and paid for the honour of the drawer or indorfer. This
praclicc islikcwife ufiful in giving early notice of approach-
ing infolvcncy.

At Vienna, the following regulations are cftabliflied for
bills of exchange : —

When the written term of a bill ir. expired, throe days of
grace arc allowed ; and if the bill (hould not be paid by five
o'clock on the third day, it muft be immediately protefted
and returned. In thefe days of grace, Sundays and holi-
days are included ; but if the day of payment (hould (all
oil a Sunday or holiday, the bill miift be paid on the next
following day of bufinefs. This allowance of three days,
however, is only made in order that the holJcr of a bill, if
9

USE

he niould not be able to demand payment fooner, may have
the advantage of that delay ; but a good payee will not
avail himfelf of the days of grace, in order to delay the
payment of a bill beyond the written term.

If a bill which is not duly paid is not protefted imme-
diately, as above, the holder has no recourfe except againft
the acceptor.

Bills drawn at fight, or on demand, or at lefs than feven
days fight, or date," are not allowed any days of grace, but
•muft be paid within twenty-four hours at the lateft, unlefs
they fall due on a Sunday or holiday.

Ufance is fourteen days after acceptance ; half ufance,
feven days ; one and a half ufance, twenty-one days, in-
cluding Sundays and holidays ; but the day of acceptance
is not included.

Bills payable medio menfe (in the middle of the month)
are reckoned due on the fifteenth, and are allowed, like
other bills, three days grace, if neceffary.

The ufance at Zurich, for bills drawn from Amfterdam, or
any part of Germany, is fourteen days after fight. No days
of grace are allowed. The exchanges at Zurzach in Swit-
zerland, in which there are two great fairs annually, are re-
gulated by thofe of Zurich. Kelly's Cambift, vol. i. paflim.
See Exchange and Bills of Exchange.
USBEK£^, in Geography. See Uzbeks.
USBIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Germany,
near the Danube. Ptolemy.

USCHEAU, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Boleilaw ; 5 miles N.W. of Nimburg.

USCHECH, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen ; 10 miles S.E. of Chamir.

USCOKAN, a fmall ifland in the Eall Indian fea,
near the fouth-wcft coail of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 21'. E.
long. 1 16° 25'.

USCUDEMA.in Ancient Geography, z. town of Thrace,
belonging to the Bafli, taken by Luculhis.
USCUP, in Geography. See ScopiA.
USDAW, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ; 7 miles N.
of Soldau.

USDICESICA, in Ancient Geography, a prefefture of
Thrace, on the fide of the two Mccfias, in the vicinity and
to the W. of mount Hxmus. Ptolemy.

USE, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Nidd, near AITenheim.

Use, Uj'us, in Law, denotes the benefit or profit of
lands and tenements.

Ui'e imports a trull and confidence repofed in a man for
the holding of lands ; that he, to whofe ufc or benefit the
truft is intended, fhall reap the benefits of it.

A deed confifts of two principal parts ; the premifcs,
which include all that comes before the habendum, or limi-
tation of the eftate ; and the confequent, which is the haben-
dum itfelf ; in which there are two limitations ; the one of
the ejlate, or property the party fhall receive by the deed ;
the other of the ufe, expreffing to or for what ufeand bene-
fit he ftiall have the fame.

Ufes, fome fay, were invented upon the flat, of Weft-
miofter. Quia emptores terrarum ; before which time no fuch
ufes were Known. And becaufe, in courfe of time, many
deceits got footing, by fettling the pofleffion in one man, and
the ufe in another, it was enafted, anno 27 Hen. VIII.
cap. 10. that the ufe and poffefiion of lands (hould ftand
united, or that the poffefiion (hould be given to him who
had the ufe.

Hence this ftatufe is called the Statute of Ufes 5 or, in
conveyances and pleadings, the ftatute for trcmsferring ufes
into pujfejfion.

USE

Use and Cuflom, in Ancient Law-Booh, denotes tlie or-
dinary method of adting or proceeding in any cafe, which,
by length of time, has obtained the force of a law.

Use, Cejiui que. See Cestli.

Use, Contingent. See Contingent.

Use, Refulting, is an ufe which, being limited by the
deed, expires, or cannot veft, and returns back to him who
raifed it, after fuch expiration, or during fuch impoffibility :
as if a man makes a feoffment to the ufe of his intended wife
for fife, with a remainder to the ufe of her firft born fon in
tail ; here, till he marries, the ufe refults back to himfelf ;
after marriage, it is executed in the wife for fife ; and if (he
dies without iffue, the whole refults back to him in fee.

Use, Secondary, or Shifting, is that which, though exe-
cuted, may change from one to another by circumftances ex
pojl faSo ; as, if A makes a feoffment to the ufe of his in-
tended wife and her eldeil fon for their lives, upon the
marriage the wife takes the whole ufe in feveralty ; and
upon the birth of a fon, the ufe is executed jointly in them
both. Blackft. Com. book ii.

Uses, Covenant to fland fifed to. See Covenant.

Uses and Cujfoms of the Sea are certain maxims, rules, or
ufages, which make the bafe or ground-work of the mari-
time jurifprudence ; by which the policy of navigation, and
commerce of the fea, are regulated.

Thefe ufes and cuftoms confift in three kinds of regula-
tions. The firft, called laws, or judgments of Oleron, were
made by order of queen Eleanor, duchefs of Guienne, at
her return from the holy war ; and that chiefly from me-
moirs which (he had gathered in the Levant, where com-
merce was at that time in a very flourifhing condition. She
called them rolls of Olertn, becaufe (he then refided in an
ifland of that name, in the bay of Aquitaine. Thefe were
much augmented, about the year 1266, by her fon Richard,
king of England, on his return from the Holy Land. See
Laws of Oleron.

The fecond regulations were made by the merchants of
Wi(by, a city in the ifland of Gothland, in the Baltic, an-
ciently much famed for commerce ; mod of the nations of
Europe having their particular quarters, magazines, and
(hops, in it. Thefe were compiled in the Teutonic language,
and are ftill the rule in the northern countries. Their date
does not appear ; but it is probable they were made fince
the year 1288, when the city of Wi(by was deftroyed the
firft time, and afterwards reftored by Magnus, king of
Sweden. See Marine Insurance.

The third fet of regulations was made at Lubec, about
the year 1597, by the deputies of the Hanse-Too'/!^.

USEDOM, in Geography, a town of Anterior Pome-
rania, fituated on the fouth-weft coaft of the ifland of Ufe-
dom, on the bay of the Frifche Haff ; 8 miles E. of
Anclam. — Alfo, an ifland in the Baltic, feparated from
the coaft of Pomerania, partly by the river Pcenc, and
partly by the Frifche Haff; about 39 miles in length, of
a very irregular form, and in no part above three miles from
the fea. N. lat. 54° 15' to 54° 45'. E. long. 13° u' to
13058'.

USEFF, a town of Tunis ; 32 miles N.W. of Cai-
roan.

USEL, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Danube,
3 miles W. of Neuburg.

USELETT, a long range of mountains in Tunis, called
by the ancients Alons l/falitanus, W. of Cairoan.

USELLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town on the weftem
fide of the ifland of Sardinia, between the mouths of the
rivers Thyrfus and Sacer, with the title of a colony.

10 USER

U S H

U S H

USER JJE Action, in Law, is the purfuing or bring-
ing an aftioa in the proper county, &c. See Action.

USETIN, or WzETlx, in Geography, a town of Mo-
ravia, in the circle of Hradifch ; 30 miles N.E. of Hra-
difch.

USEU, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; 37 miles N. of
Balaguer.

USEVASKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Archangel, on the Mezen ; 64 miles N.E. of Pineg.

USHA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name of Reti, the
wife of Kama, the god of love. She is fabled to have been
incarnate in the perfon of a daughter of a raja named
Bhima, to be efpoufed terrellrially by Kama, in an incarna-
tion of his in the form of Amrudha, a fon of Kriftina.
Kama is more commonly called Pradyamna in this avatara,
or incarnation. The amours and adventures of Anirudha
and Ufha are the fubjecl of a pretty tale, and a very inte-
refting drama in feveral of the languages of the Eaft.

USHANT, or OuESSANT, in Geography, a fmall ifland
in the Pacific ocean, difcovered in 1768 by M. Bougain-
ville, near the coaft of New Guinea. S. lat. 11° 5'. E.
long. 146° 33'.

UsHANT. See OUESSANT.

USHENICK Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of Lewis.
N. lat. 57° 56'. W. long. 6^25'.

USHER, HuissiER, fignifies an officer or fervant who
has the care and direftion of the door of a court, hall,
chamber, or the like.

In the king's houfhold there are four gentlemen-ulhers of
the privy chamber, appointed to attend the door, to give en-
trance, &c. to perfons that have admittance thither : four
gentlemen-uftiers, waiters, and an afliftant gcntleman-uflier,
and eight genllcmcn-uftiers, quarter-waiters in ordinary.

There are alfo in the queen's houfhold three gentlemen-
uftiSrsof the private chamber, three gentlcmcn-ufhers, daily
waiters ; each of whom has the fame annual appointment
with thoie of the king's houfhold ; and three gentlcmcn-
ufhers, quarterly waiters. In the French court, there are
two ulhers of the ante-chamber, or hall, where the king
dines in public. They wait, fword by fide, all tiie year, and
open the door to fuch as are to come in. There are above
fixteen ufliers of the chamber, two of the cabinet, and one
of the order of the Holy Ghoft.

The ufhers of the Inquifition in Spain and Portugal
were perfons of the firft quality, who thought themfelves
highly honoured, by only looking to the doors of that fa-
cred tribunal.

Usher is alfo ufed for an officer in the exchequer ; of
which fort, three or four attend the chief officers and barons
at the court at Weftminfter, as alfo juries, fhcriffs, and
other accomptants, at the pleafure of the court. See Ex-

CHEQLEIl.

Usher of the Black-rod. See BLACK-ro</.

In a chapter held at Whitehall, 13 Car. II. it was or-
dained, that this office fliould be fixed to one of the gentle-
mcn-ufliers, daily waiters at court ; the eldeft of which
always holds the place, and is called gentleman-ufher, and
black-rod.

In relation to the order of the Garter, he is appointed to
carry the rod at the fcaft of St. George, and other fo-
Icmnities, which he alfo makes ufc of as an authority to
attach delinquents, who have offended againfl the ftatutes of
the order, which he frequently doth by touching them with
it. He wears a gold badge, cmbellifhed with tlie cnfigns of
the order. He has a houfc in Windfor-caftle, and other
privileges.

Usher, James, in Biography, archbifliop of Armagh,

and primate of Ireland, was born at Dublin, January 4,
ij8o-i, being a defcendant of an Englifh family of the
name of Neville, long fettled in Ireland. He was taught
to read by two maternal aunts, who had been blind from
their infancy ; and having been inftruAed in the elements of
literature by two excellent fcholars, who had removed from
Scotland to Dublin, his proficiency was fuch, that in his
13th year he was lit for admiflion into the newly founded
univerfity of Dublin ; and lie was pne of the three matri-
culated ftudents on its opening in 1593. At this early
period he is faid to have been inchned to poetry ; but at the
age of 14, he was ferioufly engaged in hiftorical ftudies.
Such was his progrefs in this department of hterature, that
between his 15th and i6th years he had drawn up a chronicle
of the Bible, as far as the book of Kings. Divinity was
alfo an objeft that engaged his early attention, and the cir-
cumftances of the times led him to ftudy the points in con-
troverfy between the Catholics and the Proteftants ; and he
devoted no lefs than 1 8 years of the prime of his life to this
kind of employment. He was diverted, however, from his
academical career ; yet in 1596 took his degree of B.A.
It was the wifh of his father that he would purfue the pro-
feflion of law ; but his views and purpofcs were of a dif-
ferent kind : and that he might not be embarraffed and ob-
flrufted by law-fuits, to wiiich his patrimonial property
might be fubjecl, he refigned his inheritance to his brother,
referving only for himfelf a fufficicncy to maintain liim at
college, and to procure a fupply of books. Of his profi-
ciency in the Popifh controverfy, he gave an extraordinary
proof when he was about 1 8 years of age ; a challenge was
publifhed by a Jefuit to maintain in difputation the Catholic
caufe againfl the Proteflants. Ufher accepted the challenge,
and had an interview with the Catholic champion. The
difpute terminated by a difcontinuance of the conference on
the part of the Jefuit. In 1600 Ufher took the degree of
M.A., and was chofcn proftor and catechetical lefturer of
the univerfity; and in his 21ft year he was pcrfuaded,
though under the canonical age, to become a candidate for
ordination, which was conferred upon him by his uncle, the
archbifhcip of Armagh. Tlie fubjedl of his firft fermon was
tlie controverfy between the Prot'.flants and Catholics ; and
he took occafion, in the ardour of his zeal, to oppofe the
toleration, or indulgence, with regard to the exercife of
tlieir worfhip, which tlic Catholics were then endeavouring
to obtain, becaufe he confidered their religion as fuper-
iHtious and idolatrous, and the eftablifhed government in
church and tlatc as endangered by it. Tlie firft eccle-
fiaftical preferment conferred upon Ufher was the chanccUor-
ihip of St. Patrick's, Dublin, and this he held till he was 1
promoted to the epifcopal bench. In 1606 he revifited
England, and contradled an intimate acquaintance with the
two eminent antiquarians, Camden and fir Robert Cotton.
To the former he communicated information relating to
Ireland and Dublin, which was very ferviceable to him in
the compofition of his " Britannia." In 16&7 he took the
degree of B.D., and was foon after made profeflor of divinity
in the univerfity of Dublin, which office he occupied during
I 3 years. About this time his attention was directed to a
difpute concerning the Corban lands, anciently appropriated
to the chorcpifcopi, and free from fecular impoits and jurif-
diftion, but liable to certain payments and irrvices to the
bifhops. Tile fubftance of the treatife compofed by him on
this fubjeiht was tranflated into Latin, and afterwards pub-
liflicd by fir Henry Spelman, in the firft part of his Glof-
fary. On his next vifit to England, in 1609, he was no-
ticed at court, and very miicli augmented his literary coii-
ncdious J and from this lime he vitited England regularly

once

USHER.

once every three years. When Uflier had attained his 30th
year, he was unanimoudy elefted to the provolKhip of the
college ; but he thought proper to decline this honourable
office. Two years afterwards he was admitted to the de-
gree of D.D. In 1613, upon a vifit to England, he
printed at the royal prefs his firft publication, entitled
" Gravifrimx QuaelUonis de Chriilianarum Ecclefiarum, in
Occidentis pra;fertim Partibus, ab Acoftolicis tempon-
bus ad noftram ufqiie aetatcm, continua fucceffione et ftatu,
Hiftorica Explicatio." This work may be regarded as
a continuation of biihop Jewel's " Apology for the Church
of England," intended to prove that the tenets of the Pro-
teftants were the fame with thofe of the primitive Chriftians.
In this year he married the daughter of Dr. Euke Chaloner,
who charged his daughter, on his death-bed, to marry no
one but Dr. Ufher, if he ever propofed the conneftion.
She was an heirefs with a confiderable fortune; and they
lived together in the greatcll harmony for 40 years, and left
an only child, who was a daughter, and afterwards lady
Syrrel.

At a convocation of the prelates and clergy of the Irifli
eftabhfhment, held at Dublin in the year 1615, it was deter-
mined that they (hould alfert their independence on the
church of England. Ufher was principally employed on
this occafion ; and as he was known to maintain the opinion,
that bilhops were not a diftinft order in the church, but
only fuperior in degree to prefbyters, he was rcprefented to
king James as a favourer of puritanifm, which was the ob-
jeft of that monarch's invincible antipathy. When he
vifited England in 1619, he thought proper to bring with
him a recommendatory letter from the lord-deputy and his
council to the Englifh privy-council, containing a tefti-
monial to his orthodoxy, and a high encomium on his pro-
feflional and moral character. This atteftation, together
with the fatisfaftion which lie gave to the king of his ortho-
doxy religious and political, more efpecially with regard to
the head of the church, and the unlawfulnefs of refillance to
the royal authority, not only removed the prejudice which
had been conceived againft him in the royal mind, but ob-
tained for him a fpontaneous nomination to the fee of Meath.
On his return to Ireland in the following year, he was con-
fecrated, and took pofTeffion of his fee, with a refolution
faithfully to perform the duties of his ofEce. In a fermon
preached before the lord-deputy in 1622, from the following
text, " He beareth not the fword in vain," he gave offence
to the Recufants, who confidered it as a kind of call upon
the new governor, lord Falkland, to employ the fword
againft the enemies of the eftabliihed reHgion. Some excep-
tionable paffagcs were pointed out to him by his metro-
politan, primate Hampton, who advifed a voluntary re-
traftation. In this inftance, the good prelate feems to have
been urged by his zeal to overpafs the limits both of dif-
cretion and equity. However this be, the perfons then in
power did not difapprove his fentiments ; and the king was
fo pleafed with the fupport he gave to his fpiritual fupre-
macy, that he foon after nominated him a privy counfellor
of Ireland. In order to oppofe the errors and fuperftitions
of Popery, which were then prevalent, he pubhfhed an
Engli(h treatife concerning " the Religion of the ancient
Irifh and Britons :" the defign of which was to evince the
conformity of the doftrines and rites of the early ages of
Chriftianity in thefe countries with thofe of the Proteitants ;
and to point out the periods in which the practices of the
church of Rome were introduced. This learned treatife
was reprinted at London in 1 63 1 . He was afterwards en-
gaged, by command of king James, in an elaborate work
on the antiquities of the Britifh church ; and he came over

to England, in order to obtain every kind of neceffary in-
formation on his fubjeft. On his return to Ireland in 1624,
he employed fome time in writing a reply to the challenge
of an Irifh Jefuit, in which work he difplayed a very accu-
rate acquaintance with ecclefiaftical hiftory and the writings
of the fathers. Dr. Hampton having by his death left a
vacancy in th.e fee of Armagh and primacy of Ireland,
Uflier was nominated by the king to the vacant dignity, and
received fome other tokens of the king's predileftion in his
favour. The fame attachment was manifefted to our author
by Charles I., who fucceeded to the throne. In November
1625, our prelate was invited by the earl Mordaunt,
afterwards the firft earl of Peterborough, to vifit him at his
feat at Drayton, in Northamptonfhire. The objcft of this
\')fit w:as a difputation on the points in controverfy between
the churches of Rome and England. His lordfliip was a
zealous Catholic, and his lady, the daughter and heirefs of
Howard lord Effingham, an equally zealous Proteftant,
who being defirous of converting her hufband, had folicited
Uflier as her champion. The Catholic advocate was an
Englifli Jefuit. The conference between the difputants
lafted three days, five hours in each day. The Catholic
champion, upon a trivial pretence, withdrew from the con-
teft, and lord Mordaunt became a convert. Upon his
return to Ireland, after this adventure, in 1626, he was in-
ftalled in his new dignity, and took his place at the head of
the Irifti church. As war fubfil^ed at this time both with
France and Spain, it was propofed to augment the military
of Ireland ; and to engage the concurrence of the Catholics,
they were led to expeft a more enlarged toleration of re-
ligion. The primate fummoned a meeting of prelates, and
they protefted againft the propofed indulgence ; alleging,
" that the religion of the Papifts is fuperftitious and ido-
latrous ; their faith and doftrine erroneous and heretical ;
and their church, in refpeft of both, apoftatical. To give
them, therefore, a toleration, or to confent that they may
freely exercifc their rehgion, and profefs their faith and
doftrine, is a grievous fin." Upon this proteftation, Bavle
obferves, " that the archbifhop and his fuffragans afted ac-
cording to the principles of the extremeft intolerance ; for
they did not found their reafoning upon maxims of ftate,
hke the advocates for mitigated intolerance, but folely upon
the nature of the Roman Catholic worfhip ; without making
any mention of its perfecuting fpirit, which is the only caufe
why even the friends of toleration argue that it ought not
to be tolerated :" and this cenfure is unqueftionably well
grounded. Milton, though a friend to toleration in general,
adds to his reafons for not tolerating Popery, that of its
being idolatrous. But it is well obferved by Dr. Aikin
(ubi infra), that tlie argument againft the toleration of
Popery, on account of its being a falfe religion, is fuch as
erery eftabliftied religion may with equal right urge againft
every other, and may therefore juftify univerfal intolerance.
See Toleration.

The primate, befides attending to the various duties of
his office, employed himfelf and obtained the affiftance
of others in augmenting his library, and in promoting the
common interefts of literature. In order to procure oriental
books and MSS., he correfponded with an inteUigent mer-
chant at Aleppo, and by his means obtained a curious copy
of the Samaritan Pentateuch, a Syrian Pentateuch, and a
Commentary on a great part of the Old and New Tefta-
ments, and feveral other valuable MSS. From the Sama-
ritan Pentateuch he furniflied fome extrafts for his friend
Selden, in his " Arundelian Marbles ;" and he depofited
the MS. itfelf in the Cottonian hbrary. Dr. Walton
availed himfelf of Ufher's coUeAion in his Polyglott Bible ;

and

USHER.

and his oriental treafures were finally centred, for the mod
part, in the Bodleian library. The pnmatc, being with re-
fpeft to doiSrine Calviniftical, was alarmed by the progrcfs
of Arminianifm in the Englirti churcli at the commencement
of king Charles's reign, and took part in the predeftinarian
controverfy of that period. Accordingly he piiblifhed, in
1 63 1, a hiftory of the Benedictine monk Gottefchalc, who,
in the ninth century, llrenuoully vindicated the doftrine of
predeftination. This hiilory, the firft Latin produftion of
the Irifh prefs, is entitled " Gottefchalci et Prjedeitinari.-e
Controverfiae ab eo moti Hiftoria." Neverthelefs he fer-
▼ilely fubmittcd to royal inilrudlions, communicated to him
under the influence of Laud, a zealous partifan of Armini-
anifm, for feizing all remaining copies of a work, publilhed
in Ireland by Dr. Downham, bifhop of Derry, againft the
Arminians, avowing his purpofe " that nothing (hould be
hereafter publifhed contrary to his majefty's facrcd direc-
tion." In conformity to a circular letter from his majefty
to the Irifli archbifhops, Ulher was aftive in refilling the
fpread and prevalence of Popery. With this view he
adopted a much better mechod than that of enforcing penal
laws ; which was that of cultivating an acquaintance with
Catholics of different ranks, and treating them with hofpi-
tality and kindnefs.

In 1632 Urtier appeared before the public as editor of an
antiquarian work entitled " Veterum Epiflolarum Hiberni-
carum Sylloge, qus partim ab Hibernis, partim ad Hibernos,
partim de Hibernis vel rebus Hibernicis funt confcriptz."
Under the adminiflration of lord-deputy Wentworth, who
wifhed to render tiie government of Ireland in every refpeft
dependent on the crown of England, the independency of
the Irifh church, which had articles and canons of its own,
became a fubjeft of litigation. When it was propofed in
convocation, that the whole body of the Englilh canons
(hould be adopted by the Irifh church, the primate at firft
refifted ; but after much difcufTion, a compromife took
place, by admitting a certain number of the Englifli canons,
and retaining fiich of the Irifh as had a particular reference
to the circum (lances of that church and kingdom. It was
afterwards ilipulated that the candidates for ordination in the
Irifh church fhould fubfcribe both fets of articles, tliofe of
the Englifh, and thofe of the Inih church ; but this double
fubfcription was found to be the caufe of great confufion :
and therefore, after the Relloration, the Englilh articles
alone were fubfcribed, as they have ever finee been. In
1638 Ufher publilhed at Dublin a fhort treatife, entitled
" Immanuel, or theMyllery of the Incarnation of the Sou
of God ;" and in the following year, his great work " Dc
Ecclefiarum Britannicarnni Primordiis," of which an edition,
correAcd and improved by the author, was publilhed at
London in 1677. In the year 1640, the primate vifited
England ; and in a parliamentary debate concerning cliurcli-
governmcnt, lie offered (fays Whitelock) an expedient for
conjundion, in point of difcipline, tliat cpifcopal and pref-
byterial government might not be at a far diltance, re-
ducing epifcopac) to the form of a fynodical government in
the ancient church. The parliament was fpeedily dilfolved,
and nothing refulted from t!iis propofal. In 1641, a col-
leftion of trails in defence of epifcopacy was publirtied at
Oxford : and in this collection were two pieces of Ulher's,
viz, " A Difcourfe on the Origin of Bifhops and Metro-
politans," and " A Geographical and Hillorical Dif(]uili-
tion on the Lydian or Proconfiilar Afia ;" which lall was
reprinted with additions at Oxford in 1643. By thefe tratti,
it appears that Ufli r adhered to his early opinion, that
bifhops and prefbyters diltercd not in order, but in tU^ree,
though he afferted the apodolical origin and authority of

Vol. XXXVII.

epifcopacy. In defence of the caufe of monarchy, he com-
pofed, by the king's command, a treatife concerning " The
Power of the Prince, and Obedience of the Subjeft,"
which remained in MS. till after the Reftoration, and was
then publifhed by the primate's grandfon, James Tyrrel,
efq., with a preface by bifhop Sanderfon.

On occafion of the impeachment of lord Strafford, Ufher's
conduft has been much cenfured. It was generally confi-
dered that the bifhops were inftrumental in perfuading the
king to confent to Strafford's death ; and Ufher not only
fhared in this imputation, but was charged with having taken
this part in revenge for having been obhged by Strafford to
concur in abrogating the articles of the Irifh church. But
the moral character of Ufher raifed him far above the fufpi-
cion of fuch malignity. Dr. Parr has produced the king's
own atteftation to the primate's innocence as to the charge
of contributing to Strafford's fate. The Irifh rebellion,
which broke out in 164 1, was very detrimental to the pre-
late ill a variety of refpeCis ; fo that for his fupport at the
interval, he was obliged to fell his plate and jewels. His
library, however, on which he fet the principal value,
in the midtl of the wreck of all his other property,
was preferved, having been conveyed to Chcfter, and
thence to London. Soon after this difaftrous event, he
had a grant from the king of the temporalities of the fee
of Carlifle, then vacant, which fupplied his moderate wants
till the feizure of the epifcopal lands by the Long parliament.
It has been faid by fome, but doubted or denied by others,
that in this time of his dillrefs he was offered the place of ho-
norary ])rofeffor in the univerfity of Leyden, with an in-
creafe of falary ; and that cardinal Richelieu invited him to
France, where he fhould enjoy an ample penfion, and free-
dom of religion. After the commencement of the civil
war, Ufher refided at Oxford, where he purfued his literary
ftudies, occafionally preached, and had frequent conferences
with the king, who, it is faid, affured him of his attache-
ment to the Proteftant religion. Such, at this time, was his
attachment to the royal caufe, that he declined being a mem-
ber of the affembly of divines at Wellminfler in 1643, and
controverted their authority ; and this conduct gave great
offence to the parliament, fo that his library was confifcated ;
but by the interpofition of Selden, it was redeemed by Dr.
Featly, a member of tiie affembly, for a fmall fum, and
afterwards returned to the original owner.

In if>44 Ulher finilhed liis concfted edition of the cpif-
tlesof Ignatius, whicii was printed at Oxford, and entitled
" Polycarpi et Ignatii Epillola- ; una cum vctere interpre-
tatione Latina, ex trium Manufcriplorum codicum CoUa-
tione integritati fua: reftituta, &c. &c."

He had alfo prepared for the prefs the Epiftle of Barna-
bas, but the copy being dellroyed by fire at the printer's,
the author's " Premonition," concerning the age, author,
and purpofe of the epilUe, which alone was preferved, was
afterwards inferted, in a mutilated Hate, in bilhop Fell's
edition of the fame cpillle, Oxford, 16S5. In 1645, the
royal caufe being on the decline, Ufher obtained the king's
leave to quit Oxfo.d ; and from thence he went to Car-
diff, to Ins fon-in-law, fir Timothy Tyrrel, who was then
governor of the place. When Tyrrel was obliged to quit
liis command at Cardiff, Ulher was under a nccelfity of
feeking anollier refuge. Whilll he was in a llate of fnf-
penfe, he received an nivitatioii from llie dowager lady Strad-
ling, t(» take up his abode at lur relidence 111 the cadlc of
St. Donat's, Glamorganfliire. On his way thither, in com.
pany with his daughter, he was met by a party of llrag.'crs,
wlio condndted him and his train to the main body of the
army, who, though nominally raifed for the king's fcrvice,
4 D confidcrcd

USHER.

coiilidered tliein as lawful objetls of pillage, becaufe they
were Englifh. They were rudely treated and plundered ;
but a party of officers interpofed, and reflored as much of
the baggage as they could find. They then condufted the
travellers to the houfe of fir John Aubrey, where they were
lodged for the night. During his abode at St. Donat's, he
was feized with a diforder which had nearly proved fatal, and
which, indeed, occafioned a report of his death ; but he
afterwards flowly recovered, and continued in Wales nearly
a year and a half. Failing to fucceed in his attempt to crofs
the Channel, he accepted the invitation of the countcfs of
Peterborough to refide at her houfe in London, and arrived
thither in 1646. About this time there was an order of
parliament to pay him the fum of 400/. per annum ; but it
does not appear that this penfion was paid above once or
twice. Early in the year 1 647 he was elefted preacher to
the fociety of Lincoln's-lnn, and here he continued to en-
joy comfortable apartments, and to officiate for nearly eight
years. It is faid that his fermons were chiefly extempo-
raneous, and no trace of them remains. His literary la-
bours were continued. In the year 1648, when the king
was confined at Carifbrook caftle, in the Ifle of Wight,
Ufiier, and five others of the epifcopal clergy, were deputed
to vifit him, and to treat with him on the fubjecl of church-
government. The primate renewed his former propofition
of " Epifcopal and Prefcyterial Government conjoined :"
but the parliamentary commiflioners being determined upon
the total aboUtion of epifcopacy, the treaty terminated with-
out effeft. In a converfation which occurred between Bax-
ter and Ulher, it appears that the latter admitted the vali-
dity of prelbyterian ordination. " I aflced him," fays Bax-
ter, " his judgment about the vaHdity of prefbyters' or-
dination, which he afierted, and told me, that the king
a&e'd him at the Ifie of Wight, where ever he found in anti-
quity that prefbyters alone ordained any ? and that he an-
fwered, I can fliew your majefty more, eves where prefby-
ters alone fucceflively ordained bifliops ; and inftanced in
Hierom's words (Epift. ad Evagrium) of the prefbyters of
Alexandria choofing and making their own bifhops from the
days of Mark till Heraclius and Dionyfius." After this
interview with the king, Ufher faw him only once more,
on the fcaffold. The fight was fo affefting, that he
was obhged to withdraw ; and being overpowered by it,
he was led down from the leads of lady Peterborough's
houfe, at Charing-crofs, and laid upon his bed, where
abundant tears and prayers gave relief to the deep forrow
with which he was overwhelmed. His great chronological
work, entitled " Annales Veteris Teftamenti," was fo far
completed, that in 1650 he publifhed the firft part of it, and
the fecond part was printed in 1654. In 1652 he pubhfhed
his " Epiflola ad Lodovicum Capellum de Textus Hebraici
variantiljus leftionibus," in which he difplays varied and pro-
found erudition concerning the Greek Septuagint and the
Samaritan Pentateuch. It appears that Cromwell requefted
a conference with Ufher, and that the former promifed the
primate a leafe for twenty-one years of part of the lands be-
longing to the archbifhopric of Armagh, which he did not
refufe to accept ; but the grant was never pafTed during his
life, and after his death was refufed to his daughter and fon-
in-law on the pretext of " malignancy." On occafion of
the death of his old friend Selden, towards the clofe of the
year 1654, he delivered a funeral difcourfe at the Temple-
church before a fplendid and numerous audience ; and this
was the lafl of his public pulpit fervices. His work " De
Grseca Septuaginta Interpretum Verfione Syntagma, &c."
was printed in 1655. In an interview with the Proteftor,
whilft he was attended by a furgeon who drefTed a boil on

his breaft, Cromwell faid, " If this core (pomting to the
boil) were once out, I Ihould quickly be weU." " I fear,"
replied Ufher, " the core lies deeper ; there is a core at the
heart that muft be taken out, or elfe it will not be well."
" Ah \" rejoined the unhappy great man, " fo there is in-
deed !" pronouncing the words with a figh. At Ryegate,
whither the primate foon after retired, he employed himfelf
in the completion of his " Chronologia Sacra ;" and here he .
felt fymptoms of decay ; for in his almanac, oppofite to his
birth-day, in 1655-6, was found written the following note :
" Now aged feventy-five years : my days are full :" and after
a fmall interval, in capital letters, the word Resignation.
On the 20th of March he was attacked with a pleuritic in-
flammation, which occafioned acute pain, and indicated his
approaching end. Having taken refpeftful aud grateful
leave of his noble hoftefs, the countefs of Peterborough, he
withdrew, and requefted to be left to his private devotions.
The laft words he was heard to utter were, " O Lord, for-
give me ; efpecially my fins of omiffion I" and prefently
after expired, March 21, 1655-6, having completed his
75th year nearly three months. It was propofed to bury
him at Ryegate, in lady Peterborough's family vault ; but
Cromwell fent an order that his body fhould be brought for
burial in Weftminfter-abbey, with the ceremony of a pubhc
funeral. On the 17th of April his remains were met, near
London, by the carriages of moft perfons of rank then in
town ; and from Somerfet-houfe to the Abbey they were at-
tended in proceflion by all the clergy, and a great concourfe
of people. The funeral fermon was preached by Dr. Ni-
cholas Bernard, the primate's former chaplain, upon the
following appropriate text : " And Samuel died, and all
Ifrael were gathered together, and lamented him, and
buried him."

Primate Ufher was in perfon moderately tall and well-
fhaped, with an ereft carriage to the laft ; of a fanguine
complexion, and features exprefling gravity and benevolence
combined. His conftitution was firm, and enabled him to
bear uninjured his early hours of ftudy, and the various fa-
tigues of a life both aftive and contemplative. His mode of
living was fimple ; his manners were free and affable, void of
all pomp and affectation ; his temper was remarkably fweet
and placable, though he could rebuke with feverity when
he thought the occafion required it. Among his numerous
eulogifts,no one, perhaps, has eftimated him more correftly
than bifhop Burnet, who, in his " Life of Bifhop Bedell,"
mentions the primate in the following terms :

" Together with his great and vaft learning, no man had a
better foul, and a more apoflohc mind. In his converfation
he exprefled the true fimplicity of a chriftian ; for pafGon,
pride, felf-will, or the love of the world, feemed not to be
fo much as in his nature ; fo that he had all the innocence of
the dove in him. He had a way of gaining people's hearts,
and of touching their confciences, that looked like fomewhat
of the apoftolic age revived. He fpent much of his time
in thofe two bcft exercifes, fecret prayer, and dealing with
other people's confciences, either in his fermons or private
difcourfes ; and what remained he dedicated to his ftudies,
in which thofe many volumes that came from him fhewed a
moft amazing diUgence and exaftnefs, joined with great
judgment ; fo that he was certainly one of the greateft and
beft men that the age, or perhaps the world, has produced.
But no man is entirely perfeft : he was not made for the
governing part of his funAion. He had too gentle a foul
to manage that rough work of reforming abufes, and there-
fore left things as he found them."

Ulber, through life, feemed to have had gloomy fore-
bodings with regard to the return and temporary triumph of

popery,

U S H

U S I

popery, and he founded his prediftions of fuch an event on
his interpretation of fome palTages of Scripture ; and it lias
been faid, that at fome feafons he feemed to think himfelf
warranted to fpeak of future events in a higher tone of au-
thority than as a mere conjefturer. A popular opinion
prevailed, that Ufhcr was endowed with a prophetic fpirit ;
but there is no fufficient evidence that he himfelf pretended
to this extraordinary gift. It was his intention to have left
his library, confdlingof nearly 10,000 books and MSS. to
his " alma mater" at Dublin ; but being dripped, by the
difafters of the times, of all other property, he thought it
right to bequeath it to his daughter, to whom he had given
nothing, and who had a large family. The king of Den-
mark and cardinal Mazarin bid for it ; but the Protector con-
ceiving it difgraceful to his adminillration to allow fuch a
treafure to be fent out of the kingdom, prohibited the difpofal
of it without his confent. Probably through his private
fuggeiHon, the officers and foldiers of the viftorious army
in Ireland purchafed it for 2200/., with a view of appro-
priating it agreeably to the firft intention of the primate.
It lay at the caftle till the Reftoration, and after fufFering va-
rious depredations, it was bellowed by Charles II. upon
Dublin college.

It has been a fubjcft of difpute, how far the opinions of
Ulher differed from thofe of the eftablilhed church. Dr.
Peter Heylin alleged againll him many charges of non-con-
formity. Thefe are fummcd up under diftinft heads, and
particularly examined by Dr. Parr. Our limits will merely
allow a recital of them. 1. The divine authority for keep-
ing the fabbath, or feventh day's reft, as transferred to the
Chriftian Sunday. 2. His opinion that bifhops and prelby-
ters differ in degree only, not in order ; and, as an infer-
ence, that prefbyterian ordination and facraments are valid.
3. His limitation to the eleft of that univerfal redemption
of mankind by the fufferings and death of Chrilt, which is
the doftrine of the church of England. It is, however, a
fubjeft of controverfy not yet decided, whether the articles
of the Englifli church, as to thefe points, are to be under-
ftood in a Calvinillic or an Arminian fenfe. In early life, the
theological fyftem of Ulher was Calviniftic ; but it has been
faid that he changed his fentiments concerning the dodlrines
of Calvinifm before his death. 4. The primate is accufcd
by Heylin of not holding the doftrine of the iride and real
prefence of Chrift's body and blood in the facramcnt of the
eucharift, conformably to the church of England. But it
is hardly conceivable that any modern divine of the church
of England would go farther than the primate, who diftin-
guifhed between the outward and inward aft of the com-
municant : " in the firft of which he really receives the vi-
fjble elements of bread and wine ; in the fecond, by faith,
really receives the body and blood of our Lord, that is, is
truly and indeed made partaker of Chrill crucified to the
fpiritual ftrengthening of the inward man." 5. The next
charge is, that he did not admit the power of the prieft to
forgive fins, in the fenfe of the church of England. Heylin
contends for an authoritative power in the prieft to remit
fms ; whereas the primate's opinion feems to have been, that
the prieft's abfolution is only declarative, or on condition of
repentance ; or optative, by the way of prayers and intcrcef-
fion. Dr. Parr contends, that the doftrine of the church
is that held by the primate. 6. His opinion concerning
Chrift's defcent into hell is alleged to have deviated from
that of the church, inafmuch as he did not admit of a local
defcent into the real hell, or place of puniniment for the
wicked, but a mere fcparation between the foul and body
daring the time that Chrift lay in the grave.

As a man of learning, Uftier's name became celebrated

throughout Europe, and he carried on a correfpondencc
with fcvcral learned perfons, both at home and abrofld.
Of his works we ftiall here fubjoin a c.italogue.

Publications of archbiihop Uftier : — De Ecclefiarum
Chriftianarum Succeffione et Statu, 161 3 ; The Religion
of the ancient Irifti and Britons, 1622 ; Gottefchalci ct
Praedeftinarice Controverfioe ab co Motse Hiftoria, 16^1 ;
Veterum Epiftolarum Hibernicarum Sylloge, 1632 ; Im-
manuel, or the Myftery of the Incarnation of the Son of
God, 1638 ; De Ecclefiarum Britannicarum Primordiis,
1639 ; A Difcourfe on the Origin of Biftiops and Metro-
politans, 1 641 ; A Geographical and Hiftorical Difquifi-
tion on the Lydian or Proconfular Afia, 1641 ; Polycarpi
et Ignatii Epiftola;, &c. 1644 ; Appendix Ignatiana, 1647 ;
Diatriba de Romanx Ecclefix Symbolo Apoftohco aliifque
Fidei Formulis, 1647 ; De Macedonum et Afianorum
Anno Solari, 1648; Annalium Pars prior, 1650; Epif-
tola ad Ludov. Capellum de Textus Hebraici variantibus
Leftionibus, 1652; Annalium Pars pofterior, 1654; De
Grxca Septuaginta Interprctum Verfione Syntagma, 1655.
— Pofthumous : Various Trafts, edited by Dr. Bernard,
1657; Chronologia Sacra, edited by Dr. Barlow, 1660;
The Power of the Prince, and Obedience of the Subjeft,
written 1641, printed afterthe Reftoration ; Hiftoria Dog-
matica Controverfise inter Orthodoxos et Pontificios de
Scripturis et Sacris Vernaculis : Accelfere Differtationes
duas, 1690.

See the life of Ufher by Dr. Aikin, who appeals for the
fafts which he has recited to the Life of Ufher by Dr. Parr,
who was the primate's chaplain at the time of his death ;
and who has annexed to his account a large coUeftion of
letters, that paffed between Uftier and his correfpondents ;
and alfo to the Life of Uftier by Dr. Smith, which is tlie
firft and principal article of his work, entitled " Vita quo-
rundam eruditiffimorum et illuRrium Virorum," 1707, 4to.

USIA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Vaga ; 8 miles S. of Viclflv, in the government of
Vologda.

USIATIN, a town of Poland; 28 miles N. of Ka-
miniec.

USIDICANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy,
in Umbria.

USIDITANA, a town of Mcefia, in the vicinity of
Thamyris.

USIJES, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Yemen ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Chamir.

USILLA, Ins-kills, in /Indent Geography, a place of
Africa, upon the coaft of the Mediterranean fea, S. of
Rufpa.

USIMADO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Niphon ; 86 miles S.W. of Meaco.

USINGEN, a town of Naffau Ufingcn, which gives
title to a branch of the houfe of Naffau, with a family feat.
In 1793, '^ '^^^ taken by the French ; 12 miles S.S.E. of
Weilburg.

USIPII, or Usii'iANs, in /Indent Geography, a people
of Germany, who at occafional intervals of time, inhabited
the fame places with the Tcuchteri. The Ufipii anciently
dwelt between the Cherufci and the Sicambri ; but the Catti
expelled them ; and after having wandered for about three
years in different countries of Germany, tliey eftabliftied
themfelvcs upon the Rhine, in the vicinity of the Sicambri.
The Menapii occupied the two banks of this river ; and
therefore it muft have been with their confent that the Uft-
pians and Teuchteri took polli-nion of the country of the
Menapians, fituatcd to llir 1",. of the Rhine. In the year
698 of Rome, the lilijiiaiui and Tcuchteri vfcrc .ilmoft
4 1) 2 entirely

U S K

U S K

entirely exterminated. A very fmall remnant of a populous
nation repalTed the Rhine, and eftabliihed themfelves with
the Sicambri : but in the time of Auguftus, or a little more
than half a century after the terrible defeat juft mentioned,
they found themfelves in a condition to make war, firil with
the Sicambri, and then with the Romans. From the expe-
dition of Drufus into Germany, we learn that the country
of the Ufipians and that of the Teuchten were then dif-
ferent. The Ufipians extended along the right bank of the
Lippe ; but when Drufus paffed the Rhine, and fubjugated
the Ufipians, he threw a bridge over the Lippe, by which
he entered into the country of the Sicambri. The Teuch-
teri inhabited a territory W. of the Sicambri, and the Rhine
feparated them from the Menapians. Tiberius, having af-
terwards tranfported the Sicambri into Gaul, the country
which they had occupied in Germany was given to the
Ufipians and Teuchteri ; at length the Teuchteri extended
themfelves along the Rhine from the Segos (the Sige) as
far as the Roer, and along the Lippe and the Ahfe (the
Alene). As to the Ufipians, they remained on the two
banks of the Lippe and the Rhine, perhaps as far as the
place where the Rhine divides to form the Ifle of the Batavi.
At the commencement of the reign of Trajan, it appears that
the Teuchteri had been almoft exterminated by the Cherufci
and Angrivarians, who took poffeffion of a great part of
their territory. The Ufipians muft alfo have fuffered. In
the time of Conftantine, the Ufipians and the Teuchteri
oeafed in a manner to have any pohtical exiftence, having
probably fubmitted to fome people more powerful than
themfelves.

USITZA, in Geography, a town of Servia, taken by the
Turks in 1738 ; 23 miles N.W. of Jenibafar.

USK, a borough and market-town in the upper divifion
of the hundred of the fame name, and county ot Monmouth,
England, is fituated at the confluence of the rivers Olwy
and Ufli, at the diftance of 14 miles S.W. from the county-
tovyn, and 144 miles W. by N. from London. Though
fcarcely a vellige of Roman remains has, at leaft in modern
times, been difcovered at this place, all antiquaries, except
Salmon,who makes this the fite of Ifca Silurum, have agreed to
fix here the Buirium of Antoninus' Itinerary, and the Bul-
lasum of Ptolemy. It is evident that Uik is a place of high
antiquity, and has been of much larger extent and greater
importance. The hiftory of its cattle furnifhes the earlieft
written records of the place ; and though from fome of its
architectural features, it appears to have been of Roman or
Roman-Britifli origin ; yet the remoteft notice that has hi-
therto been difcovered is, that, in the time of Henry III.,
it formed part of the poffeffions of Richard de Clare, earl
of Gloucefter : from his family it came to the Mortimers,
earls of March. In the third year of Henry VI., on the
death of Edmund Mortimer without iflfue, his great pof-
feffions were granted to his nephew Richard duke of York,
whofe favourite refidence this cattle appears to have been :
his fons, Edward IV. and Richard HI., were born here.
On the death of the latter, it became the property of
Henry VII.: it afterwards belonged to William Herbert,
fifil earl of Pembroke : the duke of Beaufort is the prefent
proprietor. This fortrefs experienced frequent affaults dur-
ing the alternate fucceffes of the Welfh chieftains and the
Anglo-Norman lords : and it fuffered particularly, together
with the town, in the ravages of Owen Glendwr, who, at
length, here met with a compleat defeat. The prefent re-
mains of the cattle confift of a court, the principal entrance
to which is by a tower gateway, having a pointed arch with
a groove for a portcullis : an area of confiderable extent is
furrounded by walls, flanked with round and fquare towers,

deftitute of windows, but having occafional narrow aper-
tures : within are the keep, a iquare tower, and fcveral
apartments, one of which appears to have been the baronial
hall. A priory was founded in this town, previous to the
year i 236 : a few remains of the building are ftill ftanding ;
and in an apartment on the firtt floor, the frieze of the ceil-
ing is decorated with thirty emblematic devices and embla-
zoned arms. Ufli is a borough town and fince the 27th
year of Henry VIII. has been privileged with elective fran-
chife, being, in conjunftion with Monmouth and Newport,
rcprcfented by one member of parliament. By a charter
granted in 1398, the civil government is vetted in a bailiff,
community, and burgeffes. The town is of confiderable
extent, but, according to the population return of the year
1 8 1 1 , contains only 1 64 houfes, and 844 inhabitants. Several
ways bear the name of ttreets, though fcarcely deferving
that appellation : for the houfes in general are ifolated,
having gardens, orchards, and paddocks intervening ; which,
though they give an irregularity to the town, tend much to
comfort and convenience. Two fairs are held annually, and
a fmall market weekly on Mondays : the tovrn has no trade,
and only a fmall manufaftory of japan ware. Some of the
inhabitants derive advantage from its being a thoroughfare ;
fome are employed in huibandry ; and fome gain a main-
tenance by the falmon liOiery, which is abundant in the river
Uik. The church, which belonged to the priory, appears
to have been erefted in the Anglo-Norman era. By found-
ations yet remaining, it was built cruciform, in the manner
of a cathedral : the fquare embattled tower, now ttanding
at the eatt end, was in the centre, and feems to have com-
municated with a tranfept and choir, both of which have
long been deftroyed. Many alterations have taken place in
the building ; the circular columns and arches of the tower
exhibit the Norman charafter ; but the nave is feparated
from the north aile by four pointed arches, and the win-
dows and doorways are in the fame ftyle. 7^he interior
affords nothing worthy of notice, except an infcription on a
brafs plate, which has for more than half a century been a
perplexing fubjeift to antiquaries, and llill appears to defy
critical difquifition. It was firtt publilhed in the fecond
volume of the Archxologia, thence copied into Gough's
edition of Camden, and lince given more correft by Mr.
Coxe. A ttone bridge of five cuxular arches, flanked on
each fide by triangular buttreffes, is tlie only other public
ttruifture deferving mention. Near the foot of the bridge
was formerly a Roman Catliolic chapel : it is now the com-
mon prilon. In the vicinity of Ullc are feveral ancient en-
campments : almott every two or three miles exJiibit veftiges
of hoftile pofitions, and the tumuli of heroes (lain. — Beau-
ties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Monmouthrtiire, by J.
Britton, F.S.A. Coxe's Hittorical Tour through Mon-
mouthfliire, two vols. 4to. 1801.

UsK, a river of South Wales, which rifes in the S.W.
part of the county of Brecknock, and runs into the Severn,
below Newport, in Monmouthttiire.

USKALINMAA, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 18'. E. long. 21° 5'.

USKEI, an ifland belonging to RufTia, in Beering's
ftraits. N. lat. 65° 58'. E. long. 1 89° 2 1 '.

USKELA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo; 27 miles E. of Abo.

USKER, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government
of Kur, on the Kur ; 12 miles N.N.E. of Akalzike.

USKOLOMSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the province
of Urtiug, on the Vitchegda ; 80 miles E.N.E. of Eaft
Sifolfli.

USKUBS, a town of Natolia ; 36 mUes N.W. of Boli.
I USLAH,

U S N

USLAH, a town of Bengal ; 9 miles S. of Curruck-
deah.

USLAR, a town of Weftphalia, in the principality of
Calenberg. In the year 1575, duke Frederic ordered tlie
name to be changed to Freudenthal ; 17 miles W.N. W of
Gottingen.

USMAN, a town of RiilTla, in the government of Tam-
bov, on a river of the fame name ; 40 miles S.W. of
Tambov. N. lat. 52° 8'. E. long. 40° 24'.

USNAU, JJland of, fometimes called HutteiCs IJland, a
fmall ifland in the lake of Zuric, Switzerland, about an
Englifli mile in circumference, belonging to the abbey of
Einfedlin. It contains only a iingle houfe, two barns, a
kind of tower or fummcr-houfe, a chapel that is never ufcd,
and a church in which mafs is faid once a year. Within is
the tomb of St. Alderic, who built an hermitage in the
ifland and retired hither, wliere he died, after a life of re-
puted fanftity, in 1473. It is called Hutten's ifland, from
an extraordinary perfon of tiiat name, famed for his learn-
ing and valour, and for his intemperate ardour in defence of
the opinions of Luther. After having rendered himfelf an
object of terror both to Lutherans and Catholics, he fought
repole in this fequcllered ifland, and died here in 1523, in the
36th year of his age. The ifland, which is agreeably di-
verfified with hill and dale, is very fertile in pafture, pro-
duces hemp, flax, a few vines, and a fmall tufted wood,
which overhangs the margin of the water. This is the only
ifland in the lake, except an uninhabited rock, which yields
a fmall quantity of hay.

USNEA, in Botany, a name retained by Dillenius, for
which he modeftly folicits the indulgence of botanifts, not-
withftanding its Arabian origin, being derived from the
Axnceh and Ufnee of Serapio. It has long been the officinal
name of one of this genus, which, though funk in Lichen
by Linnasus, is now rellored by Acharius, under the above

appellation Dill. Mufc. 56. Achar. Prodr. 223. Meth.

306. Lichenogr. 127. t. 14. f. 5. Syn. 303. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grasc. Sibth. v. 2. 322. Hoffm. Germ. v. 2. 132. —
Clafs aud order, Cryptogamia Alga. Nat. Ord. Algt, Li-
chenes.

Efl. Ch. Receptacles ? orbicular, peltate, fcarccly co-
loured, without a border ; fuhtendcd by a dilatation of the
frond, whicli is branched, and contains a central elaftic
pith.

The filamentous Lichens of Linnaeus chiefly compofe
this genus. (See Lie men, feft. 9 ; and Lkhekes, n. 6,
n. 28, and n. 21.) — We need not repeat the account and
obfcrvations there given, rcfpcfting the fruftification of the
genus before us. With rcfpedt to its technical difcrlmina-
tion, Acharius confiders as cflenlial tlie very tough, clailic,
central- thread, which pervades the whole frond and its
branches, remaining unbroken when the outer coat, tumid
and cracked, afl^umes, in feveral fpccies, a jointed nr beaded
appearance. The orbicular difks are not circumfcribed by
any tumid border from the frond, but are often bounded by
an indeterminate, or irregular, dilatation of that part, very
frequently fubtended, or fringed, with prominent lirilUes,
or threads, refembling young branches. How far thefe
din<s are real receptacles oi feeds mull aj)pear, from the ob-
fcrvations above cited, very doubtful ; or rather it feems
clear that they are not fo, and that the convex more coloured
tubercles, delUtute of any border, found in fomc of the
fpecies, are more proliably the receptacles. According to
this idea, we fliould rather prefer tlie following :

Eff. Ch. Receptacles lateral, feffile, tumid, rugged,
coloured, without a border. Frond tlu-cad-fliapcd, brancned,
with a central claltic pith.

U S N

Leaving the queftion thus open, for future examination
and determination, we proceed to the elucidation of the
fpccies, wliich are very prudently curtailed in the lall work
of Dr. Acharius, his Sympfts.

1. U. melaxantha. Orange and black Ufnea. Ach. Syn.
n. 1. Mcth. 3C7. (Lichen aurantiacoater ; Jacq. Mifc.
V. 2. 369. t. II. f. 2. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 965.) —
Frond nearly crcft, tufted, rough, tawny : ultimate branches
tapering, black. Difl<s concave ; black above ; corrugated
underneath ; naked at the margin — Commcrfon, Menzies,
and other voyagers, have gathered this handfome fpecies, at
the ftraits of Magellan, Statcn land, Falkland iflands, &c.
Thcjlem is fimple at the root, but divides immediately into
a denfe bufliy mafs of fubdivided, entangled, round, very
tough branches, and is three or four inches high. The fur-
face is rough with minute points, partly tawny or orange-
coloured, partly black and (hining ; the fmaller branches are
beautifully annulatcd with tawny and black alternately ; the
ultimate ones black, tapering to a fliarp point. The in-
ternal fubftance is folid, white, very hard. Receptacles late-
ral, folitary, caufing the branch to form an acute angle at
the infertion of each. When young they are almoft globu-
lar, then hemifpherical, or nearly flat. Their difl< is dark
brown or black, and of a difl^inft fubflance from the pale or
tawny accelFory border, formed from the frond, inflexed
when young, corrugated beneath, remaining thin, even,
fmooth, naked and uninterrupted, encompafling the diflt.

We admit this fpecies here chiefly in conformity to our
diftinguiflied guide. While we beg leave to proteft againft
his change of the excellent original name, we decline reftor-
ing that name combined with Ufnea, becaufe we feel fome
fulpicion that the plant may belong to Dr. Acharius's new
genus Evernia, Syn. 244. The frond, though corticated, is
folid, and the receptacles are fliield-like, feflile, with a thin
coloured concave di/i, furrounded by an elevated inflexed
margin from the fubflance of the frond, which are the cha-
rafters of Evernia, rather than of Ufnea.

2. U. jamaicenfis. Jamaica Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 2.
"Lichenogr. 619. Nov. Aft. Upfal. with a figure, un-
publiflied."— " Frond nearly ereCl, rough, pale, forked :
branches divaricated, widely fpreading. Diflcs peltate, nearly
feflile, rather concave, of the colour of the frond ; fmooth,
appendiculatcd and proliferous beneath ; naked in the cir-
cumference."—Native of trees in the WeR Indies. Acha-
rius.

3. U. cornicularia. Brown-horned Ufnea. Ach. Syn.
n. 3. " Lichenogr. 619. Nov. Aft. Upfal. with a figure,
unpubliflicd." — " Frond fpreading, rigid, very fmooth,
thread-fliaped, flendcr, white, much branched : branches in-
tricate, zigzag : ultimate ones partly brownifli." — Found
on the trunks of trees in New Zceland. Acharius.

4. \J. ceralina. Intricate-horned IT fnea. Ach. Syn. n. 4.
"Lichenogr. 619. Nov. Aft. UpfaL with a figure, un-
piibliflied."— " Frond prollrate, rather pendulous, rigid,
very rough, whitifli, flightly fibrous: branches very long,
fubdivided, fpreading, difl'ufo. Diflts concave, of the colour
of the frond ; fomewhat proliferous beneath ; encompafled
with long, flout, curved rays."— Found on trees in Silefia.
The author mentions a variety, found on rocks in France,
Spain, and North America, thus dillinguiflicd.

h.fcabrofa. " Frond ered, rough, rigid, fomewhat tufted,
pale, branched : branches ftraight or zigzag, tapering,
widely fpreading."

Some fpccimens from America arc furniflied with red
tubercles, or cephalodia.

5. U.Jlorida. Flowery Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. j. Meth.
307. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gric. n. 2482. Hoffm. PI. Lich.

V. 2.

USNEA.

T. 2. iij. t. 30. f. 2. (U. vulgatifiima tenuior et brevior,
cum oibicuUs; Dill. Mufc. 69. t. 13. f. 13. Lichen flori-
dus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1624. Ehrh. Crypt, n. 148. Engl.
Bot. t. 872.) — Frond nearly ere£t, rough, greyifh, widi
crowded horizontal fibres ; branches widely fpreading,
fcarcely divided. Difks flat, very broad, whitifh, with long
rays. Tubercles flefh-coloured, nearly globular, wrinkled.
— Frequent on old trees, efpccially about the tops of aged
oaks, fometimcs on pales, in various parts of Europe. The
fronds form upright, bufhy tufts, of a pale greenifh-grey
when moiil, whiter when dry, fpringing from a hard black
bafe ; they are round, confifling of a cruftaceous bark, en-
clofing a tough white fibre, the bark (lightly cracking liere
and there, but not widely. The innumerable branches,
crowded with taper fibres, are pohfhed, though minutely
warty. When of full age, they bear very broad, unequal,
irregular diflcs, at firil lateral, but by the flexure of the
branch, and the ftoppage of its growth, becoming terminal.
They are fmooth on both fides, paler or flightly flefh-
coloured on the upper, having all the appearance of the
(hield of a Parmelia, &c. ; their border of the fubftance of
the frond, narrow, elevated when young, copioufly fringed
with radiating fibres. The fame plant bears, though rarely,
fmall flefh-coloured tubercles, fituated hke the diflvs, deftitute
of rays ; having when young a tumid even border, of their
own fubilance and red colour, which is fubfequently obli-
terated, as in the genus Lecldea, by the great elevation and
fwelling of the middle part, forming a tubercle like thofe
of a Cup-Lichen, Baomyccs. Thefe were noticed by Hofi"-
mann, Pcrfoon, and Schrader, though that circumftance
was unknown to us, before they appeared in Englijh Botany;
and the difcovery is the moil curious that has for a long
while been made in the hift.ory of the Lichen tribe.

Acharius enumerates the following varieties.

b, rig'ida. " Frond elongated, ftraight, rigid, flender,
fomewhat dependent, rough ; branches rather long, zigzag,
befet with fibres and fmall branches." — Native of Lufatia
and England. — We have not met with any thing anfwering
to this.

c,Jlrigofa. Ach. Meth. 310. t. 6. f. 3. — Frond fpread-
ing, branched, dirty grey, rough : branches elongated, zig-
zag, forked, lax, clofely befet all over with prominent pa-
rallel fibres. Diflis flelh-colourcd, very broad, fomewhat
lobed, with radiating teeth. — Found in North America.
This feems merely the effetl of age.

d, ■vlUofa. " Frond and branches dirty afli-coloured, dif-
fufe and entangled, clothed with very thort and crowded
villous fibres."

e, rubiglnea. Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 332. — " Frond
fomewhat fibrous, of a rufty red, with difks of the fame
colour." — Native of North America.

f, We have a very long, ftragghng, minutely fibrous, va-
riety, brought by Mr. Menzies from the Cape of Good
Hope, which hardly comes under any of the above defini-
tions. On this we have feen one folitary flefh-coloured
tubercle, fituated on the main_/?fm, as in U. hirta.

6. U. hirta. Common Rough Ufnea. Hoffm. PI. Lich.
v. 2. 17. t. 30. f. I. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Groec. n. 2483.
(U. florida /3 ; Ach. Meth. 309. U. plicata c; Ach.
Syn. 305. n. 6. U. vulgatifiima tenuior et brevior, fine
orbicuhs; Dill. Mufc. 67. t. 13. f. 12. Lichen hirtus ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 1623. Ehrh. Crypt, n. 138. L. floridus
/S ; Hudf. 560. Ach. Prodr. 224.) — Frond ereft, fome-
what fhrubby, much branched, greenHh-grey : branches
fpreading, wavy, fibrous, roughifli, entangled, tapering.
Tubercles lateral, flightly elevated, flefh-coloured, rugged.
Radiating diflvS none. — Extremely common on trees, polls,

7

and pales, throughout Europe, as well as in America. We
cannot conceive this to be a variety, either of the preceding
or the follovping fpecies. The whole plant is more finely
fibrous than U. jlorida, and rather greener. The tubercles
are lateral, and do not difturb the direft continuation of the
branch beyond them ; nor are they fo perfeftly fefTde, but
rather elevated on a fhort thick if alk. Sometimes we find
them accompanied by a few radiating fibres, but never ap-
proaching to the nature of an expanded difl<.

To this we prefume muft belong the variety d, glabrata,
of Ach. Syn. 306. n. 6. — " Frond nearly upright, rather
fhrubby, white, very fmooth and naked: branches crowded,
widely fpreading, nearly fimple, fibrous ; powdery at the
fummit." — Native of Switzerland. Wool boiled in water
with U. hirta, without alum, takes a fine permanent tawny
yellow.

7. U. plicata. Stringy Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 6. Meth.
310. { U. vulgaris, loris longis implcxis ; Dill. Mufc. 56.
t. II. f. I. Lichen plicatus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1622. Engl.
Bot. t. 257. Weftring Lich. t. 8.) — Frond pendulous,
fmoothifh, pale grey : branches lax, compound, entangled,
partly fibrous ; the ultimate ones capillary. Difks flat,
fringed with flender fibres. — Found hanging from the
branches of old trees, in dark fhady woods of the more
mountainous countries of Europe. Tlie whole plant, when
full grown, meafures from one to two feet in length, being
a denfe mafs of entangled branching fibres. Its hue is lets
green than that of U. hirta, nor have any flefh-coloured
tubercles been remarked on this fpecies. The di/hs at firfl
refemble fuch tubercles in form, but not in colour ; foon
becoming concave, with an inflexed fomewhat radiated mar-
gin ; and at length expanding into a flat fliape, fmooth and
even on both fides, very flightly tinged with red-brown
above, their border more or Icfs fringed with radiating,
fometimes elongated, fibres. To this is nov7 reduced, as a
variety,

b, comofa. (Lichen comofus ; Ach. in Stockh. Tranf.
v. 16. 209. t. 8. f. I.) — " Frond rather ereft and fhrubby,
pale and whitifh : lateral branches widely fpreading, diffufe,
crowded, fmooth, much divided ; the ultimate ones taper-
pointed, roughifli, flightly drooping. Tubercles palc-flefh-
coloured, finally brown." — Found chiefly on tall ftems of
Birch-trees, in Sweden. We have not examined this plant,
but its tubercles feem to agree rather with U. hirta, as well
as its habit.

8. U. barbata. Bearded Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 7.
Meth. 313. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grjec. n. 2484. (U. barbata,
loris tenuibus fibrofis ; Dill. Mufc. 63. t. 12. f. 6. Li-
chen barbatus; Linn. Sp. PI. 1622. Engl. Bot. t. 258.
f. 2.)

b, dafopoga; Ach. Syn. 306. n. 7. (U. phcata y, da-
fopoga ; Ach. Meth. 312. " U. barbata ; Hoffm. Germ,
v. 2. 132, excluding the reference to Dillenius." Achar.)

c, articulata ; Ach. Syn. ibid. (U. barbata 0 ; Ach.
Meth. 313. U. capillacea et nodofa ; Dill. Mufc. 60. t. 11.
f. 4. Lichen articulatus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1623. Engl. Bot.
t. 258. f. I.)

d, iiitejliniformis ; Ach. Syn. ibid.

Frond pendulous, fmooth, tumid, cracked, inflated,
greyifli-white : branches divaricated, fibrous, with capillary
points. Tubercles lateral, flcfli-coloured, fomewhat lobed.
— Found on the branches of old trees in various parts of
Europe, fcarcely bearing tubercles but in Italy, and other
fouthern countries. The variety d we have from Exmoutli
warren, Devonfliire, where it grows on the fandy ground,
in large patches. TWs elegant and ftriking fpecies has always
more or lefs of a jointed, or bearded, appearance, the prin-
cipal

U S N

U S P

a^Ajlims lefembling a necklace : in the lall variety, d, tlicy
are fingularly inflated and pitted, thougli Icfs interrupted or
broken, wliile the fubdivided branches are more fuddenly
capillary than the ufual habit of the plant. That the Lichen
barbatus and arlkuhUus of Linnaeus conttitute but one fpecies,
and are hardly varieties of each other, Mr. Lightfoot firft
hinted, nor could any one have a doubt on the fubjcft after
examining the Dillenian fpecimens. What the variety, b,
dafopoga, of Acharius may be, we have no authentic inform-
ation. It has been referred lo pluata, but if at all like that
fpecies, it can have no affinity to the prefent. U. barbata
never exhibits, as far as we can learn, any traces of radiated
diflts. Its proper fruftifications are the lateral, flelh-coloured,
much wrinkled or lobed, tubercles, ranged numeroufly along
fome of the branches, without cauling any flexure, or
change in their direftion. Thefe we have gathered near Vi-
terbo. (See Tour on the Continent, ed. 2. v. l. 335.)
They are reprefented in Engl. Bot. t. 258, and in Micheli,
Nov. Gen. 76. t. 39. f. I, 2. The central pith in this
fpecies is very (lender, appearing between the difunited por-
tions, like a rough thread of very white cotton.

9. U. hmgijftmn. Long Slender Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 8.
Nov. Aft. Upfal. with a figure, unpubhfhed. — " Frond
pendulous, thread-lhaped, (lightly comprefled, rough and
fomewhat powdery, pure white, very long, fcarcely
branched, clothed with horizontal, twifted, fimple, a(h-
coloured fibres." — Found on the branches of trees, in the
woods of Lufatia- The frond is flender, with a few
branches, two, three, or four feet in length. Receptacles
unknown, jlcharhis.

10. U. angulata. Angular Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 9. —
" Frond pendulous, nearly fimple, zigzag, pale grey, with
acute rough angles ; fibres horizontal, crowded, fimple,
fhort, round, tapering." — Native of trees in North Ame-
rica. Fru&ifcalion unknown. At firft fight this fpecies
refembles the variety c, Jir'tgofa, of U. fiorida, but is more
related to hng'ijjima, from which, as well as from tlie rell of
the genus, it is fufficlently diftinguifliable by the conforma-
tion of the frond. j}charius.

11. U. tricholdea. Capillary Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 10
Meth. 312. t. 8. f. I. — Frond prollrate, fmooth, whitifh,
thread-fhapcd, very flender, branched ; fibres horizontal,
icattered, partly turned one way. Difl<6 of the fame co-
lour, terminal, with a narrow, elevated, naked, entire bor-
der.— Found in Nova Scotia, at the Cape of Good Hope,
and in the ifle of Java. Differs from the reft of its genus
in the capillary, fpreading, not pendulous, frond, and in
the want of rays to its dijfis, which are very (lightly con-
cave. Tlie medullary thread is blackilh ; the cortical fub-
llance crullaceous, thin, fcarcely jointed. Ach. Meth.

12. U. gracilis. Slender Ufnea. Ach. Syn. n. 11.
Nov. n.ft. Upfal. with a figur.-, unpubliflied. — " Frond
pendulous, white, very fmooth and fliining, thread-fhaped :
branches fcattered, uniform, (Iraight, fimplo, flightly
fibrous." — Native of the ifle of Bourbon. .'Acharius thinks
this a diftnxl fpecies, though he never met with the fru8i-
Jicalion.

13. U./daris. Greenifli Thread Ufnea. Ach. Syn.
n. 12. (" U. gracilis; Perf. in Aft. Soc. Wctteran. 2.
t. 10. f. 6." \ — " Frond thread-thaped, greenifh. Difks
fcattered, fiuall, fringed with briftles." — Native of America.
Perfonn. Acharius had not feen a fpecimen, but he con-
ceived this fpecies to be really dillinft from llie lad, and
was, therefore, obliged to cliange Perfnon's fpecilic name.

14. U. inrarnala. Red-pithed Ufnea. — Frond pendu-
lous, pale, fmooth, capillary, cracked, with numerous
horizontal tapering fibres ; the medullary tlircad rcddilh.

Dilki lateral, concave, fringed with long dillaiit bridles. —
Gathered in Nova Scotia, by Mr. Archibald Menzies, to
whom we are obliged for fpecimens. We cannot refer them
to any of the preceding fpecies, but without a companion
with fome of thofe, particularly the two laft, the queftion
mult remain in a little uncertainty. The fronds are fix
inches long, of an ivory white, poli(hed, not at all warty or
powdery, very flender, copioufly cracked, but not tumid
nor inflated ; the central thread, when laid bare, appearing
of a flefli-colour, or light red. Dijhs copious, fmall,
flightly reddifh, with a thick inflexed border, belet with a
few unequal, rather long, fpreading briftles. In a young
(late, when fmaller than muftard-feed, they greatly refcmble
the fliields of a Parmelia.

15. U.denudala. Naked-branched Ufnea. — Frond thread-
fhaped, tawny, greenilh, rough with minute points, fub-
divided, deftitute of lateral fibres. Difl<s lateral, flat,
glaucous, fringed with tapering briftles. — Gathered by Mr.
Menzies in Otaheite. We cannot tell whether this be pen-
dulous or ereft, but the frond and branches are all nearly of
equal thicknefs, without any fine tapering lateral fibres or
fubdivifions. They are fliglitly cracked here and there, but
not tumid ; their colour partly tawny, partly a dirty
greeiiifh-white. Di/ls ranged along the uninterrupted
frond ; when young globular, concave, naked at the edge ;
finally flat, a quarter of an inch wide, brown, with a glau-
cous bloom ; their border narrow, wavy, flightly elevated,
more or lefs copioufly fringed with cracked briiUes ; very
unequal in length.

USNEN, a name given by Avlcenna and Serapion to the
plant kali, of which the alkah fait called pot-aflies, and ufed
in the compounding of our foap, is made. There are alfo
fevcral other things called by this name, and, in general, all
that were ufed in the fcouring or cleaning of clothes. The
dung of fparrows was ufed by fome people for this purpofe,
as the dung of hogs is at this time ; and this was, therefore,
called by fome ufnen. HyfTop, a plant famous for its clean-
ing virtue, was alfo called by the fame name ; and fome have
alfo applied it to the foldanella, or fea bind-wccd.

Wherever, in the Arabian writers, the word ufntnis ufed
in any of thefe latter fenfes, there is fomething added to dif-
tinguifh which of the things before exprefTed is meant by it ;
but whenever it Ifands alone and unexplained, it is to be un-
dcrftood as meaning the kali.

USOZA, in Geography, a river of RufTia, which runs
into the Svopa, near Phatez, in tlie government of Kurfli.

USPALLATA, a fpacious plain, about 50 miles long
and 6 broad, fituated on the eaftern mountains of the
Andes, in the province of Acancagua, which gives name to
the moft celebrated filvcr mine, as Chili. The vein of
filver, on the flcirts of the eaftern chain of this plain, has
been traced to the enormous length of 90 miles ; nor is its
termination yet fixed. It is fuppofcd by many to extend to
Potofi, which lies in the fame direftion, or through a fpace
of 14°, or 840 geographical miles. Tlie grand vein is al-
ways nine feet in thicknefs, and on both fides throws oft
numerous branches, which may be faid to penetrate a cliain
of mountains 30 miles in breadth. This produftive mine,
though difcovered in 1638, was neglefted till the year 176:,
when the people of Mendoza, a town not far fioiii Ufpal-
hita, invited two expert miners from Peru ; and tlicy con-
tinued to work the mine with prodigious advantage.

USPENSKOE, a town ol Rulfui, in the government
of Ekaterinoflav ; 16 miles S. of Uonetzk.

USPENSKOI, a town of Ruflla, in the province of

Uftiug ; 28 miles S. of Uftiug Alfo, a town of RulTia, in

the government of Archangel ; So miles S. of KoI.t.

USQUE-

u s s

U S T

USQUEBAUGH, a ftrong, rich, compound liquor,
chiefly taken by way of dram ; its bafis being brandy, or a
more ordinary fpirit.

The manner of making it is fomewhat various, and the
ingredients numerous. We (hall give a receipt, much com-
mended formerly, as a fpecimen.

To two gallons of brandy, or fpirits, put a pound of
Spanifh liquorice, half a pound of raifins of the fun, four
ounces of currants, three of dates, diced ; tops of thyme,
baum, favory, and mint, and tops or flowers of rofemary,
of each two ounces ; cinnamon and mace bruifed, nutmegs,
anifeeds, and coriander-feeds, bruifed likewife, of each four
ounces ; citron, or lemon and orange-peel, fcraped, of each
an ounce : all thefe are to be left to infufe forty -eight hours
in a warm place, often (haking them together ; then fet
them in a cool place, for a week ; after which, the clear
liquor is to be decanted ofi^, and to it is to be put an equal
quantity of net white port-wine, and a gallon of canary.
The whole is finally to be fweetened with a proper quantity
of double refined fugar.

USRENUS, in jincient Geography, a river of Afia, in
Syria, which had its fource in a branch of mount Amanus,
and by a fouth-weft courfe difcharged itfelf into a lake, near
the gulf called Iflicus.

USSAC, in the Materia Medica of the Arabians, a name
given by Serapio to the gum ammoniacum of the Greek
writers. It feems no other than a falfe fpelling of the word
ajfac, which is the common name of the gum in Avicenna,
and other of the writers of that nation ; but this does not
feem to be the fame drug, which we call gum ammoniacum
at this time.

USSARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Mauritania Csefarienfis, fituated in the vicinity of LamiJa.

USSASI, or UssASYE, in Botany. Rumph. Amboiii.
V. 3. 60. t. 33. Poiret in Lamarck DiA. v. 8. 261.
This is a tree found in Ceram, and fome other fpice iflands,
but not in Amboyna. Its ftature equals the Lemon-tree.
Branches oppofite, crofling each other in pairs ; quadrangular
when young. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, ovate, acute, en-
tire, fingle-ribbed, from four to fix or feven inches long,
and the breadth of three or four fingers, nearly fmooth, of
an acid, not unpleafant, flavour, like that of an unripe
grape. Fruit lateral, felTile, irregularly ovate, or fome-
what globular, green, various in fize, with a thin tough
Ikin, inclofing a watery acidulous grateful pulp, full of
numerous thin flat feeds, hke thofe of a cucumber, or
gourd. The fmaller-fruited variety, perhaps a diltinft
ipecies, has a firmer pulp, with only four or five feeds.
Both kinds raife the bafe of the Jlem, upon forked roots,
high out of the ground. Nothing is known of the parts of
the Jloiiier, nor indeed of the true llriifture of the /;•;/;'/,
by which thefe plants could be fcientifically defcribed or
claiTed.

USSASSYR, in Geography, one of the Kurile iflands,
which lies 17 verlls from RaiTagu, and in length and breadtli
may be 25 verftr. each. It confids properly of two iflands
lying clofe together, compofed of confiderable rocks and
chffs. Opening to the fouth is a round bay, in the fliape
of a kettle encompafled with hills, where the ftrand is
fandy ; and along it, as well as on the fea-ihore, runs a
fource of almofl. hot water, and not far from it another.
Here too are fome fpouts^ running ilrong, and throwing
the water to a confiderable height in the air. In many
places are perceived chaps and chafms in the earth, 100 fa-
thoms in length, and fometimes more. Near the great
fpout the fl>ore is fteep and high, producing large lumps of
fulphur and falmiak, which partly fall down, and partly

are collefted there. In other refpefts, the ifland is Kke
Rajfagu ; which fee.

USSEL, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftrift, in the department of the Correze ; 32 miles E.N.E.
of Uzerches. N. lat. 45° 33'. E. long. 2° 23'.

USSES, a river of France, which runs into the Rh6ne,
near Seiflel.

USSETA, a town of the ftate of Georgia ; 160 miles
W.S.W. of Augufta.

USSITERNA, a town of Servia ; 24 miles W. of
Piftrina.

USSITZA, a town of Servia ; 32 miles W.N.W. of
Novibafar.

USSON, a town of France, in the department of the
Puy-de-Dome ; 16 miles W. of Ambert. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Vienne ; 12 miles N.E. of
Civray.

USSORA, a river of Bofnia, which runs into the river
Bofna ; 32 miles N. of Serajo.

USSUBUM, in Ancient Geogrjphy, a place marked in
the Itin. of Anton, on the route from Bourdeaux to Agen,
between Sarione and Fines.

USSUI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the iiland of
Niphon ; 86 miles N.W. of Jedo.

USTAK, a town of Natolia ; 22 miles N. of
Karahifin.

USTARITZ, a town of France, and principal place
of a diftrift, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees;
48 miles W. of Pau. N. lat. 43=" 23'. W. long.
I^ 23'.

USTAYANTHO, a lake of New York, from which
the river Delaware takes its rife.

USTCHOTZKOI, three iflands on the weft coaft of
Kamtfchatka. N. lat. 57° 10'. E. long. 156' 14'.

U6TERIA, in Botany, fo named by Willdenow, in
honour of Dr. Paul Uiferi, of Zurich, member of feveral
learned academies, as well as of the legiflative body of his
own country, and well known by his very ufeful periodical
compilation, entitled Anna/en der Botanici, as well as by the
Alagazin fur die Botanik, edited by Romer and himfelf.
Thefe works extend to many odf avo volumes, and have been
eminently ferviceable to German readers, in making them
acquainted with fome of the moft valuable and expenfive
botanical publications of other countries, at a cheap rate ;
feveral of fuch works being copied entire in thefe volumes.
Willd. in Rom. and Ull. Mag. fafc. 8. 151, without a name.
Aft. Soc. Berol. v. 10. 52. t. 2. Schreb. Gen. 782.
WiUd. Sp. PI. V. I. iS. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Afzel.
Gen. PI. Gnineens. part i. i — 11, with a figure. — Ciafs
and order, Monamlria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Ruliiaceit,
Jufl".

Gen. Ch. CaL Perianth inferior, of one leaf, four-cleft,
permanent ; the three inner fegments minute, clofe-prefled,
acute ; the outer one very large, petal-like, horizontal,
linear-lanceolate, very blunt. Cor. of one petal, falver-
fliaped, deciduous ; tube narrow, cylindrical, twice the
length of the longeft fegnient of the calyx : limb in four
deep, lanceolate, acute, unequal fegments, rather turned to
one fide. Stam. Filament folitary, fliort, tapering, inferted
into the m,irgin of the tube, between the two larger feg-
ments of the limb ; anther prominent, arrow-fliaped, vcrfa-
tile, of two oblong diverging cells. Pijl. Germen fuperior,
ovate-conical ; fl;yle thread-ftiaped, longer than the tube of
the corolla ; fligma quite fimple, flightly corrugated. Peric.
Capfule ovate -oblong, comprefled, with two furrows, two,
partly cloven, concave valves, and two cells, the partition
tranfverfe, double, from the infl?xed parallel margins of the

valves,

U S T

U S T

valves, fo that the capfule eafily feparates into two lobes.
Seeds imbricated in two rows, upon a large, deciduous, con-
vex, longitudinal receptacle in cacii cell, numerous, ovate,
peltate, depretTed, fmall, obtule, each encompaiTed with a
large, nearly orbicular, cellular, reticulated wnng.

EfT. Ch. Calyx four-cleft ; the outer fegment very large.
Corolla falver-fhaped, four-cleft. Capfule of two cells, with
iiiflexed partitions. Seeds imbricated, winged.

Obf. We have adopted Dr. Afzelius's more accurate
defcription of this curious and very diftinft genus, compared
with dried fpecimens. That of Willdenow is in many re-
fpedls very incorreft ; nor can all his millak.es be well ac-
counted for. He took the receptacle for a folitaryy^f^/.

I. U. volubilis. Twining Uftcria. Afzel. as above,
five. (U. guineanfis ; Willd. n. i. Monodynamis Ifcrti;
Gmel. 6yft. Nat. Linn. v. 2. 10.) — Native of the Guinea
coaft, efpecially of the hills of Sierra Leone, and of Bananas
and Plantain idands, in dry itony places, where Dr. Afzelius
found it in great abundance, flowering from September to
December, and bearing ripe capfules from February to
May. The negroes know this plant by the name of
Makbot, or Makhot-T'bot. Willdenow received it from
Mr. Ifert, fee Isertia ; but the firft fpecimens ever
brought to Europe by any botanift, were thofe of Mr.
Smeathman, many years before. The Jlem is fhrubby, with
long, flender, round, fmoothifli, oppofite, twining branches,
fupporting themfelves on any thing that Hands in their
way ; their bark, when firft tafted, fweetifh, afterwards
bitter. Leaves (talked, oppofite, croffing each other in
pairs, elliptical, entire, fmooth, from two to four inches
long, bluntifh, with one rib, and many tranfverfe veins.
Fooijlalks two or three lines long, connefted by a very fhort,
annular, intrafoliaccous Jlipula. Panicles terminal and axil-
lary, large, compound, corymbofe, forked, finely downy or
hoary, as well as the calyx, and the tube of the white, or
partly violet, corolla. Capfule one inch and a quarter long,
much refembhng that of a Cinchona, to which genus this
plant is naturally allied, though fo diftinft in its flower.
Dr. Afzelius confirms this affinity, by informing us that
the natives of Guinea fometimes cure fevers with an infufion
of the leaves and young branches.

UsTERiA is alfo the name of a genus in Cavanilles'
Icones, V. 2. 15. t. 116, now called Mai;randia ; fee that
article.

USTIA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in
Moldavia, on the Dnicfter ; 88 miles E. of Jafiy.

USTJAK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 20
miles N. of Kiutaja.

USTIANO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Mincio, on the Oglio ; 26 miles W. of Mantua.

USTICA, an ifland in the vicuiity of Sicily, with a town
of the fame name. It wac oppofite to Pacopus, and appears
as one of the Lipari iflands. This ifland was for centuries
uninhabited, except by fome wild goats, till, in the year
1765, a citadel was built here, furniflied with a garrifon : at
the fame time a colony was fcnt, which flouriflies, though
the ifland is without fprings, and only fupplied with frefli
water by rain kept in cifterns ; 25 miles from tlie coaft of
Sicily. N. lat. 38° 44'. E. long. 13° 36'.
USTILAGO, in Botany. See Ukf.do.
USTION, UJlio, formed from urere, to burn, in Pharmacy,
the preparing of certain fubftances, by burning them.

The ancients made ufc of burnt horns, nails, feathers, and
other parts of animals, for divers remedies ; and the moderns
ftill ufe IS uftum, wliich is burnt copper, or copper that has
uadergone t!ie uftion, with fulphur.
Vol. XXXVII.

The uftion of minerals is a more imperfcft kind of cal-
cination. It is a degree beyond torrefudtion.

USTIUG, or Veliki, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, and
capital of a province, in the government of Vologda, fituated
on the Dwina, at the conflux of the Suchona and the Jug,
the fee of an archbilhop. It contains ten or twelve churches,
built of ftone, with fome others, which, with the houfes, are
of wood. The merchants are numerous, and great quan-
tities of gram are fent to difTcrcnt parts. The city is chiefly
on the left fide of the Dwina ; 1002 miles from Peterf-
burg. In order to charafterife the weather of the northern
region of Ruflia, we obferve, that Uftiug lies ji6 miles
from the neareft fliore of the Frozen ocean, and 15^'' more
to the N. than St. Peterfljurg : and that the mean heat and
cold here is above Reaumur's freezing point in the month of
April until September ; below the freezing point in the
month of October until March. The mercury in the fame
thermometer, in the month of June alone, falls never below
o, and only in January never rifes above o. The cold in-
creafed at times fo late as in the middle of April to 30°, and
the quickfilver may, fometimes fo early as November, and
again in the firft days of March, be hammered. In every
winter are 1 20 days, in which the cold is more than 5° ;
and of thefe, 65 days in which it exceeds 10° ; yet the
fummer has more hot than the winter has cold days. The
thermometer ftood, upon a[i average of feveral years, the
whole day above o, on 152 days, and below o, on 150;
and confequently there were 63 days on which it ftood al-
ternately above and below o. The rivers are navigable
about the loth of May ; at the end of that month the fum-
mer corn is fown, and about the middle of June the fields are
manured for winter fowing : the harveft is commonly in
Augiift. The trees ftied their leaves fometimes fo early as
the loth of Auguit, but ufually about the 20th. On the
4th of November, 1786, the quickfilver froze in the open
air, during a cold of 30^° of Reaumur's thermometer ; the
I ft of December, at 40°, it fell the fame day to 51°, and the
7th of December was down to 60°. The quickfilver then
froze to a folid mafs, fo as to bear beating with a hammer,
in a warm room, feveral times before any pieces flew off
from it. See the Obfervations of Mr. Fries, in Crell's
Annals, 1787, p. 2, cited in Tooke's Ruflia, vol. i. N.
lat. 60° 50'. E. long. 45"^ 40'.

UsTiuG, a province of Ruflia, and by far the moft con-
fiderable part of the government of Vologda, being 400
miles in length, and 240 in breadth.

USTIUZNA, a town of RulFia, in the government of
Novgorod, on the river Mologa ; 144 miles E. of
Novgorod.

USTRINA, among tlie Romans, the place where they
burnt tlie bodies of tiie dead. It was commonly in the
Campus Martins, or fome other place in the fuburbs, and
fometimes in the city for perfons of quality ; and for
the common people on the Efquiline mount. See BustI'm.

USTVIANSKOI, in Geography, an oftrog of Rulfia, in
the government of Irkutflt, on the Yana. N. lat. 70° 30'.
E. long. 1 31° 38'.

USTULAtlON, UJlulatio, a word ufcd by phar-
maceutic writers to exprefs the roafting or torrefying of
humid or moift fubftances over a gentle lire, fo as to render
them fit for {M)wdering. The fame word is alfo ufcd by
fome for what we call burning of wine.

USTUM, /Es. See JEs UJlum.

USTURANTZKOI, in Geography, a fortrefsof Rulfia,
in the government of Irkutfl<, on the borders of China ; 76
miles S. of Selcnginfk.

4 E USUBIS,

u s u

USUBIS, in Botany, a name of Burmann's. See

ScHMrOELIA

USUCAPTION, Ufucaptio, in the Civil Laiv, is an
acquifition of the property of a thing by a poffeffion and
enjoyment of it for a certain term of years prefcribed
by law.

Some make a difference between prefcription and
ufucaption ; maintaining that the latter is only ufed with
regard to moveables, and the former with regard to im-
moTeables. But tliere is no effential difference between
them ; and, accordingly, prefcription and ufucaption are
generally held fynonyma.

Ufucaption denotes the acquifition of domain founded
on a long poffeffion uninterrupted and undifputed, or on an
acquifition folely proved by this poffeffion. Wolf defines
it, an acquifition of domain founded on a prefumed de-
fertion ; by which definition he explains the manner in
which a long and peaceable poffeffion may ferve to efta-
blifh the acquifition of domain. Modeftinus fays, in con-
formity to the principles of the Roman law, that ufucaption
is the acquifition of domain from a continued pofft-ffion,
during a time expreffed by the law. Thefe three defini-
tions, fays Vattel, are not incompatible with each other.
Prefcription is the exclufion of all pretenfions to a right
founded on the length of time during which it has been
neglefted ; or, as Wolf defines it, the lofs of a proper
right in virtue of a prefumed confent : this definition is al-
lowed by Vattel to be juft ; that is, to explain how a long
negleft of a right occafions its being loff ; and it agrees
with the nominal definition which he has given, and in
which he explains what is commonly underllood by this
term. Ufucaption, however, is a term little ufed ; pre-
fcription being adopted in lieu of it. Many celebrated
authors (Grotius, Puffendorf, and Wolfius) have afferled
and proved, that ufucaption and prefcription are derived
from the law of nature ; and Vattel has inveffigated and
ellabliflied this point, which fome others have difpnted.
Nature, fays this excellent writer, has not herfelf eftablillied
property with refpedt to wealth, and in particular with
regard to lands : (lie only approves this introduflion, for
the advantage of the human race. It would therefore be
abfurd to fay, that dom.ain and property being or.ce ella-
bhflied, the law of nature can fecure to a proprietor any
right capable of introducing diforder into human fociety.
Far from giving fuch a right, the law of nature prefcribes
to the proprietor the care of what belongs to him, and lays
him under an oUigation to make known his right, that
others may not be led into an error : for nature does not
approve his property, and only fecures it to him on thofe
conditions. If he neglefts this for a time long enough not
to be admitted to reclaim it, without endangering the rights
of others, the law of nature will not permit him to reclaim
it. Why does the law of nature order all to relpeft this
right of property in him who poffeffes it, if it be not for
the peace, fafety, and advantage of human fociety ? Nature
muff then, from the fame reafon, require that every pro-
prietor, who for a long time, and without any juft reafon,
negleAs his right, ffiould be prefumed to have entirely
renounced and abandoned it. This forms the abfolute
prefumption, or juris et de jure, of its being abandoned,
and upon which another is legally entitled to appropriate
the thing abandoned to himfelf. This prefumption coni-
pofes a title as firm and juft as that of property itftlf,
eftabliflied and fupported by the fame reafons. The honeft
poffeffor, who had founded a prefumption of this kind, has
then a right approved by the law of nature ; and this law,

5

u s u

which requires that the right of every one (honld be firm
and certain, does not permit their being difturbed in their
poffeffion.

The right of ufucaption properly fignifies, that the honeft.
poffeffor is not obliged to fuffer his property to be dif-
puted ; he proves this by liis poffeffion itfelf, and lie re-
pulfes the demand of the pretended proprietor by prefcrip-
tion. Nothing can be more equitable than this rule. Pre-
Icription, being only founded on an abfolute or lawful
prefumption, has no place, if the proprietor has not really
neglected his rights. This condition implies : I . That the
proprietor cannot allege an invincible ignorance, either on
his own part, or on that of his friends : 2. That he cannot
juftify his filence by lawful and folid reafons : 3. That he
has neglefted his right or kept filence during a confiderable
number of years. Thefe remarks relate to ordinary pre-
fcription. Immemorial prefcription, founded on immemorial
poffeffion, that is, on a poffeffion, the origin of which is un-
known or obfcure, fecures the poffeffor's right, and it
cannot be taken from him.

Ufucaption and prefcription, founded on the law of
nature, form a part of the law of nations, and ought to take
place between different ftates : for the law of nations is
nothing but the application of the law of nature to nations,
rendered, in a manner, fuitable to the fubjeft : and fo far is
the nature of the fubjeft from forming here any exception,
that ufucaption and prefcription are much more neceffarily
ufed between fovereign ftates than between individuals.
However, they are often more difficult in their application
to nations, as thefe rights are founded on a prefcription drawn
from a long filence. The tranquillity of the people, the
fafety of ftates, the happinefs of the human race, do not
allow that the poffeflions, empire, and other rights of
nations, ffiould remain uncertain, fubjeft to difpute, and
always ready to occafion bloody wars. It is, therefore, ne-
ceffary to admit between nations a prefcription founded ob a
long interval of time, as a foUd and inconteftible method.
Ufucaption and prefcription being neceffary to the tranquil-
lity and happinefs of human fociety, it is juftly prefumed
that all nations have confented to admit the ufe of them as
lawful and reafonable, with a view to the common advan-
tage, and even to the particular benefit of each nation.
Prefcription of many years ftanding, as well as ufucaption,
is therefore eftablilhed by the voluntary law of nations.
Vattel's Law of Nation?, b. ii. ch. 11. See Pre-
scription.

USUFRUIT, Ufusfruaus, in the Civil Law, the tem-
porary ufe or enjoyment of any lands or tenements ; or the
right of receiving the fruits and profits of an inheritance, or
other thing, without a power of alienating or changing the
property thereof.

When the ufufruftuary dies, the ufufruit returns to the
proprietor. The dower of the jointure of a widow is only
an ufufruftuary due ; that is, fhe only enjoys the ufufruit
thereof, and cannot difpofe of the principal.

All mutual prefents between m.an and wife only import
the ufufruit of the goods of the firft that dies, to the profit
of the furvivor. The incumbents of benefices are only ufu-
fruftuary. An ufufruftuary has fidl right over the coppice,
but he cannot fell timber-trees.

USUM, in Geography, a river of Romania, which runs
into the Mariza, 4 miles S.E. of Affarli.

USURA Maritima, terms applied to contrafts for the
repayment of money borrowed, not on the (hip and goods
only, but on the mere hazard of the voyage itfelf; as when
a man lends a merchant 1000/. to be employed in a benefi-
cial

u s u

u s u

cial trade, with condition to be repaid with extraordinary
intercil, in cafe fuch a voyage be fafely performed. Tliis
kind of agreement is fometimes called Janus nauticum. See
Bo'fTOMKY, and Respondentia.

USURER, a perfon charged with a habit or aft of
ufury.

The laws of our ancient Saxon and Norman kings are
very fevere upon ufurers, or letters-out of money upon in-
tereft. " Ufurarios quoque defendit rex Edvardus (Con-
feflbr), ne remaneret aliquis in toto regno fuo ; & fi quis
inde conviftus effet, quod focnus exegerat, omni fubftantia
propria careret, & pollea pro ex lege habeatur : quoniam
ufura radix omnium malorum." Leg. Edv. Confeff.
cap. 37.

They were, indeed, allowed to difpofe of their goods be-
fore conviftion, and whilll they were living ; but after their
death they were confifcate, if it could be proved they lent
money to ufe within a year before their death.

If a clergyman were an ufurer, his goods were not to be
confifcated, but to be diftributed to pious ufes. In thofe
days ufury was thus defined :

" Eft ufura fuos quifquis tradit mihi nummos
Spe lucri, focnus duplex ufura vocatur."

USURIOUS CorUrad is any bargain, or contraft, where
a man is obliged to pay more intereft for money than the
ftatute allows.

It is enacled by ftatute 13 Eliz. cap. 8. that all brokers
(hall be guilty of a priemiimre, who tranfaft any ufurious
contraft wli"re more than ten per cent, intereft is taken.

USURPATION, in I.aiv, an injurious ufing or enjoy-
ment of a thing for continuance of time, that belongs of
right to another. See Tyranny.

Usurpation, in a more peculiar fenfe, denotes an abfo-
liite oufter or difpod'eftion of the patron of a church ; and
happens when a ftranger, that hath no right, prcfenteth a
clerk, and he is tliereupon admitted and inllituted. In
which cafe of ufurpation, the patron loft by the common
Jaw not only his turn of prefenting pro hac "vice, but alfo the
abfohite and perpetual inheritance of the advowfon, fo that
he could not prel^ent again upon the next avoidance, unlefs
in the mean time he recovered his right by a real aftiou, viz.
a writ ot right of advowfon. However, becaufe bifhops,
in ancient times, either by rareleffnefs or collulion, frequently
inftituted clerks upon the prefentalion of ufurpers, and
tliereby defrauded the real patrons of their right of pod'ef-
lion, it was in fubllanee enafted by the ftatute Weftni. 2.
13 Edw. I. cap. 5. feft. 2. that if a pofTcftory aftion be
brought within fix months after the avoidance, the patron
Ihall i notwithftamluig fuch ufurpation and inftitution) reco-
ver that very prefentation which gives back to him the feifin
of the advowfon. Yet ftill, if the true patron omitted to
bring his aftiou within lix months, the feilin was gained by
the ufurper, and the patron to recover it was driven to the
long and hazardous procefs of a writ of right. To remedy
which, it was further enafted by ftatute 7 Ann. cap. 18.
that no ulurpation (liall difplace the eftate or intereft of the
patron, or turn it to a mere right ; but that the true patron
may prefciit upon the next avoidance, as if no fuch ufurpation
had happened. So that the title of ufurpation is now much
narrowed, and the law ftands upon this reafonable founda-
tion, that if a ftranger ufurps my prefentation, and I do not
purfue my right within fix months, 1 (hall lofe that turn
without remedy, for the peace of the churcii, and as a pii-
nilhment for my own negligence ; but that turn is the only
one I (hall lofe thereby. Ufurpation now gains no right to
the ufurper, with regard to any future avoidance, but only

to the prefenti vacancy : it cannot indeed be remedied after
fix months are paft ; but, during thofe fix months, it is only
a fpecies of difturbance. Blackll. Comm. book iii.

Usurpation of Franchlfts and Liberties, is when a fubjeft
unjullly ufes any royal franchifes, &c. And this is faid to
be an ufurpation upon the king, who (hall have the writ of
quo warranto againft the ufurpers.

USURY, UsL-RA, in the general, denotes a gain or pro-
fit wliich a perfon makes of his money, by lending the fame;
or it is an increafe of the principal exafted for the loan
thereof ; or the price a borrower gives for the ufe of a fum
credited to him by the lender : called alfo interejl, and in
fome ancient ftatutes, dry exchange. For lawful intereft, fee
Interest.

The word ufury is ufually taken in an evil fenfe ; viz. for
an unlawful profit whicii a p'-rfon makes of his money ; ui
which fenfe it is, that ufury is forbidden by the civil and ec-
clefiaftical law, and even by the law of nature. In this
fenfe it alfo is, that it is held ufury to lend money on pawns,
to exaft intereft for money, witliout furrendering the prin-
cipal, and to ftipulate intereft for money which is not em-
ployed in trade, nor brings any profit to the perfon who re-
ceives it : but, as the Latin word ufura, at leaft the plural
of it, ufura, may be underftood of a lawful intereft, ufury, in
Englilh, might alfo be ufed in the fame harmlefs fenfe.

Ufe or intcrelt, by the civil law, is divided into Igcrativc
and compenfatory. Lucrative is, when it is paid where
there hath been no advantage made by the debtor, and no
delay or deceit in him : and this is condemned by the civil
law. Compenfatory is, when it is given, where the thing
lent hath been advantageous to the debtor, and difadvan-
tageous to the creditor that he was not fooner paid : and
this is permitted by that law. Wood. Civ. L. 213.

And by the civil law (Swinburn tells us), a manifeft ufurer
cannot make a teftament ; and tlio\igh he make one, it is
void in law concerning goods and chattels, unlefs he fatisfy
for the ufury, or put in caution for fatisfaftion to be made.
Swinb. lol.

And as manifeft ufurers are forbidden to make teftamenls
themfelves, or to difpofe of their goods fey their laft wills ;
fi) are tliey forbidden to reap any benefit by the teftament of
others, or to be capable of any legacy of goods. Swinb.

37f';

Thefe are the anathemas of the popes, and not the re-
fcripts of the emperors. (See Cod. 5. 5.) The punifhment
by the civil law was once a quadruple penalty, (L. 2. Cod.
Tiieod. do Llfuris,) but tiiis fecius to have been mitigated by
.hiftinian, who contents himfelf with declaring that whatever
is paid more than the legal intereft, (hall "be accounted part
of the principal. Cod. 4. 32. 26. Noodt, de Fccn. ct Uf.
lib. 2. cap. 16.

By a conftitution of Edmund archbi(hop of Canterbury ;
" We forbid any man to detain a pledge, after he hath re-
ceived the principal out of the profits, after deduftion of
the expencea, for this is ufury." Lind. 160. The pledge
in this cafe mnft be fuppofed to be lands, cattle, or fuch like,
out of which a profit arifeth. Johnf.

And by Can. 109. If any oficud their brcdiren by

ufury ; the churchwardens or queftmen and fidenun, in the
next prefentments to their ordinaries, ihall faitlifuUy prefent
every fuch oflender, to the intent that he may be punifhed
by the feverity of the laws, according to his deferts ; and
fuch notorious offenders (hall not be admitted to the holy
communion, till they be reformed.

And in general, it is faid, that by the ccclefiaftical laws,

if a man l)c a manifeft ufurer, not only his teftament is void

(as hath been faid) ; but his body, after he is dead, is not

4 £ 2 ta

USURY.

to be buried amongft. the bodies of other Chriftian men, in any
church or churchyard, until there be reftitution or caution
tendered, according to the value of fuch goods. Swinb.

102.

Mod of the early fathers of the church have condemned
ufury in the ftrifteft fenfe, i. e. any profit made of the loan
of money, as contrary to the divine law. Alexander III.
in the council of Lateran, prohibited the taking of all inte-
reft for money ; and it has been obferved, that Gregory IX.
places the chapter of ufury after that of theft. But the Mo-
faic law, though it forbade the Jews to take intereft from
their brethren, allowed them to take intereft from ftrangers,
or to borrow from them on the fame terms ; and that this
law has not condemned the lending of money on intereft as
malum in fe, and contrary to the law of nature and of nations,
■which many have tliought, but merely prohibited it amongft
the Jews, as dangerous in a political view, confidering thtir
itinerant and agricultural life, has been ably demonllrated
by Noodt in his Treatife de Foenore et Ufuris, c. lo. and
II. (See Interest.) Nearly the fame regulations ob-
tained amongft the Romans in the infancy of the republic;
but when commerce was introduced amongft them, the con-
tract of lending money at a certain profit became frequent.
The higheft rate of legal intereft among the Romans, from
the time of Cicero and Juftinian, was the cmtejima or twelfth
part paid every month, amounting to 12 per cent, per annum;
but the fatirifts inform us that fome ufurers exafted three,
four, or even live times that profit. Juftinian in his code
fixed the legal rate of intereft at 4, 6, 8, or 12 per cent, ac-
cording to the ftation of the lender and the nature of the
contraft. {Cod. 4. 32. 26.) Various evafions of the laws,
however, were praftifed at Rome, and fome of thefe were
not unknown to the canonifts ; for ufurious profit might be
fecured under the contraft of a fale and repurchafe, or let-
ting to hire, or might be ftipulated for in confideration of
the gain of the borrower, or of the lofs which the lender
fuffered by the detention of his money. To thefe, modern
money lenders have added the purchafe of annuities, in which,
as the purchafer rifles his capital, he is allowed to take a
greater fhare of intereft, though this muft be within equitable
bounds. (Vaughan v. Thomas, I Bro. 556. Heathcote v.
Paignon, 2 Bro. 167. ) But if any of thefe tranfaftions ap-
pear from circumftantial evidence to be merely the covering
of an ufurious contraft, they are held to be within the fta-
tuteof Ann. See Chefterfield v. Janften, 2 Vefey, 125.

By the laws of king Alfred, it was ordained, that the
chattels of ufurers fhould be forfeited to the king, their
lands and inheritances fhould efcheat to the lords of the fee,
and they fhould not be buried in the fanftuary. Swinb.
102. 1 Haw. 245.

Alfo it feems to have been the opinion of the makers of
divers afts of parliament fince the Reformation, that all
kinds of ufury are contrary to good confcience. i Haw.

^45- . . . '

However, cuftom has now diftinguifhed betwixt ufury

and legal intereft ; and appropriated the term ufury to that
which exceeds the intereft determined by ftatute. The
legal intereft is five per cent, by 12 Anne, ft. 2. cap. 16.
commonly called the ftatute againft ufury, which ordains
not only that all contrafts for taking more than 5/. per cent.
and proportionably for a greater or lefs fum, are in them-
felves totally void, but alfo that the lender thall forfeit treble
the value of the money borrowed. And farther, if any fcri-
vener or foUcitor takes more than Jj-. per cent, procuration
money, or more than i2el. above the tlamp duties for mak-
ing a bond or bill for loan or forbearing thereof, or for
any counter-bond or bill concerning the fame, he fhall for-

feit 20/. with cofts, and fhall fuffer imprifonment for half
a year.

As this aft declares all ufurious contrafts void, the in-
dorfee of a bill of exchange give nupon an ufurious confi-
deration cannot recover, although he had no notice of the
ufury, and had given a valuable confideration for the bill.
(Low v. Waller, Doug. 736.) And if more than the princi-
pal and legal intereft be paid, an aftion will lie to recover the
furplus : per Ld. Mansfield, in Smith v. Bromley, lb. 696.

In thefe days, a diftinftion feemeth to be made betwixt
ufury and legal intereft : for what exceedeth the legal inte-
reft is properly ufury ; and he who exafteth it feemeth ftill
to be punifhable as an ufurer. i Dom. 126.

And, upon the whole, it feemeth now to be generally
agreed, that the taking of reafonable intereft for the ufe of
money is in itfelf lawful, and confequently that a covenant
or promife to pay it, in confideration of the forbearance of
a debt, will maintain an aftion. See Interest.

The ufury laws have lately become a fubjeft of parliamen-
tary and public difcuffion ; and an excellent treatife of Mr.
Jeremy Bentham, of which a new edition was publifhed in
18 16, has claimed peculiar attention. The prejudices in
which thefe laws had their foundation maintained their
ground, notwithftanding the ruins of the mercantile fyftem
to which they naturally belong ; and they foon derived fup-
port from an opinion in their favour, delivered by Dr. Smith,
in a work which powerfully operated towards difpelling the
other errors of the mercantile theory. Mr. Bentham was
tlie firft writer who openly and fyftematically attacked them,
and this he did with fuch fuccefs, as to produce a general
conviftion of their injuftice and impolicy. He afcribes, per-
haps, too much importance to rehgious bigotry : to this
purpofe, he obferves that the praftice of felf-denial was
fubilituted at a very early period for aftive virtue ; and as
the greater the temptation the greater the merit, much vir-
tue was arrogated to themfelves by thofe who declined the
ufe of means for making money, which was generally re-
garded as a favourite purfuit. Hence, he fays, the obvious
method of making wealth produftive, by lending it for a
profit, was profcribed as an illegal gratification ; and befides,
as the Jews were much addiftcd to this praftice, and had
the money-trade principally in their own hands, the Chrif-
tians, very anxious to avoid their cuftoms, deemed it pecu-
liarly finful. The authority of Ariftotle had aifo great
weight in determining the judgment and conduft. (See
Interest. ) Our author alfo remarks, that the natural
antipathy of the fpendthrift towards the faving man, arifiiig
from the envy with which he regards him, had no inconfi-
derable influence. To which it may be added, the feehng
excited againjl a rich man, as the trader mufl always be com-
pared with the borrower, and in favour of a poor one, by
the very circumftance of the former making the latter pay
for half, according to his necefTities, and reaping a profit
without any labour or even trouble on his own part. The
rcafons commonly alleged in juftification of the laws againft
ufury have been fuch as follows ; the firft is the prevention
of prodigalitv. Mr. Bentham replies, that if this be a good
work at all, it is at leaft a work of fupererogation, but in
reality, the reftraints under confideration do not operate in
this way. Would any man of found mind think of giving
fix per cent, for the ufe of money, howfoever preffing his
wants, if he could get it for five ! Or, can a man, how-
ever prodigal, be prevented from felling all he can get rid
of by fale, and pledging all which he cannot fell ? Thofe
who have fecurity of any kind to offer the lender are not
protefted by the law ; for the lender never makes his bar-
gain upon a view of the borrower's cbaraftcr and habits,

but

USURY.

but of his fecurity. If tlie fpcndthrift has no fecurity to
offer, how is he more likely to get money at a high than at
a low rate ? A friend is the only perfon hkely to accommo-
date him, and he will not take more than the ordinary rate.
Prodigals ufually borrow money in moderate fums, at the
ufual rate, in various quantities ; and when they can find a
lender difpofed to fpeculate, and obtain a compenfation for
the great rilk of trufting them in the high profits of the
tranfaftion, fuch a perfon will negleft the prohibitions of
the ufury laws, and make the poor man pay fo much more
for the additional rifli they make him run. Befides, the
moft certain road to ruin for all prodigals is to obtain goods
upon credit, as long as their credit lafts, and here no law
interferes.

The proteftion of indigence is another reafon urged in
behalf of thefe reftraints ; but it may be aflced, Can any one
rate of intereft be adapted to every man's fituation ? To
fome it may be profitable to borrow even at ten per cent.,
whilft others may find fix per cent, too high, compared with
the fum in profpeft, whereas the ufury laws determine one
ftandard of exigency for all. This arrangement operates,
not in protefting, which is the pretext, but in crulhing the
indigent. If the protcftion of indigence were the objeft
of thefe laws, they ftop fliort of their pretended objeft :
they without doubt prevent a poor man from borrowing at

of any of thofc which are already known to us. It falls,
in (hort, upon every application of the human powers, in
which ingenuity (lands in need of wealth for its affiftant."

It is indeed manifeft, that, in this view, the ufurj' laws
are abfurd, unlefs il be poflible to dillinguilh, before trial,
good from bad, that i?, fuccefsful from loling projefts ; in
which cafe, the law ought to fix a maximum for the loans

to the one, and leave the other free accefs to the market,

which is plaiiily impoffible. Thofe who are too prudent to
ri(k their money upon an unpromifing fchcme, will rilk it
upon no fcheme at all, but will lend only to eltabhfhed con-
cerns. The temptation of higher profit than ufual is abfo-
lutely necelfary, to prevail upon capitalifts to embark in
new trades. Tiie ufury laws prevent, therefore, any capital
from finding its way into thofe channels by way of loan,
and direftly difcourage projefts, that is, invention and im-
provement in all the arts of life ; for, without difcouraging
the ufeful and the good, they cannot difcourage the wild
and the bad. Shall wt then fay, that tlic danger to the
capital of the community, from a failure of certain fchemes,
is fo alarming as to juftify us in putting down all manner of
fchemes, as far as lies in our power ? Let it only be re-
membered, that every thing valuable in civilized life is the
fruit of fchemes ; that all we enjoy above the lot of favages,
comes from arts that were once mere projects ; and we mall

a high rate ; but they take no mear.s of compelling the not be <lifpofid to condemn, in one fweeping fentence, every
rich to lend him at a lower rate. innovation. This is in truth to denounce, as rafh and

A third reafon alleged is the proteftion of fimpHcity. ill-grounded, (we ufe the author's forcible illuftration,) all
But how fimple muft that man be who gives more than he thofe projefts by which our fpecies has been fucceffively ad-
knows, or may eafily learn to be necelfary, for the ufe of vanced,fromfeedinguponacorns, and covernigthemfelves with
money 1 Nothing may be more eafily afcertained than the raw hides, to the ilate in which it at prefent (laiids. What-
market rate of intereft. It is to a very great degree inva-
riable, and it is the fame throughout the whole commimity.
A fimple man, or a man who is not very fimple, may be de-
ceived in other bargains ; but in cafe of loans, the legidator
neither does, nor can afford, him the leaft affiftance. The
unwary borrower has always the fecurity in his own hands ;
and if he has been really over-reached, he can have no diffi-
culty in obtaining redrels. If, indeed, perfons may be fup-
pofed to be fo fimple as to need protection in their money bar-
gains, they are cxpofed to as great a danger in all their other
tranfaftions, in which no lawgiver ever dreamed of afford-
ing proteftion to finiplicity.

As a fourth reafon in favour of thefe reftraints, it is al-
leged that a free accefs to the money-market tends to en-
courage projedtors. Dr. Smith has very much contributed
to the prevalence of this notion. He claffes projectors with
prodigals ; ftigmatizes both as perfons likely to wafte the
capital of the community, and approves of the maximum for
its tendency to keep a portion of that capital out of their
hands. We cannot, within our limits, do juftice to Mr.
Bentham's elaborate refutation of this dogma, and the ex-
pofition of the prejudices upon which it is founded.

The reftraint, as he juftly remarks, profelling to fall
upon rafti, imprudent, ufelefs fchemers, does in faCl fall
upon fuch perfons as, in the " purfuit of wealth, or even of
any other objedt, endeavour, by the affiftance of wealth, to
ftrike into any channel of invention. It falls upon all fuch
perfons as, in the cultivation of any of thofe arts which have
been by way of eminence termed ufeful, dircdl their endea-
vours to any of tliofe departments in which their utility
fhines moft confpicuons and indubitable ; upon all fuch
perfons as, in the line of any of their purfuits, aim at any
thing that can be called improvement; wlather it confift in
the produftion of any new article adapted to man's ufe, or
in the meliorating the quality, or dimiuiftiing the er.pencc,

ever (as he fays) is now the routine of trade, was, at its com-
mencement, projeS ; whatever is now ejlablifhment, was at
one time innovation. — And why fuch fears, after all, of our
being impoverifhed by failing fchemes ? Lone before the
exiftence of the ufury laws, the profperity of our race was
running on in an accelerating courfe ; — long before the
ftatutes in this country, its wealth and general improvement
was rapidly and conllantly advancing. There were every
now and then failures, and individual loffes in confequence ;
ftill their proportion to the bulk of fuccefsful projects was
triflnig ; and no one can maintain, that, fince the reftraints
were impofed, the proportion has diminiihed. Were the
law filent on this head, money woiild ftill be lent to pro-
jeftors, by thofe moft deeply interefted in the prudent dif-
pofal of it. We may fafely truft their difcretion for its
being kept out of defpcrate ri/lcs. No one, indeed, has ri-
diculed tlie over-anxiety of fuch regulations as pretend to
fave men's capital from injudicious application, more hap-
pily than Dr. Smith himfelf. It is the great text, of which
his immortal work is the illuftration, almoft in all its pages ;
and in no paffagc is he more fevere, than where he reprobates
the intermeddling of government to prevent private impru-
dence. After remarking, that the number of prudent and
fuccefsful undertakings is every where much greater than
that of injudicious and unfuccefsful ones ; he adniiiiifters
the followmg memorable corrcftion to rulers for their love
of meddling, and we may obfcrve, that it is quite as well
merited by the promoters of the ufury laws, as by any other
clafs of legiflalors. " It is the higheft impertinence and
prefumption, therefore, in kings and m\n\[\.m to pretend to
watch aver the economy of private people, and to reftrain their
expence, either by lumptuary laws, or by prohibiting the
importation of foreign luxuries. They are thcmfelvrs al-
ways, and without exception, the greatcft fpendthrifts in
the fociety. Let them look well after their own expence, and

ihey

USURY.

they may fafely truft private people with theirs. If their
own extravagance does not ruin the ftate, that of their fflb-
jeAs never will."

However prefumptuous and impertinent it may be, fays
Mr. Bentham, for the fovereign to attempt in any way to
check by legal reftraints the proJigality of individuals ; to
attempt to check, their bad management by fucli reilraints,
feems abundantly more fo. To err in the way of prodi-
gality is the lot, though, as you well obferve, not of many
men, in comparifon of the whole mafs of mankind, yet at
leaft of any man : the ftufF fit to make a prodigal of is to
be found in every alehoufe, and under every hedge. But
even to err in the way of projefting is the lot only of the
privileged few. Prodigality, though not fo common as to
make any very material drain from the general mafs of wealth,
is however too common to be regarded as a mark of diftinc-
tion, or as a fingularity. But the ftepping afide from any
of the beaten paths of traffic, is reg.vded as a fingularity,
as ferving to diftinguifh a man from other men. Even where
it requires no genius, no peculiarity of talent, as where
t confifts in nothing more than the finding out a new
market to buy or fell in, it requires however at leaft a degree
of courage, which is not to be found in the common herd
of men. What (hall we fay of it, where, in addition to the
vulgar quality of courage, it requires the rare endowment
of genius, as in the inftance of all thofe fucceflive enter-
prizes by which arts and manufactures have been brought
from their original nothing to their prefent fplendour ?
Think how fmall a part of the community thcfe muft make,
in comparifon of the race of prodigals ; of that very race,
which, were it only on account of the fmalhicfs of its num-
ber, would appear too inconfiderable to you to deferve at-
tention. Yet prodigality is effentially and neceffarily hurtful,
as far as it goes, to the opulence of the ftate : projefting,
only by accident. Every prodigal, without exception,
impairs, by the very fuppofition impairs, if he does not
annihilate, his fortune. But it certainly is not every pro-
jeftor that impairs his : it is not every projeftor that would
have done fo, had there been none of thofe wife laws to
hinder him : for the fabric of national opulence — that fa-
bric of which you proclaim, with fo generous an exultation,
the continual increafe — that fabric, in every apartment of
which, innumerable as they are, it required the reprobated
hand of a projeftor to lay the firft ftone, has required fome
hands at leaft to be employed, and fuccefsfully employed.
When, in comparifon of the number of prodigals, which is
too inconfiderable to deferve notice, the number of pro-
jeftors of aU kinds is fo much more inconfiderable — and when
from this inconfiderable number muft be dedufted, the not
inconfiderable pi-oportion of fuccefsful projeftors — and from
this remainder again, all thofe who can carry on their pro-
jefts without need of borrowing — think whether it be pof-
fible, that this laft remainder could afford a multitude, the
reducing of which would be an objeft deferving the inter-
pofition of government by its magnitude, even taking for
granted that it were an objeft proper in its nature ?

But we forbear, and proceed with the fame admirable
writer, to ftate the mifchiefs which the ufury laws create
in all direftions. The moft obvious mifchief is, the de-
priving many perfons altogether of the loans of which they
ftand in need. A perfon having the means of fupplying
himfelf with money, and being alfo prefTed by neceftity, is
precluded from all chance of obtaining it, unlefs he has ftill
further means of meeting his wants by evading, at an addi-
tional coft, the laws in queftion. Had it not been for thefe
laws, fucb a perfon might have reheved his wants with

eafe : and he is one of thofe who have the greateft occafion
for affiftance, and the beft claims to it. Since, by the fup-
pofition, they cannot do without the loan, and are both
able and willing to pay the extraordinary rate of intereft.

The next mifchief is that which the law of ufury inflifts
upon thofe who have the means of giving, not only fuch an
extraordinary rate of intereft as the lenders, but for the re-
ftriftions, would be fatisfied with, but fomewhat more.
Thcfe are not excluded altogether from the money market,
like the former clafs ; but the terms of the bargain are
raifed to them. Suppofe they have nothing to fell, by
which they can raife the money they want, then they muft
pay for the breach of the law, and this in two ways, both
by giving a fufficient premium to the lender to make him
run the extraordinary riflf, and becaufe the illegality of the
trade keeps many dealers out of it, and by narrowing the
competition, raifes the profits. In the courfe of the laft
twenty years, a great trade has been driven in annuities,
which admirably illuftrates the operation of thefe laws,
this being a perfeftly legal mode of evading them, and yet
one attended with ruinous expence to the borrower. The
law has impofed a number of regulations upon fuch tranf-
aftions, with the view of preventing them from becoming
too eafy a means of evading the ufury laws. Thofe regu-
lations increafing the rifl< of the lender, fomewhat raife the
price to the borrower. Then the nature of the tranfaftion
renders an infurance neceffary upon the life of the borrower ;
and this is a large increafe of price. Moreover, the number
of lenders at ufurious intereft in the illegal way being nar-
rowed by the competition, as all who are driven from this
traffic do not neceflarily refort to the line of annuities, the
market is, notwithftanding the legal method of evafion, con-
fiderably narrowed. It has thus happened, that perfons
with excellent fecurity, and who could eafily have gotten
loans at fix and a half or feven per cent, but for the law,
are obliged to pay eight or nine, befides the infurance, or
from ten to twelve in all ; and this, not to private money-
lenders, who exaft much more, but to the. great infurance-
companies, who have fallen upon this way of employing
their fuperfluous capital, tempted by the double gains of
lenders and infurers.

Moreover, fuppofe now, that the laws have prevented a
man from borrowing at feven per cent., and that he has ftill
goods which he can part with to raife the money. But for
the law he might keep his goods ; and nothing can prevent
his felling them at an under price, according to his nccelTities.
No one who has known any thing of falcs made in diftrefled
circumftances, will think a lofs of thirty /ict cent, very extra-
ordinary in fuch cafes. To fuch a lols as this, the moil
exorbitant ufury bears no proportion ; yet this is exaftly
the premium which the diftreffed man is compelled to pay
for money, by the law which fays he ihall not borrow at the
rate of five and a half. The preffure upon proprietors of
real eftates is ftill more fevere. Suppofe a man comes into
poffeflion of an eftate worth two hundred a-year, charged
with a thoufand pounds ; and that the incumbrancer wifhes
to have his money rather than the legal intereft, but would
be fatisfied with one or two per cent, above that rate ; — at
any rate, if he would not, fome other certainly could be
found to advance the money at that premium, upon the
fame fecurity.

The laft mifchief occafioned by the ufury laws is, per-
haps, more important than all the reft ; r/'s. the corrupting
influence upon the morals of the people, by the pains they
take, and, as Mr. Bentham obferves, cannot but take, to
give birth to treachery and ingratitude.

" To

U T

U T E

" To piirchafe," fays the author, " a poflihility of being
enforced, the law ncitlicr has found, nor, what is very mate-
rial, muft it ever hope to find, in this cafe, any other expe-
dient, than that of hiring a man to break his engagement,
and to criifh the hand that has been reached out to help
him. In the cafe of informers in general, there has been
no truth plighted, nor benefit received. In the cafe of
real criminals invited by rewards to inform againft accom-
plices, it is by fuch breach of faith that fociety is held toge-
ther, as in other cafes by the obferiiance of it. In the cafe
of real crimes, in proportion as their mifchievoufnefs is ap-
parent, what cannot but be manifeft even to the criminal is,
that it is by the adherence to his engagement that he would
do an injury to fociety, and, that by the breach of fuch
engagement, inflead of doing mifchief he is doing good.
In the cafe of ufury this is what no man can know, and
what one can fcarcely think it poffible for any man, who,
in the charafter of the borrower, has been concerned in
fuch a tranfaftion, to imagine. He knew that, even in his
own judgment, the engagement was a beneficial one to him-
felf, or he would not have entered into it : and nobody
elfe but the lender is affefted by it."

It has been further alleged, that the laws againft ufury
allow of tranfaftions fubftantially ufurious ; and, indeed,
that they cannot prevent thefe, without wholly putting a
flop to the courfe of trade. Some of the moft ordinary
occurrences in commerce, are in their nature ufury. The
praftice of drawing and redrawing, by which merchants
are accommodated with money for a fhort time, at a certain
commiffion over and above the {i\e per cent., and then for as
much longer, until they pay ten, twelve, and more/cr cent.
during the whole year, is only a more cumbrous and ex-
penfive method of borrowing above the legal rate of interelt.
But other well-known Hues of trafBc, though apparently
more remote from ufury, are not lefs clofely connedled
with it : — pawn-broking, bottomry, and refpondentia,
will immediately occur to the reader. Nay, infurance in all
its branches, and the purchafe and fale of pojl-olhs, with all
cafes in which a man is allowed to undertake an unlimited
ri(k for an unlimited premium, are in their principle ufurious
tranfadions. Of thefe, the moft notorious is the traffic in
annuities ; which, accordingly, has been found to be the eafieft
and fafeft mode of evading the ufury laws, although we have
already fliewn how greatly it increafes the rate of intereft.
For further particulars we muft refer to the Treatife above
cited ; and alfo to the Edinburgh Review, N° liv.

USUS, in Roman Catholic times, was a term for the
particular manner of performing the cathedral fervicc ; as
almoft every diocefe had its own plain-chant, or at leaft dif-
fered in performing fome parts of the mafs from the reft.
The Ufe of Salijbtiry, Secundum ufum Sanim, was the moft
general.

USWAY, in Geography, a river of Northumberland,
which runs into the Coquet.

USZCZA, a town of Poland ; 25 miles E. of Cracow.

USZITERNA, a town of European Turkey, in the
province of Servia ; 25 miles S. of Jenibafar.

USZOMER, a town of Ruffian Polnnd, in Volhynia ;
70 miles N.W. of Kiev.

USZTAN-UTAR, a town of Charafm ; 250 miles N.
of Urkonje.

UT, a Latin term, fignifying, literally, <;j ; much ufed
in the ftating of ratios and proportions.

Sir Ifaac Newton affigns its ufe thus : if iiidetermi[iate
quantities of divers kinds be compared together, and one
of them be faid to be u/, as, any other, direitly, or inverfely ;
the meaning is, that the firft is incrcafed, or diminiflicd, in

the fame ratio as the latter. And if one of them be faid to
be, «/, as, two or more others, direAly, or inverfely ; the
meaning is, that the firft is incrcafed, or diminiftied, in a
ratio compounded of the ratios in which the others are in-
crcafed or diminifhed.

Thus if A be faid to be as B direAly, and as C direftly,
and as D inverfely ; the meanijig is, it is incrcafed, or dimi-
niftied, in the fame ratio with B x C x ^C ! *'>^t is, A

jBC , , . .

and - - are to each other in a given ratio.

Ut, the name of the firft found in each of the hexachords
of Guido. By tranfpofitions, ;// (or do) is the key-note in
folmifation of all major keys, and the mediant or 3d in
minor keys.

This note, with the reft, were taken out of the hymn of
St. John the Baptift, compofed about the year 770, in the
time of Charlemagne, according to Poffevin, by Paulus
Diaconus of Aquileia. l/l queant taxis, &c. See Music.

UTAJARVI, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Ulea ; 28 miles S.E. of Ulea.

UTAM ANIA, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the
web-footed kind, wanting the hinder-toe. It is common
about the ifland of Crete, and is very expert at diving.
It is of the fize of a teal, and has its head and back
black, and its belly white. Its feathers refemble down
rather than plumage ; but though they are foft and (lender,
they are very firmly affixed to the (Ivin. Its beak is ftiarp
at the edges, and covered in a great part with down.
From the defcription of Bellonius, as well as his figure, this
bird approaches to the common razor-bill, if it is indeed
efientially different from it.

UT AS, OcTAV A, in our Statutes, the eiglith day following
any feaft or term, as the utjs of St. Michael, &c. And
any day between the feaft and the oftave is faid to be
within the utas. The ufe of this is in the return of writs,
as appears by ftat. 51 Hen. III.

UTAWAS, or Utwas, in Geography, a river of Cauziz,
which joins the St. Lawrence, near lake St. Francis.

UTENDORF, a town of the county x)f Henncberg ; 4
miles N.E. of Meinungen.

UTENSIL, Utex.silk, a little domeftic moveable, par-
ticularly fuch as belong to the kitchen. Such as pots,
pans, plates, &c.

Utensils are more particularly ufed in war, for the move-
ables which the hoft is obliged to furnifli llie foldicrs quar-
tered with him ; which are a bed with bed-cloaths, a pot,
and a fpoon. They are likewife to have a place at their
holt's fire, and candle. Utenfils are fometimes furnifhcd in
money, and foinetimes in kind.

UTERINE, in ylnalomy, an epithet applied to various
parts belonging to tlie uterus ; as its arteries, veins, &c.
The uterine portion of the placenta is the part immediately
adhering to the uterus. See Embryo, and Generation.

Uterine, Pectus extra. It fometimes happens that the
fecundated or impregnated ovum, inftead of faUing from
its calyx, into the fimbriated end of the corrcfponding Fal-
lopian tube, (fee Conception,) and thence defcending into
the uterus, its natural nidus, either continues adherent to
the ovarium, and is there nonrilhcd and incrcaled ; or, fepa-
rating from the ovarium, and miffing the mouth of the tube,
falls into the cavity of the abdomen, and adhering to the
mefcntery, or fome of the bowels, .ibforbs and takes its
nouiiftimcnt from thence ; or, laftly, having entered one of
the Fallopian tubes, and not able, from the ftraigluncfs of
the paffagc, to pafs on to the uterus, it is there detained and

nourifhed>

UTERINE.

noiiridied. In this cafe, it frequently happens that after
the ovum has attained the fize of a hen's or a goofe's egg,
the fides of the tube (not being able to bear further diften-
fion ) burft, and hemorrhage from the ruptured veffels en-
fuing, the woman dies. De Graaf and Santonnus have
each of them related a cafe of thi-; kind that fell under thtir
notice (fee Obf. Anatom. J. D. Santorini, 4to. p. 22j.),
and have given engravings, reprefenting the appcrirance of
the parts on diffeaion. In which it is remarkable, that
though the fcetus, in neither cafe, had reached the uterus,
yet that vifcus had increafed, and its cavity was diftended,
nearly to tlie fame fize it would have been if the foetus had
been there. But when the ovum is not reftrifted in its
growth by the ilraightnefs of the place where it happens to
be depofited, or is not blighted and deftroyed by any other
caufe, it continues increafing, and the inclofed fcEtus grows,
and attains nearly the fame fize it would have done if it had
been lodged in the uterus, and at tlie end of nine months,
the ufual term of geftation, the woman has pains fimilar to
thofe of labour ; but as there is no opening by which the
foetus can be excluded after fhe has been tormented with
pains for feme days, they ceafe, and the child dies. If the
cyft or bag in which the ovum is contained happens to be
placed in a part not very fufceptible of pain, it may remain
in a quiefcent ftate many weeks, months, or even years,
without occafionimg much difturbance to the woman, and
the foetus, with its involucra, attain a carlilaginous con-
fiftence. It more frequently happens, however, that the
fcetus becoming putrid foon after death, and the fleflt dif-
folving, the now denuded bones, preffnig againft the cyft,
excite inflammation and pain in the parts of the woman to
which it is contiguous, which at length fuppurating, or
floughing away, an opening is made either externally,
through the mufcles and teguments of the abdomen, or in-
ternally, through the coats of the bowels, and the bones of
the fcetus are either voided with the ftools, or through the
abfcefs in the abdomen. Women after thefe diftreffing cir-
cumH.ances, during which their fufferings have been extreme,
not unfrequently recover a good ftate of health, and live
many years.

In thefe cafes, though art can do but little, yet fome
afiiftance may be occafionally given. When the cyft has
opened internally into the bowels, after the difcharge of the
putrid ciilUivies, into which the foft parts of the child has
been diffoKed, the bones begin to come away ; and if one
of them ftiould lie acrofs the reftum, occafioning violent
ftrainings and pain, by paiTmg a finger into the gut, the
pofition of the bone may be altered, and its exit promoted.
The paffage of the bones may alfo be facilitated, and the
pain occafioned by them alleviated, by injefting emollient
o-lyfters, to vvhich it may be fometimes ufeful to add thirty
or forty drops of the tinfture of opium. When the abfcefs
is external, its fuppuration may be promoted by poultices,
or the apertun-, after it has burft, may be enlarged with a
lancet or knife, and the bones taken out with a pair of for-
ceps. Wlien the fcEtus makes its exit through the bowels
or vagina, it may fometimes be many weeks, months, or even
years, before the bones are completely evacuated ; but when
the opening is external, through the parietes of the ab-
domen, the whole procefs is ufually over, and the abfcefs
healed in the fpace of a few weeks.

Ordinarily there are no fymptoms, in the early months of
pregnancy particularly, by which we may fufpeA the fetus
not to be in the uterus. The menfes ceafe, and there is the
fame naufea, ficknefs, and fullnefs of the breafts, as in na-
tural conception or pregnancy. The uterus increafes in
bulk, and its cavity enlarges, though not to the fame extent

as when the foetus is included. At the end of the period of
geftation, pains are excited fo like to thofe in a natural la-
bour, as to deceive for a time even experienced praftitioners.

Many cafes of this kind have been recorded by medical
writers, befides thofe mentioned by De Graaf and Santo-
rinus. The following account of a fcstus of fix months,
which was voided entire by the anus, is taken from Mr.
William Giffard's Colleftion of Cafes in Midwifery, N° 157,
publiftied by Dr. Edward Hody, in 4to. 1734. The
woman died a few days after the exclufion of the foetus, and
was opened by Mr. Giffard, affifted by Mr. Nourfe, one of
the furgeons to Bartholomew's hofpital, in the prefence of
Dr. Dodd, phyfician to the fame hofpital. The parts were
exhibited to the Royal Society, and drawings of them taken,
under the direttion of fir Hans Sloane, the prefident. From
them two engravings were executed, which are publifhed
with the volume.

The ovum appears not to have completely left the ova-
rium, which, with the fimbiiated end of the Fallopian tube,
and the ligamentum latum of the right fide, appear to be
confufedly joined together, and each of them contributing
towards forming the facculus, or bag, containing the ovum.
The foetus had been perfeft, but was beginning to be putrid.
It was of the fize foetufes ulually arc at fix months. It is
not dehneated. The woman had the ufual figns of breeding,
and at the proper time felt the motion of the child, which
increafing, and by its weight finking down behind the uterus,
and dragging the fundus of that vifcus with it, at length,
by its prefigure on the reftum, occafioned inflammation, and
a portion of the reftum, and of the bag floughing off, the
foetus fell into the gut, and was voided by the anus.

The uterus was not examined, but it appears by the
drawing to have been of a larger fize than it is ufually feen
to be in women who are not pregnant, and if it had been
opened, the cavity would doubtleis have been found propor-
tionably increafed.

De Graaf, in his work " De Organis Muherum," p. 252.
tab. 21, has given a delineation of an ovum that was detained
in one of the Fallopian tubes, from Vefalius, who diffeAed
the body of the woman. The embryo was between three
and four months old, when the fides of the tube giving way,
the woman died. Vefalius thought the cavity in which the
ovum had been retained was a fecoud uterus.

Ciprianus, in a letter to Dr. Millington, prefident of the
college of phyficians, London, has given the cafe ot an ex-
traordinary foetus that had continued in the abdomen of its
mother twenty-one months. He extracted it by enlarging
the opening of an impofthume that had broken naturally.
The letter is dated Ley den, 1707.

Straufius gives an account of a woman, aged fixty-three
years, who died in confequence of a fall. She had, for
twenty years previous to her death, complained of a pain
and fwelling in the middle and lower part of the abdomen.
On opening the body, a foetus was found perfeftly formed,
but of the hardnefs of ftone. " Cutiferat faxi in modum
dura," he fays, " Caput erat malleo frangendum, &c."
Laur. Straufii Refolutio cafus Muffipantani foetus extra
uterum, &c." p. 39.

Uterine Hemorrhages. See Flooding.

In this dangerous diforder the ftyptic powder of Helvetius
is much recommended : and the ftibium ceratum has alfo
been tried with great fuccefs. See Vitrum antimonii
ceratum.

In the Stockholm A£ls, 1770, there are feveral cafes
of uterine hemorrhages cured by a third or half a grain of
ipecacuanha, rubbed with fugar, given every four hours or

oftener.

u r E

U T E

ofwner. In one cafe, the hsemorrhage returned on difcon-
tinuing the medicine, and ceafed on repeating it. Thefe
foiall dofes had good effefts in catarrhal coughs, even in
thofe which attend confumptions ; and if not beneficial,
are at leaft not hurtful, in bloody coughs, in which vo-
miting has feveral times been obferved to come on, without
any increafe of the hsemorrhage. They may be ufeful in
peripneumony and pleurify, in which cough is often the
moft troiiblefome fymptom, and in w hich feneka root
(which in increafed dofes proves alfo emetic) has been fo
much recommended.

Uterine Brothers or Sixers are thofe born of the fame
mother, but by different fathers.

UTERINUM Jecur. See Jecur.

UTERINUS, Furor, in Medidne. See Furor.

Men are fubjeft to the like difeafe, as well as women ;
fo that it might with more propriety be called, the furor
vtntreus, or venere&l fury. It had its mme, furor uterinus,
from an opinion, that it proceeded from vapours, rifing
from the womb to the brain.

It has been frequently found, that maids, fuppofed to be
poflefled, were only feized with uterine fury.

Uterinus Lapis, in Natural Hijlory, a name given
by fome authors to a ftone found in New Spain, and in
fome other parts of America ; it is very hard and heavy,
of a beautiful black, and capable of a very elegant polifh.
The natives cut it into various (hapes, and apply it to the
navel in difeafes of the womb, and pretend that it poflefles
very great f rtues.

UTERUS, in /Inalomy, the womb, the organ in which
the embryo is received from the ovarium, to which it becomes
adherent fo as to receive the materials of its growth, and in
which it is retained for a longer or (horter time in various
fpecies, until its expulfion in the procefs of parturition.
A proper uterus belongs only to the mammaha ; oviparous
generation, under various modifications, is found in the
other clafles, and the female organ is therefore reduced to a
mere canal (oviduft) for the tranfmiffion of the ova. See
Ge.veration. See alfo Conception, Gestation, and
Embryo.

Uterus, Inveijlon of. Sometimes the uterus defcends
through the os tincse into the vagina, and occafionally quite
out of the vulva. The firll cafe is termed the incomplete ;
the fecond, the complete invcrfio uteri. In the latter, the
vagina is alfo drawn downward, and inverted, fo that the
whole tumour, f.tuated before the parts of generation, fcems
to hang by a pedicle, compofed of the inverted vagina.
Between this pedicle and the labia, there is no interfpace
which will admit a probe. The outer furfacc of the tumour
is, in faft, the lining of tlie uterus itfelf.

It being obvious, that the fundus uteri cannot defcend
through the os tincx-, unlefs this aperture be confidcrably
dilated, it follows, that an inverfio uteri can only happen
juft after delivery ; and one common caufe of the accident
13, the unfl<dful employment of force in the extraftion of
the placenta. Polypi, growing from the fundus uteri,
however, are particular cafes, in which the inverfiou of this
organ may take place from its being drawn downwards by
the weiglit of fuch tumours.

Great pain, inflammation, tumefaftion, and haemorrhage,
are the ulual coufequcnces of an inverfion of the uterus.
Even mortification, coiivulfions, and death may refult from
the complete form of the difeafe, cfpecially when it has
occurred in a very fudden manner.

The reduftion of an inverted uterus ought to be attempted
without the leaft delay. 1 he lunger tlie operation is dc-

VoL. XXXVII.

ferred, the more difficult it becomes ; for, in thefe cafeS,
pain, inflammation, and fweUing, generally come on with
great rapidity. If inflammation (liould already prevail, there
are fome praftitioners, who think it beft to apply leeches
and fomentations to the fwelling, before undertaking its
reduftion. It is certain, however, that very little time
fhould be allotted to any proceedings, before endeavouring
to reduce the part, which can hardly be kept from inflaming
more and more, the longer it remains out of its natural
fituation. Leeches, fomentations, and even venefeftion,
muft, however, be highly proper, whenever the firft attempts
at reduftion do not immediately fucceed.

In very old cafes, in which the fundus uteri has fuffered
long compreiTion in the vagina, fuch an alteration takes
place in the (hape and flrufture of the uterus, that the in-
verfion is totally incurable ; and all that can then be done is
to reflrain its further defcent by means of a peiTary.

The uterus, befides being inverted, may alfo be in a
fcirrhous, or aftually cancerous ftate. In this circumftance,
the propriety of amputating the difeafed organ has been
eftablifhed by feveral precedents recorded in the annals of
furgery. Yet the prudence and utility of this operation
muft very much depend upon, whether the uterus is the only
part affe£led with the difeafe ; whether the lymphatic
glands in the groin and within the abdomen are found ; and
whether the general ftate of the patient is fuch as to juftify
a rational hope of recovery.

Uterus, Polypi of. See Polypus.

Uterus, Procidentia or Prolapfus of. See Prolapsls
Uteri.

Uterus, Rdroverfwn of. See Retroversio Uteri.

Uterus, Rupture of This accident may happen in any
kind of labour ; the caufe of it is probably the uterus being
thinner and weaker in fome part than is ufual, particularly
near to its union with the vagina, that being found to be the
moft common feat of the accident. That it is not occafioned
by any peculiar difeafe of the uterus, is probable, as there
are no fymptoms occurring during pregnancy from which
we might judge it to be likely to happen, but in the courfc
of the labour, an hour or two before the accident takes
place, the women complain of an exceedingly acute pain m
fome part of their bellies. At the moment of the rupture,
they feel that fomething has given way within them. The
labour-pains ceafe ; and, if the head of the child has not
pafled the veins of the pelvis, it recedes, and gradually
gets out of the reach of the fingers. Vomiting, palenefs of
the face, Cghing, and a cold fweat, (h«wing the magnitude
of the difafter, fucceed. The pulfe becomes weak, quick,
and fcarcely perceptible ; and at the end of twenty-four,
thirty-fix, or forty-eight hours the woman dies.

If the perfon attending is competent to the bufinefs, it is
right to follow the child with his hand through the rent in
the uterus, into the abdomen, and to bring it away by its
feet. This is not done fo much with a view to preferve the
life of the woman, who almoll iuevit.ibly perifhes, as to fave
the child, which, if the operation is immediately performed,
may often be done. The late Dr. Andrew Douglas relates
the hiftory of one cafe iu which the woman was alfo favcd.
It is the only cafe of the kind on record, or perhaps that
ever occurred. To give the woman this chance, the opera-
tion muft be performed immediately, for as the uterus is
found fpeedily to contraft, and diminifh the aperture, to
attempt it after that lias taken place, would be to reopen the
wound, to renew the hxmorrh.tge, and confequcntly to
haften the death of the woman.

Uterus ofjljh. Among the fidi kindf, all thofe which
4 !• are

U T 1

are oviparous have no uterus ; but, on the contrary, all the
viviparous fifties have this part. The whales, and all the
cetaceous kinds, as alfo many of the cartilaginous ones,
have the uterus very fair. It is probable that the eel kind
alfo have it ; but this is lefs certain, the generation of thofe
fifties being yet fomewhat obfcure. The uterus in the
cetaceous fifties is always divided into two proceffes or horns;
but in the cartilaginous ones it is divided into two glandulous
bodies, which are pervious, and, according to the opinion of
Needham, difcharge a whitifti liquor into the womb, and
are of great ufe in gravidation.

Uteri, cornua, are alfo called horns of the womb.

Uteri, hydrops. See Dropsy.

Uteri, •vagina, or ctrvix. See thofe articles.

UTFANGTHEF, in our Law-Books. See Outfan-

THEFE.

UTHINA, in yindent Geography, a town of the interior
of Africa Propria, between Tabraca and the river Bagrada.
It had the title of a colony.

UTHISIA, a town of Africa, in Numidia.
UTHLEDE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Bremen ; 23 miles N.N.W. of Bremen.

UTICA, [Bofijhatter,) \n Ancient Geography, a maritime
town of Africa, between Carthage and the promontory of
Apollo. It was a colony of Tyrians, and named by the
Greeks Ituxk, Itica. This town, by its magnitude and
dignity, was inferior only to Carthage ; and after the deftruc-
tion of this city, it became the capital of the province.
According to Strabo, it was fituated upon the fame gulf
with Carthage. Auguftus granted the title of Roman
citizens to its inhabitants. It is often mentioned in the
hiftory of the civil war of Cxfar ; and it became ftill more
famous by the death of Cato. On its fcite are found old
walls, a very large aqueduft, cifterns, and other veftiges of
edifices, which announce a large and magnificent city. To
the S.W. of thefe ruins may be feen fpacious fields, which
the Romans rendered famous by their military exercifes.
Booftiatter, by the accumulation of mud brought down by
the river Bagrada, is now about 7 miles from the fea.

Utica, in Geography, a flouriftiing incorporated poft-
village of New York, the commercial capital of the great
weilern diftrid: of this ftate, fituated on the S. bank of the
Mohawk, 93 miles W. of Albany, in the town of Whitef-
town, Oneida county. It ftands on the fcite of Old Fort
Schuyler, 13 miles N.E. of Rome, anciently Fort Stanwix,
and is handfomely laid out in ftreets, fquares, &c., and was
incorporated as a village in 1798, and again in 180J. Al-
though Utica is fmall in area, it contains a population of
1700 perfons, and has 300 houfes and ftores, a Piefbyterian
and an Epifcopal church, a grammar-fchool, &c. Befides
thefe buildings it has many others, with mills, faftories,
ftiops of mechanics, printing-offices, and large book-ftores.
Weekly papers ai-e publiftied here, and widely circulated
through the furrounding country. The Manhattan bank
has eftabliftied a bank at Utica, and in 1812 it obtained a
charter for a bank, with a capital of one milUon of dollars.
The foil is fertile, and the fituation healthy and pleafant.
This village is the central point for all the principal avenues
of communication by common roads and turnpikes, and
forms the key of trade and travel between the weftern
country and Atlantic ports and towns. N. lat. 43° 6'. W.
long. 1° 12' from New York.

UTICNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Pro-
pria, fituated to the S. of Adrumetum.

UTIDAVA, a town of Dacia. Ptolemy.
UTIDORSI, a people of Afiatic Scythia, upon the

u r K

coafl of tiie Cafpian fea, towards the river Cyrus.
Phny.

UTIEL, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ;
48 miles S.E. of Cuen^a.

UTII, in Ancient Geography, a people who were Perfi^ns,
or fubjefts or allies of the Perfians. They had for their
commandant, in conjunftion with the Myci, Arfamenes,
fon of Darius, according to Herodotus. From various cir-
cumftances, it has been inferred that the Outians or Utians
of Herodotus are the Uxians of Strabo and Ptolemy.

UTIKON, or Oetikon, in Geography, a town of Swit-
zerland, in the canton of Zurich ; 12 miles N.E. of Zurich.

UTILA, an iftand in the gulf of Honduras, about 30
miles from the coaft ; about 15 miles long, and 5 broad.
N. lat. 16=4'. W. long. 87° 4.5'.

UTILE, a Latin term, fignifying probable, or ufeful ;
fometimes ufed, by Englifti authors, m the fame fenfe.

The utile and the duke, profit and delight, are both to
be aimed at in poetry ; but it is difputed, which of them
is to be aimed at in the firft place. Corneille fays, ex-
prefsly, " Dans la tragedie I'utile n'entre que fous la forme
du deleftable."

In the language of the philofophers, there is nothino-
utile, but what is juft and honeft : nihil bonum, nift honejlum :
nihil malum, nift turpe. Cic. de Fin. lib. ii.

Utile Dominium. See Dominium.

UTILITY, in Moral Phtlofophy, is the tendency of any
aftion to promote the general happinefs. According to
archdeacon Paley, aftions are to be eftimated Viy their ten-
dency. Whatever is expedient is right : and it I'a the utihty
of any moral rule alone which conftitutes the obligation of
it, and this is the criterion of right. On this fubjeft, fee
Obligation, Moral Philosophy, and Virtue.

UTILLO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba;
50 miles S.S.E. of Havanna.

UTINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of ancient
Venetia, now Ondina.

UTIS, a river of Italy, or rather of Gallia Cifalpina.

UTKINSKAIA, or Utkinskoi, in Geography, a town
of Ruflia, in the province of Ekaterinburg, on the Tchu-
fovaia ; 36 miles N.W. of Ekaterinburg.

UTLAGARI^ Perdonatio. See Perdoxatio.

UTLAGATIO, in Law, an outlawry.

UTLAGATO capiendo, quando utlagatur in uno comitalu,
isf pojlea fugit in alium, a writ for apprehending a man
who is outlawed in one county, and flies into another. See
Outlawry.

UTLAG.ATUM Capias. See Capias.

UTLAGH, Utlaghus. See Outlaw.

UTLAND, Outland, is oppofed to Inland.

UTLARY, or Utlawry, Utlagakia. See Out-
lawry.

UTNEMSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
province of Uiliug, on the Vitchegda. N. lat. 62° j6'.
E. long. 54° 14'.

UTON, an ifland near the eaft coaft of Sweden, in the
Baltic. N. lat. 58=57'. E. long. 18° 5'.

UTPHA, a town of Germany, in tiie principality of
Solms Laubach, on the Horlof ; 2 miles S.W. of Hungen.
UTRACH, a town of Auftria ; 7 -.liles N. of St.
Wolfgang.

UTRAQUIST./E, in Church Hijlory, an appellation
given by way of reproach to thofe in Bohemia wlio com-
municate under both fpecies, bread .ind wine.

UTRECHT, in Geography, a department of Holland,
late one of the Dutch States, which, excepting in one

fmall

U T R

fmill llrip of land to the nortliward, and bcM-derinjj on the
Zuyder See, is wholly environed by Holland and Guelder-
land : it enjoys a good air, and in moll parts the foil is very
fruitful ; to the caftward it is indeed a high and fterile
country, confiding either of fandy hills or fmall eminences,
which are in general over-run with wood; and weftward
the country perfeAly refemblcs Holland, being for the mod
part rich meadow, though in many parts full of turf
grounds.

Utrecht, a city of Holland, and capital of the ftate or
department fo called ; in Latin, Ultrajedum, TrajcBum In-
ferius, Traje9um Utrkenjium, Antonina Civitas, which laft
name was given it from Antoninus, a Roman fenator, by
whom it was built, in the time of Nero ; and TrajeBum ad
Rhenum, to diftinguifh it from Maeftricht, which wai
called Trajedum ad Mo/am. It is a haiidfome, large, and
rich city, fituated on the ancient Rhine. The VViltes
ruined it, and left nothing but the caftle, which they called
fVi/ltnl'ourg. In the year 718, Clotaire king of France re-
built it, and firft called it Utrecht, from the word Trtcht,
which Cgnifies paflage, becaufe it was the grand paflage
over the Rhine, before that river had changed its bed. It
was enlarged, and furrounded with walls, about the year
534, by Balderic de Cleves, the fifteenth bifhop. Its
figure is oval, and it is about four miles in circumference,
befides four large fauxbourgs ; but though fortified with
fomc baftions and half-moons, it is not ftrong. The em-
peror Charles V. when he became mafter of the figniory
and city of Utrecht, in the year 1529, built a chateau,
which he called l^rebourg, or the Chateau of Peace ; and in
the year 1546, celebrated a chapter of the order of the
Golden Fleece in the cathedral church, when Maximilian
king of Bohemia, and afterwards emperor, Cofmo duke of
Florence, Albert duke of Bavaria, Emanuel Philibert duke
of Savoy, and eighteen other lords, were inllalled knights.
1 he d6nie, or the cathedral church, it is faid, was firft built
in the year 630, by king Dagobert I., and St. Willebrord
made it an abbey church, and foon after it became a cathe-
dral. The height of the tower is 380 feet, and from the
top in a clear day fifteen or fixteen cities may be feen.
The cathedral was at firft dedicated to St. Thomas, after-
wards to St. Martin. The church of Notre-Damc, com-
monly called Buur-Kcrcb, and Engbfh church, has a fmall
library, which contains fome ancient manufcripts ; the other
parifhcs are St. James, St. Nichola:;, and St. Gertrude. It
has likcwifc hofpitals for orphans, foundlings, &:c. Before
the Reformation, it had many religious houfes. The magif-
tracy is compofed of a grand bailly, two burgomafters,
twelve echevins, a trcafurer, an intendant of buildings, a
prefident, three commiflioncrs of finances, and a fenator,
whici) are changed every year on the 1 2th of Oftobcr, and
affemble in the town-houfe, which is a handiome ftrudture.
The principal ftreets are cut through with canals, two of
which run through the whole city, namely, the Vaert, and
the new Gracht, over which there are thirty-five bridges.
Thefe are the principal canals of the town, and the buildings
on the banks of the new Gracht are magnificent. The
market-place is very large, and the centre of fcvcral hand-
feme ftreets. The houfes are of brick, and many of them
ftately ; they have in general good cellars, which they
cannot have in the ftate of Holland, the ground there being
too marftiy. Without the town there are beautiful rows of
trees, to which the Englifh have given the name of the
Mall, by rcafon of their having fomc rcfcmblance to St.
■ lamcs's Park. This place wa« the Icat of an archbiftiop,
before it fell into the Proifftauls' hands, and had four

U T R

collegiate churches, two commanderies, and feveral abbeys,
which have been all fecularized by the States, and applied to
other ufcs. As it ftands in a very healthful air, it is fre-
quented by perfons of diftinftion, who have very fine houfes
in this city. The univerfity, which has been very famous,
was originally only a public fchool, founded by David of
Burgundy, bifhop of Utrecht ; but in the year 1636, it was
converted into an univerfity by the States. The univerfity
is fubjeA to the magiftrates of the city, and has not many
privileges. The ftudents wear their ordinary drefs, and
board in private houfes in the town, for there are fcarcely
any endowed colleges in Holland. Here the ftates of the
province affemble to take cognizance of the affairs of the
whole province. There is a public library, well ftocked
with books in all branches of learning. The town is famous
for the treaty of union, Cgned in 1579, between the Seven
Provinces, which laid the foundation of the republic ; as
likewife for the treaty of peace, figned here in 17 13,
between France and the Grand Allies. Utrecht gave birth
to pope Adrian VI., whofe houfe they always fhew to
foreigners ; and to the celebrated Ann Mary Schurman, fo
admired in the laft century for her learning ; 18 miles S.S.E.
of Amfterdam. N. lat. 52° 6'. E. long. 5' 1 1'.

Utrecht, a townfhip of New York, in Long ifland.

UTRERA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville.
It contains two parifties, four hofpitals, and eight convents;
near it is a fait fpring ; 21 miles S. of Seville.

UTRICULARIA, in Botany, fo named by Linrzus,
from the numerous little bladders, utrtculi, which often ac-
company the leaves, and ferve to float the plant. — Linn.
Gen. 14. Schreb. 19. Willd. Sp. PI. t. 1. 1 1 1. Mart.
Mill. Did. V. 4. Vahl Enum. v. i. 194. Sm. Fl. Brit.
28. Prodr. Fl. Gric. Sibth. v. t. ri. Brown Prodr.
Nov. Holl. v. I. 430. Purfti 15. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i.
4J. Epit. 376. Juff. 98. Poiret in Lamarck Dift.
v. 8. 267. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 14 — Clafs and order, Di-
andria Monogynla. Nat. Ord. Corydales, Linn. Lyfi-
maehiis ajine, Juff. Leniiiiilarit, Richard and Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of two equal, ovate,
concave, fmall, moftly undivided, permanent leaves. Cor.
of one petal, ringent ; upper lip flat, obtufe, eredl : lower
larger, flat, undivided ; its palate heart-ftiaped, more or
Icfs prominent between the lips. Neftary a finiple or double
fpur, protruding from the bafe of the petal behind. Sirwt.
Filaments two, inferted into the bafe of the corolla, very
(hort, incurved ; anthers fmall, cohering together. Pi/l.
Gcrmen fupcrior, globofe ; ftyle thrcad-fliapcd, the length
of the calyx ; ftigma conical, fomctimes divided. PerU.
Capfule large, globofe, of one cell. Setdj numerous, fmall,
attached to a large globular receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Corolla ringent, fpurrnl. Calyx of two equal
leaves. Capfule fuperior, of one cell.

A very curious and elegant genus, of herbaceous, ftem-
lefs, aquatic or bog plants, found in various parts of the
world, but perhaps more numerous in New Holland than in
any other country. Linnaus in the i^tli edition of his
Sy^. Veg. has but nine fpecies jn all. Willdonow hai
eleven, Vahl thirty-four, Poiret thirty-fix. Three are
found in Britain ; nine, according to Mr. Purlh, in North
America. But Mr. Brown defines twenty-four Ulrkularig,
natives of New Holland alone. Of tlule feveral were de-
tefted by fir Jofoph Banks and Dr. Solander. We have
heard the former of thefe eminent botanifts relate, that il-
moft every morning's walk afforded them ? new Utricularia ;
but the delicate flowers were generally fo (rail and tranficut,
or the diftinftive charsders of th« fpecies fo ('iffiewlt lo <!e-
4 F ; file,

UTRICULARIA.

■line, that feveral of thefe beautiful novelties were neceflarily
fcft uodetermined. Any botanift pofleffed of an extenfive
herbarium, cannot fail to acknowledge that he is reduced
to the fame neceflity ; for Vahl, who has given the bed
general account of the fpecies of this genus, confefles that
he had feen many more, that were undoubtedly diftinft, but
for which he could not hit upon fpecific charafters, fuch
being fcarcely difcernible in dried fpecimens. None of thefe
plants appear capable of cultivation, at lead none have as
yet been introduced into gardens. Vahl diftributes them
into four feftions, which we (hall adopt, with fuch addi-
tions and corredlions as we are enabled to attempt. Our
kind friend Dr. Afzelius has fupplied feveral apparently
new fpecies from Sierra Leone, which, as far as poffible,
we fhall try to reduce to order. It is very probable, efpe-
cially as the whole genus is more or lefs aquatic, that the
fame fpecies may occur in the old and nevi' continent, or
other widely diftant countries. But as we find not a fingle
inftance of this kind recorded, we (hall not venture to refer
any of our unknown fpecies, from one quarter of the globe,
to the defcriptions of any found in another. The Guinea
fpecies, for inltance, we muft prefume to be all different
from thofe of New Holland, or of South America. The
herbarium of the younger Linnaeus contains perhaps eight
fpecies, without any indication of their native country, or
any mark whatever. Thefe muft of courfe be omitted, as
they may poffibly be New Holland fpecies, communicated,
like many other plants, to their late poffeflbr, by his friend
Solander ; and it would be too precarious to refer them, by
examination in their dried and imperfeft condition, to any
of Mr. Brown's defcriptions, however excellent the latter
may be with a reference to living plants. Vahl has a nu-
merous feftion, fifteen fpecies, faid to have no leaves. Such
indeed is the frequent appearance of many of the plants, in
the dried ftate, in which alone he had an opportunity of ex-
amining them. But Mr. Brown, who faw fo many alive,
mentions none that are truly leaflefs, though he fa)-s the
foliage is often deciduous in thofe with undivided leaves.
There is great likelihood, therefore, that feveral of Vahl's
laft feftion may properly belong to his firft ; as proves to
be the cafe with his uUginofa, aflerted by Mr. Brown
to be either graminifo/ta, or cyanta, he could not pofitively
fay which. For the reft we can only truft to his opinion or
obfervation.

Seft. 1 . Leaves radical, ftmple.

1. U. alpina. Alpine Bladderwort. Linn. Sp. PI. 25.
Willd. n. I. Poiret n. i. (U. montana ; Jacq. Araer. 7.
t. 6. " U. unifolia ; Fl. Peruv. v. I. 20. t. 30. f. b.") —
Neftary awl-(haped. Stalk moftly fingle-flowered. Roots
tuberous. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate. Lips of the corolla
nearly equal. — Gathered by Jacquin, on the loftieft moun-
tains of the ifland of Martinico, in wet expofed Ctuations,
flowering in February. Root fibrous, furnithed with many
fmall elliptical knobs. Leaves two, radical, ftalked, acute,
entire, an inch and a half long, fmooth, ftiining, rather
fle(hy. Flotuer-Jialks fohtary, fimple, ereft, fmooth, fix
inches high, bearing two oppofite braSeas, and one, fome-
times two, large handfome ^o'zi'^v, above an inch in dia-
meter, whofe corolia is white, the calyx and nedary only
being (lightly tinged with yellow. Jacquin. This feems
to have the largeft Jloiver of any known fpecies, except
the following.

2. U. montana. Mountain Bladderwort. Poiret n. 2. —
Neftai-y conical, acute. Stalk naked, moftly two-flowered.

■ Roots verficular. Leaves radical, ovato-lanceolate i-Native

of Martinico. This might be fuppofed the fame as the lafl,

'4t

but Poiret fays " the lower haves, or rather the roots, arf
brown, confifting of numerous fpreading fibres, a little
comprefled, laden with ftiort fetaceous filaments, whicli
bear a few minute globular veficles. Radical leaves ftalked,
at leaft an inch long, bluntifh, fmooth, fleftiy, entire, with
fine branching veins. Footjlalhs full as long as the leave?.
Floiver-ftalks fix or eight inches high, bearing feveral dif-
tant, minute, membranous, oval-oblong, fcaly braSeas, and
divided at the top into two widely fpreading branches, each
bearing one ^oiyf/-, an inch at leaft in diameter, apparently
white ; with a tinge of blue. Calyx-leaves oval, obtufc,
very thin, broadelt at the bafe, marked, like the corolla,
with ftraight longitudinal lines. The two lips of the latter
are flat, very broad, nearly equal, rounded, almoft entire.
Spur rather fliorter than the lips, awl-ftiapcd, flightly
curved."

3. U. hifpida. Branched Rough Bladderwort. La-
marck Illuftr. v. I. 50. Vahl n. 2. Poiret n. 3. — " Nec-
tary awl-ihaped, reflexed. Stalk branched ; hifpid in the
lower part. Leaves hnear. Calyx-leaves roundifli." —
Found in Cayenne, by M. Richard. Roots fafciculated,
fubdivided, hardly an inch long. Leaves three, radical, an
inch long, acute, fmooth, without rib or veins, each taper-
ing at the bafe into a footftalk. Flotuer-Jlalk half a foot
high, or more, round ; fmooth in the upper part, where it
divides into two or three zigzag branches ; partial Jlalks
four or five, diftant, fingle-flowered. Fluwers Imall. A'^r-
iary nearly the length of the petal. Vahl.

4. U. volubilis. Twining Bladderwort. Brown n. 3. —
" Stalk twining, round, about two-flowered. Lips of the
corolla undivided ; the upper wedge-fliaped ; lower very
large, hatchet-fliaped. Spur deicending, obtufe, deprefted.
Calyx obtufe." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, on the foutheru
coaft of New Holland.

5. U. fpiralis. Spiral-ftalked Bladderwort Stalk

twining fpirally, with feveral diftant flowers. Lower lip
very large, cloven. Spur defcending, awl-fliaped, pointed.
Calyx acute. — Native of Sierra Leone. Afzelius. The

Jlalk of our only fpecimen is a foot or more in height, flen-
der, fmooth, unbranched, twining round the ftem of a grafs,
and bearing ioMT Jloivers, two inches at leaft afunder, except
the two uppermolt. Y-ach Jlotuer ftands on a flender partial
ftalk, half an inch long, accompanied by two fmall ovate
hraSeas. The fpur is very ftiarp, the length of the partial
ftalk, and rather longer than the lower lip. The colour of
the jloivers, as far as can be judged, is purplifh. We have
feen no leaves nor root, and therefore place this fpecies here
merely from the agreement of its Jlem with the laft, of which
we have but few examples.

6. U. fpeciofa. Handfome Bladderwort. Brown n. 4.
(U. dichotoma ; Labillard. Nov. HoU. v. I. II. t. 8.
Poiret n. 9.) — Stalk ftraight. Flowers oppofite. Upper
lip abrupt ; lower very large, hatchet-ftiaped, undivided.
Spur obtufe. Leaves hnear-fpatulate, ribbed ; tapering at
the bafe. — Native of New South Wales and Van Diemen's
ifland. Root of many tufted fibres, bearing fmall knobs.
Leaves radical, fpreading, above an inch long, immerfed in
water, as well as half ihe Jlalk, which is twelve or fifteen
inches high, quite fmooth and naked till within three or four
inches of the top, where it bears about three diftant pairs of
oppofite, ftalked, brafteated, large and handfome purple
flntuers ; whofe palate is bearded ; fpur thick and abrupt,
half the length of the lower lip; one leaf of the calyx
cloven.

7. U. oppoftttjlora. Oppofite-flowered Bladderwort.
Brown n. 5 " Stalk ftraight, round. Flowers oppofite.

Lips

UTIIICULARIA.

i..ipi undivided ; the lower very large, hatchet-fhap?d.
•Palate lobed. Spur obtufe. Leaves ovate, obtufe,
ftalked." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon,
New South Wales. The Jlali grows altogether out of the
water.

8. U. untflora. Single-flowered Bladdcrwort. Brown
n. 6. — " Stalk (Iraight, round, fingle-flowered. Leaves
few, roundifh, deciduous. Upper lip wcdge-fhaped, abrupt;
lower very large, hatchet-fhaped, undivided. Palate lobed.
Spur obtufe." — Native of the fame country, and of Van
Diemcn's idand ; growing likewife above water.

9. U. Baueri. Bauerian Bladdenvort. Brown n. 7. —
" Stalk capillary, moftly finiple, with a few dillant fcales
about the middle. Fit wcrs racemofe. Lips undivided;
the uppear linar ; lower broader than long. Spur ftraight,
defcending, bUuitifh, longer than the lips." — Gathered near
Port Jackfon, by Mr. Ferdinand Bauer.

10. \] . lateriflora. Lateral flowered Bladderwort. Brown
n. 8. — " Stalk capillary, fimple, round, with diftant fcales
at the bafe. Flower? lateral, fomewhat fpiked. Upper
lip linear, rather abrupt ; lower roundifli, obfcurely cre-
nate. Spur emarginate." — Native of Port Jackfon, and
Van Diemcn's idand. Bronvn.

11. XJ.parvlflra. Small-flowered Zigzag Bladderwort.
Brown n. 9. — Stalk nearly fimple, angular, fomewhat zig-
zag, with minute fcales at the bafe. Flowers lateral, dii-
tant, nearly feffile. Upper lip linear, emarginate ; lower
roundifh, undivided. Palate rugofe. Spur ftriight, bluntifli.
Lower calyx-leaf emarginate. — Sent by Dr. White, from
New South Wales, in 1792. The Jlali is from four to fix
inches high, and though feldom branched, fecms to elongate
itfelf annually by a lateral (hoot juft below the top. Of
the leavis we know nothing. There are many minute
fomleAfcahs, fcattcrcd along the llalk. Thefpur is thick,
full as long as the lips. Palate downy.

12. \J. Jimplex. Simple Capillary Bladderwort. Brown
II. 10. — " Stalk capillary, quite fimple, fingle-flowered.
Lips rounded, undivided ; the lowermofl broader than long.
Spur ftraight, deprefled, emarginate." — Found by Mr.
Brown, on the fouth coaft of New Holland.

13. U. violacea. Simple Violet Bladderwort. Brown
n. II. — "Stalk capillary, quite fimple, fingle-flowered.
Lips nearly entire ; the lower deflexed, as long as tlic de-
fcending, nearly cyhndrical, undivided fpiir. Leaf ovate,
generally folitary." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the fame
country.

14. U. Menziejii. Mcnziefian Bladderwort. Brown
n. 12. — " Stalk tliread-fliaped, fingle-flowered. Leaves
numerous, fpatulate. Lower lip undivided. Spur de-
fcending, cylindrical, obtufe, twice the length of the lips."
— Gathered by Mr. Menzies, on the fouth-weft coall of
New Holland. We do not difcovcr it amongll the fpeci-
mens with which he has favoured us ; nor did Mr. Brown
gather this fpecies liimfelf.

15. U. albylora. Small White-flowered Bladderwort.
Brown n. 13. — " Stalk tliread-fliaped, fingle-flowered.
Upper lip emarginate ; lower wcdge-fliaped, with three
teeth. Spur conical, defcending." — Gathered by Banks
and Solander, in the tropical part of New Holland.

16. U. (ompre[ja. Flat-fpurred Bladderwort. Brown
n. 14. — " Stalk .... Upper lip emarginate ; lower fome-
what three-lobed, the middle lobe emarginate. Spur
conical, flattened, pointing up.vards." — Found by the dif-
tinguilhed botaiiifts ju(l named, in the fame jiart of New
Holland as the preceding.

17. \J. jSrifitu/a. Little Striated Bladdcrwort. — Leavce

orbicular. Stalk fimple, angular, with a few raceniofe
flowers. Spur awl-fliaped, acute, as long as the lips-
Calyx-leaves permanent, ver)' unequal ; the upper one orbi-
cular, eijiarginate, ftriated — Brought from Sierra Leone,
by Dr. Afzelius. A fmall delicate fpecies, whofe fibrous
roots bear a few minute tubercles. The leaves are feveral,
ftalked, fcarcely a line in diameter, fmooth, with divari-
cating veins ; fome of them apparently concave, or blad-
dery. Stali near three inches liigh, flender, fmooth, bearing
fcarcely more than one fcale towards the middle, and termi-
nating in a clujler of three or four purplifli ^/yoTOfrj, on ca-
pillary ftalks, whofe lower Up feems cloven. The mem-
branous capftile is accompanied by the likewife membranous,
pale, permanent, fpreading calyx, whofe lower leaf is fmall
andobti.fe; the upper five times as large, orbicular, with
feveral purplifli longitudinal ribs.

18. \J.cyanea. Sky-blue Bladderwort. Brown n. 15

" Stalk fimple, ftraight, with a few lateral remote flowers ;
partial ftalks with three brafteas. Calyx acute, about
equal to the corolla. I.,ips entire. Spur conical-awl-
fliaped, acute, defcending. Capfule comprefled. Leaves
linear, decumbent."— Gathered by Mr. Brown, at Port
Jackfon, New South Wales.

19. \3 . graminifoUa. Grafl!"y Bladderwort. Vahl n. 3.
Brown n. 16. (U. cserulea ; Herb. Linn, but not Sp. PI.
U. uliginofa ; Vahl n. 25?) — Stalk fimple, angular, dif-
tantly racemol'e ; partial ftalks with three brafteas. Calyx
acute. Upper lip of the corolla emarginate ; lower fome-
what three-lobed. Spur defcending, conical. Capfule
comprefTed. Leaves linear-elongated. — Native of the dried
margins of ponds, in the Eaft Indies. We have fpecimeni
froni Dr. Buchanan, gathered in the Myforc country. Sir
.Tofeph Banks found this fpecies in the tropical part of New
Holland. Linna:u.s confounded ii with iiis origiral ctrulea,
defcnbed in our 4th feft'on, n. 47, but the prefent plant is
furniflitd with one or more grafl'y, acute, feffile, radical
leaves, half as tall as the ftaik, deti ifted by profeffor Valil
and Mr. Brown. The commnw Jlo'wer-Jlall: is rather ilout,
from three to fix inches high, not braiicncd, but fometimes,
as in feveral other fpecies, elongated by a lateral ftioot,
either in confequence of its having flowered before, or having
been broken off. Clujler wavy, lax, of three or four blue

Jloivers, whofe partial Jlalhs fpread horizontally as they ripen
feed. Calyx permanent, its leaves ovate, acute, membranous,
ftriated, clofely embracing the capfule ; one of them emar-
ginate. One of Koenig's original fjiecimens of his U. uli-
ginofa, now before us, is fo imperfett, that we labour under
the fame difliculty as Mr. Brown, in deciding whether it
belongs to this or the laft fpecies.

20. U. bijida. Divided Yellow Bladderwort. Oftjeck
It. 243. t.3. f. 2. Eiiglifli ed. V. 2. I. t. 3. f. 2. Linn.
Sp. PI. 26. Willd. n. 8. Vahl n. 24. — Stalk fimple or
divided, racemofe. Brafleas folitary. Calyx acute. Upper
lip of the corolla ovate, undivided ; lowi r cloven. Spur
defcending, conical, acute, the length of the upper lip.
Leaves linear, ftalked. — Gathered by Oft)eck, near the wa-
tering-place on the Danifli ifland, oft' Canton, in fwampy
ground, but not under water, flowering in Oclobcr. It
has fdfo been found in Ceylon, from whence we have fpcci-
niens, one of which is accompanied with leaves, hitherto un-
noticed by any botanift. The very Ipeciniens delineated in
Ofbeck's voyage, arc preferved in the Liniia-an herbarium.
This fpecies is certainly allied to the laft, but rather
fmaller, with yellow Jloivers. The Jlalk i.s fometimes di-
vided, or interrupted, as in that. Leaves very fmall, narrow
and oblufe, fpringing from the fibroui roots^ or rather from

fin.iJl

UTRICULARIA.

fmall tuberous offsets. Stalk three or four inches high.
Calyx permanent, membranous, as in the foregoing, but
more orbicular, and lefs evidently ftriated.

21. V.biloba. Two-lobed Bladderwort. Brown n. 17.

" Stalk fimple, round, with dillant clofe-prefled fcales.

Clufter of few flowers. Brafteas fohtary. Upper Up of
the corolla emarginate ; lower in two blunt lobes. Spur
ftraight, defcending, obtufe, fomewhat flattened." — Found
by Mr. Brown, in the vicinity of Port Jackfon, New South
Wales.

22. U. limofj. Mud Bladderwort. Brown n. i8.—
" Stalk fimple, round. Clufter many-flowered. Upper lip
of the corolla undivided ; lower in two fharpifli divaricated
lobes. Spur prominent, fomewhat flattened." — Gathered
by Banks and Solander, in fome part of the tropical region
of New Holland.

23. V.pygnvta. Dwarf Bladderwort. Brown n. 19. —
« Stalk fimple, about two-flowered. Upper lip of the co-
rolla undivided ; lower in three deep undivided fegments,
the lateral ones linear, divaricated. Spur conical, promi-
nent."— Found by the fame travellers, along with the pre-
ceding fpecies.

24. U. tenella. Dehcate Bladderwort. Brown n. 20 —
" Stalk nearly fimple, few-flowered. Upper lip of the
corolla deeply divided ; lower in three undivided lobes, the
central one largeft. Leaves elliptical." — Found by Mr.
Brown in the fouthern part of New Holland.

25. U. barbala. Bearded Bladderwort. Brown n. 21

" Stalk nearly fimple, few-flowered. Upper hp of the co-
rolla emarginate ; lower three-cleft, the middle fegment di-
vided. Palate internally bearded. Spur awl-(haped, de-
fcending."— Found by Banks and Solander, in the tropical
part of New Holland.

26. U.fava. Slender Yellow Bladderwort. Brown

n. 22 " Stalk thread-Hiaped. Clufter of many difperfed

flowers. Upper lip of the corolla divided ; lower in three
undivided lobes. Spur awl-fliaped, defcending." — From
the fame part of New Holland, gathered by the fame
botanifls.

27. U. chryfantha. Branched Golden-flowered Bladder-
wort. Brown n. 23 "Stalk fomewhat branched.

Clufters many-flowered. Upper hp of the corolla cloven ;
lower fourlobed. Spur conical-awl-ftiaped, defcending.
Brafteas three to each partial ftalk, coloured like the
calyx." — Gathered by fir Jofeph Banks, in the tropical
region of New Holland.

28. U. muhtfida. Many-lobed Bladderwort. Brown

n.24 Stalk fimple, thread-ftiaped, about two-flowered.

Upper lip of the corolla oblong, with two awl-fliaped feg-
ments ; lower in three, nearly equal, divided lobes, with
emarginate fegments. Spur obtufe, comprefied. Leaves
fpatulate. — Gathered by Mr. Menzies, at King George's
Sound, on the fouth-weil coaft of New Holland. The roots
are fibrous, befet with fmall knobs. Leaves numerou?,
coUefted into a tuft at the crown of the root, fpatulate, or
obovate, tapering down into (lender ftalks, about twice
their own length, both together fcarcely exceeding half an
inch. Stalk fix inches high, ftraight, fmooth and naked,
bearing at the fummit two crimfon fionxiers, whofe large fub-
divided lower lip makes a very conspicuous appearance, and
is thrice as long as the tliort broad ^ar.

Sed. 2. Leaves radical, compound. Stalks -whorled with
Itafy bladdery braileas.

2<). \5.inflexa. Inflexed Whorled Bladderwort. Forflc.

iteypt.-Arab. 9. Vahl n. 4 "Whorled brafleas lan-

eeoTatc, fomewhat cylindrical, undivided, flightly bearded at

lit

the end." Nedlary conical, afcending."— Found by ForOcall
plentifully in the ditches of rice-fields at Rofetta. The
Arabians name it Hamul. The fame was obferved by
Thonning, in ftagnant waters on the coaft of Guinea.
Vahl. The radical Ikoots are a fpan long or more. Leaves
three or four in a whorl, with fcattered, very narrow, forked
leaflets. Bradeas from four to eight towards the bafe of the

floiverflalk, feflile, often an inch long, acute at each end,
bearded at the fummit with leafy fragments. Stalk a
finger's length, thread-fliaped, bearing from fix to nine

flo^uers, with a dry, lanceolate, flieathing yj-a/;, at the bafe ot
each partial flali, and of the fame length. The radical leaves
are with or without bladders. Vahl. Mr. Thonning,
quoted by this author, informs us that the inflated cellulai-
bra8eas ferve to float the upright flower-ftalks upon the fur-
face of the water. The corolla is whitifti, with purple veins ;
its upper lip tapering, obtufe, emarginate, concave ; lower
roundifli ; mouth clofed by the palate. Spur nearly the
length of the lower lip, conical, obtufe, curved upwards.
Capfule the fize of a pea, globofe, very fmooth, pointed witli
the ftyle, burfting all round, it« bafe attached to the flertiy
enlarged calyx.

30. \].J}ellarii. Yellow Whorled Bladderwort. Linn.
Suppl. 86. Willd. n. II. Vahl n. 5. Roxb. Coromand.
V. 2. 42. t. 180. — Whorled brafteas globofe-oblong, un-
divided, copioufly bearded. — Native of deep ditches in the
rice-fields of the Eaft Indies, where it was firft noticed by
Koenig. Very nearly akin to the laft, which was long con-
founded with it, but Vahl obferved truly, that the radical
flalks, bearing the leaves, in the true U. Jlellaris, are not fo
ftout, nor, as far as can be afcertained from dried fpecimens,
at all cellular. The flotvcr^Jlali alfo is more flender, bearing
its whorl of brafteas above half way up, towards the flowers,
not at the bafe. Thefe bra^cas are but a quarter the fize
of the otherd, being fcarcely three-quarters of an inch long,
and are obtufe, much more copioufly bearded, though we do
not find them, as he fays, all over covered with leafy frag-
ments. The flowers, too, are fmaller, and yellow, not
whitifh veined with purple. The fpur is thick and blunt,
twice the length of the calyx, but Ihorter than the lower lip
of the corolla, as Koenig rightly defcribes it. Roxburgh's
figure has no beaid to the braBcas.

31. U. ceratephylla. Horn-leaved Bladderwort. Mi-
chaux Boreal. -Amer, v. i. 12. Vahl n. 6. Purfli n. I.
(U. inflata ; Walt. Carol, 64.) — " Whorled brafteas cy-
lindrical, bladdery, divided, copioufly bearded at the extre-
mity."— Floating in the ponds and lakes of Virginia and
Lower Carolina, flowering in June and July. Flowers yel-
lovi'. Purfli. Like the foregoing. The leaves are five or
fix, an inch and a half long, firft deeply divided, then three-
cleft, flightly dilated towards the ends. Stalk fmooth, a
fpan high, or more, bearing from four to fix diftant racemofe

flowers, their lower partial ftalks an inch in length. The
beards of the braSeas are longer, and more branched, than in
U.flellata. Vahl.

Seft. 3. Leaves radical, compound. Stalks leaflefs.

32. \i. foliofa. Fennel-leaved Bladderwort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 26. Willd. n. 2. Vahl n. 7. (U. n. 197 ; Loefl.
It. 281. Linaria paluftris, foeniculi folio; Plum. Ic. 158.
t. 165. f. 2.) — Spar conical, acute. Clufter cylindrical,
many-flowered. Fruit drooping. Root creeping. Leaves
without bladders. — Native of South America. The float-
ing horizontal thread-ftiaped roots throw out long fibres, and
from the fame point alternate, repeatedly compound leaves,
two or three inches long, with briftle-fhaped, or almoft ca-
pillary, leaflets, but unattended by the remarkable bladders

of

UTRICULARIA.

of our European fpecics liereafter dcfcrrbed. Some leaves
are accompanied by an eredl xd^ctmoie Jloiver-Jlalk, from four
to eight inches high, bearing from fix to twelve crcft yellow
Jloiversy the fi/e and fhapc of U. vulgaris, but with a more
pointed neSary, and the fruit is bent downwards as it
ripens.

33. U. Jlexuofa. Zigzag-ftalked Bladderwort. Vahl

n. 8. Poiret n. 1 1 Stalk zigzag, racemofe. Fruit-ftalks

reflexed. Leaves furnifhed with bladders. — Native of the
Eaft Indies. Leaves and bladders as in the following, but
ihejlowers are fmaller, fix or feven upon eichjlalk ; their
fcales and braSeas fimilar to that fpecies.

34. U. vulgaris. Greater Bladderwort, or Hooded
Milfoil. Linn. Sp. PI. 26. WiUd. n. 3. Vahl n. 9.
Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 253. Purfh 11.2. Poit.
et Turpin Paris, t. 30. Fl. Dan. t. 138. (Lentibularia ;
Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 79.) — Spur conical. Stalk (Iraight.
Clufter fomewhat corymbofe. Upper lip of the corolla the
length of the palate, reflexed at the fides. — Native of ditches
and deep (landing waters, throughout Europe, from Lap-
land to Greece ; alfo in the weilern parts of New York and
Pennfylvania, according to Mr. Purfh ; flowering in July.
The trailing or floating perennial roots, or runners, bear al-
ternate, repeatedly compound, capillary leaves, furnifhed
with minute briftles, and bearing numerous little oval com-
prefled curved bladders, open and bt-arded at the tip, each
containing a bubble of air, along with a drop of watery
fluid. Minute aquatic infefts take up their abode in thefe
bladders. Floiver-Jlalks folitary, a foot high, though rifing
but a few inches above the furfaceof the water, each bearing
a corymbofe clujier of from five to eiglit large handfome yel-
lowjloivers, each of whofe partial (talks is fubtended by an
elliptical, blunt, purplifh, fcaly braBea, fimilar to what are
fcattered down the main (talk. Calyx purplifh ; its lower
leaf emarglnate. Palate of the corolla tumid, orange-co-
loured, (Iriped, projcdling nearly as far as cither of the
lips.

It feems bell to confider the floating (hoots of this herb,
and the fpecies of the fame feftion, which bear alternate, re-
peatedly compound, leaves, rather as runners from the root,
than rcd\ Jle?ns. At leaft tliis hypothefis is countenanced by
many of the plants in the firll, as well as fecond, fcftion.

35. U. intermedia. Intermediate Bladderwort, or
Hooded Milfoil. Hayne in Schrad. .Tourn. for 1800. 18.
t. 5. Vahl n. 10. Sm. Compend. ed. 2. 5. Engl. Bot.
t. 2489. ( U. vulgaris minor ; Linn. Sp. PI. 26. Fl.
Succ. 9. Millefolium aquaticum, florc luteo galericulato ;
Lob. Ic. 791. M. palultrc galericulatum ; Ger. Em. 828. )
— Spur conical. Stalk two or three-flowered. Upper lip
of the corolla flat, twice as long as the palate. I.,eaves
with deep, forked, flat fegments. Bladders radical Na-
tive of lakes and flagnant waters, in Sweden, Germany,
and Ireland, flowering in July. The runners feein to ori-
ginate from an ovate, fcaly, hairy, tuberous root, or inob,
and are thickly clothed with much fmaller, more Ample,
leaves than the Lift, whofe fringed fegments are broader and
flatter. Thefe leaves fcarcely bear any bladders, the latter
being found on other parts of the runners, on branching
llalks, and more fparingly. Stali flcmler, bearing but two,
or at moll three, _^f/'a'cr.f, fmaller than thofe of the vulgaris,
but in like manner ftreakcd with red ; their palate Icfs pro-
minent ; upper lip flatter.

The wooden cut in Lohcl and Gerarde exaftly reprcfents
the herbage of this fpecies, with its large hiobs, and no
doubt their fynonyms are to be transferred hither. The
flowering portions may have been, partly at leaft, delineated
from the lad, both being, as it feems, nearly equally com-

mon on the continent, and having been generally confounded
together, even by Linnaeus himfelf. We muft not, how-
ever, omit to obferve, that M. Turpin, in his exquifite
plates of the Flora Parijienjis, reprefents inobs, or as he
perhaps more correftly terms them, buds, in the vulgaris,
and even the minor, though of a fmaller fize, in both, than
we find them in the intermedia. Thefe appear deftined to
produce plants in the following feafon.

36. U. aujlralis. Southern Bladderwort, or New Hol-
land Hooded Milfoil. Brown n. 1 — " Stalk with few
flowers. Lips undivided ; the lower twice as broad as long.
Spur afcending ; flat in front ; keeled underneath. Leaves
bearing bladders." — Obferved by Mr. Brown, about Port
Jackfon, New South Wales, as well as in the iflandof Van
Diemen. Very nearly related to U. vulgaris. Brown.

37. U. minor. Lefler Bladderwort, or Hooded Milfoil.
Linn. Sp. PI. 26. WiUd. n. 4. Vahl n. 11. Fl. Brit,
n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 254. Purfli n. 3. Poit. et Turp.
Parif. t. 31. Fl. Dan. t. 128. Schmidel Ic. t. Jl. f. 1.
(Millefolium palullre, galericulatum minus; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 99. f. 6, very bad. Aparine aquE innatans Terevifaiia,
&c.; Bocc. Muf. V. I. 23. t. 4, without flowers, but other-
wife fufficiently correft. ) — Stalk with few flowers. Spur
fliort, obtufe, keeled, deflexed. Corolla gaping ; palate
nearly flat ; lips undivided. — Native of ditches, on bogs
in mod parts of Europe, but not common in England,
flowering in July. Mr. Purlh met with it in fwamps and
ditches on the " pine-barrens" of New Jerfey, flowering in
Auguft. This fpecies is not half the fize of U. vulgaris,
with which it agrees in hihh, foliage, though lefs compound,
and bladders. The /lali is lefs ftraight, more (lender.
Fltwers rather fewer, with a much fhorter and very blunt
fpur ; lips fcarcely divided, or notched ; palate fo little ele-
vated as not to clofe the mouth.

3^ U. exoleta. Faded Bladderwort, or Hooded Mil-
foil. Brown n. 2 " Stalk with one or two flowers.

Lower lip undivided ; upper fometimcs half thrce-lobed.
Spur afcending, emarginate." — Found by Mr. Brown, near
Port Jackfon, New South Wales. It is faid to be clofely
related to the lait.

39. U. fibrofa. Fibrous Bladderwort. Walt. Carol.
64. Vahl n. 12. Purfti 11. 4. — Stalk with one or two
flowers, almoll capillary. Spur obtufe. Leaves briftle-
fliaped In morafles on the pine-barrens of Carolina, flower-
ing in July. Stalls purple. Ftoivers orange. Purjh.
Vahl terms the leaves, as well as Jlalk, peculiarly flcnder.
The former are furnifhed with rouudifli-oblong bladders ;
the latter is a finger's length, comprefled, bearing one or
two liirgcjlowers.

Poiret confounds this fpecies with theyj/^fi-a of Michnux ;
but as Vahl, who appears to have fecn both, keeps them
dillinft, we confide in his opinion. Purfh confiders fetaeea
zs ihc fubulata of Linnxus, fee n. 45.

40. U. obtufa. Abrupt-fpurred Bladderwort. Sw.irtz
Prodr. 14. Ind. Occ. 41. Willd. n. 5. Vahl n. 13.
( U. n. I ; Browne Jam. 119.) — Stalk with two or three
flowers. Spur inflexed, fomewhat emarginate. Mnuthof

the corolla clofed Native of flagnant waters, and boggy

rivulets, in Jamaica, flowering throughout the fummer.
Linnxus miilook Browne's plant for his own foliofa, n. 32,
whicii is much larger, and very different in other refpeils.
The obtufa is rather fmalkr than our minor, with more ca-
pillary leaflets, and fmaller bladders- Slali two to four
inches high, flender, without fcales, racemofe, bearing from
two to four fmall, ycWow Jloitiers, " in beautiful fuccefllon,"
as Dr. Browne cxpri fTes it. Their upper lip is ovate-, con-
vex, undivided ; lower rather fmaller, ovate, its prominent

heart-

UTIIIGULARIA.

heart -(haped palate clofing the moutli of the eoroUa. Spur
fcarccly longer tliaii the lip, inflcxed towards its under
fide, conical. Siuartz.

41. V.gibla. Tumid-fpurred Bladderwort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 26. Willd. n. 7. Vahl n. 30. Purfh n. 9. (U.
florum neftario gibbofo, fcapo nunc unifloro, nunc bifloro ;
Gron. Virg. ed. I. 129. Fucoides viride non ramofum,
folia ad genicula diverfa, tenuiffima, fericea, oppofita, vefi-
culis nonnihil compreflis lentibus fimilibus, colore antimonii,
obfita, gercns ; Clayton n. 759. Herb. Linn.) — Stalk
wavy, almoft capillary, with onj or two flowers. Spur
conical, tumid, bluntifli. Lips of the corolla rounded.—
Native of the boggy foil of New Jerfey and Carolina,
flowering in July. Flowers yellow. Purjh. This has
been erroneoudy arranged among the leaflefs fpecies. The
leaflets are briftle-lhaped, accompanied by namerous blaJelers,
larger than in the lait, though the Jloiver-Jlalis are fmaller,
from two to three inches high, almofl capillary, and fome-
what zigzag. Flowers about the fame fize. The Linnxan
fpecimens, from Gronovius and Clayton, will not allow
us clearly to af certain the fliape of the corolla. The Jptir
feems ftraight and prominent, rather (horter than the
lips.

42. U. hydrocarpa. Reflexed-ftalked Bladderwort.
Vahl n. 14 — " Stalk thread-lhaped ; partial ftalks alter-
nate, remote ; reflexed when in fruit. Leaves briftle-
fhaped." — Found by M. Richard in Cayenne. Leaves
very (lender, (hort, fcarcely divided, furnifhed with bladders.
Stalk the length of the middle finger, with five partial ftalks,
half an inch long. Bradeas ovate. Calyx of the fruit
ovate, fpreading at the fummit. Corolla purplifh. Capfule
globofe, the fize of the calyx, beaked with the Jlyle.
Koenig fent from Ceylon, under the name of U. major,
what feemed the fame with this in its whole ftrufture, and
in which the fpur was conical, obtufe, the length of the
upper lip. They could fcarcely be fpecifically diftinguifhed,
efpecially as the fpur of the U. hydrocarpa is unknown.
Vahl.

43. U. aurea. Golden Floating Bladderwort. Loureir.
Cochinch. 26. Vahl n. 22. — Stalk round, ereft. Flovcers
racemofe. Calyx lanceolate. Spur conical, comprelTed.
Leaves capillary, with bladders. — Native of flow ftreams
in Cochinchina, where this fpecies is known by the
name of Cay raong. The runners are very long, flen-
der, branched, floating. Leaves very numerous, capillary,
green, fubdivided, furnirtied with bladders. Stalk three
inches high. Flowers of a golden yellow. Calyx incurved.
Corolla deeply divided, its throat (rather palate) convex,
emarginate. Loureiro. It is evident that what Loureiro
calls Jlem, is what we have in fonie preceding fpecies termed
runners, and that his roots are real leaves. Vahl, therefore,
might juftly doubt whether he had done right in placing
this among the leaflefs fpecies. He appears by fome acci-
dent to have tranfpofed the places of aurea and recuriia ;
fee n. 51.

44. U. biflora. Little Two-flowered Bladderwort. La-
marck Illullr. v. I. 50. Vahl n. 16. Purfli n. y. ( U. pu-
mila ; Walt. Carol. 64. ) — Stalk moftly two-flowered,
thread-fliaped. Spur awl-fliaped, ftraight, about equal to
the upper lip. Leaves brillle-fliaped. — On the margins of
ponds in Lower Carolina, flowering in July. Flowers
fmall, yellow. Purjli. Leaves ftiort, furnifhed with blad-
ders. Stalk lender, four inches high, fometimes zigzag, in
a dry ftate angular below, naked. Partial /lalks one or two
at the top, as long as the nail. BraHea membranous, abrupt,
at the bafe of one of the patial ftalks, and on the other to-
wards the calyx. Upper lip as long as the nail. Vahl. Wc

are not without a fufpicion of this being the fame plant
as U. gibba, fee n. 41, but have no means of proving
it fo.

45. \].fubahita. Awl-fliaped Bladderwort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 26. Willd. n. 113. Vahl n. 34. Purfli n. 6. (U.
fetacea ; Michaux Borcal.-Amer. v. i. 12. Vahl n. 17.
Poiretn. 14, excluding the^iro/a of Walter and Vahl. U.
neftario fubulato ; Gron. Virg. 6, excluding the abfurd re-
ference to Clayton, of a Pyrola with round ferrated leaves.)
— " Stalk about two-flowered Spur obtufe, fliorter than
the upper lip." — In fandy wet places, near ponds and rivers,
from Canada to Carolina, common, flowering in July and
Auguft. Root annual. Flowers fmall, bright yellow.
PurJh. This author compared his fpecimens with the origi-
nal ones of Gronovius, the only authority in this cafe. No
fpecies has given us more trouble than the prefent. Lin-
naeus, in Mant. 2. 317, fays, on the authority of Clayton,
that the leaves are capillary, and the^owers white. This is
tranfcribed by Willdenow, but noticed by no other perfon.
Linnaeus, fubfequently to the publication of Sp. PI., laid
into his herbarium for U.fubulata, a totally ditlerent plant
of Kalm's, which happens to have an awl-fliaped fpur, and
is the cornuta of Michaux, Vahl and Purfli. This cannot
be the plant of Gronovius. The reader will perceive that,
though Vahl has kept fubulata and fetacea diftinft from each
other, his fpecific characters are of httle avail, unlefs the
latter fpecies be deftitute of leaves, in which cafe it ought
to have been placed in the next feftion.

46. \J. purpurea. Little Purple Bladderwort. Walt.
Carol. 64. Vahl n. 28. Purfli n. 7. — Stalk with two
or three flowers. Spur keeled, very fliort. Lips of the
corolla rounded. Leaves capillary. — An annual fpecies,
found floating in the lakes and ponds of Carolina ; alfo in
thofe of Pennfylvania, on the broad mountains ; flowering
in Auguft. Flowers bright purple, fmaU. PurJh.

Seft. 4. Dejlitute of leaves.

47. U. Cicrulea. Blue Ceylon Bladderwort. Linn. Sp.
PI. 26, excluding the fynonym of Rheede. Willd. n. 10.
Vahl n. 20 ? (U. fcapo nudo-fquamis alternis vagis fubula-
tis ; Linn. Zeyl. 9.) — Stalk ereft, thread-fliaped, with
fcattered awl-fliaped fcales. Spike denfe. Calyx-leaves
orbicular. Spur the length of the lips. — Native of Ceylon.
Examined in Hermann's herbarium, from whence Linnxus
defcribed this ipecies, referring to it fynonyms which be-
long partly to the following. The flem is without leaves,
about flx inches high, terminating in a fliort denfe_^/i.«, of
nearly fenile_y?o'u/irrj', whofe colour, according to Hermann,
is blue. The orbicular calyx-leaves clearly diftinguifli this
from the following, as well as from our graminifolia, n. 19,
confounded herewith by Linnjeus, in his own herbarium.

48. U. reticulata. Reticulated Bladderwort. Sm.
Exot. Bot. V. 2. I 1 9. t. T19. { Nelipu ; Rheede Hort. Malab.
V. 9. 137. t. 70.) — Stalk twining, round, with fcattered
acute fcales. Calyx pointed, as long as the corolla. Spur
awl-fliaped. Lips rounded. Palate reticulated, two-lobed.
Native of inundated rice-grounds, in various parts of the
Eaft Indies, which, according to Dr. Buchanan, are co-
vered with its moft elegant blue flowers, in December.
Root fmall, with whorled fibres, apparently annual. Leaves
none. Stalk from nine to twelve inches high, twining round
the rice-ftems, in the manner of our fpiralis, n. y, fmooth,
cither fimple or divided, bearing many fmall, alternate,
clofe-prefled fcales. Clujlers one or more, terminal, lax.
Flowers the fize of viplets, and nearly of the fame colour ;
their palate clofing the mouth, very prominent, divided,
white, reticulated with pale blue veins; thtn partial Jialts
tapering at the bafe, each accompanied by three fmall per-
manent

UTRICULARIA.

mancnt braBeas. Spur blue! fli -white, the length of the
lower lip, which is fomewhat tiic lartjeit.

49. U. juiicea. Riifliy Bladdeiwort. Vahl n. 21. —
Stalk ftraifrht, racemofe, with niimitc diilant fcales. Spur

awl-(hapecl, the length of the upper lip Native of Cayenne,

and Porto Rico. Roots fibrous, very fhort, and nearly
fimple. StalL a foot high, crcft, llraight, quite fimplc,
round, fmooth. Scales ovate, acute. Floiuers from five to
eight, on very fliort partial Jlalhs, with a minute dry hraHea
at the bafe of each. Vahl.

50. U. angulofa. Angular Bladderwort. Poirct n. 23.
— " Stalk thread-fliaped, angular, with minute diitant fcales.
Flowers fomewhat racemofe, nearly feffilo. Spur awl-fhaped,
fcarcely fo long as the upper lip." — Native of wet fitua-
tions in Cayenne. Very nearly related to U. juncea. Roots
compofed of (liort and flender fibres, without leaves. Stalk
fimple, fliff and ftraight, ten or twelve inches high, quite
fmooth, compreiTed and angular, yellowifh ; cylindrical, and
of a brighter yellow, fometimes blueidi or purplidi at the
bafe. Scales fhort, oval, pointed, fcarcely difcerniblc.
Floiuers from four to fix, or more, in a ftraight terminal

/pike rather than clujler, witli a fmall braclea to each. Ca-
lyx-leaves fhort and obtufe. Corolla niiddle-fized, deep
yellow. Spur ftraight, acute. Capfule fmooth, the fize of
a pepper-corn, crowned with the Jlyle. Poiret.

51. U. recurva. Recurved Bladderwort. Loureir.
Cochinch. 26. Vahl n. 15. — Stalk (lender. Flowers
fpiked. Spur conical, recurved, about the length of the
lip. — Found ill the river Hon Mo, not far from the royal
city, in Cochinchina. — Root fhort, without bladders. Leaves
none. Stalk four inches high, fimple, ereft. Flowers yel-
low, in a fimple oblong fpike. Calyx large, round, com-
preffed. Capfule lenticular. Loureiro. It can only have
been from fome accidental error, that Vahl placed this fpe-
cies in the former fe6Hon, all his information concerning the
plant being derived, likeour's, from Loureiro, who is fuf-
ticiently clear as to its having no leaves. See n. 43.

52. \J.pufilla. Little Cayenne Bladderwort. Vahl n. 23.
— " Stalk capillary, fubdivided ; zigzag in the upper part.
Flowers racemofe, remote." — Found in Cayenne, by Ri<li-
ard, and Von Rohr. Root very fiiort, fubdivided. Stalk
a finger's length, eitlier quite fimple, or divided towards the
top, with a minute ovale Icale. Partial Jlalks from live to
eight, half the length of the nail, occupying nearly tlie upper
half of the main llalk, and each having at its bafe an ex-
tremely minute braflea. Capfule very fmall. Vahl. We
have fpecimens from Sierra I>eone, gathered by Smeathman,
and others by Afzelius, which fo ftrikingly anfwer to every
tittle of this defcription, that we cannot but confider this
as one of the very few fpccies of its genus found in Guinea
as well as in South America.

^^. U. pubefcens. Dowiiy-llalked Bladderwort. — Stalk
capillary, downy, about two-dowered. Spur obtufe, the
length of the upper lip ; half the length of the lower, which

Is divided Gatiiered at Sierra Leone, by Dr. Af/.elius.

The rod is a tuft of fmall fibres, without leaves or bladders.
Stalk t' ree or four inches high, ercft, fimple, flender, round,
or lliglitly angular, perhaps from drying, clothed all over
with fine prominent pubefcence, not vifible to the naked eye,
butv as far as we can perceive, quite deftitute of fcales.
Flowers two, one below tiie otIiL'r, (mailer than U. minor,
each with a broad, obtufe, membranous brallca. Lower
lip broad, defiexed, two-hibed.

54. U. ntvea. Snowy Bladderwort. Vahl n. 26. —
" Stalk about four-flowered, with clofe-preffed fcalen, fepa-
ratc at the bafe. Spur conical, obtufe. Capfules drooping,
globofe." — Gathered by Kocnig, in moill dewy places

Vol. XXXVII.

in Ceylon. Stalk (lender, from four to feven inches high,
generally bearing four, rarely but tlirce, large ^\m.c flowers,
on fhort partial ftalks. Vahl.

55. L^. humilis. Humble BLidderwort. Vahl n. 27.

Stalk angular, with fe\if flowers. Spur conical, acute,
fliortcr than the upper lip. Calyx-leaves rour.difh. Cap-
fule keeled — Native of the Eaft Indies. Roots very fhort,
fcarcely branched. Stalk hardly above an inch and a half high,
often bearing a folitary^o'iyiT, fometimes two, three or four.
Scales two or three, remote, ovate as well as the bracieas.
Vahl.

56. V.crenata. Crenate-lipped Bladderwort. Vahl n. 28.
(" U. aphylla; Fl. Peruv. v. i. 20. t. 31. f. ^.")— Stalk
about three-flowered. Roots furnifhed -n ith bladders. Brac-

teas fheathing. Spur awl-fhapcd. Lips crenate Native of

moift or inundated ground at Lima. Annual. Root of feveral
long fibres, bearing a few bladders, the fize of muftard-feed.
Stalk thrcad-fhaped, from four to fix inches high, fmooth,
naked, terminating in from two to four diftant partial Jlalks,
each an inch long, fpreading, furniftied at its bafe with a
fiieathing, abrupt, membranous, entire ^raflffl. Corolla ycWow ;
its upper lip with three or five notches ; lower with three.
— Our fpecimen, from the late abbe Cavanilles, though defti-
tute of any evident leaves, or leaflets, yet having bladders at-
tached to a long fimple fibre, feems to indicate the pro-
priety of ranging this fpecies in the preceding fection. We
fubmit, neverthelefs, to the dccifion of Vahl, and the authors
of the Flora Pedemontana ; more efpecially as the opinion of
Mr. Brown, founded on fuch wide -extended obfervatiou as
few botanifts have hadin their power, feems in favourof there
being no Utricularia deftitute of leaves at every period of its
growth. This being the cafe, the whole genus muft require
to be diftributcd afrefh. The next fpccies ftands in the
fame predicament.

57. U. tenuis. Briftle-ftalkcd Bladderwort. Cavan. Ic.
v. 5. 24. t. 440. f. 2. Vahl n. 29. — Stalk finglc-flowered.
Roots furnifhed willi bladders. Bradteas oppofite. Spur
awl-fliaped, twice the length of the fliorleft lip. — Gathered
by Lonis Nee, in moift places, near the town of Coquimbo,
in Chili, flowering in April. A fmall annual fpecies, whofe
roots, confiiling of feveral zigzag fibres, about an inch long,
are copioufly furninied with fmall, alternate, feffile bladders.
(See our remarks on the laft.) 'V\w flalk is briftle-fhaped,
an inch and a half or two inches high, quite naked, except
two or three oppofite braaeas near the top, which mark the
bafe of the fiilitary partial Jlalk. Flower folitary, yellow.
Calyx ovate, bluntifh, permanent. Lips of the corolla very
unequal, undivided, nearly oval<-, the larger ereft, accompa-
nied by a prominent palate bordered with red ; fmaller de-
flexed, as well as the neSary bthind it. Theflower therefore
feems to be reverfed. The capfule is globular.

58. U. micropetala. Small-lipped Bladderwort. — Stalk
about two-flowered. Partial ftalks club-flinped. Braftcas
oppofite. Spur conical, dependent, thrice as long as the
lips — Gathered by Dr. Afzelius at Sierra Leone. A very
diftinft and remarkable fpecies. The root is fmall and
fibrous, without leaves or bladders. Stall three inches high,
bearing a few diftant, ovate, white-edged fcales. Flowers in
our fpecimen two, one above the other, yellow, on ftalks of
unequal length fwelliug upwards, and having two oppofite,
ovate, pointed braileas at t!ie bafe of each. Calyx-leaves
ovate, pointed ; the lower one cmarginatc. Lips of the
corolla about the length of the calyx, nearly equal, undivided ;
the lower of a deeper yi.-!low, with a i)ioniinent palate, not
clofing the mouth. S/uir remarkably large in proportion,
making the chief part of tiic flower, (tout, pointed. Capfule
elliptical.

4 G 59. U.

U T R

59. V.ramoja. Branching Drooping Bladderwort. Vahl

n. 31 " Stalk fimple or branched, with few flowers. Spur

conical, fhort. Fruit-ftalks drooping."— Found by Koemg
in the Eaft Indies. Roots fimple, and very (hort. Stalk a.
finger's length, angular, fometimes fimple, often divided,
the branches once or twice fubdivided, two or three-flowered.
Scales, as well as iraSeas, ovate. Flowers fmall. Fahl.

60. U. capillacea. Capillary Bladderwort. WiUd. n. 9.
Vahl n. 32.—" Stalk capillary, with about three drooping
flowers. Spur round, bluntifti. Capfules awl-(haped."—
Gathered by Dr. Rottler, in watery places in the Eaft Indies.
Root of feveral naked, fomewhat branched, fibres. Vahl
found, in one fpecimen, at the fide of the crown of the root,
an oblong-roundifh bulb, the fize of a Coriander-feed,
clothed with briftles ; feparate at the fummit and bafe, but
attached to the root by a central ring. He juftly prefumed
this to be a bud, by which the plant increafes itfelf. The

jalk is often hardly an inch high, angular, bearing one,
two or thret flowers, on (hort, drooping partial flalks, each
accompanied, at the bafe, by an extremely minute ovate
braaea. Capfule awl-(haped ; covered by the permanent
calyx. IT 11

61. U. mlnutijfma. Little Malacca Bladderwort. Vahl
n. 33.— Stalk capillary, two or three-flowered, un-
branched. Scales and bradeas pointed. Spur conical.
Lower calyx-leaf broadeft, concave, keeled — Gathered by
Koenig, in the neighbourhood of Malacca. Root fibrous,
fmall. Stem two inches high in our original fpecimens,
Vahl fays half an inch, or an inch. It appears to elongate
itfelf, after flowering, by a lateral, upright, fimple (hoot, as
is the cafe with graminifolia, n. 19, and fome others. Scales
one or two, tapering at each end, fmall. Flowers one, two,
three or even four, each on a very fliort partial Jlalh, with
feveral taper-pointed braSeas at its bafe. Corolla blue, ex-
tremely fmall, with a prominent fpur full as long as the
lips. Calyx inflated and enlarged confiderably as the fruit
ripens.

62. U. comuta. Great Horned Bladderwort. Michaux
Boreal.-Amer. V. I. 12. Vahl n. 19. Purfli n. 8. (U.
fubulata; Herb. Linn, but not Sp. PI.) — Stalk creft,
nightly fcaly, with about two nearly feflile flowers. Spur
awl-lhaped, acute, rather curved, nearly as long as the very

broad lower lip Near mountain lakes, from Canada to

Virginia, flowering in July. Purfl. Our fpecimens from
Mr. Francis Boott, a young botanift of great zeal and aAi-
vity, have denfe alternate tufts of numerous radical fibres,
without leaves or bladders. Stalk a foot high, ftraight,
fmooth, bearing a few fmall, diftant, pale, membranous
fcales, and terminating in two or three crowded \zx^^ flowers,
of a bright yellow. Calyx-leaves broad, ovate, unequal,
coloured ; the lowermoil not half the length of the fpur.
Lower lip very broad, deflexed, cloven. Palate downy.—
Linnxus received this plant from Kalm, and laid it into his
herbarium for U. fubulata, which he had long before defcribed
from Gronovius's herbarium, but had forgotten the appear-
ance of it ; fee our 11. 45. We therefore adopt the name
given by Michaux, for what muil be confidered as not
defcribed by Liniiseus, he having no where adverted to
Kalm's fpecimens. Vahl erroneoufly ranges this with the
leafy fpecies.

UTRICULUS, (a little bladder,) atermufedby Gxrt-
ner, for a particular fort of capfule, which he defines as " cf
one cell, and containing a folitary feed ; it is often very thin
and femitranfpareiit ; conllantly deftitute of valves, and of
a (hape approaching to ovate, or fomewhat globofe." He
adds, that " all naked feeds may, ftrialy fpeaking, be faid
to be inclofed in fuch a pericarp ; but he limits the applica-
I3t

U T T

tion of the above term to thofe coverings of feeds, which, in
the firft place, are capable of being rubbed off by a flight
friftion between the fingers, as in Chenopodium, Atriplex,
and Beta ; fecondly, to fuch as are furnilhed, within their
cavity, with an evident umbilical cord, as in Adonis, ThO'
liBrum, and Atragene ; thirdly, to thofe between which and
the feed there is a vacant fpace, or cavity, fnfficiently evi-
dent, of which Eleuflne, Achyranthes, Zueria, lUccebrum and
Polycnemum are examples ; and fourthly, to fuch as contain
their feed in an inverted pofition, fo that the radicle of the
embryo is turned towards the ftyle, as Callitriche, Zannicliel-
lia, Zo/lera, &c. ; the contrary pofition being moft ufual in
the greater number of naked feeds, as in the natural orders
of Gramina, Compoflttc, Verticillata, and Stellate." See Pe-
ricarp and Seed.

UTRUM, Juris Utrum. See Juris, Assise, &c.
UTSCHENYA, in Geography, a cape on the north coaft
of Nova Zembla. N. lat. 77° 20'. E. long. 67° 24'.
UTSCHING. See Volga.

UTSJOKI, a town of Swedifh Lapland ; 240 miles N.
of Tornea. N. lat. 69° 45'. E. long. 26° 54'.

UTTA,atown of the ifland of Sardinia; 6raile8 W.S.W.

of Cagliari Alfo, a river of Sardinia, which runs into the

fea, near Caghari.

UTTAMA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of one of
the feven holy men bearing the appellation of Menu, under
which article their names and fome notice of them will be
found. In fome theogonies Uttama is made the fon of Pa-
vaka, the regent of fire.

UTTARI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, on
the route fromBracara to Afturica, between Pons Neviae and
Bergidam. Anton. Itin.

UTTENDORF, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, on
the Mattig ; 7 miles S. of Braunau.

UTTER, Barrister, in Law. See Barrister.
UTTERCUL, in Geography, a province of Afl'am, north
of the Burhampooter.

UTTINGEN, a town of the county of Wertheim ; 8
miles E. of Wertheim.

UTTOXETER, an ancient market-town in the fouth
divifion of the hundred of Totmanflow, in the county of
Stafford, England, is fituated 13 miles N.E.by E. from the
county-town, and 136N.W. by N. from London, on the
weftern bank of the river Dove, over which is a ftone bridge,
conneding the counties of Stafford and Derby. Great da-
mage has been formerly fufl:ained by this town from fire :
but it is now large and well built, having a fpacious market-
place in the centre, with three ftreets branching out from it.
The market, whicli is held on Wednefdays, is confidered as
the greateft in this part of the country, for cattle, (heep,
pigs, butter, cheefe, corn, and all kinds of provifion and
agricultural produce. This is attributed to the extenfive
meadow and pafture lands in this diilrift, which are juftly
efteemed the moft fertile and luxuriant England can boaft.
Leland fays, " Uttok Ceftre one paroch chireli. Tlie menne
of the towne ufith grafing. For there be wonderful paftures
upon Dove. It longgith to the erledom of Lancafter."
Here are four annual fairs. In the population return of the
year i8li, this town is ftated to contain 637 houfes, occu-
pied by 3155 perfons. Of thefe, the chief fource of employ-
ment is the nianufatlure of iron, which is carried on to a
great extent, the town being furrounded by forges. A great
increafe in this trade has taken place, in confequence of the
facility of communication the town now enjoys by means of
the inland navigation, not only with the metropolis, but,
direftly or indiredtly, with every port in the kingdom. The
church is an ancient edifice, with a lofty fteeple, but no way

remarkable

U V A

U V A

remarkable either for ftrufture orembellifhments. Here are
fevei-al mceting-lioufcs for Diffenters ; and a frec-fchool
founded and endowed by Thomas Allen, a diftingiiifhed an-
tiquary and mathematician of the fixteenth century. The
late admiral lord Gardner was born at Uttoxeter, April
12, 1742 : he died in 18 10, and was buried in the abbey
church of Bath. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii.
1813.

UTUGARI, in yinctent Geography, the name of a
people, who made part of the Huns. Ptolemy.

UTUS, a river, whieh, according to Pliny, had its
fourcc in mount Hasmus, and watered Moefia. — Alfo, a
town of Datia Ripenfis. Anton. Itin.

UTZHOF, in Geography, a town in the territory o
Dantzic ; 5 miles E. of Dantzic.

UTZNACH, a town of Switzerland, and capital of a
bailiwick, which belongs to the cantons of Glaris and
Schwitz, formerly belonging to the counts of Toggeburg.
In the year 1469, it was fold to thofe two cantons, who
alternately appoint a baiUff, whofe office continues two
years. The inhabitants are Roman Catholics ; 23 miles
S.E. of Zurich. N. lat. 47° 8'. E. long. 8" 59'.

UVA, a lake of Ruffia, in the government of Tobolflc,
about 28 miles in circumference; 68 miles S.E. of To-
bolflc.

UvA, Grape. See Vine.

lTv.\ Gruina, in the Materia Medica, the nanr.e of the
fruit of the great American vitis iJaa, or cranberries.

UvA Lupina, "jjolf -berries , in Botany, a name given by
fome authors to the common water-elder, and by others to
the herba Paris, or herb true-love.

UvA Marina, Sea-fide Grape, Uvette of the French.
See Ei'HKDRA.

UvA Pajfa, in the Materia Medica, the dried fruit oF
the vine, of which two kinds were formerly mentioned in
our Pharmacopoeias, -viz. uvje pafls majores et minores, or
raifms and currants ; the latter is a variety of the former, or
the fruit of the vitis corinthiaca feu apyrena, of C. B.
The manner of preparing them is by immerfing them in a
folution of alkaline fait, and foap ley made boiUng hot, to
which is added fome ohve oil and a fmall quantity of com-
mon fait, and afterwards drying them in the (hade. Thefe
fruits are ufed as agreeable lubricating acefccnt fwcets, in
peftoral dccoAions, and for obtunding the acrimony of
other medicines, and rendering them grateful to the palate
and ilomach. They are dircAcd in the dccoftum hordei
compofitum, tinftura fennse, and tinftura cardamomi com-
pofita.

UvA Querctit, in Natural Hiftory, a name given to certain
accidental produftions of the oak, a tree famous for pro-
ducing many fuch, befides its common fruit ; the beft ac-
count we have of this in particular is from Mr. Marchant.
He obfervcd a vail quantity of this produftion upon an oak
of about twelve feet high ; this tree had no acorns, but there
hung from almoft all the branches a great number of greyifh
threads, of two inches or more in length, and of a filky
flexible matter ; to feveral parts of thefe there were fixed
certain round berries, fometimes two or three, fometimes
ten or twelve on a thread ; thefe were of the fize of a half-
ripe red goofeberry, but they had no umbilicus, nor any
appearance of fibres ; they were hard and not hollow, but
tilled with a cottony matter, very clofely compafled. The
threads on which thefe berries were produced all grew out
of the ahe of the leaves, in the very places where the buds
of the rudiments of young branches {hould have come ; and
over thefe filaments there were often a few fmall leave), of
the regular (hapc of the oak-leaf.

It is generally aflerted, that there are eggs of infects
lodged in all thefe extraordinary produftions of the oak,
which are fuppofed to be produced by a wrong derivation
of the juices, occafioned by the puniiure of the fly which
leaves thofe eggs ; but the moll accurate fearch could not
difcovcr the leaft appearance of any animal remains in any
part of thefe produdlions, neither in the berries, nor in the
threads that fupport them.

There is another fpecies of this remarkable produftion,
differing from the former, by not having the long threads
on which the berries of that are fupported : this, nowever,
has been confounded by the generality of naturalifts under
the fame name, and of this Mr. Marchant has given an
equally accurate defcription. In the month of Oftober he
obferved a young oak of about fix feet high, in a coppice-
wood, in a very flourifhing condition, very full of branches
and leaves, but without fruit. The young branches of this
oak were loaded with clufters of red berries, of the (hape
and fize of common red goofeberries ; they ftood principally
at or near the extremities of the branches, and were of a
very poUfhcd and fhining furface, and of a fpongy and
tender fubflance. They Hood in chillers of three, four, and
five together, and each grew immediately to the branch,
without any pedicle ; they had fome appearance of fibres,
but not the leaft mark of an umbilicus, as in the regidar
fruits. On opening thefe berries, they were found full of
mucilaginous and vifcous juice, of a red colour, tolerably
fluid, and having fome fibres intermingled with it ; the tafte
of this juice was acrid, and its fmell difagrceable, and like
that of rotten wood ; but there appeared not in thefe, any
more than in the other fpecies, any the Icafl. appearance of
any thing belonging to an animal, no egg, no worm, no fly,
nor indeed any foreign body of any fort whatever,

Thefe berries, though fo large and fucculent, are but of
a very (hort duration ; for Mr. Marchant going three day»
after he had feen them in the greatell perfedlion, to gather
fome of them, with intent to try their juice on different
liquors, found they were all become flaccid and withered ;
and returning again three days after this, they were fo en-
tirely perifhed and gone, that there remained only a few
reftiges of thin fliins on the places where they had been fixed
to the tree, and fome few fallen ones among the bufhes that
grew under the tree ; and upon inquiring of the people who
lived thereabout, to know whether thefe berries were a re-
gular annual produftion of the tree, they told him that they
never remembered to have feen any tiling of the kind
before.

It may not be eafy, perhaps, to account regularly for thefe
fortuitous produftions, for they feem merely of the nature
of monfters among animals ; and it may be allowed no im-
probable conjefture in regard to them, that the roots of
thefe fmall trees having taken in more nourifhment than they
could circulate, when it came to load the tender extremities
of the young branches, may have made its way through
their laxer texture, and being retained yet in fome of tlicir
membranes, may have fwcllcd out more and more, by the
addition of frcfh matter, and finally have been matured by
the fun's heat into thefe feemingly regular produftions.
Mem. Acad. Par. 1692.

UvA Urji, in Botany, the name of a fpecies of arbutus,
(fee Akbutus, n. 9.) with trailing ftalks, and entire leaves,
called in Englifh bear's luhorlleberry. Tliis plant is found
on the fnowy hills of Auftria and Styria, but more plenti-
fully on the Swcdifli hills : it is alfo a native of the High-
lands of Scotland, and is now cultivated in fome of our
gardens. The leaves of this plant have a bitterifh aftringcnl
tafte, without any remarkable fmell. Infufions of tbini in
,^. G 2 water

U V A

U V A

water ftrike a deep black colour, with folution of chalybeate
vitriol, but foon depofit the black matter, and become clear.
For their ufe in dyeing, fee Dyeing of Cloths, &c.

The leaves of the uva urfi, though employed by the an-
cients in feveral difeafes requiring aftringent medicines, had
almoft entirely fallen into difufc, till about the middle of the
laft century, when they firft drew the attention of phyficians
as a ufeful remidy in calculous and nephritic complaints,
and other d'r^.rdcrs of the urinary organs. See Stone.

De Haea relates, after large experience of this medicine
in the hofpital of Vjenna, that fuppurations, though oblHnate
and of long- continuance, in the kidneys, ureters, bladder,
urethra, fcrotum, and perineum, without any venereal taint
or evident marks of a calculu were in general completely
cured by it ; that of thofe v;lio had a manifcft calculus, fe-
veral frnnd j)ermanent relief, fo that, long after the medi-
cine had been left off, they continued free from pain or
inconvenience in making water, though the catheter {hewed
that the calculus ftill remained ; that others, who feemed to
be cured, relapled on leaving off the medicine, and were
again fucceflively relieved on repeating the ufe of it ; while
others obtained only temporary and precarious relief. In
feveral cafes, paregorics were joined to the uva urfi, and
other mild aftrineents have been rccoitimended for the fame
intentions.

' Encouraged by his fuccefs, and by the praftice of the
pHyficians at Montpelier, who had been in the habit of
prefcribing uva urfi in the dil'-aie above mentioned for
many years before his time, many medical men in this
country have been induced ?o try its effefts ; and though
the ufe of this planl has been frequently obferved to mitigate
the pains in calculous cafes, yet in no inftances do we find
that it has produced that efTential or permanent relief,
which is faid to have been experienced by the German phy-
ficians.

From the experiments of Dr. Alexander, the leaves of
liva urfi feem to poflefs very httle diuretic power, and thofe
made by Murray (hew that they have no material effeft upon
the urinary calculi : tlif efficacy they may, therefore, have
in reheving the calculous difeafes, we are difpofed to afcribe
to their aftringency ; and in confirmation of this opinion we
may cite the obfcrvation of Dr. CuUen, who, in his chapter
on Aifringcnts, notices the diU'ertation of De Heucher,
under the title of " Calculus per adftringentia pellendus :"
and thougli he docs not think, with this author, that aftrin-
gents are lithontriptics, yet from his own experience, and
that of others, he beheves they often have a powerful effeft
in relieving calculous fymptoms ; and in proof of this he
refers to the exhibition of the uva urfi. The leaves may be
employed either in powder or dccoftion ; the former is mod
commonly preferred, and given in dofes from a fcruple to a
drachm two or three times a day.

Dr. Lewis obferves, that the trials of the uva urfi, made
in this country, have by no means anfwered expeftation : in
all cafes within his knowledge, it produced great ficknefs
and uneafinefs, without any apparent benefit, though con-
tinued for a month. And in a cafe of incontinence of urine.
Dr. Fothergill obferves, the uva urfi, fo much extolled of
late in ulcers of the urinary paffages, feemed but to aggra-
vate the fymptoms. (Med. Obf. and Inf. vol. iii. p. 144.)
But in the preface to this volume we are told, that the uva
urfi had been frequently prefcribed fuccefsfuUy by many of
the members of the Society of Phyficians in London. It
is obferved by Murray, the calculi were macerated in a
flrong decotlion of the uva urfi. Dr. Withering, fpeaking
of the effefts of this plant, fays : Perhaps, upon the whole,
we (hall find it no better than other vegetable ailringents ;

fome of which have been long ufed by the country people in
gravelly complaints, and with very great advantage ; though
hitherto unnoticed by the regular practitioners. Cullen.
Lewis. Woodville.

Uva Vulp'is, a name given by fome a\ithors to the com-
mon night(hade.

UVARIA, in Botany, fo named by Linnaeus, from uva,
a grape, or bunch of grapes, in allufion to the appearance
of its fruit. — Linn. Gen. 279. Schreb. 374. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 2. 1261. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v; g. 333. Juff. 2S4. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 495.
De Candolle Syft. v. i. 481. Gaertn. t. 114 — Clafs and
order, Polvandria Polygyma. Nat. Ord. Coadunatit, Linn.
Anonir, JuiT. Anonacea, De Cand.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, flat, in
three deep, ovate, acute, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals
fix, lanceolate, feffile, fpreading, longer than the calyx.
Stam. Filaments none ; anthers numerous, oblong, abrupt,
covering the convex receptacle. Pt/l. Germens numerous,
crowded, concealed by the anthers ; ftyles numerous, the
length of the anthers ; ftigmas obtufe. Perk. Berries dif-
x\a&, numerous, fomewhat (talked, nearly globular, of
feveral cells. .Seeds four or more, in two rows.

E(r. Ch. Calyx in three deep fegments. Petals (ix.
Berries numerous, (talked. Seeds feveral, in two rows.

Linnaeus and feveral following authors have referred to
this genus a confiderable number of fpecies, with the nature
of whofe fruits they were not, in every inftance, perfectly
acquainted ; efpecially without fufBcient difcrimination be-
tween fuch as were true berries, and others of a capfular
n.iture. The learned profeffor De Candolle, now happily
efcaped from public perfecution in France, as a Proteftant,
and fettled, with diilinftion, at Geneva, has juft publi(hed
the firll volume of hie Regni fegetabilis Sv/Iema Naturale, a
mod profound and elab.orate work, where the natural order
to which the prefcnt genus belongs is illuftrated, by a far
greater number of fpecies than it had ever before been fup-
pofed to contain. This author remcfteq to Unona (fee
that article) many things hitherto confidered as Uvarin,
making the character of Unona to confid in its dry fruits,
of an ovate-oblong, or fomewhat beaded, (hape. Hence
the faid genus is extended to thirty-fix fpecies. We regret
that our account of it had been fent to the prefs, before thq
work of our learned friend reached us. We can now only
profit by his labours, and trace his fieps, through the genus
Uvaria, of which he makes but eight fpecies. Thefe are
all natives of the Eall Indies, or tiie adjacent iflands. They
are trees or fhrubs, with ereft or trailing flems ; the Jloiver-
Jlalks either axillary, oppofite to the leaves, or lateral, foli-
tary, or two or three together, bearing from one to four
flowers, and often furniihed with fmall bracteas, or jointed
in the middle. Several fpecies referred by various botanills
to the genus before us, now help to conftitute a new one in
profeffor De Candolle's work, by the name of Guatteria,
confifting of twenty in all. Its fruits, nurlierous likewife
in each flower, are dry, coriaceous, ovate or globofe, fingle-
feeded. Uvaria japonica of Linnsus, Thunberg, Willde-
now, &c. ftands by itfelf in a genus bearing the barbarous
Japanefe name of Kadfura, which Juffieu, it feems, has un-
happily felefted, in the Annales du Mufeum, v. 16. 340.
It comes next to Anona, having like that an aggregate
pulpy fruit, but with two feeds in each cell, inftead of the
folitary ones of Anona.

I. U. ■zeyJanlca. Ceylon Uvaria. Linn. Sp. PI. 756,
excluding the fynonyms of Rheede and Rumphius. De
Cand. n. I. Gaertn. f. I. Lamarck f. 2. (Uvaria;
Linn. Zeyl. 100. n. 224, not 234. Uva zeylaiiica fylvef-

tris,

U V A

V U B

trls, mali armeniaca: fapore ; Biirm. Zeyl. 231.) — Branches
trailing. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, fmooth. Berries nu-
merous, ovato-cylindrical, with taperiiie ftalks. Internal
proceflVs of the coat of the feed in parallel plates. — Native
of Ceylon. Linna-us and Burmann dcfcribe this as a trailing
fbrub, wiili fmooth, pointed, ftalked leaves, and fcarlet
ftarry f.oiv^rs., each producing fix or feven fmall, fofl, grey,
rather l;airy, fomewhat cyli,idric-al berries, half ai. inch lung,
with a vinous tafte, refembling that of an apricot. A fpc-
cimen communicated, if we miftake not, by Thunbcrg to
the yovuiger Linnxus, for Uvaria zeylamca, has ovate,
acute, Imooth, entire leavrs. The common Jlo'iuer-Jlalhs are
axillary, ftout, half an inch long, each bearing two or more
fingle-flowercd, angular, downy partial flalks, thrice that
length. Calyx half an inch in diameter, in three deep,
broad, obtufe, coriaceous, downy fegments, hke La-
marck's fig. I. tl,f,g. Anthers oblong, fpreading, yellow.
We cannot fay this is the true plant of IJnnasus, Burmann,
&c. becaufe our fpecimen wants the fruit, which is almoft
all that is known of that fpecies, with any precifion.

2. U. Garlntri. Gaertner's Uvaria. De Cand. n. 2.
(U. trifoliata; Gsertn. f. 2. Lamarck f. 3.) — " Berries
ovate, with tapering tlalks. Interna! proccfles of the coat
of the feed awl-(haped." — Native probably of Ceylon. No-
thing is known of this fpecies but from Ga;rtncr's figure of
the fruil, which is rather larger, and lefs cylindrical, or
conllritled, than the foregoing, and differently conflruCted
within.

3. U. luten. Yellow Uvaria. Roxb. Coromand. v. i.
32. t. 36. Willd. n. 8. De Cand. n. 3. — Leaves elliptic-
oblong, acute, fmooth, fhining. Stalks fohtary, from one
to (ix-flowered. Berries oval, with fix feeds. — Native of
the hills of Ilindooftan, adjoining to the coaft of Coro-
mandel, flowering in the hot ieafon. A large evergreen
tref, with a fmooth brown bark, and alternate branches.
Leaves two or three inches long, alternate, two-ranked, on
fhort ftalks. Floiver-Jlalks oppofitc to the leaves, fohtary,
fhort and thick, each bearing ufually about three dull-
grecnilh floiuers, above half an inch broad. Petals five
times the fize of the calyx. Berries four to fix from each
flower, fpreading in the form of a ftar, on (liort (talks,
nearly oval, orange-co!o\ired, pulpy, each of them hardly
an inch in lengtli. Nothing is recorded of their flavour or
qualities, nor of any ufe to which this tree is put. The
Tehngas call it Miioy.

4. U. lomenldfa. Downy Uvaria. Roxb. Coromand.

V, I. 31. t. 35 Willd. n. 5. De Cand. n. 4 Leaves

ovate-oblong, acute, downy. Stalks fingle-flowercd, ufu-
ally folitarv. Berries globular, with four feeds. — Native
of the Circar mountains ol Hindoollan, flowering iji the
hot feafon. This is alfo a large tree, with wide-fprcading
branches. Leaves foft and downy, on fliort Italks, their
fize rather exceeding thofe of the laft fpecies. Floiuers
folitary or in pairs, of a brownifh-green, on ftalks above an
inch long. Three outer petals fmall and awl-diaped ; three
inner ovate, acute, above half an inch long. Berries nearly
globular, from ten to fifteen, dull purple, the fize of a
Dullace plum.

5. U. ilulcis. Sweet Uvaria. " Dnnal Monogr. 90.
t. 13." De Cand. n. 5 — " Leaves oblong-elliptical; ta-
pering and heart-ftiaped at the bafe j velvet-like beneath, as
well a<; the branches. Flower-ftalks in pairs, axillary, or
oppofit,' to the leaves ; jointed and brafteated in the middle.
— Nativf of .Java, defcribod by De Candolle from the
herba.iu 11 of M. De Leflcrt. Branches round ; villous and
r;ifty in the upper part. Leaves from two to four inches
long, on fhort villous ftalks; fomctimes pointed, and occa-

fionally undulated ; nearly fmooth above ; rufty, with a
reddilh rib, beneath. Calyx villous, rnfty, in three broad,
ovate fegments. Petals villous, flightiy wavy ; the o\iter
ones rufty at the back ; inner broader, but rather fmaller.
Pijlils villous. Dunal.

6. U. javana. Java Uvaria. " Dunal Monogr. 91.
t. 14." De Cand. n. 6. — "Leaves oblong-elliptical;
heart -(haped at the bafe ; rufty and downy, like the young
branches, beneath. Stalks axillary, or oppofite to the
leaves, few-flowered : partial ones fomewhat umbellate,
bradteated in the middle." — Gathered in Java, by M. La-
haie. The branches are round, marked with whitifli fpots ;
their young extremities clothed with rufty down. Leaves
on very fliort ftalks, fometimes pointed, fomctimes blunt,
waved at the edges, flightiy falcate, with pinnate ribs ;
fhining and nearly imooth on the upper fide. Stalks folitary
or in pairs, rufty, each bearing a fort of umbel, of from
two to four Jlowers, whole partial Jlalks are jointed at the
bafe, and furniflied about the middle with one large clafping
hraciea. Segments of the calyx deep, broad, rather acute.
Three inner petals reddifli, rather larger and more oblong
than the three outer. Pijlils villuu-.. Dunal.

7. U. velutina. Velvet-leaved Uvaria. De Cand. n. 7.
(U. villofa; Roxb. MSS. Dunal Monogr. 91.) — "Leaves
ne.arly feftile, ovate, pointed, clothed, like the branches,
with velvet down ; heart-lhapcd at the bafe. Stalks lateral,
branched, downy ; partial ones corymbofe, fingle-flowered."
— Sent by Dr. Roxburgh, from the Eaft Indies, to Mr.
I..ambert. The young branches, botli lurfaces of the leaves,
the f'loljlalks, jloiver-jlalks, and calyx, are clothed with very
fhort, loft, greyifli, velvet down. Branches ro\ind. Leaves
almoft jiertettly fefiile, two or three inches long, an inch
and a half or two inches broad, with pinnate ribs, which
are prominent and moft downy at the back. Parlial^^owcr-

Jlalks three or four, elong.ated, fingle-flowered, fomewhat
corymbofe. Calyx fmall. Petals three, ovate, thick,
bhintifli ; downy externally ; brownifli and fmooth on the
upper fide ; it is fuppoled there may be three others, which
are deciduous. Anthers very fliort, nearly teflile. Germens
denfely crowded, fomewhat downy. De Candolle.

8. U ? fpeihthilis. Handlonie-flowered Uvaria. De
Cand. n. 8. — " Leaves oblong, pointed, almoft fmooth ;
clothed, like the branches, with rufty velvet down when
young. Stalks lateral, or oppofite to tile leaves, fingle-
flowered. Petals obovate ; inner ones cloven at the end." —
Gathered in Guiana by M. Martin. Branches round,
clothed when young with rully-coloiired velvet down.
Footjlalks very (hort, callous. Leaves fix or eight inches
long, two broad, entire, abrupllv pointed ; fcarcely taper-
ing at the bafe ; their lateral ribs alternate, all terminating
in one which runs parallel to the margin : when young they
are clothed beneath with redJilh velvet pubelcence ; as are
alfo the very fliort Jloiuer -Jlalks. Flowers large. Segments
of the calyx three or four lines long, ovate, coriaceous,
downy at the outlideonly. Piltils fix, obovate, nine or ten
lines long, coriaceous, filky on both lides with clole-prefted
whitifli hairs ; rather contraiil.d at the bafe : three outer
ones rather the linallell, entire ; three inner divided at the
point, one fegment very rarely again cloven. Outer row
of i\\e Jlamens abortive, coriaceous, oblong, brown, Imooth,
rather longer than the perfed ones, and lying over them,
with twtf internal furrows at tlie end. Germens very denfely
crowded, fcarcely diftinft. Fruit unknown. The author
doubts whether this fpecies ought not to conftitute a genus
by itfelf.

VUBARAN.A, in Ichthyology, the name of an harcngi-
foim filh, cauirht in the American fcas.

^ It

V U K

V U L

It refembles in figure our river trout. Its body is very
nearly of the fame thicknefs all the way, but it is elevated
a little on the back, and fomevvhat flender juft near the tail.
It grows to a foot in length, and to llx inches in thicknefs.
It is a very well-taded fi(h, and is generally dreffed with the
fcales on, they being not ofFenfive in eating. Margraave's
Hiftory of Brafil.

UVEA, in Anatomy, the pofterior furface of the iris.
See Eye.

It is called uvea, on account of its refembling the figure
and colour of a grape, called by the Latins oi-a. For
which reafon, alfo, fome have given it the name of acini-
form'is, from acinus.

UVEDALIA, in Botany, received its name from Mr.

R. Brown, ill memory of Uvedale, LL.D., the friend

and fellow-collegian of Plukenet (fee that article), who
refided at Enfield, where he had a botanic garden, on the
old walls of which, if we are rightly informed, the Hieracium
murorum, from the north, is naturalized, and ftill remains.
His herbarium makes a part of the botanical colleftions in
the Britilh Mufeum, but we have no particulars of his do-
meftic or perfonal hiftory. We only know by tradition that
his name was popularly pronounced Oodle. Petiver eita-
blifhed, under the appellation of Uvedalia, a fyngenefious
genus, now funk in Polymnia (fee that article), from
which the fynonym Tetragonotheca, Linn. Gen. 438, Ihould

be erafed Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 44c — Clafs

and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate,
Linn. Scrophulariit, JufT. Scrophularinte, Brown.

Efl". Ch. Calyx prifmatic, five-toothed. Corolla rin-
gent : upper lip two-lobed ; lower three -cleft ; its middle
fegment rather difiimilar, with two prominences at the bafe.
Anthers with divaricated lobes. Stigma flattened. Cap-
fule covered by the permanent calyx, of two cells and four
valves : the partition from the inflexed margins of the valves,
inferted into the central receptacle.

A genus of herbaceous plants, with oppofite leaves.
Flotuer-Jlalks axillary and terminal, fingle-flowered, without
BraSeas. Corolla blue. Mr. Brown himfelf fufpefts it may
be fcarcely diftinft, in reality, from Mimulus. (See that
article.) He mentions no other fpecies than one from
New Holland, the reft, whatever they may be, are, we
prefume, natives of other countries ; perhaps of the Eaft
Indies.

I. U. linearis. Linear Uvedaha. Br. n. i. — " Leaves
linear, feveral times Ihorter than the flower-ftalks." — Ga-
thered by Mr. Brown in the tropical part of New Hol-
land.

This genus being confeffedly very near Mimulus, we
have not attempted to draw up its natural charafters at full
length.

UVELEN, in Geography, an ifland of Ruflia, in the
Frozen fea ; 12 miles N. of Cape Tchukotlkoi. N. lat.
66° 25'. E. long. 188° 44'.

UVELKA, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the
Tobol.

UVELSKAIA, a fort of Ruflia, in the government of
Upha ; 56 miles W.S.W. of Tcheliabinflj.

UvELSKAlA, Nixnei, a fort of Ruflia, in the government
of Upha, on the Uvelka ; 28 miles S.S.W. of Tchelia-
binfk.

VUERTIER, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc ; lo miles S.S.E. of Annecy.

VUESCIKER, a town of Norway, in the province of
Chriftiania ; 32 miles E. of Chriftiania.

VUKA, a river of Sclavonia, which runs into the Da-
nube, 8 miles N.W. of Illok.

VUKOLANI, a fortrefs of China, in Chen-fi ; 27 miles
N. of Han-tchong.

VUKOVITZA, a town of Sclavonia; 8 miles W. of
Verovitza.

VULCAN, in Mythology, the fon of Jupiter and Juno,
who, on account of his deformity, was caft down from
heaven into the ifland Lemnos, and breaking his leg with
the fall, is always reprefented as lame. At Lemnos he fet
up the trade of a fmith, and taught the Lemnians, in re-
compence of the fuccours they afforded him, the nianifold
ufes of fire and iron : he is alfo reprefented as the manufac-
turer of Jupiter's thunder, and the arms of the other gods.
The poets defcribe him as blacke'^ed and hardened from the
forge ; with a face red and fiery, whilft at his work ; and
tired and heated after it.

This poor god is almoft always the fubjeft either of pity
or of ridicule. He is the great cuckold of heaven ; and his
lamenefs ferve? to divert the gods. The great celeftial
deities feem to have admitted Vulcan among them merely to
make them laugh, and to be the butt of the whole company.
Spence's Polymetis, p. 81.

Cicero mentions three other Vulcans : one the fon of
Coelum ; the fecond the fon of the Nile, acknowledged by
the Egyptians as their proteftor, and called Opas ; and the
other the fon of Menalius, who inhabited the Vulcanian ifles.
Banier mentions another Vulcan, more ancient than either
of thefc, viz. the Tubal-Cain of fcripture, who, having
applied himfelf to the forging of iron, as Mofes informs us,
became the model and original of all the reft. The Vulcan
of the Greeks was the god of blackfmiths, and a blackfmith
himfelf; accordingly Diodorus Siculus (lib. v.) gives this
account of him : Vulcan is the firft founder of works in iron,
brafs, gold, and filver ; in a word, of all fufible materials.
He alfo taught the ufes to which the artifts and others can
employ fire ; and for this reafon all thofe who work in
metals, or rather men in general, call fire by the name of
Vulcan, and offer facrifices to that god, in acknowledgment
of fo ufcful an invention. The fecond Vulcan above men-
tioned, or the fon of Nilus, was probably an ancient
Egyptian king ; or rather he was the moft ancient divinity
of the Egyptians, fince we find him in Herodotus, Syn-
cellus, and other authors, at the head of the divinities of
thefe people, unlefs we revert backwards to Tubal-Cain, or
to fome one of the kings of thofe countries, who fignalized
himfelf in the art of forging iron.

Vulcan, the fon of Jupiter and Juno, is fuppofed to have
been a Titan prince, the fame, according to fir Ifaac New-
ton, with Thoas, king of Lemnos, whofe wife had an in-
trigue with Bacchus, and the huftjand foon difcovering it,
Bacchus contrived to appeafe him by caufing him to drink
wine, and creating him king of Byblos and Cyprus ; after
which he pafled the Hellefpont with his army, and con-
quered Thrace. To thefe events the poets are thought to
allude, when they feign that Vulcan fell from heaven into
the ifland of Lemnos, and that Bacchus, after having paci-
fied his wrath, fucceeded in recalling him to heaven. He
fell, it is faid, from the heaven of the gods of Crete, when
he departed from Crete to Lemnos to forge medals ; he was
reinftated in heaven, when Bacchus made him king of
Byblos and Cyprus ; for the courts of the princes of thofe
times, in imitation of that of Jupiter, were looked upon as
heaven. Newton's Chronology.

As the ifland of Lemnos was very fubjeft to earthquakes
and volcanoes, or as the art of forging arms was invented in
this ifland, Vulcan is reprefented as falling into it. The
forges of this god were alfo eftabliflied in Mount .£tjia for
the fame reafon, and in the Vulcanian iflands.

Of

V U L

Of all the ancient nations, the Egyptians were the prin-
cipal worOiippcrs of this god. Accordingly he had at Mem-
phis a magnificent temple, and a colofTal ftatue, feventy-five
feet high. His priefts were much eftet-med by the Egyp-
tians, lo that one of them, named Sathos, afcended the
throne. This god was alfo highly honoured by the Romans.
Tatius is faid, by Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, to have erefted
for him a temple, and Romulus confecrated to him a chariot
of brafs drawn with four horfes. His facrifices were holo-
caufts : and Tarquin the elder, after the defeat of the Sa-
bines, burned their arms and fpoils in honour of this god.
The lion was, who feems to dart fire from his mo\ith, con-
fecrated to Vulcan ; and dogs were fct apart for guarding
his temples. Of thefe he had feveral in Rome, but the
mod a: "ient one, built by Romulus, was without the
bounds > f the city ; the Augurs being of opinion, that the
god of fire ought not to be within th<; city itfelf. But the
nigheft token of refpeft rendered by the Romans to this
god, according to Dion. Halic. was their holding in his
temple thofe affemblies, where the mod important affairs of
the republic were debated ; the Romans thinking that they
could invoke nothing more facred, for the confirmation of
their decifions and treaties, than the avenging fir^- of which
that god was the fymbol. All men in general, fenfible of
their obligations to this god for the difcovery of the various
ufes which artifts and others make of fire, offered facrifices
to him. There were alfo feftivals inftituted in honour of
Vulcan, of which the principal was that, at which it was
the cuftom to run with lighted torches, that were to be car-
ried to the goal without being extinguifhed, under pain of
difgrace ; and Pliny informs us, that he who embraces
another had his torch for his reward. Moft of the medals
of the ifland of Lemnos reprefented this god, with the
legend, " Deo Vulcano." The Gauls paid adoration to
this god 150 years before Julius C^far entered into their
country.

VULCANALIA, among the Romans, a i'eftival in ho-
nour of Vulcan, which was kept, as fome fay, from the
23d to the 29th of Auguft, or, according to others, on the
loth before the calends of May, or the 22d of April. On
this occafion the people ufed to throw animals into the fire.

VULCANI Insula, in ylncient Geography, an ifland
near that of Sicily, confecrated to Vulcan, according to
Diodorus Siculus. .Strabo calls it the temple of Vulcan,
and Virgil denominates it the houfe and territory of Vulcan.
It was under this name that the Lipari iflands were defcribed,
and they were alfo named the ides of CEolus. Thus Virgil
fays, .fineid. 1. viii. v. 416.

" Infula Sicanium juxta latus, CEoliumque
Erigitur Liparca fumantibus ardua Saxis.

• # » * »

Vulcani domus, et Vulcania nomine tellus."

VULCANITE, the name of the CEoIian ifle where Vul-
can's forges were ercfted. See LiPAiil, &c.

VULCANO and Vulcanf.i.lo, in Geography. Vulcano
is one of the jEolian illes fituated to the foutli of Lipari.
Vulcancllo \va< formerly a fmall ifland near Vulcano, hut is
now joined 10 it by the matter ejefted from a volcano, whieii
has bee continually burning in Vulcano fince the earhefl
records of hillory, though in modern times the violent erup-
tions are lefs frequent. Vulcano has been eftimatcd to be
twelve miles round ; but, according to the account of it
given by lieutenant-general Cockburn, the circuit of this
ifland is about nine miles. The fide of the ifland which
looks towards Lipari is entirely barren, and does not pro-
duce any kind of vegetable; but the other fides, which

VUL

front the welt and the fouth, are partly covered with the
ilex and the oak, befides quantities of broom and other
(hrubs. As the whole of the ifland is compofed of volcanic
fubftances, it may be inferred that thofe parts which fun.
port vegetation have been more fubjeft to decompofition
than the barren parts. The fubftances, of which the foil is
compofed in the fertile parts of the ifland, are lavas foftened
to a great depth by atmofpheric agency. On removing
this foil, Spallanzani found the fubjacent lava hard and per-
phyritic. Mixed with the lava were large pieces of obfi-
dian, fimilar to that of Lipari. Vulcano is not inhabited,
but is vifited by fportfmen from Lipari, who go there to
fhoot rabbits. The firll account we have of Vulcano is
given by Thucydides, who relates, in his hiftory, that Vul,
cano threw out flames by night and fmoke by day. Arif-
totle, in his Treatife on Meteors, defcribes an ancient erup-
tion of Vulcano, a part of the ground fwelled and rofe with
a g:reat noife, forming a hill which burfl, and from whence
a violent wind ifTued forth, with flames. At the fame time
fo great a quantity of afhes were thrown out, as entirely to
cover the neighbouring city of Lipari. The eruptions of
Vulcano were vifible in his time.

Polybius, as quoted by Strabo, fays there were three vol-
canoes in this ifiand, two well defined, and one with the cra-
ter partly fallen in. The mouth of the larger was five ftadia
in circuit. The bottom was only fifty feet in diameter, and
fituated about one ftadium above the level of the fea. The
form of the other two craters were fimilar. At a later
period, in 1726, there were two burning craters on this
ifland. See Volcano.

From the text of Strabo, it may be inferred, that the
volcanoes in this ifland threw out lava, fince he fays the
burning matter ejefted filled up a part of the fea to a con-
fiderable extent. Callias, in his life of Agathocles, tyrant
of Syracufe, relates that, on a lofty eminence of Vulcano,
there are two craters, one of which was three iladia in cir-
cumfcrence, calling a great light to a vaft diftance, and that
from this mouth burning ftones of great fize were tlirown
out, with fo loud a noife that it might be heard to the dif-
tance of 500 Iladia.

Cluverius and Fazello, in more recent times, defcribe
Vulcano as being in a Hate of adive eruption. The fmall
ifland of Vulcanello, which now joins Vulcano, rofe from
the fea about the year of Rome" ;;o. It was feparated
from Vulcano by a very narrow ftrait, which was open in
the time of Fazello, but afterwards filled up by new erup-
tions from Vulcano.

At prelent there is only one burning crater on Vulcano,
from which there have been two confiderable eruptions in
modern times, the one in 1775, the latell in 1786, which
threw out an immenfc quantity of fand ml.^ccd with volumes
of fmoke and fire, accompanied with fubterranean noifes and
thunders. This eruption continued for fifteen days, and
appears to have changed the form and depth of the crater.
See Volcano.

The prefent crater of Vulcano nearly equals in fize that
of Vefnvius, and greatly exceeds it in the variety of pro-
dudions with which the fides are lined. Thefe prefent the
moll beautiful colours, red, orange, deep yellow, and green.
They confill of fulphur in various llates of combination, and
of faline and metallic matter and volcanic glades. (See Vol-
cano and Volcanic Produas. ) About half way down the
crater, a hot fpring iffues from the lide ; but the quantity of
water which flows is fmall, and is foon loll among the mades
of fcoria; and lava. Above the fpring are pendant dalaftitcs
of alum of various forms and fizes. The height of the fnni-
mit of the crater of Vulcano is not givcu by .iny travelKr

V U L

that we are acquainted with ; but from a comparifon with
Stromboli, it can fcarcely be ellimnted at more than 1500
feet above the leyel of the fea. The fand on the (hore, in
fome parts of the ifland, though covered with the fea, pre-
ferves a certain degree of heat.

The ancients attached much importance to the appearance
of the fmoke of Vulcano. They inform us, that before a
fouth wind blew, the ifland was enveloped in fo dark a
cloud, that Sicily could not be feen from it. When a north
wind was to be expefted, a pure flame rofe above the crater.
The various founds of the explofions likewife, and the dif-
ferent places where the eruptions began, with the appearance
of the flames, were all pi-ognoftics of the wind which would
blow three days afterwards. This account, given by Poly-
bius, docs not accord with the prefent phenomena of Vul-
cano ; and in all probabihty, it originated not in any accurate
obfervations, but from the prejudices of ancient mariners.

Modern obfervers have alfo pretended to prediA the ftate
of the v.'eather from the appearance of Vulcano. If it
could be ellabUfhed that there was any conneftion between
the ftate of the atmofphere, and the mtenfity of the volcanic
fire, thefaft would be well deferving attention. It is how-
ever necefTary to obferve, that the fmoke and vapour from
common fires and breweries, &c. alTume a very different
appearance in difterent ftates pf the atmofphere, and that
this fhould be the cafe with the vapour and fmoke iffiiing
from volcanoes appears higlily probable, without allowing
that any real change takes place in the volcano itfclf. In a
book entitled " Tracts by Sicilian Authors," printed at
Palermo in 1761, there is a differtation on the manner in
which the weather may be foretold twenty-four hours before
hand, in which the following account is given by a native of
Lipari, who made his obfervations between the years 1730
and 1740. " The change of weather and winds is indicated
by mount Vulcano twenty -four hours before it takes place,
by a louder noife than ufual, refemblmg difl;ant thunder, and
if we then obferve the fmoke that iffues in a greater quan-
tity than ufual, we may difcover what kind of wind will
fucceed. When the wind is about to change to the fouth-
eaft, the fmoke rifes fo denfe and black, and in fo great a
quantity, and to fuch a height, and afterwards falls in fo
black a duft, as to ftnke the beholder with awe. At the
fame time a loud roaring is heard, frequently accompanied
with trembhngs of the earth. When the wind is on the
point of changing to the north-north-eaft, or north-north-
weft, or north-weft, the fmoke rifes more flowly, is lefs
denfe, and the colour is entirely white, as is that of the dull
which falls from it. Nor does any loud noife or trembling
of the earth take place. When the wind is about to change
to the eaft, or eaft-north-eaft, an explofion is heard in the
body of the mountain, which foon after throws out a little
white fmoke, of which colour are likewife the aihes which
fall when the fmoke is difperfed. The mountain in the
mean time explodes, and roars fo violently at intervals, that
the (hock of an earthquake is dreaded. Laftly, previous
to a change of wind to the weft, the weft-fouth-weft, or
weft-north-weft, vaft volumes of fmoke arife of a dark afti-
grey, approaching the colour of lead, and fo thick that when
they difperfe they occafion a continued fliower of alhes."

Thele obfervations, whetlier coiTeft or not, indicate a
more aftive ftate of the volcano than what it prefents when
it has recently been vifited. Spallanzani, who notices the
above predictions relative to Vulcano, fays, " I ftiould jultly
incur the imputation of raftinefs were I abfolutely to deny
thefe fafts, without having fufticient reafon fo to do, efpe-
cially as they are fo precile, and are faid to have been ob-
served on the fpot. Befides, it does not appear credible

V U L

that Abbate Roffi, who gives them, would have publidted
his obfervations in a place where he was liable to be contra-
difted by all his countrymen. I niuft, however, with phi-
lofophic candour, fay, that during my refidence of feveral
weeks in Lipari, where I continually faw- Vulcano during
the blowing of the different winds mentioned in this extratl,
particularly the fouth-caft, the weft, and the fouth-weft, I
never obferved, either before they begun, or while they con-
tinued to blow, any tremblings of the earth, fubterranean
roarings, lofty columns of fmoke, or ftiowers of afties. Once
only, when a violent fouth-weft wind was on the decline, the
column of fmoke which iffued from Vulcano increafed pro-
digioufly, but when it had rifen a little diftance above the
upper edge of the crater, it grew thinner, and foon after
vaniftied. Though the wind continued to blow, this pro-
digious cloud of Imoke ftill continued to rife from the cra-
ter for feveral hours. I once obferved the fmoke to be ex-
ceedingly rare when a ftrong weft wind blew ; and twice,
when the air was perfeftly calm, I obferved the fmoke ex-
tremely copious, and rifing to a great height. To conclude,
after carefully noticing day by day every change that took
place in the phenomena exhibited by Vulcano, during my
ftay in its vicinity, I could perceive none which afforded
fupport to thefe famous prognoftics. The failors at Lipari
alfo were not agreed refpefting them. I am not, however,
fo pofitive as to deny the whole of thefe obfervations. To
know with certainty whether any direft relations exift be-
tween the various fymptoms of Vulcano, and the changes
of the atmofphere, it would be neceffary to refide for fome
years in the illand, a place truly wild and defolate ; and he
who, hke Empcdocles at Etna, fliould go to erett his dwel-
ling there, in order to obferve the changes of the volcano,
would have no other companions than the rabbits which
make their burrows in the fouthern fide of the ifland."
Spallaniaiu's Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. ii.

When M. de Luc vifited Vulcano in 1757, it appeared
to be in a more quiefcent ftate than at prefent ; for though
fmoke and vapour iffued from the crater, he does not men-
tion being incommoded by the heat when he defcended into
it. Yet he noticed a faft which we beheve has not fince
been remarked. The fiilphureous vapours had a communi-
cation with the fea, which was in many places of a yellowifli
colour, and in others emitted fumes ; and in the places
w'here the fumes iffued, the heat was intolerable, fo that the
fifti which approached the coaft died, and the beach near the
level of the fea was covered with dead fifh. Pliny ftates,
that when the ifiand of Vulcanello was thrown up, a great
number of fifh were found dead, and caufed the death of
thofe who ate them.

An opinion exifts, and has exifted for centuries, that the
ground under Vulcano is hollow, and that it will fome time
be fwallowed up. This opinion probably originated from
the hollow found occafioned by the throwing of a ftone, or
any hard fubftance, on the bottom of the crater. Probably
Vulcano, Stromboli, and all the iEolian ifles, are only the
chimneys of one immenfe fubterranean fire, extending under
the whole, and commi:nicating from thence to Etna and Ve-
fuvius. StroraboK threw out unufually denfe and fuffocating
volumes of fmoke for fome days before the earthquakes
which defolated Calabria in 178'^; and was uncommonly-
violent at the time of the great earthquake which dellroyed
Euphemia. See Volcaxo.

VULDEP, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Inn,
near Ratenburgh in the Tyrolefc.

VULGAGO, a name given by fome botanical authors to
the afarum or afarabacca, whofe leaves and root are ufed in
medicine.

VULGAR

V U L

V U L

VULGAR Arithmetic, Fraclions, and Purgation. See
the fiibftantives.

VULGATE, a very ancient Latin tranflation of the
Bible ; and the only one the church of Rome acknowledges
to be authentic.

The ancient Vulgate of the Old Tefiament was tranflated,
almoft word for word, from the Greek of the Scptuagint.
The author of the vcrfion is not known, nor fo much as
-gueOed at. See Veusidn, /ta/ic and Latin.

It was a long time known by the name of the Italic, or
old verfion ; as being of very great antiquity in the Latin
church. It was the common, or vulgar verlion, before St.
JiTom niade a new one from the Hebrew original, with
occafional recurrences to the Septuagint ; whence it has its
iiame Vulgate.

Nobihus, in 1558, and F. Morin, in 162S, gave new edi-
tions of it ; pretending to have reflored, and re-collated it,
from the ancients who had cited it. The Vulgate was held,
by St. Augulline, to be preferable to all the other Latin
verfions then extant ; as rendering the words and fenfe of
the facred text more clofclv and judly than any of the reft.
It has fince been retouched from the correction of St. Jerom ;
and it is this mixture of the ancient Itahc verfion, and fome
correftions of St. Jerom, that is now called the Vulgate,
and which the council of Trent has declared to be au-
thentic.

It is this Vulgate alone that is ufed in the Romilh church,
excepting for fome pafTages of the ancient Vulgate left in
the MiflTal, and the Plalms ; which are ilill fung according
to the old Italic verfion.

St. Jerom declares that, in his revifal of the Italic vcr-
fion, he ufed great care and circumfpeftion, never varying
from that vcrfion but when he thought it mifreprefcnted the
fenfe. But as the Greek copies to which he had accefs
were not fo ancient as thofe from which the Italic verfion
had been made, fome learned authors have been of opinion
that it would have been much better if he had collefted all
the copies, and by comparing them, have reftored that
tranflation to its original purity. It is plain that he never
completed this work, and tl;at he even left fome faults in it,
for fear of varying too much from the ancient verfion, liiite
he renders in his commentaries fome words otherwife than
he has done in his tranflation. This verfion was not intro-
duced into the church but by degrees, for fear of offending
weak perfons. Rnfinus, nolwithllanding his enmity to
St. Jerom, and his having exclaimed much agninll this per-
formance, was one of the firft to prefer it to llie Vulgar or
Italian. This tranflation gained at lafl fo great an autho-
rity, by tlie approbation of pope Gregory I. and his de-
clared preference of it to every other, that it was fubfe-
qucntly in public ufe through all the Wrilern churclies,
although it was not regarded as authentic, except by the
council of Trent : it is certainly of conliderable ufe, as it
may fcrvc to lUullratc feveral pafl'ages botli of the Old and
New Tellameiit.

The two principal Popifli editions of the Vulgate arc thofe
of popes Sixtus V. and Clement VI II. The former vrus print-
ed in 1590, after pope Sixtus had coUetted the moll ancient
MSS. and bell printed copies, fninmoned the moll learned
men out of all the nations of the Chrillian world, affembkd a
congregation of cardinals for their afTiilancc and counfel, and
prelided over the whole himfelf. This edition was declared
to be corrected in the very bell manner polhble, and piib-
lilhed with a tremendous excommunication of every perfon,
who fhould prcfumc ever afterwards to alter the lead parti-
cle of the edition thus authentically promulgated by his
holinefs, fitting in that chair, in qua Petri vivit pote/laj, el

Vol. XXXVII.

esce/lit au8oritas. The other edition was publiftied in 1592,
by pope Clement VIII. ; which was fo different from that
of Sixtus, as to contain two ihoufand variations, fome of
whole verfes, and many others clearly and delignedly con-
tradictory in fenfe ; and yet this edition is alfo pronounced
authentic, and enforced by the fame fentence of excommu-
nication with the former. See Kennicolt's State of the
printed Hebrew Text, &c. vol. ii. p. 198, Jcc.

VtLUATE of the NiW Tejlament. This the Romanifts
generally hold preferable to the common Greek text, be-
caufe it is this alone, and not the Greek text, that the
council of Trent has declared authentic : accordingly that
church has, as it were, adopted this edition, and the priells
read no other at the altar, the preachers quote no other iu
the pulpit, nor the divines in the fchools.

Yet fome of their bell authors, F. Bouhours for in-
flance, own, that among the differences that are found be-
tween the common Greek and the Vulgate, there are fome
wherein tlje Greek reading appears more clear and natural
than that of the Latin ; fo that the ftcond might be cor-
refted from the firft, if the holy fee fhould think fit. But
thofe differences, for the generality, only conlifl in a few
fyllables, or words ; they rarely touch the fenfe. Befides,
in fome of the moft conliderable, the Vulgate is authorized
by feveral ancient manufcripts. Bouhours fpent the laft
years of his life in giving a French tranflation of the New
Tcftament, according to the Vulgate. In 1675, a new edi-
tion of the Greek Teftamcnt was publifhed by the univer-
fity of Oxford ; and great care taken therein to compare
the common Greek text with all the moft ancient manu-
fcripts in England, France, Spain, and Italy ; and to note
the differences obfervcd therein.

In the preface of this work, the editors, fpeaking of the
divers verfions of the Bible in the vulgar tongues, obferve
of the Vulgate, that there is no verfion of any language to
be compared with it. And this they juftify, by comparing
paffages that occur in the moil celebrated Greek manufcripts,
with the fame paffages in the Vulgate, where there is any
difference between that and the common printed copy. Iu
effcdl, it is probable, that at the time the ancient Italia or
Vulgate vcrfion of the New Teftanient was made, and at
the time it was afterwards compared with the Greek ma-
nufcripts by St. Jerom, as they were then nearer the timet
of the apollles, they had juller Greek copies, and thofe bet-
ter kept, than any of thofe ufed when printing was firll fet
on foot.

" Highly as the Vulgate is extolled by the church of
Rome," fays profeilor Michaclis, " it has been depreciated
beyond meafure at the beginning of the i6tli century by
feveral learned Proteflants, whofe example has been fol-
lowed by men of inferior abilities. At the reiloralion of
learning, when the faculty of writing elegant Latin was the
higheft aecomphlhment of a fcholar, the Vulgate was re-
garded with contempt, as not written with claffical purity.
But after the Greek manufcripts were difcovcred, their
readings were preferred to thofe of the Latin, becaufe the
New Teftamcnt was written in Greek, and the Latin was
only a fcrfion ; but it was not confidercd that thefe Greek
manufcripts were modern in comparifou of thofe originals
from which the Latin was taken ; nor was it known at that
time, that the more ancient the Greek MSS. and the other
»erfions were, the clofer was their agreement with the Vul-
gate. Thit, has been alreadv evinced by Simon, who made
It a particular objeft of his attention in his ' Hift. Crit. du
Tcxte ct des Verfions du N. T.,' and has pointed out
the real merits of the Latin verfion. Our ablfft writers,
fuch as Mill and Bcngel, have been induced by this treatife

4 H to

V U L

td abandon the opinion of their predeceflbr*, and have af-
cribed to the Vulgate a value perhaps greater than it de-
fcrves." Michaelis's Introduftion to the New Teftameiit
by Marfh, vol. ii. part i. Campbell's Prehm. Diflertation
to his Comment on the Four Gofpels. A complete ac-
count of all the editions of the Vulgate is given in Le
Long Bibl. Sacra, ed. Mafch. part 2. vol. iii. cap. 2.

M. Simon calls the Greek verfion of the Septuagint, be-
fore it was revifed and reformed by Origen, the ancient Vul-
gate Greek. Origen's correftion was preferred to the ancient
Greek, which was confequently difufed ; fo that we have
now fcarcely any copies of it. See Septuagint.

VULGIENTES, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Gallia Narbonnenfis, N. of the Salgii ; to whom Pliny
afligns the town of Apta Juha.

VULKAN, in Geography, a mountain of Tranfylvania ;
24 miles W. of Weiflemburg.

VULNERARY, formed from -vulnus, wound, in Medi-
cfne, an epithet given to remedies proper for the cure of
wounds and ulcers.

There are divers vufnerary herbs ; as ariftolochia, or
birth-wort ; fanicle, or felf-heal ; plantain, moufe-ear,
veronica, or fluelHn ; agrimony, vervain, or the holy
herb, &c.

There are alfo vulnerary potions, compofed of various
fimples ; vulnerary balfams, unguents, plafters, &c. See
Balsam, &c.

VuLXERABY Water. See Water.

VULPANSER, in Ornithology, a name given by fome
authors to the (hell-drake, or borrow-duck, a very beau-
tiful fpecies of duck, common on fome of our coails, and
called by the generaUty of authors tadorna. See DucK.

VULPECULA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Bel-
lonius and Gefner to the fith called by the generality of au-
thors centrine. See Chim.i;ra and Squalus.

VuLPECULA et Anfer, Fox and Goofe, in Ajlronomy, a
conftellation made out of unformed ftars by Hevelius, in
which he reckons twenty-feven ftars ; but Flamftead enu-
merates thirty -five. See Constellation.

VULPES, in Entomology, a fpecies of Scarab^us,
which fee.

VuLPES, in Zoology. See Fox.

VuLPES Baharnenfu, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Esox,
with a fin in the middle of the back, and the branchiofte-
gous membrane three-rayed. It is found in America.

VuLPES Marina. See Sea-Yox.

VuLPES Putoria, in Zoology. See Didelphis Opojfum.

VULPINALIA, among the Romans, a feaft celebrated
on the 19th of April, in which they burned foxes.

VULSINIENSIS Lacus, or Fulfmian Lake, in Ancient
Geography, a lake of Italy, in Etruria, nearly S. of the lake
of Trafimene. It took its name from that of Vulfuiii, which
fee. See alfo Volsinensis Lacus.

VULSINII, 5o^na, a townof Italy.in Etruria, upon the
northern bank of the lake above-mentioned. It was one of
the moft confiderable towns of Etruria ; and its inhabitants
armed themfelves againft the Romans in the year of Rome
36^. This town afterwards fell under the power of flaves ;
but when they were introduced into the order of fenators,
they would not fuffer any affembly to be convened without
their confent, and they aflerted their own impunity for manv
crimes which entailed difnonour on families. This Angular
faft occurred in the year 489. According to Florus, thefe
^ves were under the conduft of a perfon named Fabius Gur-
gites. The Romans eftabliflied the order inVulfinii ; but they
defpoiled it of a great number of ftatues. This town was
'avaged at three different times : firll by the Romans ; then

5

V U L

by a monfter, of whom no adequate idea can calHy b«
given ; and laftly, by a thunderbolt.

VULSON, Marc: de, Sieur de la Colombiire, in Bio-
graphy, an licraldic writer, lived at Grenoble in 1 61 8, and
difcovering his wife in the aft of adultery, killed her and
her gallant, and obtained a pardon at Paris, whither he
fled. His work, entitled " La Science Heroiqne, traitant
de la NoblefL', de I'Origine des Armes, &c." 1644, folio,
reprinted with additions in 1669, is reckoned the moft com-
plete French work on Heraldry. He alfo publifticd, " Le
Theatre d'Honneur et de Cavalerie, ou le Miroir Hifto-
rique de la Nobleffe," 2 vols, folio, 1648, and " Recueil de
plufieurs Pieces et Figures d'Armoiries," folio, 1689: and
died in 1658 Nouv. Dia. Hift.

VULTONA, La Boutonne, in Ancient Geography, a river
of Aquitania in Gaul ; after purfuing the courle nearly from
E. to W., it difcharges itfelf into the Charante. This
river is alfo denominated " Vultumna."

VULTUR, or Vulture, in Ornithology, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of Accipitres, or hawks. The
characters of which are, that the bill is ilraight, and hooked
only at the apex, and covered at the bafe by a cere or fkin ;
that the head has no feathers, and covered in front with a
naked /kin ; that the tongue is flefhy, and generally bifid,
the neck retraftile, and the feet ftrong, with moderately
crooked claws. Gmelin, in his edition of the Linnxan
fyftem, reckons 13 fpecies, befides varieties, which are as
follow :

Gryphus, or Vulture Condor, or largeft vulture, or black
vulture, with the fhorter wing-feathers white ; the head
furnifhed with an upright, compreiled, flefhy creft or comb ;
the throat naked and red ; and the neck carunculated on
each fide. We are enabled, by Dr. Shaw, who had an
opportunity of examining two birds of this kind in excel-
lent prefervation in the Leverian Mufeum, to give a more
correft defcription of this genus than that which was fur-
nifhed when the article condor was written. ( See Condore. )
Thefe birds, which are more frequently feen in Peru than
in any other parts of South America, were brought from
the ftraits of Magellan. They were fuppofed to be male
and female. The male bird has " a kind of gular pouch,
or large dilated flcin, of a blucifti colour, proceeding from
the bafe of the lower mandible, and reaching to fome dif-
tance down the neck. On each fide of the neck is alfo
fituated a row or feries of flat, carneous, femicircular, or
ear-fhaped flaps or appendages, to the number of feven on
each fide, and which gradually decreafe in fize as they de-
fcend ; being fo difpoled as to lap-flightly over each
other. The whole neck and breaft are of a red colour, and
perfedtly bare of feathers ; being only coated here and there
with a few ftraggling filaments of blackifli hair or coarfe
down. The colour of the lateral wattles or carunculz in-
clines to bluei(h. The creft or comb on the head is large,
upright, thick at the bafe, (harpened on its edge, and not
entirely even in its outhne, but fomewhat fiiiuated, finking
flightly in the middle, and rifing higher on the back part ;
it is fmooth, and irregularly convex on the fides, and in its
texture or fubftancc not greatly diffimilar to that of the V.
papa of Linnjcus, or king vulture. At a flight diftance be-
hind this, on each fide, is fituated a much fmaller, femi-oval
nuchal creft, of a fimilar fnbftance, and befet with coarfe
down. The colour of the creft is blackifli, flightly inclining
to red and blue in fome parts. Towards the lower part of
the neck is a pendent pear-fliaped tubercle : tlie lower part
of the neck is furrounded by a collar of milk-white down or
fine plumes, rcprefenting exaftly a tippet of white fur. The
extent of the bird, from wing's end to wing's en^, was faid

to

VULTUR.

to be more than tweive feet when Bieafured immediately after
it was fliot."

The back of the bird has been erroneoufly defcribed as
white, whereas it is coal-black ; an error evidently owing to
the bird's having been feen with the wings clofed over the
back, fo that the white fecondaries covered it from view.
Gmehn copied this error from Molina, and thus Mr.
Latham was raided. In their defcriptions, the tail is faid
to be fmall, which, on the contrary, is rather large in pro-
portion to the bird. The fuppofed female had not the
I«aft appearance of a comb on the head, which, with fome
other particulars, inclined Dr. Shaw to conclude that it was
either a young bird or a female. The extent of its wings
from tip to tip was not far ihort of lo feet. Another of
thefe birds, mentioned in the i8th volume of the Phil. Tranf.
and (hot in Chili, had wings which extended more than i6
feet. The beak of the fore-mentioned female was of a dark
lead colour, becoming gradually whitifh towards the tip.
The head and neck were deftitute of feathers, but covered
with a Ihort draggling fort of hairy down ; the top of the
head inclined to a dark colour, but the reft of the neck was
paler, and probably in the living bird of a reddith colour.
Towards the lower part of the neck, where it joins to the
Ihoulders, was a ruff or circle of wliite downy feathers ; and
beneath the breall a confiderable bare fpace : the reft of the
bird was black, except the (horter or fecondary wing-lca-
thcrs, which were white with black tips ; the legs and feet
were blackilh, very ftrong, but the claws not much iiicut-
vatcd : the tail even at the end, and very (lightly rounded
at the fides. On comparing the remiges or wing-feathers
of tliis bird with fome of thofe which were brought over by
Mr. Byron as thofe of the real condor. Dr. Shaw found
them to be exaftly fimilar, except in fize. From an examin-
ation of thefe fpecimcns. Dr. S. concluded that the phy-
fiognomy of this bold and formidable vulture is not of a fe-
rocious caft, but rather exhibiting an appearance almolt bor-
dering on mildnefs. M. Humboldt makes fome dedudtion
for the alleged fize of this bird, as he had feen none which
exceeded 3 feet 5 inches in length, and 8 feet 9 inches in
extent from the end of one wing to that of the other. He
admits, however, that the condor may fometimcs be fuppofed
to arrive at a much greater magnitude, and to meafure in
extent of wings 11 or 12 feet. Its ufual refidence, as he
informs us, is among lofty rocks in tl\e region of the Andes,
juft below the boundaries of perpetual fnow, and it may be
confidered as a co-inhabitant with the gnanaco.

Nothing can exceed the fagacity with which tiie condor
perceives the fcent of its prey at a diitance, or the boldncfs
witi> wincli it flies down to feize it. It preys both on dead
and living animals, and two birds will feize on a heifer, and
begin their work of deftruftion by picking the eyes and
tearing the tongue out.

A method of taking condors alive is often praftifcd in
Peru and Quito, and is as follows : — A cow or horfe is
killed ; and in a little time the fcent of the carcafe attrafts
the condors, which are fuddenly feen in numbers in places
where no one would fuppofe they exifted. They always
begin with the eyes and tongue, and then proceed to devour
the inteftines. Sec. When they are well fated, they are too
heavy and indolent to fly, and the Indians take them eafily
with noofes. When thus taken alive, the condor is dull and
timid for tlie firft hour, and then becomes extremely fero-
cious. M. Humboldt had one in his pofreflion for fome
days, which it was dangerous to approach. The condor is
extremely tenacious of life, and will lurvivc for a long time
fuch wounds as might be fuppofed lo prove immediately
fatal ; and fuch is the fnlncfs of its plumage, th^t it has the

power of refiiling or repelling the force of a ball fired at it
from a gun. Tliis indeed is not peculiar to the condor, but
has been obferved in fome other well-feathered and thick-
fkinned birds, particularly thofe of the order Anferes.

Bengalensis, the Brown Vulture. With the head and
neck naked before, and faintly chcfnut-colour ; the bill
lead colour, with black tip ; or brown vulture, paler beneath,
with the head and neck covered by fnfcous down ; the
lower part encircled by a brown ruff. This is the Bengal
vulture of Latham, two feet fix inches in length ; bill and
legs dullcy black, and crop hanging over the breaft, as is the
cafe in many others of the vulture tribe. It is a native of
Bengal.

Papa, Vulture. With carunculated noftrils, and naked
Grown and neck ; or whitifh-rufefcent vulture, with naked
variegated head and neck ; noftrils furnifhed with a loofe
orange-coloured caruncle, and neck with a grey ruff. This
is the cozcaquauhtli of Hernand. Mex., king of the vul-
tures of Edwards, and exceeds every other fpecies in the
elegance of its appearance, about the fize of a hen turkey,
and of alight-reddidi brown or bufl' colour, with black wings
and tail, accompanied with a glofs of green, the edges of
the wing-feathers being of a whitifh call ; the under parts
of the body are white, with a flight caft of yellow ; the legs
and feet pale ilefh-colour ; but what conftitutes the pecuhar
ornament of the bird is tlie vivid colouring of the head and
neck, which are bare of feathers. This beautiful fpecies is
a native of many parts of South America, and is alfo found
in the Weft Indies : it feeds on carrion, like the reft of the
tribe, and occafionally preys on feveral of the fmaller ani-
mals, as lizards, &c.

MoNACHUS, Monk Vulture. With gibbous crown, and
black body ; or brown vulture, with lengthened ruff, and
downy occipital creft. This is the crcfted black vulture of
Edwards ; the cinereous or Arabian vulture of Latham ;
and vautour, or grand vautour of Buffon. This bird is an
inhabitant of the deferts of Arabia, and is faid to be not un-
common in the Pyrenean mountains.

Aura, the Brown-grcylfh Vulture. With black wing-
feathers, and white bill ; or blackifh vulture, with purple
and green reflexions, and red, naked, papillated and wrinkled
head and neck. This is the tzepilotl of Hernandez ; the
uruba, &c. of Willughby and Marcgrave ; the gallinazo
of Ulloa ; the turkey-buzzard of Catefby ; and the carrion-
crow of Sloane ; the carrion-vulture of Pennant and Latham ;
and vautour de Brafil of Buffon, Some fay that there are
two diftinft fpecies, riz. the V. aura, which is'of a blackifh-
brown, and the V. uruba, which is entirely black, the biU,
head, and neck excepted, which latter is moft prevalent in
South America. Gmelin mentions a variety, black, with
brown wing-feathers, and cinereous bill. This fpecies, with
fome variations, appears to be generally difTufed over the
whole continent of South America, but moftly in the
warmer regions. In fome parts of Britifh America it is
popularly called the turkey -buzzard, and in other parts
carrion-crow. It is fomcwhat fmaller than a turkey ; it
feeds on every kind of animal matter, and is highly eftccmcd
in the Weft Indies on account of its aftivity in clearing
away fubftances that might otherwife render the air noxious
in thofe warm climates. In confequence of this mode of
life, the birds thomfelves have always a very oflenfive odour.
According to Mr. Pennant, thefe hirds are common from
Nova Scotia to Terra del Fuego, and though they are mif-
chievous in attacking and dcilroying cattle in a weak or
difealed ftate, they are beneficial in Icfliening the number of
alligators, which would otherwife become intoUrablc by
their multitudes.

4 H 2 ClNEREL'S,

VULTUR.

CiNERBOs, the Brown-blackifli Vulture. With wing
and tail-feathers verging towards cinereous, and legs covered
with brown feathers. This is referred by Shaw to the V.
monachus. It is the V. cinereus of Ray ; the cinereous or
alh-coloured V. of Willughby and Latham. It inhabits
high mountains of Europe. Gmehn fuggefts it to be a va-
riety of percnopterus.

Fuscus, the Brown Vulture. With wring-feathers brown
or bladciHi, the primary wliite at the apex fpotted with
brown, and tail-feathers grey -brown, and naked legs. This
is the vautour de Malta of Buifon, and found in Europe,
chiefly in the ifland of Malta. Gmehn queilions whether it
be different from the percnopterus ?

Niger, Black Vulture. With wing and tail-feathers
brown, and legs covered with black feathers. This is de-
fcribed as larger than the golden vulture, of a black colour,
and is faid to be common in Egypt and Sardinia. Gmelin
fuggefts that it is a variety of percnopterus, and Dr. Shaw
alfo inclines to think that it is a variety.

Leucocephalux, Vulture. With fnowy feathers, wing
and tail black, with a white ruff. This is the white or ci-
nereous vulture of Willughby, and the vautour de Norvege
of BufFon ; found in Sardinia and Norway ; and fuggefled
to be a variety.

FuLVus, Vulture. From grey to reddilh above, head,
neck, and ruff white, wing and tail-feathers black ; or fulvous-
chefnut vulture, with black wing and tail-feathers, downy
whitifh head and neck, and white ruff. This is the V.
fulvus of Briffon, the fulvous V. and golden V. of Wil-
lughby, and le griffon of Buffon. This is one of the
Sargeil of the genus, exceeding the iize of the golden eagle.
The general colour of the plumage, when the bird is in its
bell (late, is a full rufous or tawny chefnut ; the legs and
feet are afh-coloured. This bird, often confounded with
others, is found in the mountains of Perfia.

Percnopterus, Vulture. With black wing-feather-,
the exterior margin, that of the outmoft excepted, greyifii
or hoary ; or white V. (the female brownifh) with length-
ened narrow beak, naked face, and black wing-feathers with
grey edges. This is the V. (percnopterus) with naked head
and plump throat, or Egyptian mountain-falcon of Haffel-
quift ; theaquUine V. of Albin. ; the vuiterine eagle of Al-
drovand. ; and the rachaniah of Bruce's Travels. Its Iize, ac-
cording to Gefner, is that of a ftork. Shaw thinks it pro-
bable, that the rachamah of Bruce, the Angola vulture of
Pennant, the afh-coloured vulture of Latham, and the petit
vautour or vautour de Norvege of Buffon, are in reaUty the
fame fpecies, and conflitute the male V. percnopterus of
■ Linnjeus. He alfo inchnes to beheve that the Maltcfe V.
of Latham, qr vautour de Make of Buffon, is merely the
female of this fpecies. If this be the cafe, the V. percnop-
terus feems to be a pretty general inhabitant of the old con-
tinent, being found not only in many of the temperate and
warmer parts of Europe, but in various parts of Afia and
Africa. It is plentiful in Egypt, where it is efteemed for
its beneficial fervices in deftroying various putrid fubflances
in the vicinity of towns and cities. Its general fize is that
of a female turkey, but in this refpeft it varies in different
countries. Tlie male alfo varies in the cail of its colour,
which is fometimes nearly white, and fometimes a dirty pale
rufous-white ; the quills are black, but the fecondaries are
externally of the fame colour with the reft of the plumage.
The female is faid to exceed the male in fize. Bruce in-
forms us, that it is a very great violation of order, or police,
to kill any of thefe birds near Cairo.

Cristatu.s, the Crefted Vulture. From reddifli to
blackifh, the breaft more inclining to red, the legs naked.

This is the brown vulture of Willughby and Latham. It
is found in thick and defert forefts.

Barbarus, or Barbatus. The vulture brown to
black, underneath white inclining to brown, woolly legs,
lead-coloured toes, and brown nails ; or blackiih-brown V .
fubfulvous beneath, with the head and neck covered by lan-
ceolate whitifh plumes, and the bill bearded beneath. This
is the bearded V. of Edwards and L;itham. It is one of
the largeft of the European vultures, and is principally ob-
ferved among the Alps of Switzerland, where it is called
lammer-geyer, or lamb-vulture. It is defcribed and figured
in the works of Gefner, under the title of V. aureus. It
exceeds the golden eagle in fize. This fpecies feems to be
a native of the wilder regions both of Afia and Africa, and
feems to be recorded by Mr. Bruce under the name of
•' niffer-werk." Mr. Bruce's defcription, for which we
refer to the Appendix to his Travels, affords a flriking in-
ftance of the boldnefs and voracity of this bird. This vul-
ture is faid to build in the inacceffible cavities of lofty rocki,
and they fometimes affemble in fmall flocks about the
mountainous regions of the countries which they inhabit.

Dr. Shaw mentions fome other fpecies, befides thofethat
are above enumerated.

Californianus, Black Vulture. With whitifli beak ;
head and neck unfeathered, and of a pale colour ; the plumes
of the collar and breaft lanceolate. This bird is one of the
largeft of the genus, and approaches to the fize of the con-
dor. It was brought over from the coall of CaUfornia, and
is now in the Britifh Mufeum.

Auriculatus, Brown Vulture. With naked neck, flcin
of the ears lengthened, and pale ruff. This is the oricou of
Levaillant, and it is a very large bird, meafuring ten feet
from one wing's end to the other ; its general colour is
brown, the throat being black, and covered with coarfe
hairs. Thefe birds inhabit the fouthern parts of Africa,
and are of a gregarious nature, afTembUng in large flocks
about the caverns of the rocky mountains, where they breed.
This bird is very voracious, and when attacked or wounded
defends itfelf with furprifing ftrength and refolution ; but it
is naturally of an indolent and fluggifh character.

PoxTicERi.'VNUs, Black Vulture. With nearly naked
flefh-coloured head and neck, and a flefhy red caruncle down
each fide of the neck. It is the vautour royal de Pondi-
cherry of Sonnerat, whence its name. Its fize is that of a
very large goofe, with black bill and yellow legs ; and is
a native of India, particularly about Pondicherry.

Indicus, Brown Vulture. With naked, rufous head
and neck, and black wing and tail-feathers. It is the Indian
V. of Latham, and le grand vautour des Indes of Sonnerat.
It is of the fize of the preceding, and native of India, ex-
tremely voracious, principally frequenting the fea-banks, and
preying upon dead fifh and other putrid fubftances ; and,
like other birds of this genus, fometimes affembling in vail
numbers on a field of battle.

Castaneus, Chefnut Vulture. With whitifh downy
head and neck, brownilh ruff, and black vping and tail-
feathers. This is the percnoptere of Buffon, and differs
little from the fulvous vulture, fo that it might be thought
to be a mere variety of that fpecies. This bird is remarka-
ble for a brown fpot fhaped hke a heart, and edged with a
ftraight white line, fituated on the breaft under the ruff.
It is deformed in figure, and difgufting in appearance, from
a continual flux of rheum from its nollrils, and of faliva from
two other holes in tlie bill. According to BufFon, it is of
the fize of an eagle, and an inhabitant of the Alps and Py-
renees, and of the mountains of Greece.

GiNGiNiANUS, AVhite Vulture. With black wing-
feathers.

V U L

U V U

feathers, anJ grey beak and legs. The vautour giiigi of
Sonnerat, who fays it is of the fize of a turkey, and is
found about the coafts of Coromandel. Its flight is ftrong
and rapid, and its voracity infatiable : it lives on carrion and
reptiles ; is generally feen finjrlc' and in marfhy places.

Plancus, Whitifh Vulture. With tranfverfe blackilh
lines, brown wings, and (lightly crelled black crown. This
is the V. plancus of Latham, the falco plancus of Lin-
naeus and Gmelin, the plaintive eagle and plaintive vulture
of Latham. It is a native of Terra del Fuego.

Cheriway, Vulture. With rofe-coloured cere, yellow
legs, ferruginous body, and whitifh head with ferruginous
creft. This is a kind of doubtful fpecies, which may be
confidered either as a vulture or an eagle. Jacquin firll de-
fcribed it, after having obferved it in the ifland of Aruba,
near the coall of Venezuela in South America.

The following fpecies are denominated by Dr. Shaw
doubtful : 11/2.

Tatvny Vu'ture of Latham, faid to be a native of Falk-
land iflands, with very (hort bill, large cere, and chin (lightly
bearded.

Hare Vulture, probably a fpecies of eagle rather than
vulture.

Armed Vulture. Mentioned by Brown in his African tra-
vels, and faid to be very frequent in the country of Darfur,
flying about by thoufands, and devouring all kinds of car-
rion, &c.

Bold Vulture of Latham, fo bold as to attack the natives
in New Holland, where it is called" Boora Morang."

It is faid that there are no vultures in Great Britain, nor
any north of the Baltic ; but the various fpecies are found
in the fouthern parts of Europe, Afia, Africa, and Ame-
rica, as low as Terra del Fucgo. They are a fluggifh un-
generous race, preying oftener on dead animals, and even on
putrid carcafes, than on living creatures : their fenfe of
fmelling is mod exquifite : they coUeft in flocks from great
diftances ; and are direfted to their prey by the fagacity of
their noftrils : they fly flowly and heavily ; are very greedy
and voracious to a proverb ; and they are bold and fearlefs,
preying in the midll of cities, undaunted by mankind.
Pennant's Genera of Birds, p. 2.

The vulture was a bird confecrated to Mars and Juno ;
and ufed among the Romans in the cxercife of augury.

VuLTUR, Mons, {Mount Vulturno,) in Anciml Geogra-
phy, a mountain of Italy, in Apulia, forming a chain
which extends from the S.W. to the N.E. fouth of Ve-
nufia. We learn from Livy, that the inhabitants of the
country called the wind which proceeded from this moun-
tain Vullurn'.is ; which wind is faid to have blown in the
faces of the Romans during the battle of Cannx. But Po-
lybius does not mention this circumftance ; .and it appears
that the Romans wire to the S., and the Carthaginians to
the N-, fo that the faces of the former were turned towards
the N. or the E. Accordingly, the wind of whicli Hanni-
bal fpcaks, was one of the collateral winds, which the an-
cients c.illed Vnltiirnus, and wliich was E.S.E.

Horace fpcaks of this mountain in one of his Odes (lib. iii.
od.4.) ; and Lucan alfo mentions it {lib. ix. v. 183.)

VULTURIA, or Vultuhina, a fortified place in
Gallia Cifalpina, S.E. of Cremona ; which furrendered to
the Lombards.

VULTURIUS, among the Romans, a throw of the tali,
othorwile called cams. See Talauius Ludus.

Alfo, an epithet given to Apollo, from a whinifical cir-
cumftance, which was that of releafing a poor flicpherd, who
had been deferted with ftolen treafure by his companion,
and left in the cavern of a rock, from which he had no

nieai>8 of afcending. Apollo advifcd hina to wound hi»
body with a flint, upon which a number of vultures, al-
lured by the fcent of blood, flocked round him, and plant-
ing their bills in his wounds and cloaths, mounted upwards
with him, and delivered him from the cave. The fable fur-
ther reports, that the other fhepherd was fentenced to death
by the Ephefian magiftrates, and the furvivor having re-
ceived by their award half the gold which was found in the
cave, and which his companion had purloined, built with it,
upon the mountain where the adventure had occurred, a
temple in honour of his deliverer, under the name of
Apollo Vulturius.

VuLTURius Lapis, a name given by many to the ftone
called guandroi.

VULTURNALIA. See Volturnalia.

VULTURNIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fitua-
ted between Sicily and the coaft of Africa, according to
tlie Itin. of Anton.

VULTURNUM, a town of Italy, at the mouth of the
Vulturnus.

VULTURNUS, (Le Vulturno,) a river of Italy, in
Campania. It commenced towards the north, in Samnium,
among the Caracenians, and for a long interval feparated
Samnium from Campania. At Benevento, it turned. to the
W., and difcharged itfelf into the fea. Towards the fea,
on the right of the river, was the territory of Falerna, on
this fide of mount Mafllcus, which was celebrated for its
excellent wine ; but in the time of Pliny it was neglefted,
and began to decline in reputation : that of the vineyard of
Faiidinus being more elleemed. Livy informs us, that in
the fecond Punic war, a fort was ereAed at the mouth of
this river, which afterwards became a town, in which was
eftabhfhed a Roman colony. Varro gives this town the
name of a colony.

VULTUS de Luca, the fame with veronica.

VULVA, quafi Valvje, doors, a name which fome phy-
ficians give to the vagina, and others to the uterus, or
womb.

Vulva is fometimes alfo ufed for the cunnus, or whole
pudendum muliebre.

VUNENA, a name given by the people of Guinea to a
kind of catch-fly, or lychnis, common in that part of the
world, and much ufed by them in a dccodion to cure fwcll-
ings of the legs. Petiver has called it lychnis Guineenjis
fruHu caryphyltoide foitis roris marini, hirfutis, angujlioribui.
Phil. Tranf. N^ 232.

VUOD, ill Mythology, a god of the Arabians.

VURNWEY, in Geography, a river of North Wales, in
the county of Montgomery, which runs into the Severn,
on the borders of Shroplhire.

VUSHOLTG, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
60 miles N. of Ifpahan.

UVSKOl, a town of Ruflia, in the government of To-
bollk, on the Irtifch ; 68 miles N. of Tobolflc.

VUT.SHIM, a town of Sclavonia ; 18 miles N. of
Pefoega.

UVULA, in An.itotny, the fmall conical body, projeft-
ing from ihe middle of llie foft palate. . See Di-GLfilTtov.

Uvi.'l.A, Difeafe and Amputation of. Wlien the uvula is
permanently elongated, fo as to interrupt fwallowing, and
occafion uncafinels in the throat, coughing, vomiting, &c.
it is proper to remove the redundant j-art.

Slight relaxations of the uvula may generally be cured by
aftringeiit gargles, compoled of the iiifulion of rotes, alum,
tindure of bark, &c. When, however, the iiiconvenicnee
cannot be removed by fiich means, the fuperfluous portion
of the uvula may be cut olf with a pair of ftiarp iciflars.

The

UVULAKIA.

The fear of hemorrhage, and the recommendation of the
ligature, in thefe cafes, are almoft abfurd, notwithftanding
the contrary ftatements of a few modern writers.

UVULARIA, in Botany, a genus eftablilhed and named
by Linna;us, is recorded, Phllof. Bot. 1 68, to owe this ap-
pellation to the refemblance of its infiorefcence to the uvula,
"Jigura inflorefcnitia uvula." Now this not being the cafe
with the genus in queftion, though Linnseus fays, in Hort.
Cliff. 12\, "fruaificatio uvule injlar dependet," we might have
wandered far in fearch of a meaning, or, like our predecefTors,
been content with little or no enquiry, had we not Humbled,
at the outfet, upon Uvularia as an old fynonym for Rufcas
Hypogloffum, to which the firft explanation is obvioufly ap-
plicable, on account of the diminutive leaf, not unhke the
uvula of the liuman throat, lying over the infiorefcence.
Perhaps, therefore, Linnaeus, finding this name unoccu-
pied, was the more induced to adopt it for his new genus,
on account of the affinity, and refemblance in general habit,
of the latter to Rufcus. We cannot juftify the meafure, but
it is, at any rate, preferable to deriving the name, as a di-
minutive, from UvARiA, (fee that article, ) according to the
explanation of De Theis. This indeed would be even lefs
intelligible, the Uvar'ia and Uvularia having no charafters
in conunon ; it would alfo be totally inadmiffible, no gene-
ric names being more contrary to rule, or good fenfe, than
diminutives of others already eftabhfhed. (See Vale-
RlANELLA and FediA.) — Linn. Gen. 164. Schreb. 219.
Willd. Sp. PI. -v. 2. 93. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 2. 246. PurlTi 231. Juff. 48. Lamarck

lUuftr. t. 247. f. 2 Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia.

Nat. Ord. Sarmaitacea; Linn. Lilia, Jufi".

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals fix, inferior, oblong-
lanceolate, acute, ereft, ilraight, very long. Nedtary an
oblong groove in the bafe of each petal internally. Statu.
Filaments fix, (liort, rather broad ; anthers vertical, longer
than the filaments, ereA, oblong, about half the length of the
corolla. Pi/l. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyleone, divided
half way down into three parts, thread-fhaped, longer than
the llamens ; Iligmas fimple, leflexed, longitudinally downy.
Peric. Capfule ovate-oblong, triangular, of three cells and
three valves, each with a central partition. Seeds feveral,
nearly globular, with a tunicated fear.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of fix upright petals, inferior. Neftary
a chink in the bafe of each. Stamens Ihorter than the co-
rolla. Stigmas reflexed. Capfule triangular, of three
valves, with central partitions. Seeds feveral, globofe, with
a tunicated fear.

Obf. From this genus is now feparated the U. amplexifo-
/m of Linnaeus. ( See Streptopus. ) The genuine fpecies
are perennial herbaceous plants, with alternate, fimple, un-
divided, entire, fimple-ribbed leaves. Floiucrs axillary
or terminal, folitary or umbellate, drooping, yellow, whitifli,
or brown. They are all ftrangers to Europe, inhabiting
rather mountainous umbrageous fituations, in temperate cli-
mates, ajid flowering early in the year. They are obvioufly
allied to Frilillaria, but have not fiat feeds, nor are ihejla-
etetis equal in length to the corolla.

I. \5. perfoliala. Pale Perfohate Uvularia. Linn. Sp.
PL 437. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Purlh n. i. Sm.
Exot. Bot. v. I. 95.1.49. (U. perfoliata minor; Mi-
chaux Boreal.-Amer. v. i. 199.) — Leaves perfoliate, ellip-
tical, obtufe with a fmall point. Corolla bell-ihaped, rough
on the infide. Anthers pointed. — Native of North Ame-
rica ; in fhady woods, among rocks, in rich vegetable
mould, from Canada to Carohna, flowering in May and
June. Purjb. Root of feveral fpreading, tapering,
flefliy, pale fibj^s. Stem folitary, annual, ereft, twelve or

fifteen inches high, round, fmootli, leafy ; often a little
branched, or fubdivided, in an alternate manner. Leaves
perfoliate at near^half an inch from their bafe, where they are
quite flat, not undulated ; they are two inches long, fmoolli
on both fides ; paler, and rather glaucous, beneath. Flowers
terminal, folitary, pendulous, on (hort ftalks. Petals three-
quarters of an inch, or an inch, long, of a pale greenifh
buff-colour; their inner furface rough with yellowiih protu-
berances. Neftariferous furrow linear, and very fmall.
Stamens full half as long as the petals. Anther about the
length of its filament, burfting longitudinally at the inner
fide of each cell, and tipped with an awl-fhaped point.
_ The fynonyms coUefted under this fpecies belong to va-
rious others, which Linnaeus, in his early acquaintance with
the genus, confidered as all the fame, nor have they hither-
to been reduced entirely to order, though much has been
done to that effect in the Exotic Botany, as v^ell as by Mr.
Pur(h. Polygonatum latifolmm perfoliatum Braftlianum, Bauh.
Prodr. 136, defcribed as " two cubits high, with perfoliate
leaves, two inches broad, and four long, and a large white
Jloiuer, whofe narrow petals, five in number, are two inches
long," cannot be clearly referred to any known fpecies.
The fpecimen is reported to have been obtained by Burfer
from Toupinambault, in Brafil, and Linnseus, by a mark
in his copy of Bauhin's Prodromus, appears to have feen it.
He hints, by a note in the Sp. Plant., that Burfer's fuppofed
Brafilian plants all feemed to have really come from Canada.
However this may be, Linusus's own herbarium (hews that
he confounded fpecimens of different fpecies, as well as their
fynonyms, under U. perfoliata, and therefore we dare not
confide in him for the above reference, which pofTibly
appertains to fome plant unknown to modern botanills. See
n. 3.

2. U. fiava. Small Yellow Uvularia. Sm. Exot.
Bot. v. 1. 97. t. 50. Purfh n. 2. Ait. Epit. 376. (U.
perfoliata a ; Ker, late Gawler, in Curt. Mag. t. 955. U.
caule perfoUato ; Gron. Virg. 51, according to Clayton's
defcription. Anonymos pudica ; Walt. Carol. 123.) —
Leaves perfoliate, elliptic -oblong, bluntilh ; waved at the
bottom. Corolla tapering at the bafe ; rough on the infide.
Anthers pointed. — In Ihady woods, on a fandy foil, from
New Jerfey to Lower Carolina, flowering in May and
June. Purjh. We have no doubt of this being a very dif-
tinft fpecies from the former. The leaves are more oblong,
and more revolute ; angular or wavy at the bafe. Flower
larger, more taper and elongated, with narrower, fharper
petals, one inch and a quarter long, yellow, with orange-
coloured granulations on the inner furface. Point of the
anthers longer and more confpicuous.

3. \J . grandiflora. Large Yellow Uvularia. Sm. Exot.
Bot. V. 1. 99. t. 5 1. Ait. n. 4. Purfh n. 3. Curt. Mag.
t. 1112. ( U. perfohata ; Redout. Liliac. t. 1S4, with
many erroneous fynonyms. U. perfoliata major ; Michaux
Boreal.-Amer. V. 1. 1 99. U. lanceolata ; Ait. n. 2. Willd.
n. 3. Polygonatum ramofum, flore luteo majus ; Cornut.
Canad. 38. t. 39. Barrel. Ic. t. 723. Sigitlum indicum
flore luteo ; Stap. in Theophr. 1067. f. 3.) — Leaves per-
foliate, oblong, acute ; wavy at the bafe. Petals fmooth
on both fides. Anthers almoft pointlefs. Nectary roundifh.
— On fhady hills, in a fertile foil, and amongft rocks, from
Canada to Carohna, flowering in June. Purjl:. Nearly
twice the fizeof the laft ; the leaves more oblong and taper-
pointed, as well as more wavy, and in fome degree plaited,
at the bafe. Flowers of a brighter yellow ; their petals
full an inch and a half long, more confpicuoufly ribbed, def-
titute of internal granulations, and furnifhed with a green
roundifh neftariferous deprelEon, more like that of a Fritil-

laria,

UVULAllIA.

iar'm, at the bafe. jinthers longer, and quite linear, with
but a (light membranous rudiment of a point, not al-
ways difcerniblc. This flowers in our gardens iwarly a
month earlier tliaii either of the laft. We humbly prcfume
that if any two fpecies of any genus be diftinft, this and the
ferfolmtci, to fay nothing of Jljvii, mull be fo, or botany
will prove a moil uncertain (ludy. The truth is, that no
competent botaiiift had, till lately, feen them together, in a
fufficiently perfeft Hate for difcriminatioii. Bauhin's Poly-
gonatum, mentioned under our firil Ipecies, may podibly be
the grandi/lora, the ^i'/a/r being fiippofed white, from their
appearance when dry, and being commonly no more than
live in the lovvcrmoft flower of our plant. Mr. Purih has
verified the lanceoltita of Mr. Aiton, by an authentic fpeci-
men. Indeed the fynonym of Cornuti fufficiently determines
that point.

4. U. ftjjiltfolui. Seflile-leaved Uvularia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 437. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. Pnrfh n. 4. Sm.
Exot. Bot. V. I. loi. t. 52. Curt. Mag. t. 1402. — Stem
fmooth. Leaves feflile, elliptic-lanceolate ; glaucous be-
neath. Petals fmoolli on both fides. Neftary oblong.
Capfule ftalked. — In fhady woods, from Canada to Caro-
lina, flowering in May and June. The fize of this fpecies,
and the pale colour of \\.% Jlu-wer, moi^: accord with U. per-

foitata, but its eflential difference from all the preceding
confifts in the leaves being felTilc, not in any manner perfo-
liate. They arc fomctimes very finely downy beneath, or
rather at the edges. Petals rather fpatulatc, with a greenifh
oblong neflary, and no roughnefs. Anthers very flightly
pointed. Stem fmooth, purplifli. All thcfe fpecies thrive
in moid fliady borders of bog-earth, with a portion of loam,
and as the herbage dies down to the root, fnrvive our ordi-
nary winters wilhout injury. U. feJfiUs, Thunb. Jap. 135,
is probably diftindt from out fe£iiiJoHa, but the author fur-
nifhes no difcriminating charaiStcrs.

5. U. puberula. Downy Uvularia. Michaux Boreal. -
Amer. v. i. 159. Purfli n. 5. — Stem rather downy. Leaves
fcflile, ovate ; rounded at the bafe. Petals fmooth on both
fides. — Found by Michaux, on tlic loftieft mountains of Ca-
rolina. He defcribes it as related to the laft, but diftinft
in its petals, being rather larger, though in like manner
fmooth on the infide, tapering at the upper part into an
acute point. The leaves are green on both fides, partly em-
bracing the Jlem. We have a fpecimen gathered by Mr.
Menzies on the weft coalt of North America, which an-
fwers exaftly to this defcription. The leaves are truly
ovate, pointed, having ftrong ribs, conncfted by confpicu-
ous Jranfverfe veins, and arc nearly twice the fize of the
laft. The Jlem is reddifh, befprinkled with hiofe hairs.
Floiver-Jlalks hairy, as is likewife the _y?)i/c. Anthers \mi:3x,
pointlefs, like thofe of the granilijlora. This fpecimen an-
fwers in foliage and inflorefconce to U. lanugmofa. Curt.
Mag. t. 1490, our Stkeptopus, n. 3 ; but ihe Jlowerjlalks
and_y?)i/f are there reprefented fmooth.

6. U. hirta. Hairy Uvularia. Thunb. Jap. 136.
Willd. n. 2. — " Stem (haggy. Leaves hairy, clatping the
ftem." — Gathered by Thunberg, near Jedo, in Japan.
The Jlem is round, a foot high, creft, the thicknefs of a
quill, and clothed with long denfe hairs. Leaves alternate,
fpreading, heart. (liaped, oblong, pointed, feven-ribbed, two
inches long, clotlicJ with very Ihort hairs. Flowers not ob-
ferved. Thunberg.

7. U. cirrhofa. Tendril-leaved Uvularia. Thunb. Jap.
136. Willd. n. 6. — Leaves feffde, linear, each ending in a

tendril. — Found by Thunberg, in Japan. " Stem round,
jointed, llriated, fmootii, fimple, ereft. Leaves two from
the fame Ijud, fmooth, a finger's length. Flowers from the

fame bud as the leaves, llalkcd, drooping. Fooljlalk re-
flexed, fiiigle-flowered, the length of the nail. Petals fix,
oblong, yellow, nearly an inch long. Filaments half that
length, white. Anthers oblong, two-lobcd, within the
flower. Style one, rather (horter than the corolla, but
longer than the ftamens. Stigmas three, reflexed." Thun-
berg. This defcription does not leave any doubt refpcfting
the generic charaAer, but it does not exprefs whether the
Jlotuers arc folitary, as in all the American genuine Uvtilarit,
or aggregate, as in the following oriental doubtful one*.
There being two leaves from one bud with the Jlonvers, is
remarkable, but the author has not clearly expreffed whe-
ther thefe are all the leaves borne by one Jlem, of which his
defcription excites fome fufpicion.

Mr. Gawler (Ker) has dcfcribed in Curt. Mag. t. 916,
an U. chinenfis, of which we were favoured, in May 1811,
with an authentic fpecimen from the ilove at Kew. This
may be defined — flowers in an umbel, fcflile on the foot-
ftalk of a leaf. It is reported to be a native of China. The
Jlem is herbaceous, about eighteen inches high, angular,
fmooth, leafy, a little zigzag, branched alternately in the
upper part. Leaves alternate, on fhort ftalks, ovato-lan-
ceolate, pointed, many-ribbed, fmooth, two or three inches
long ; three of their ribs ftronger than the reft. Umbel of
three or four Aroo^mg Jloiuers, feffde on the footftalk of one
of the leaves ; its partial Jlalks about half an inch long, with
feveral roughifli angles. Petals pointed, brown, twice as
long as the ftalks ; fmooth within, all elongated and gib-
bous, almoft fpurred, at the bafe. Filaments two or three
times tlie length of thAr anthers, both together nearly equal
to ihe petals. Germen turbinate, triangular. Style nearly as
long as t\\i.-Jlamens, with three riecur^ed Jligmas . Nothing is
known of thejruit. The clofe affinity of tliis plant to one
we fhall now defcribe, vvhicli is certainly no Uvularia, will
not allow us to admit either into our lift of fpecies. We
allude to a fpecimen gathered by Dr. Buchanan, on the
moift banks of rivers at Chitlong, in Upper Nepaul, in
April I 802. This bears its flowers in a ftalked umbel, from
the footftalk of a leaf. — The Jlem and leaves cliilely accord
with tlic Chinefe fpecies juft deferibed ; but the umbels, con-
fifting of feven or eight gri^cnjlowers, are each fupported
by a common deflexed^a/jf, almoft as long as the partial
ones, and, like them, rough-edged. Petals but half the
length of tlie ftalks, gibbous, and almoft tubular at the
bafe ; the three outermoll a little the broadeft and fliortefl.
Filaments thrice the length of the anthers, which are Uncar,
cloven at each end. Stigmas three, recurved, deeply fepa-
rated. Berry, according to Dr. Buchanan, three-lobed, of
three cells, with folitaryy2'^(/f. Such a fruit cannot belong
to Uvularia. Tliefe two fpecies mull therefore, in the pre-
fent ftate of our knowledge, be referred to Streptopus,
(fee that article,) to which we would make the following
additions.

2. S. rofeus. (Uvularia rofea ; Curt. Mag. t. 1489.)^
Flowered in Kcw-garden, in May i8i2. The _/7o'a'irrj are
bigger than thofe of S. amplexifulius, and are elegantly
fpotted with red.

3. S- lanuginojus. (Uvularia lanuginofa ; Curt. Mag.
t. 1490.) — Brought from North America by Mr. Lyon,
with whom it flowered ni May 181 2. Thi: Jhwers ftand in
pairs, their y/,;//j (lightly combined at thebaic. Stamens
but half the length of the narrow green ^t/o//.

\. &. chinenfis. Brown Cliinefe Streptopus. (Uvularia
chinenfis; Curt. Mag. t. yi6. Ait. n. 6. ) — Leaves on
ftlort ftalks. Umbels feflile. Sec its defcription above.

J. S. peeiuncularis. Long-llalked Streptopus. (Uvu-
laria Pitfulu ; Buch. MSS. ) — Leaves on ftiort ftalks. Um-

U X A

bels on general lUlks, nearly as long as the partial ones. Of
this alfo we have juft given a defcription. We know nothing
of the fhape of the feeds in this fpecies, nor whether they
are furnilhed with any appendage, or tunic, at their fear.
If they fliould prove to want this charafter, that circum-
ftance, added to the gibbous, almoft tubular, neftariferous
bafes of their petals, and the great comparative length of
their ^laments, with refpeft to the anthers, might almoil
lead to their eftabliftiment as a new genus. Before this
could be done, however, we ought to be well acquainted
with the/r«/V, feeds, and their year, in Streptopus lanugimfus,
whofe X.wi\x\ flwdiers connetl thefe two umbellate fpecies with
tlie folitary itiflorefcence of the S. amplexifolius and rofeus.

The concluding paragraph of our article Streptopus
fhould now be erafed.

UvuLARiA, in the Materia Medka, the name given by
authors to the plant called hypoghjfum, or double tongue.

UUZEDERINA, in Geography, a town of Bulgaria, on
the Danube ; 50 miles W. of Nicopolis.

UWCHLAND, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Chefter
county, containing 1178 inhabitants.

UXACONA, in Jncient Geography, a. town of Great
Britain, in Antonine's fecond Itin., marked between Uri-
conium (Wroxeter) and Pannocrucium (at or near the river
Penk, and town of Penkridge). Dr. Gale and Mr. Cam-
den place Uxacona at Okenyale, and Mr. Baxter at New-
port ; but Mr. Horfley, following the traft of the military
way, and obferving the diitance, fixes it at the banks of a
rivulet near Sheriff-Hales.

UXAHVER, Ox-spring, a boiling fountain of water,
about a mile from a place called Hufavik, in the north of
Iceland, not far from Skalholt, more regular, and nearly
equal to the Gcyfer in the magnificence of its operations.
It is faid that this name was given to it from the circum-
ftancc of an ox having fallen into it by accident, and having
been boiled alive.

We ihall here add, that the Geyfers are celebrated foun-
tains, about 16 miles N. of Skalholt, fituated in a country
indicating many traces of volcanic eruptions. They lie on
the fide of a hill, which does not exceed 300 feet in height,
and which is feparated from the mountain towards the W.
by a narrow ftripe of flat boggy ground, connefted with
that which extends over the whole valley. On the E. fide
of the hill there are feveral banks of clay, from fome of
which fteam arifes in different places, and in others there
are cavities in which the water boils briflvly. Below thefe
banks there is a gentle flope, compofed of matter, which,
at fome diilant period, has been depofited by fprings that no
longer exilt. The flrata or beds thus formed fecm to have
been broken by the flincks of earthquakes, particularly near
the Great Geyfer. Within the fpace of about a nnle there
are numerous orifices in the old incruftations, from which
boiling water and fteam ilTue, with different degrees of force ;
and at the northern extremity is the Great Gcyfer, fufli-
ciently diilniguirtiable from the others by every circumllance
connected with it. Aniidil the depofitions of matter is a
mount about feven feet high, lying on the W. fide, where a
difruption has taken place. On the top of this mount is a
bafon, extending 56 feet in one direction, and 46 in another.
The bafon v.-as full of hot water, a httle of which was run-
ning over. Above the Great Geyfer, and near it, is a large
irregular opening, the beauties of which it is hardly pofii-
ble to defcribe. The water which filled it was as clear as
cryftal, and perfeftly ftill, though nearly at the boiling
point. Through it were feen white incruftations, forming
a variety of figures and cavities, to a great depth ; and be-
low was perceived a vaft and dark abyfs, over which the

7

U X A

cruft. that fupported the obfervers formed a dome of no
great thicknefs ; a circumftance which contributed much to
the effed of this awful fcene. Near this fpot are feveral
holes, from which vapour continually rifes ; and from one
of which a rumbhng noife proceeded. One of the moft re-
markable of thefe fprings threw out a great quantity of
water ; and from its continual noife it was called the Roar-
ing Geyfer. The eruptions of this fountain were inceffant.
The water dalhed out with fury every four or five minutes,
and covered a great fpace of ground with the matter it de-
pofited. The jets were from thirty to forty feet high. They
were fluvercd into the fineit particles of fpray, and fur-
rounded by great clouds of fteam. The fituation of this
fpring was eighty yards diftant from the Geyfer, on the fide
of a hill. It is probable that an earthquake has damaged
the mechanifm of this fpring, or the produftion of heat, at
the particular fpot where it is fituated, has ceafed to be fuf-
ficient to produce the phenomena which it formerly exhi-
bited. In collefting incruftations near the bafon, and
ftriking on its brink many blows with a hammer, a found
was heard like the diftant difcharge of a piece of ordnance,
and the ground fhook. The found was irregul.irly and
rapidly repeated ; and then the water, after having feveral
times fuddenly rifen in a large column, accompanied by clouds
of fteam, from the middle of the bafon to the height of ten
or, twelve feet, the column feemed as if it burft, and fink-
ing down, it produced a wave which caufed the water to
overflow the bafon in confiderable quantity. After the firfl;
propulfion, the water was thrown up again to the height of
about 15 feet ; and there was a fucceffion of jets, to the num-
ber of eighteen, none of which appeared to exceed fifty feet iu
height, and they lafted about five minutes. After the laft
jet, which was the moft furious, the water fuddenly left the
bafon, and funk into a pipe in the centre. The heat of the
bafon foon made it dry, and the wind blew afide the vapour
almoft immediately after the fpouting ceafed. The pipe,
into which tlie water had fimk about ten feet, was imme-
diately examined, and it appeared to be riling llowly. The
diameter of the pipe, or rather pit, is 10 feet, widening
near the lop to 16 feet. The perpendicular depth of the
bafon is three feet, that of the pipe is fomewhat more than
60 feet. When the water was Hill, ftones were thrown
into the pipe, and a violent ebullition followed. The tem-
perature of the water within reach, when the pipe was full,
was found to be 209°. At repeated intervals frefh jets oc-
curred, none of which exceeded 30 feet in height. But we
have not room to enlarge in the detail of various other cir-
cumftances obferved by tliofe who examined thefe extraor-
dinary fountains. The depofitions of the prefent and former
fprings are vifible to a great extent, about half a mile in
every direftion, and they probably extend themfelves under
the furfacc, now covered with grafs and water to a very
coiifiderable diftance.

Ahhough hot fprings occur in every part of the country,
the Geyfers are the moft remarkable, and muft have exiiled
for a long time ; but as they are lituated on the verge of that
valt diftrift of uninhabited and defolate country which
forms the interior of Iceland, they have not been parti-
cularly noticed by the early Icelandic authors ; nor are they
now much vifited by the natives. In order to account for
the phenomena exhibited by the operations of thefe fprings,
it is fuppofed that they are occafioned by fudden produc-
tions of heat, whatever may be the caufes of that heat. A
column of water is fufpended in a pipe by the expanfive
force of fteam confined in cavities under the furface. An
additional quantity of fteam can only be produced by more
heat being evolved. The heat is fuddenly evolved, and

elaftic

U X B

II X B

el.iftic vapour fuddeiily produced, we may account for the
cxplofions accompanied by noifes. The accumulation of
fteam will caufe agitation in the column of water, and a far-
ther produclion of vapour. The prefTure of the column
will be overcome ; and the fteam efcaping, will force the
water upwards along with it. For a further account of
thefe fprings, and of the caufes that produce them, illuf-
trated by appropriate engravings, we refer to Mackenzie's
Travels in Iceland, p. 211, &c. Sec Boiling Springs.

UXAMA, [Ofma,] in Ancient Geography, a town in the
interior of Hifpania Citerior, belonging to the Arevaci,
S.E. of CHnia.

UXAMABAREA, a town of Hifpauia Citerior, be-
longing to the Autrigones. Ptolemy.

UXDRIDGE, in Geography, a market-town in the
hundred of Elthorne, and county of Middlefex, England,
is fituatcd 18 miles W. by N. from St. Paul's cathedral,
London. Though the moft confiderable town in the county,
it is only a hamlet to the parilh of Hillingdon. The name
of this place was anciently written Oxebruge, and in fubfe-
qnent records Woxebruge or Woxebrugge : the mode of ortho-
graphy in prefent ufe appears, however, to have been
adopted for feveral centuries. The compound term of
which this appellation was formed, appears eafy of explana-
tion : the place was noted, in remote ages, for the paffage
of oxen from the adjacent rich paftufe lands of Buckingham-
(hire, and a bridge was conftrucled over the river Colne at
a very early period. Leland fays of this town — " In it is
but one long ftreet, but that, for timber, well buildcd.
There is a celebrate market once a week, and a great fayre
on the feaft-day of St. Michael. There be two wooden
bridges at the weft ende of the towne, and under the more
wefle gocth the great arnie of Colne river. The lefter arme
goeth under the other bridge, and each of them ferve there
a greate mille." Uxbridge, at prefent, confifts principally
of one long and wide ftreet : the greater part of the houfes
are old ; but there are feveral of modern conftruftion,
which are at once commodious and ornamental. The main
ftream of the Colne, and feveral of its diverging branches,
water the town on the Buckinghamftiirc fide, where the
principal channel is crofted by a fubflantial bridge of brick.
Over the Grand Junftion Canal, which paftes the fame divi-
fion of the town in its progrefs along the wettern border
of Middlefex, is likewife a bridge of a fimilar defcription.
The difference, as to the appearance and charafter of the
place, between the i6th century and the prefent period,
thus feems to confift chiefly in the fubftitution of brick for
timber, in the houfes and bridges. The moft memorable
hiftorical event conncfted with Uxbridge, is the unfuccefs-
ful treaty which here took place between commiflioncrs
appointed, by the king on one fide, and by the parliament
on the other, during the civil dillurbances of the 17th cen-
tury. Tliele commiftioncrs, fixteen on the part of the
kuig, and twelve for the parliament, met in January 1645 ?
all of them diftinguiftied noblemen or perfons of great emi-
nence on each fide : commiflioners from the parliament of
Scotland likewile attended the meeting. It was foon found
that no rational dilcuflion could be cxpeftcd : the demands
of the parliament were exorbitant, and their commiflioners
were not inclined to accommodation : after twenty days
pafted in debate, in which the refult appeared to be pre-
determined, the commiflion was diffolved, and the decifion
unhappily left to the fword. The manfion in which the
commiflioners met is Itill remaining, and is fituated at the
weftern extremity of the town. It has been recently con-
verted into an inn, bearing the fign of the Crown, and has
undergone confiderable alterations. Two principal rooms

Vol. XXXVII.

remain in their original ft ate ; one of which, from tradition,
and from its capacious dimenfions, appears to be that ufed
by the commiflioners. To the prefent day, the building is
termed the Treaty Houfe. This manfion, with the cere-
monial and procedure of the commiflion, is particularly de-
fcribed by lord Clarendon in his " Hiflory of the Great
RebeUion." Uxbridge does not afford any public build-
ings pecuHarly interefting. Its chapel is an irregular edifice,
chiefly eompofed of flint and brick : it is in the pointed
ftyle of architefture, but quite dcftitute of the impofing
beauty which that mode of building is capable of p-oducing :
its interior comprifes a chancel, a nave, and two aifles,
divided by pointed arches. It is believed that a chapel
exifted here fo early as the year 1281 ; but it is not men-
tioned in the records of Hillingdon till 1469 : yet, that
Uxbridge did poffefs a chapel prior to the latter date is
evident ; for, in 1447, Robert Oliver and other inhabitants
founded a guild " in the chapel of St. Margaret at Wos-
bridge ;" and in 1459 a chantry in this chapel was founded
and endowed by fir Walter Shiryngton. In 1682, George
Townfend, efq. taking into confideration that in fuch a
populous town the place of worfiiip was deftitute of a
fuitable endowment, bequeathed certain tenements in Lon-
don for the maintenance of a minifter to refide in or near
Uxbridge : and in 1706, a houfe was built by the inhabit-
ants for the ufe of the refident minifter, on condition of his
inftrufting fix poor boys in reading and writing, or other-
wife paying 61. per annum to the churchwardens. Thi«
houfe is let by the prefent minifter, and fix boys are in-
ftrufted at his coft in the parochial fchool. Here are meet-
ing-houfes for Quakers, Preftiyterians, and Methodifts.
In 1695, George Pitt, efq. conveyed the manor of Ux-
bridge, with its tolls and appurtenances, to certain inhabit-
ants of the town, in truft, that the profits fliould be applied
to charitable purpofes. This liberal grant is immediately
connected with the fchools for gratuitous education, of
which there are two in the town, both much enlarged in
1805. The fchool for boys is aflifted with fifty guineas
annually from the fund ; and the girls' fchool with twenty
guineas ; and both are further aided by voluntary contri-
butions. Two hundred boys and fixty girls are thus
educated ; and the girls are clothed and further quahfied to
become valuable fervants. The Lancailer fyftcm is adopted
in each fchool ; and both eftabhfliments are accommodated
witli convenient fchool-rooms in the upper part of the mar-
ket-houfe, which is an extenfive brickcdifice, erefted in 1 789.
Beneath it is a fpacious area for pitching corn, and for the
refort of the farmers and dealers. Henry de Lacy, earl of
Lincoln, obtained, in i 294, the grant of a weekly market
on Mondays, and an annual fair on the feaft of St. Michael.
The market is now held on 'I'hurfdays, and is one of the
moll confiderable marts for corn in this part of the kingdom.
A fair is ftill held on Michaelmas day for hiring fervants,
&c., and lieie are three other fairs for cattle. The internal
police of the town is regulated by two bailiffs, two con-
ftables, andfour tytliing-men or iicadboroughs. lii tlie furvey
of the year 181 1, the population of Uxbridge was returned
as 241 1, occupying 450 houfes. No manufaAures of im-
portance are cultivated ; but here are feveral corn-mills on
a large fcale, and meal may be faid to form the chief tradinf^
purfuit of the town. Great advantages in trade arife from
the market, and from the numero\is feats in the vicinity.
This town gives the title of earl to the Paget family.
Henry lord Paget was created earl of Uxbridge in 1744 :
by the death of his grandfon, the title became extinA in
1769; but was revived in 1784, in the perfon of Henry
Bailey, a coufin and heir of the deceafed, wiio had ailumed
4 I the

U X B

the name and acceded to the barony of Paget : the fon
of this nobleman is now earl of Uxbridge, and has recently
been created marquis of Anglefey, in confequence of his
military achievements on the continent.

At a (hort diftance from the town, on the eaftern fide of
the road leading towards London, is the feat of Richard
Henry Cox, efq. This manfion was erefted in 17 17 by
the laft duke of Schomberg, who had refided feveral years
in an ancient houfe on the eft ate. It was afterwards the
property and refidence of the Chetwynd family, and about
1 785 was purchafed by the late marchionefs of Rockingham,
who paffed the remainder of her life here. It was after-
wards purchafed by Jofiah Du Pre Porcher, efq. who fold
it to Mr. Cox, the prefent proprietor.

On the border of Uxbridge Common, in the immediate
vicinity of the town, is the refidence of Thomas Harris,
efq. joint patentee of Covent Garden theatre. This is a
fpacious brick dwelling, with extenfive gardens, on which
the proprietor has been lavifli m embellifhments. One
portion of this domain requires particular notice — a mimic
hermitage, decked with fculpture, fpars, &c. opens to a
fpacious room, in which are preferved portraits of the prin-
cipal theatrical performers, from the date of Garrick to the
prefent period.

About one mile N.E. from Uxbridge, in the parilhof Ick-
enham,is Swakeley or Swateley Houfe, the property and refi-
dence of Thomas Clarke, efq. It waserefted in 1638, by fir
Edmond Wright, who, in 1641, was appointed lord mayor
of London by the parliament, after the removal of fir William
Afton from that office. The manfion was afterwards fuc-
celTively the property of fir WiUiam Harrington, one of
tlie judges of king Cliarles I., and of fir Robert Vyner, the
facetious lord mayor of London, who entertained Charles II.
at Guildhall. It was fubfequently the feat of Benjamin
Lethieullier, efq. of whom it was purchafed in 1750, by the
father of th? prefent proprietor. The houfe, which is a
fquare fubftantial llrufture, with two flightly projefting
wings, is compofed of brick, with ftone coinges, wnidow-
cafes, and finifliings. The entrance is through a porch in a
fquare central turret, which opens into a hall paved with
black and white ftone. Here is a carved fcreen, furmounted
by a buft of Charles I. A ftaircafe of oak, with the fides
and cieling painted, leads to a fuite of apartments, in which
capacious and well-proportioned dimenfions are pleafingly
blended with an air of domeftic comfort.

Within two miles of Uxbridge, on the fouth-weft, is
Delaford-Park, the feat of Charles Clowes, efq. The an-
cient manfion of Delaford, which ftood in a low and un-
favourable fpot, was taken down about the year 1790, and
the park attached to it was added to the adjacent grounds
belonging to Mr. Clowes, whofe dwelling occupies a more
elevated fcite, and was partly built by]|the late vifcount Kil-
kenny, but has been confiderably enlarged by the preient
owner.

The village of Hillingdon, in which pari(h Uxbridge is
comprifed, is one mile diftant from the town, to the fouth-
eaft, and contains many fubftantial and commodious houfes.
The parifh church, which ftands on the fide of the high road,
is an ancient ftrufture, chiefly compofed of flint and ftone,
having a fquare tower at the weft end, with an embattled
parapet, and a bell-cafe of wooden frame-work : the interior
is divided into a nave, chancel, and two aifles, feparated by
oftangular pillars and pointed arches. Monuments and
^ther fepulchral memorials are unufually numerous, both
in the church and cemetery, in confequence of the parochial
conneftion of this place with Uxbridge. In the church-
yard is the tomb of John Rich, efq. formerly a patentee of

U X E

Covent Garden theatre, well-known as the inventor of the
Enghlh harlequin, and for his excellent performance of
that charafter, under the affumed name of Lun. On the
north fide of the church is an ancient manfion, commonly
called the Cedar-houfe, from the celebrated cedar-tree
which grew in the garden. This tree was planted by
Samuel Reynardfon, efq., who appears to have refided in
this houfe from 1678 till his death in 172 i. The firft in-
troduftion of the cedar into England was in 1683 ; and it
is probable, as Mr. Reynardfon was a naturalift, and had a
curious garden of exotics, that this was one of the earlielt
planted. It was accurately meafured in 1779, when its
dimenfions were in perpendicular height fifty-three feet ;
diameter of the horizontal extent of the branches, from eaft:
to weft, ninety-fix feet ; from north to fouth, eighty-nine ;
girth of the trunk, clofe to the ground, fifteen feet fix
inches, and at the height of fourteen feet and a half, juft
under the divifion of the principal branches, fifteen feet
eight inches. The girth of the larger branch, at a foot
and a half from its divifion, was twelve feet ; it then divided
into two fecondary branches ; one of which was eight feet
fix inches in girth, the other feven feet ten inches ; the
other principal branch, at its divifion, meafured ten feet in
girth, and foon dividing, formed two fecondary branches,
each five feet fix inches in girth. In September 1789, one
of the largeft branches was broken off by a high wind, in
confequence of which the tree was cut down. Above
eighty years' growth were difcernible beyond the centre-
piece. The tree produced 450 feet of timber, fix loads
and three-quarters of ftack-wood, and one hundred and
a quarter of faggots. Mr. Lovett, a carpenter of Denham,
purchafed the tree for 10/., and retailed it for 22/. 1 7/.
After the death of Mr. Reynardfon, the Cedar-houfe was
the feat of general Rich RulTell, who died in 1735. It
is now the property of Richard Heming, efq., and in the
occupation of Laccy Primatt, efq. At a ftiort diftance from
the church, to the fouth, is the redfory-houfe, a fpacious
building, erefted in 1604. It appears that a manfion on
this fcite was formerly held by the bifliops of Worcefter as
an inn, or refting-place, in their journeys to London.

On Hillingdon Heath, a confiderable tradt of land to the
fouth-eaft of the village, are feveral refpeftable villas,
chiefly of a modern date. One of thefe, an old manfion,
formerly occupied by the duke of Buccleuh, is now the
refidence of Thomas Bent, efq. by whom it has been greatly
improved, and who has been at a very confiderable expence
in ameliorating part of the heath. In this vicinity is Hil-
lingdon-Place, a feat eredfed by the late admiral Drake, and
now in the occupation of the Mifs Fullers. On the fouth
fide of the heath is a fpacious dwelling, built by the late
Peter de Salis, count of the Roman empire, who refided
here feveral years. This houfe Hands on an eftate called
Coomes, alias Little London, and fometimes termed Hil-
lingdon Park. The parilh of Hillingdon, exclufive of
Uxbridge, was, in the year 1811, ftated to contain 419

houfes, and 2250 inhabitants Beauties of England and

Wales, vol. x. Middlefex. By J. N. Brewer, 1 816.
Lyfons' Middlefex Parilhes, 410. 1800.

UxBRiDOE, a town of the ftate of Maflachufetts, in the
county of Worcefter, containing 1404 inhabitants ; 35 miles
W. of Bofton.

UXELA, or UxELLA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Britain, belonging to the Damnonii, the ancient inhabitants
of Devonftiire and Cornwall ; fuppofed by Mr. Camden to
have been fituated atLoftwithiel ; by Mr. Baxter, at Saltafti ;
and by Mr. Horlley, at Exeter. Others have placed it on
the river Parret, near Bridgewater. See Damnonii.

UXELLO-

V Y A

U Z E

UXELLODUNUM, a place which was the laft which
Csfar held in Gaul ; but its fituation has been much dif-
puted. Sanfon refers it to the territory of the Cadurci, or
Cahors ; others have fixed it at Cadenac, upon the confines
of Kouergue ; and others again at Luzeto, upon the Olt, but
below Cahors. But the pofition of UxcUodunum, and which
unites the greatelt number of fuffrages, is that of Pucach
d'lfTola. " Podium Uxelli" is the northern part of Querci,
towards the frontier of Limofin.

UXELUM.atownof the Selgovae, placed both by Horf-
ley and Baxter at Caerlaveroch near Dumfries ; and this
opinion is the more probable, becaufe the two names, Uxelum
and Caerlaveroch, feem to be derived from Britifii words,
which fignify a town near the fea-coa(l. Carbantorium,
placed by Camden at Caerlaveroch, below Dumfries, was
probably fituated where Dumfries now ftands, or near it.

UXENA, a town of Hifpania, in Bcctica.

UXENTUM, a town of Italy, in the interior of MefTa-
pia, belonging to the Sulentini ; fituated S.W. of Hya-
runtum. Ptol.

UXENTUS, a mountain of India, on this fide of the
Ganges. Ptol.

UXIA, a town of Afia, in the Perfide, at a fmall dif-
tance from the fea. Ptol.

UXII, a people of Afia, in the Elymaide. They inha-
bited a territory on the other fide of the town of Suze, be-
yond the Pafitigris, and on the confines of proper Perfide,
according to Quintus Curtius and Arrian. The river Pafi-
tigris had its fource in the mountains of the Uxians, ac-
cording to Diodorus Siculus. Thefe people were divided
into two nations : thofe who inhabited the plain were fubjcft
to the Perfians, and of thefe Diod. Sic. fpcaks (1. xvii.
c. 67. ) Thofe who inhabited the mountains before the Per-
fide maintained their liberty, and of tliem Strabo fpeaks
(1. XV.) This author calls the country of the Uxians by the
name of Uxia, and he fays that they were great robbers ;
and Pliny gives them the fame charafter. See Urii.

UXlTiCO, in Geography, a town on the fouth coaft of
the ifiand of Rhodes. N. lat. 36° 9'. E. long. 27° 34'.

UXOR, in the Language of the Chemijls, the mercury of
metals. Tiiis is the wife they fay, and fulphur is the huf-
band. See Maiutus.

UXORIUM, in /InllquUy, a fine, or forfeit, paid by the
Romans for not marrying.

UXUMI, or OosUMi, in Geography, a town of Japan, on
the ifland of Ximo. N. lat. 32°. E. long. 133°.

UYA, a fmall ifland near the weft coaft of Shetland. N.
lat. 60° 43'. W. long. 1° 54'.

VYAGRAYAHl, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo
goddefs Parvati, confort of Siva. The name means tiger-
mounted ; this goddefs, like Cybele, being feen riding in a
car drawn by lions or tigers, and turret -crowned.

VYAHRITIS, myftical words ufed by enthufiaftic Hin-
doos in their abftradled modes of worlhip called Ji2p, which
fee. Every thing ternary being myfterious with the Hin-
doos, the Vyahrilis are of courfe three ; viz. bhur, hhuvah,
fiuer, or earth, flcy, heaven. This triverbal phrafe is pro-
foundly myftical.

VYAS A , in Biography, a perfonage of great celebrity and
fanClity in the hiftory of the Hindoos, as arranger or com-
piler of their facrcd books called the Veda. His real name
is fuppofcd to have been Dwapayana, or Krifhna Dwapay-
ana ; and his furname of Vyafa, or Divider, to have been
given him from his great work. An incarnation nt the god
Vifhnu is fometimcs mentioned as the arranger of the Hindoo
fcriplures in their prefent form. In the eiglitccntfi Purana,
called Sri-Bhagavata, twenty-two incarnations of Viflinu,

there called Krifhna, the Prefervcr,are enumerated ; tl>c feven-
teenth is thus noticed : " As Vyafa he divided the Veda for
the inftruftion of mankind." See Krishna, Purana, and
Sni-BnACAVAT. But this probably means that he afted
under the influence of immediate infpiration ; an idea fully
concurred in by the numerous believers in the divine origin
of the Vedas.

It is ufual with the Hindoos to afcribe to Vyafa the Pu-
ranas and Mahabarat, as well as the Vedas. (SccMaha-
BARAT and PuRANA':'''^ But it is not credible that the talent
and induftry of any human being, and we are not, in this in-
ftance, required to believe in any fuptrhuman aid, could cffeft
fo much. Nor, from internal evidence, is it poflible that
they could have originated in the fame age.

To Vyafa is likewife afcribed a celebrated and popular
fyftem of philofophy, grounded wholly on the doftrines
of the Veda, and thence named Fedanta ; which fee. It
is written in a very dogmatical, fcntcntious ftile, and is
very obfcure. A commentary by the learned Sankaracharya
(fee his article) explains, however, in a very admirable man-
ner, almoll every fentence and difficult word.

The doftrines of Vyafa were expounded and fupported
alfo by a difciple named Jaimini, who appears to have been
cotemporary with his matter. His fcliool is called Mi-
vianfa, which fee, and Jaimini.

It is not neceffary to inquire into the time in wliich an
author flourilhed, who connefts himfelf with works ftated
to be thoufands of years old ; and on which confiderablc dif-
ferences of opinion exift among the beft informed. Nor is
it very profitable to inquire after the family of a perfon be-
lieved to have been an incarnation of a deity. It may, how-
ever, be noticed, that fome books mention a fon of V^yafa
named Sucha ; Parafara his father, grandfon of Vafifhta, is
mentioned in the Veda as an author of fome portions of the
work ; but this is explained to mean that he was one of the
Rifhis, or faints, to or through whom fucii portions were
revealed by Brahma. See Risiii and Vasishta.

The encomiums on Vyafa fcattered through the poetical
works on all fubjefts, fince his embrace all throughout the
Eaft, are endlefs. See an inftance of this in our article
Tkiveni.

UZAN, in /Indent Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
of the number of tliofe which Ptolemy places between the
river Bagradas and the river Tabraca.

UZBEKS, or UsBEKs, in Geography, a tribe of Tar-
tars, who inhabit Kharafm, (which fee,) and Great Bu-
charia, and who, according to Abulgafi, confift of four
main (locks, of wliich the Naimanes and Igures are known
from the hiftory of Jengliis, Tchingis or Zingis khan. Thofe
two hordes formerly dwelt, the former on the wcftern fide
of the native territories of Tchingis, and the latter in Turfan.
Of their fetllement in Great Biicharia, and other circum-
ftances relating to them, we have already given an account
under that article. They are faid to have derived their
name from Uzbek, khan of Kipj^k-

UZECIA, in ytncienl Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, S. of Adrumetum, and at a fmall Jift.ince fpora
Tliyfdriis.

UZEDA, or UcKDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
New Caftile, on liio Xarama ; 30 miles N. of Madrid.

UZEL, a town of Prance, in the department of the North
Coafts ; 6 miles N.N.VV. of Loiidiac.

UZERCHE, a town of France, and princip:il place of a
diftrict, in the department of the Correze ; 1 ^ miles N. W.
of Tulle. N. lat. 45^ 35'. E. long. I "39'.

UZE'S, a town of France, and principal place of a dif-

trift, in the department of tlic Card. Before the Revolution,

4 I 2 the

U Z E

the fee of a birtiop ; near k is a medicinal fpring, and a little
below the bilhop's palace is a fpring which fupplies the aque-
dua of Nifmes; 12 miles N. of Nifmes. N. lat. 44° 1'.
E. long. 4° 30'.

UzEs, called alfo Rumanians or Polootzes, in Jncient
Geography, are mentioned both by Herodotus and Strabo.
At the period when hiftory records their aftivity as a nation,
(A.D. 883,) that is, when, in conjunftion with the Kha-
zares, they drove the Petfchenegrans from their homefteads,
they had already extended themfelvewrpVom Alhava toward
the mountains of Kitzig-tag, as far as the nether Volga.
They now took the countries of the expelled Petfchenegrans
into pofleflion, and one of their ftems feized the occupancy
of the original abodes of the Khazares (fee Khazares), on
the weftern fide of the Volga and the Cafpian as far as Der-
bent. In the eleventh century, they fpread into the eaftern
parts of Europe. They wrelled from the Petfchenegrans
almoft all which they had hitherto pofTefied in that quarter
of the globe, particularly the Krim, the countries between
the Don and the Dnieper, with Moldavia and Walachia.
After they had continued their ravages for a long time in
Bulgaria, Thrace, Tranfylvania, and Hungary, and were in a
great meafure brought to ruin, they at laft fettled in Hun-
gary. Towards the end of the eleventh century, they cap-
tured the north-eaftern part of the Kuban from the Ruf-
fians, who were at that time torn to pieces by inteftine
dilTentions. In the former half of the thirteenth century,
they loft by the Tfhingifes, Moldavia, Valachia, and the Krim.
In the year 1392, the Kumanians were numbered among the
nations which belong to the ftate of Hungary ; but from

U Z N

that time they ceafe to be an hiftorical nation. The Petf-
chenegrans above mentioned, named by themfelves Kengar or
Kengli, were a powerful wandering nation on the rivers
Volga and Ural. They became firft known in Europe by
their marches into the Khazarian empire in 839, and by
their wars in 867 with the Slavonians, a little time before
made tributary to the Khazares. Driven from their feats by
the Uzes and Khazares, they made themfelves matters of the
country between the Don and the Dniefter, and expelled
thence the Hungarians fubjeft to the Khazares. In the ele-
venth century, they migrated towards Moravia, Bulgaria,
and Thrace, and eftabhihed themfelves, after committing
frequent ravages, in the countries of the Eaft Romans in
Dardania and the leiTer Scythia. At the clofe of the twelfth
century, they pofTetred a part of Tranfylvania, and about
that time they gradually vanifhed out of hiftory. Tooke's
Ruffia, vol. i.

UZETTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gironde ; 6 miles W. of Bazas.

UZIFIR, Uzi'FAR, or UziFUR, in Chemijlry, a name
which fome authors give to cinnabar.

UZITA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
S. of Adrumetum. Ptolemy.

UZKUND, in G^o^^ra/Z^. See Urkend.

UZMEY, a diftriA of Dagheftan, fituated between
two fmall rivers, extending about 60 verfts along the
Cafpian, and about the fame diftance in breadth. See Da-
gestan.

UZNEK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzaii ; 10 miles S. of Selmas.

w.

w

w

A letter peculiar to the northern languages and
J people ; as the Englifti, Dutch, Pohfti, and others
of Teutonic and Sclavonic original.

The form and the found of nu are excluded from all the
languages derived from the Latin ; though it is not impro-
bable, fays Dr. Johnfon, that by our w is expreffed the
found of the Roman v, and Eolic f. However, the iv is
fometimes admitted into the French, Italian, &c. in proper
names, and other terms borrowed from the languages in
which it is originally ufed.

In Englifti, the co is ufually a confonant ; and as fiich,
may go before all the vowels, except u ; as in luant, lueapon,
winter, ivorld, &c.

If it be a confonant, its found is uniform. Some gram-
marians have doubted whether nv ever be a confonant ;
and not rather, as it is called, a double u or ou, as water may
be refolved into ouater : but letters of the fame found are
always reckoned confonants in other alphabets ; and it may
be obferved, fays Dr. Johnfon, that w follows a vowel
9

W A A

without any hiatus or difficulty of utterance, as frojlj
winter.

It is fometimes alfo a vowel ; and, as fuch, follows any
of the vowels a, e, 0 ; and .unites with them into a kind of
double vowel, or diphthong ; as in law, ewe, fow, &c.
The Englifh w is founded as in Latin u, in quantum, fuadeo,
lingua. Its found is commonly hke the grofs, or full u,
rapidly pronounced. In French, the found of the w
does not differ from that of the fingle u, or rather ou.
See U.

WA, or Wahe, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the province of Schonen ; 4 miles N. of Chriftianftadt.

WAACKH AUSEN, a town of the duchy of Bremen,
on a moor, near the river Hamme ; the houfes of which are
built of ftone, fand, and turf. On the Hamme's overflow-
ing its banks, whole diftrifts on this moor, with the oaks
growing thereon, (though, to fpeak more properly, their
roots only run along the furface, ) the firs, elders, barns, and
ovens, are raifed by the water to the height of ten or twelve

feet.

W A C

W A C

feet. The trees, however, fublide again with the foil, but
on the water's ebbing fuddenly, frequently fall down ; 12
miles N. of Bremen.

WAAG, or Vag, a river of Hungary, which rifes in
the N. part, and runs into the Danube, 6 miles below
Comorn.

WAAL. See Wahal.

WAALIA, in Ornithology, a pigeon, fo called by Bruce,
which frequents the low parts of Abyflinia, perching upon
the higheft. trees, and fitting quietly in the fliade during the
heat of the day. Thefe birds fly to a great height, in large
flocks, and feem to feleft a fpecies of the beech-tree for
their cuftomary abode, on the mail or fruit of which they
chiefly depend for their food. They are rarely feen in the
high country, which is fuppofed to be too cold for them.
They are very fat, and the bell, without exception, of all
pigeons. The Abyflinians, however, do not eat this bird ;
and dread being defiled by touching it, when it is dead.
The waalia is lefs than the common blue pigeon, but larger
than the turtle-dove. Its whole back, and fome of the
ftiort feathers of its wings, are of a beautiful unvarnifhed
green, more light and lively than an olive : its head and
neck are of a duller green, with lefs luftre ; its beak is of a
blueifli-white, with large nollrils ; the eye black, with an
iris of dark orange ; the pinion, or top of its wing, is a
beautiful pompadour ; the large feathers of the wing are
black ; the outer edge of the wing narrowly marked with
white ; the tail a pale dirty blue ; below the tail it is fpotted
with brown ajid white ; its thighs are white, with fmall fpots
of brown ; its belly a lively yellow ; its legs and feet are a
yellowifh-brown ; its feet ftronger and larger than thofe of
birds of this kind. Bruce's Travels, Appendix.

WAALWYK, in Geography, a town of Brabant ; lo
miles W. of Bois le Due.

WAAREN. SeeWAHREN'.

WABASH, a beautiful river of America, with high
and fertile banks, which waters the Indiana territory, and
difcharges itfelf into the Oliio, about N. lat. 37° 33'. W.
long. 80° 30', by a mouth 270 yards, 1020 miles below Fort
Pitt. In the fpriiig, fumnier, and autumn, it is paffable
with batteaux, drawing three feet water, 412 miles to Oui-
atanou, a fmall French fettlcment 011 the W. fide of the
river, and for large canoes 197 miles farther, to the Miami
carrying place or portage, 9 miles from Miami village. The
communication between Detroit and the Illinois and Ohio
countries is up Miami river to Miami village, thence by land
9 miles, when the rivers are high, and from 18 to 20 when
they are low, through a level country to the Wabafh, and
by the various branches of the Wabafh to the refpedtive
places of deftination. A filver mine has been lately difco-
vered about 28 miles above Oiiiatanou, on the N. fide of
the W.ibafh ; falt-fprings, hme, fand-llone, blue, yellow, and
wliite clay, are found plentifully on this river.

Wabasii, Utile, a river of America, which runs into
the Wabalb, N. lat. 37= 40'. W. long. 88^ 35'.

Wabash, a townfhip of Indiana, in Knox county.

WABEN, a town of France, in the department of the
ftralts of Calais ; 7 miles S.W. of Montreuil.

WABUSKAGAMA, a river of Canada, which runs
into the Saguenay, N. lat. 48° 2o'. W. long. 70° 18'.

WACHBRUN, a town of the county of Hennebcrg ;
9 miles S.E. of Meinungcn.

W.ACHEIN, a river of Carniola, which rifes in ihe lake
of Wajhciner, and runs into the river Save, near Rctmanf'
dorf.

WACHEINER, a lake of Carniola; 10 miles W. of
Feldes.

WACHENBUCHEN, a town of Germany, in tiie
county of Hanau Munzenberg ; i mile N.W. of Hanau.

WACHENDORFIA, in Botany, was fo named by
Burmann, in honour of his countryman Everard James ran
WachendorfF, profedor of phyfic, as well as of botany, at
Utrecht, who died in 1758, aged fifty-fix. He publiftied,
in 1743, 3" oration on the infinite wifdom of God, as dif-
played in the Vegetable Creation ; and in 1747, Horti Ul-
Ircijeaini Index, an 8vo. of 394 pages. — Linn. Gen. 27.
Sclireb. 38. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 248. Mart. Mill. Dia.
V. 4. Vahl Enum. v. 2. 163. Burm. Monogr. Amlt. 1757.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 106. Ker in Sims and Kon. Ann.
of Bot. v. I. 234. JulT. 59. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 34.
Gairtn. t. 15. — Clafs and order, Trlandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Enjatx, Linn, hides, Juif.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. inferior, permanent, wither-
ing, irregular, of fix obovate-oblong petals ; three upper
ones moft ereft, of which the two lateral ones have each a
fpur at their bafe ; three lowermoll widely fpreading. Nec-
tary in the fpur of each lateral petal, accompanied by a
briftle. Stam. Filaments three, thread- fhapcd, divarirated,
declining, curved upward, fhorter than the corolla ; anthers
oblong, incumbent. Pijl. Germen fuperior, roundifh, with
three furrows ; llyle tliread-fliaped, declining; llignia firaple,
tubular. Peru. Capfule three-lobed, triangular, obtufe, of
three comprefled cells, and three valves, enveloped in the
faded corolla ; partitions from the centre of each valve.
Seeds folitary, rough or hairy, comprefled.

Eff. Ch. Corolla inferior, irregular, of fix petals ; two
of them fpurred at the bafe. Capfule of three cells. Seeds
folitary, rough.

1. W. thyrjlflora. Tall-flowering Wachendorfia. Linn.
Sp. PI. 59. Willd. n. I. Vahl n. i. Ait. n. i. Thunb.
Prodr. 12. Burm. Monogr. 2. t. I. f. 2. Curt. Mag.
t. 1060. Redout. Lihac. t. 93. — Leaves perennial, fmooth.
Panicle oblong, clofe. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope;
thriving in our green-houfes with little care, and indeed al-
moll hardy, flowering in May and .June. The root is peren-
nial, flefliy, fafTron-coloured or red, with long fimple fibres.
Stem folitary, fimple, ereft, leafy, round, or a little com-
prefled, downy, flightly zigzag, about a yard high. Leaves
numerous, two-ranked, plaited, many-ribbed, tapering at
each end, flieathing, permanent. Panicle racemofe, ereft,
a fpau or more in length, compound, downy, compofed of
numerous large and handfome, but inodorous and (hort-
lived Jlowtrs, of a fine golden yellow ; externally downy,
with an orange or tawny hue. The lobes of the ciipfule are
much comprefled, and fliarp-cdged. Seeds clothed with
(haggy chafl^y pubcfccnce.

2. W. paniculata. Spreading Paniclcd Wachendorfia.
Linn. Sp. PI. 59. Willd. n. 2. Vahl n. 2. Ait. n. 2.
Thunb. Prodr. 12. Burm. Monogr. 4. t. i. f. 1. Sm. Ic.
PiA. t. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 616. (Afphodelus latifohus,
floribus patulis flavefcentibus, rubicundis intils maculis no-
tatis ; Breyn. Prodr. 3. 22. t. 9. f. 1.) — Loaves annual,
fmooth. Panicle fpreading. — Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, ill fandy ground. It feems from Plukcnct's Mant.
70, where it is called Red-bulb, to have been cultivated by
Dr. Uvedale. (See UvEDALiA.) This fpecies however 18
more tender than the preceding, and rarely flowers in the
Englilh collcftions. The knobs of the root are browner,
oblong, and nearly vertical. Stem but a foot high. L.eava
fewer, entirely deciduous. I'loiuers larger and liandfonicr
of a deeper orange at the outfide ; their three upper petals

marked

W A C

W A C

marked with a tranfverfe green or brownifh line, and all
nearly equally fpreading, though the central one is rather
fmaller than the other two.

3. W. hirfuta. Narrow-leaved Hairy Wachendorfia.
Thunb. Prodr. 12. Willd. n. 3. Vahl n. 3. Ait. n. 3.
(W. villofa; Andr. Repof. t. 398.) — Leaves linear-fword-
fhaped, hairy. Panicle rather oblong. — Gathered at the
Cape by Thunberg, from whom we have a fpecimen. It
flowers in our green-houfes in June, but is not common.
Mr. Andrews received his fpecimen from Mr. Vere's garden
at Kenfmcrton-gore, where the plant flouriflied abundantly
under the care of Mr. W. Anderfon, now curator of the
Chelfea garden. This fpecies is well diftinguifhed by the
narrownefs, and remarkable long fhaggy white hairs, of its
leaves. The flem and panicle alfo are rather more hairy than
in the preceding, and the form of the latter is more elon-
gated, lefs corymbofe. Flo'wers large and handfome, bright
yellow ; externally tawny ; their central uppermoil petal
concealed in front by the two next, which meet before it :
they are all broadilh-obovate, fliaggy at the back.

4. W. brevifolia. Short-leaved Hairy Wachendorfia.
Ait. n. 4. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 1166. (W. hirfuta;
Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 614? Sifyrinchium ramofum Kthio-
picum, fohis plicatis nervofis et incanis, radice tuberofa
phoenicea ; Breyn. Cent. t. 37. Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 13.
f. 10.) — Leaves elliptic-fwordfhaped, hairy. Panicle fpread-
ing.— Native of the Cape, from whence, according to Mr.
Aiton, it was introduced into the Enghlh green-houfes, in
1795. It flowers in March or April. We have feen no
fpecimen, and therefore can only prefume, not alfert, that
the dingy-flowered plant, figured in t. 1 166 of the Botanical
Magazine, and the brighter yellow one in t. 614 of the fame
work, are varieties of each other. The fliortnefs of the
leaves, compared with their great breadth, diftinguiflies the
prefent fpecies. The two lateral upper petals nearly conceal
the central one, feen in front, according to Mr. Ker's juft
remark, by which the powers obvioufly differ from thofe of
W. panlcitlala.

5. W. tenella. Linear Smooth-leaved Wachendorfia.
Thunb. Prodr. 12. Willd. n. 4. Vahl n. 4. — " Leaves
linear, three-ribbed, fmooth. Panicle fpreading, fomewhat
compound." — Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg, whofe
fpecific charaSer is all we know of this fpecies.

6. W. gramima. Grafs-leaved Wachendorfia. Thunb.
Prodr. 12. Willd. n. 5. Vahl n. 5. ( W. graminifolia; Linn.
Suppl. loi.) — Leaves fword-fhaped, channelled, fmooth.
Panicle fpreading, compound. — From the fame country.
Thunberg confiders this as the rareft Cape plant of its tribe.
He has favoured us with a fpecimen of the panicle only, not
having a duplicate leaf. The Injlorefcence is hairy, as in all the
fpecies we have feen ; the branches of the panicle racemofe,
fomewhat zigzag. Floiuers yellow ; externally tawny. Ger-
men very hairy, but tliis feems to be more or lefs the cafe
with the whole genus, the fpecies of which differ lefs in
their parts of fruftification than ufual.

Wachekdorfia, in Gardening, funiifhes plants of the
exotic flowering perennial kind, for the green-houfe, in
which the fpecies cultivated are, the fimple-llalked wachen-
dorfia ( W. thyrfiflora) ; the panicled wachendorfia ( W. pa-
niculata) ; and the hairy wachendorfia ( W. hirfuta).

The firft is a red thick tuberous-rooted plant of the
flowering kind.

The fccond fort has a creeping tuberculated root, and is
fingle-flowered.

The lafl chiefly differs from the aboi*e in the hairinefs of
ks leaves, and its long reddifh-brown ftem.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be incpeafed by
offsets, taken from the heads of the roots, in the beginning
of autumn, planting them in pots filled with foft loamy
earth, mixed with a little fea-fand ; and when the feafon
proves dry, placing them fo as to have only the morning
fun, until the offsets have taken new roots, when they muft
be placed in a fheltered fituation, fo as to have the full fun.
On the approach of frofts, they fhould be placed in frames,
and managed as plants of the tender kind. They are alfo
fometimes capable of being propagated by root-fuckers and
feeds.

The fecond fort is very impatient of cold, and feldom
flowers in this climate.

They produce variety among other potted plants of the
green-houfe kind, in collections of that fort.

WACHENHEIM, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of Mont Tonnerre ; 15 miles W. of Man-
heim. N. lat. 49° 25'. E. long. 8° 12'.

WACHENROTH, a town of Bavaria ; 1 1 miles S.S.W.
of Bamberg.

WACHINELLORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Ma-
dura ; 20 miles W. of Coilpetta.

WACHOVIA, or Dolbs Parijh, a traft of land fo called
in North Carolina, confifling of 100,000 acres, purchafed
of lord Granville, in 1 75 1, by the Moravians, who named
it Wachovia after an eftate belongmg to count Zinzendorf,
in Germany. In 1755, it was made a feparate parifh, and
named Dobbs by the legiflature. Salem is the principal
town.

WACHOWICZE, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 40
miles S.E. of Lucko.

WACHQUATNACH, a Moravian fettlement in Con-
nedficut ; 20 miles N. of Stratford.

WACHTENDONK, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Roer, fituated in a marfhy country, on the river
Niers, whofe waters fill the ditches ; 22 miles N.W. of Duf-
feldorp.

WACHTERSBACH, or W.tctersbach, a town of
Germany, which gives name to a branch of the counts of
Ifenburg, with a chateau, in which the counts of Ifenburg
Wachterlhach refide ; 15 miles E.N.E. of Hanau. N. lat.
51° 25'. E. long. 6° 14'.

WACHUSET Mountain, a mountain of MatFachu-
fetts, 2990 feet above the level of the fea.

WACKE, or Wacken, in Mineralogy and Geology, a
name given to a rock nearly allied to bafalt, and which may
properly be regarded as a more foft and earthy variety of
the latter rock : it paffes both into bafalt and green-ftone.
See Tr.\p.

Its colour generally inclines to greenifh-grey, brown, or
black ; it is opaque and dull, yields eafily to the knife, and
has rather a greafy feel. It occurs with bafalt and green-
llone in beds, or mountain maffes, and graduates into the
above-named rocks. Wacke is fometimes compact, and fome-
times veficular or amygdaloidal. At Calton-hill, near Edin-
burgh, it is porphyritic, containing diflinct cryftals of augite
and felfpar.

The wacke which is faid to occur in mineral veins, we
fufpefted to be indurated green earth. The fpecific gravity
of wacke varies from 2.617 '^° 2.887.

Wacke is clafled with fimple minerals by Werner, but is
confidered by Cordier as a compound rock of volcanic ori-
gin, and compofed of minute cryilals and particles of augite,
felfpar, and the other minerals which are found in the dif-
ferent varieties of lava. ( See Volcanic ProduBs at the end
of the article Volcano. ) In compoiind rocks, no two che-
1 1 mical

W A C

WAD

mical analyfes can be expefted to agree, as they muft vary
with the proportions of the prevailing ingredient. A fpeci-
men of aniygdaloidal wacke analyfed by Withering gare

Silex - - ^i

Alumine - - 13

Lime . . 7

Iron - - 17

Wacke, is fufible, melting into a vitreous flag, the colour
of which will vary according to tlie prevailing ingredient
which compofe this rock. This mineral muil not be con-
founded with another rock called grey wacke or grau wacce.

Wacke, Grey, or Grey IVacie, or IV'acce, a name given by
later geologifts to a very extenfive feries of rocks, the mem-
bers of which differ greatly from each other in compofition,
ftrufture, and appearance : indeed the name has been ap-
plied fo indefinitely, that it has occafioned much confufion
and obfcurity in geological defcriptions, and we confider the
introduftion of the term as having tended greatly to retard
the progrefs of practical geology. A great variety of very
different rocks, the nature of which was not precifely known,
have been claffed with grey wacke, which ferved as a name
to conceal ignorance under the veil of fcientific arrangement.
Some geologifts reftricl the term to thofe rocks which have
a bafis of clay-flate ; others extend it to all the coarfe grit
ftones which contaui rounded and angular fragments united
by a cement of any kind ; and the French, under the name
of pfammitc (which they have recently introduced), comprife
along with grey wacke all the coarfe fand-llones of the coal
formation. In all extenfive formations of clay-flate, the
upper beds will frequently contain particles of quartz, flinty
flate, and other minerals, which fometimes give them a coarfe
and fometimes a granular appearance; and even in the midft
of beds of pure flate, beds of this coarfe flate frequently
occur, which, when they have a fchiftofe tlrufture, are the
grey wacke flatcs of the German geologifts. Mr. Jamefon
defines grey wacke to be a kind of fand-ftone very different
from any of thofe that occur in the fletz rocks. It is com-
pofedof grains of fand, which are of various fizes, and fome-
times even approach in magnitude to rolled malfes. Thefe
are connedled together by a bafis of clay-flate, and hence
this rock derives its grey colour and folidity. Thefe frag-
ments are quartz, a kind of indurated clay-flate, or flinty
flate.

When the fandy particles of grey wacke become fo fmall
as fcarcely to be perceptible by the eye, it acquires a flaty
ftrufture, and then forms grey wacke-flate, which, he
adds, bears a ftriking fimilarity to clay-flate. " This flate
has feldom a greenifli or yellovvifli colour, as is the cafe with
primitive flate, but is nfually blucilh, afh and fmoke grey.
It does not fhew the filvery continuous Inllre of primitive
clay-flate, but is rather glimmering, which originates from
fcales of mica. Quartz fcarcely occurs in it m layers, but
ufually traverfes it in the form of veins. It docs not con-
tain cryftals of filfpar, fchorl, tourmaline, garnet, or horn-
blende, nor beds of garnet, talc, chlorite-flate, or magnttic
iron-ftone. Grey wacke-flate contains petrifaftions, parti-
cularly three varieties tiiat border on grey wacke.

"Grey wacke and grey wacke-flate alternate, and are dif-
tinftly ftratifted ; but t!ie Itratificalion of the former is more
diftinft than that of the latter. They fometimes alternate with
beds of tranfiiion lime-llone, trap, flnity flate and coal-blende.
This rock is unconunonly produftivc of nietals, not only in
beds but in veins, wliich latter are'frequently of great mag-
nitude. Almoft all tlie mines of the Hartz are lituatcd in
grey wacke. The whole of the lead veins of Lead llflls
and Wanlockhead, in Scotland, are fltiialed in grey wacke."

It was for a long time contended, that the killas or flate
of Cornwall was grey wacke : it is now confidered as a true
clay-flate, rcfting immediately on the granite of that diftrift.
Grey wacke was, by the Wernerian geologills, regarded as
partly of ehemical and partly of mechanical formation ; the
fragments which it contained were fuppofed to be the debris
of older rocks ; but on this hypothelis it muft appear ex-
traordinary that thefe fragments fliould be fo limited in their
kind, and tliat granite, fyenite, gneifs, and the other primi-
tive rocks, fhould rarely, if ever, occur in it.

The hypothcfis of the meclianical formation of grey
wacke is now abandoned by its former fupporters ; and it
is even contended, that the rounded maffes in many conglo-
merated rocks and in fand-ilones have been formed chemi-
cally, and that plum-pudding ftones are in many inflances
chemical formations, as thefe ftones fometimes graduate into
the adjoining rocks, and the nodules themfelves not unfre-
quently alfo graduate into the rock in which they are im-
bedded.

The occurrence of grey wacke, imbedded in what has
been called primitive flate, offers a further proof that the
origin of this rock, in fuch inftances, is not derived from the
debris of pre-exifting rocks, but is more analogous to the
formation of porphyries, though the procefs by which it
has been folidiiied did not allow the imbedded particles or
nodules to take a regular cryftalline form. From what has
been ilated, it will appear, that under the name of grey
wacke may be claffed a great variety of rocks, fome ap-
proaching to the nature of porphyry, others to plum-pud-
ding ftone; others again, wiiere the fragments are imbedded
in a pafte, refemble coarfe grit-flones, vvhilft many rocks of
clay-flate, which are not perfeftly homogeneous, may be
alfo claffed with grey wacke, thougii they nearly refemble
primitive flate. Whilft fuch latitude is allowed to the ap-
plication of the term, it is obvious that no geological de-
fcription can convey accurate information where it is intro-
duced, unlefs it be accompanied with a definite account of
the compofition of the rock to which this name is given ; and
geologifts would do well to reftrift its ufe, or to banifh it
altogether from the nomenclature of rocks.

WACKENITZ, in Geography, a river which runs from
Ratzebnrg hike into the Trave at I-ubeck.

WACKMOYJUST, a town of Dirmah ; 12 miles S. of
Ravnangong.

WACSAW, a town of America, on the line which di-
vides North from South Carolina, where, in the year 1781,
700 Britifh troops, under the command of lieutenant-colonel
Tarleton, came up with a party of Virginian troops, under
colonel Burford, amounting to 300 men ; the latter being
fnmmoned to furrender refuted, and a niofl bloody engage-
ment enfued, when few of the Americans efcaped ; 53 pri-
foners only were taken, except the \vo\uided.

WADAN, or Zala, a town of Fe/.zan, in the road
from Tripoli to Mourzouk ; 1 60 miles N. of Mourzouk.
N. hit. 29° 5y'. E. long. 15° 12'.

WADD, or Wadding, in Gunnery, a ftopple of paper,
hay, ftraw, old rope-yarns, or tow, rolled firmly into the
form of a ball, and forced into a gun upon the powder, to
keep it clofe in the chamber ; or put up clofe to the lliot,
to keep it from rolluig out, as well as to prevent the pow-
der, wlien fired, from dilating round the fides of the ball,
by Its windage, as it pafles through the chale, which would
conliderably diminilh the effort of llie powder. From fome
experiments recited in the Military Diftionary, it is in-
ferred, that tlie judicious ramming of a little wadding over
the powder adds .ibout one-fourth part of the whole erieft.

Waup, or ll'dd, in Mineralogy, a name given to a fpecies

of

AV A D

of manganefe ore, of which there are four kinds : fibrous
wad, ochrey wad, pulverulent ochrey wad, and dendritic
wad. See Manganese.

The wad of Derbyftiire is compofed of nearly equal pro-
portions of the oxyds of manganefe and irpn.

The plumbago of Borrowdale, in Cumberland, is pro-
vincially called wad. Sec Plumbago.

Wad is alfo fometimes applied to the light tufts of hay
which are Ihaken together ; and, in which cafe, the hay is
then faid to be wadded. It is likewife occafionally ufed in
fome places, to fignify the plant woad or would, which is
ufed in dyeing. See Woad.

Wadd, Pea and Bean, in Agriculture, the fmall handfuls
or portions of the*e crops which are fet up together m a
Canting manner, after being cut or pulled, for the purpofe
of drying, and which are fometimes afterwards tied.
Vf AT>vt-Hooh. See Worm.

Wabh-MHI is a hollow form of wood, to make the
wadds of a proper fize.

WADDEL, in Geography, a town of North Carolina ;
30 miles W. of Exeter.

WADDEN, a channel of the German fea, between the
ifland of Araeland and the coaft of Friefland.

WADDLE, in Agriculture, a name applied in fome
places to the flatted hurdle of the fplit-wood kind. It is a
very preferable fort of hurdle for many different purpofes
on farms. See Hurdle.

WADDO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Upland, on a narrow creek, which communi-
cates with Aland's Haff; 15 miles N. of Nortelge. N. lat.
6o». E. long. 18° 40'.

WADE's Point, a cape on the coaft of North Caro-
lina. N. lat. 36^ 7'. W. long. 76° 20'.

WADEBRIDGE, an inconfiderable market-town in
the hundred of Trigg, and county of Cornwall, England,
is fituated partly in the parifh of St. Breock, and partly
in that of Eglofhaile, at the diftance of 25 miles W.S.W.
from Launcefton, and 239 in the fame bearing from
London. A weekly market on Fridays, and two annual
fairs, were granted by king Edward II., in the year
1312, to Walter Stapleton, bilhop of Exeter, then lord of
the manor. The market is ftill held, though on a very
fmall fcale, for butchers' meat and other commodities ; and
here are now three fairs. The only objeft of notice in tlie
town is the bridge over the river Alan, about 320 feet in
length, and confifting of 17 arches, which connefts the two
parilhes wherein the town (lands. It was built in the reign
of Edward IV. by public contributions, and begun by
John Lovibond, then vicar of Eglolhaile. Hals fays, that
an indulgence was granted to the contributors in the year
1485 ; but no record of this appears in the regiilers
of the fee of Exeter. The fame author adds, that Lovi-
bond gave lands, then worth 20I. per annum, for the fupport
of the bridge : thefe lands are not now let for quite fo much.
This bridge was made a county-bridge in the reign of
James I. Padftow-Haven is navigable to Wadebridge,
whither vefTels of about 40 or 30 tons carry coals, fait,
lime, &c. — Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. iii. Cornwall,
4to. 18 14.

WADEIJ, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye-
men ; 80 miles S.S.W. of Saade.

WADELS, a river which rifes in Radnorrtiire, and runs
into the Lug, in Shropfhire, about 3 miles E. of Pref-
teign.

WADENSCHWEIL, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Zurich ; 9 miles S. of Zurich.

WAD

WADERO, an ifland near the wetl coaft of Sweden, ki
the North fea. N. lat. 56° 24'. E. long. 12° 30'.

WADESBOROUGH, a town of North Carolina;
76 miles S.W. of Fayetteville.

WADEY, a country of Africa, fituated to the weft of
Darfur. It formerly confilled of feveral ftates, but being
conquered by the Arabs, they were all united into one.
The Arabic is the principal language, though many others
are faid to be fpoken.

WADHAM Islands, a clufler of fmall iflands, near
the north-eaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 49' 57'. W. long.

WADI Abassi, a river of Arabia, which runs into the
Red fea, 10 miles S.S.E. of Hodeida.

Wadi el Arkih, a fmall river of Arabia, which waters
the city of Medina.

Wadi Elmahad, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons
runs into the Red fea, 25 miles S.S.E. of Hodeida ; at
other times lofes itfelf in the lands.

Wadi Faran, a river of Arabia, which runs into the
Red fea, 2J miles N.W. of Tor.

Wadi Fatma, a fmall river of Arabia, which runs north-
weft of Mecca.

Wadi Gamus, or Valley of Buffaloes, a valley of Egypt,
on the eaft fide of the Nile ; 5 miles S. of Enfeneh.

Wadi el Kbir, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons
runs into the fea near Mocha.

Wadi Meidam, a river of Arabia, which runs into the
fea, 8 miles W. of Aden.

Wadi Schab, a river of Arabia, which lofes itfelf in the
fands, about 18 miles N. of Hodeida.

Wadi Schan, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons
runs into the Red fea, 6 miles N.N.W. of Hodeida ; in dry
feafons it lofes itfelf in the fands.

Wadi Suradaj, a river of Arabia, which in rainy feafons
runs into the Red fea, about 18 miles S.W. from Zebid.

Wadi Zebid, a river of Arabia, which paftes by Zebid.
This river, at a particular feafon of the year, overflows and
fertilizes the foil ; it afterwards fpreads itfelf into a fliallow
lake, and is loft among the fands.

WADING, Luke, in Biography, an Irifli ecclefiaftic,
more dillinguiftied for probity and piety than for difcrimina-
tion of judgment, refided at Rome, where he died in the
year 1655. His works, in which he has occafionally inter-
mixed fabulous relations, are " Annals of his Order,"
which was that of St. Francis, in 8 vols, foho, continued
by other authors till they amounted to 1 7 vols, foho ; and
a " Bibliotheca of Writers of the Francifcan Order," 1630,
folio, held in confiderable eftimation. Moreri.

WADMELAW, in Geography, a river of South Caro-
lina, which feparates the ifland of St. John from the con-
tinent.— Alfo, a fmall ifland on the coaft of South Carolina,
which communicates with St. John's ifland by means of a
bridge.

WADREAG, a diftrid of Africa, in the country of
Sahara.

WADSAOS, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of
Dronthcim ; 120 miles N. of Drontheim.

WADSETT, in Agriculture, a term applied to an an-
cient fort of tenure or leafe of land, in the Highland parts
of Scotland. The writer of the account of the agriculture
of the county of Invernefs has remarked, that wadfetts
were, at a former period, frequent and numerous there ;
but that they have now been moftly refumed, the price
being paid up fo fooji as the term of redemption arrived.
Thefe wadfetts were commonly, it is faid, granted to the
younger fons and near relations of the great barons, and for

thefe

W A F

WAG

thefe reafons : i ft, Being more attached to the head of the
tribe than any other defcription of men, they were appointed
the officers of the clan, when an expedition was undertaken ;
2d, The fcarcity of money made it more convenient for the
needy nobihty or chieftains to borrow or raife money in this
way than in any other, or to give their children a patri-
mony, when about to fettle in hfe ; and 3d, When every
man's occupation was war, or farming and grazing, before
the fpirit of adventure in going abroad to acquire wealth
■was known, the youth remained at home, on wadfctts or
leafes of ground at a moderate rent. In this manner, it is
faid, a clan, during the patriarchal no lefs than the feudal
fyftem or ftate, were in fail a battaUon of armed men, liv-
ing clofely together, and united by the moll powerful ties
of confanguiuity and intereft. Accordingly, it is faid, we
find the Highland tribes fettled in clufters, in the fame
valley or ilrath, unmixed with any other people ; nor was
it at one period, it is thought, very fafe for a flranger to
attempt fettling amonglt them. A few, and but very few,
of thefe redeemable rights now exiil, it is afferted, in any
part of the Highlands ; and that if the wadfetter continue
in the fame pofteffion, the right of wadfett is changed into
an ordinary leafe. See Tenure.

WADSOE, in Geography, an iflaiid in the Frozen ocean,
N. lat. 70° 6', with a copious hot fpring, the heat of which
is about 367;° of Fahrenheit.

WADSTENA, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland,
on the Wetter lake, with a caftle, built by Guftavus Vafa
in the year 1544, and defended at its four corners by
round towers, covered with fmall domes. In the year
1567, this town was burned by the Danes ; 20 miles W. of
Liiikioping. N. lat. 58° 25'. E. long. 14° 59'.

WADSWORTH, a town of New York, on the Genefe
river; 90 miles W.N.W. of Chenango.

W^ADAVORTH, a townfhip in the Weft Riding of
Yorkfhire ; 5 miles N.W. of Hahfax.

WAELHEIM, a town of France, in the department
of the T.WO Nethes ; 3 miles N.W. of Malines.

WAELWYK, a town of Brabant ; 10 miles W.N.W.
of Bois-le-Duc.

WAER, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Agra ;
20 miles AV.S.W. of Fattipour.

WAERDER, a town of Holland; 5 miles N.E. of
Gouda.

WAERFLIET, a town of Germany, in the county of
Delmenhorft ; 8 miles N. of Delmenhorft.

WAERTH, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Rhine; 9 miles S.S.W. of WiflTemburg.

WAES, a diftria of Flanders fo called, fituated on the
bank of the Scheldt, between Ghent and Yfendick.

WAFE. See Waif.

WAFERS for fealing letters are made by mixing fine
flour with glair of eggs, ifniglafs, and a little yeaft, and
beating the mafs into a pafte ; then fpreading it when thiruied
with gum-water, on even tin-plates, and drying it in a ftove,
and cutting it for ufe. The dilFerent colours may be given
by tinging the pafte with brazil or vcrmillion for red ; in-
digo, or verditcr, &c. for blue ; fallron, turmeric, or gam-
boge, &c. for yiUow, &c.

WAFT, in Sea Language, a fignal difplayed from the
ftern of a Ibip for fome particular pnrpole, by hoilling the
enfign, furled up together into a long roll, to the head of its
ftaft". It is particularly ufed to fummon the boats off from
the dune to the (liip to whicli they belong ; or as a fignal for
a (lilot to repair aboard. Falconer.

'I'd ii'iift a Jhip, is to convoy her fafe, as men of war do
by merchants' Ihips.

Vol. XXXVII.

WAFTERS, Waftores, conduAors of vefTels at fea.

King Edward IV. conftituted a triumvirate of officers
with naval power, whom the patent ftyles cajlodes, con-
dudores, and waftores ; their bufinefs chiefly was to guard
our fiftiermen on the coafts of Norfolk and Suffolk.

WAGA, or Vaga. See Weigh.

Waga, in Botany, H. M. a filiquous Indian tree, with
a tetrapetalous ftcUatcd flower, and flat pods, three inches
in length. It is very hke the intfia, but without fpines,
and chmbs about high trees. The pods are two inches in
breadth, thin, and very flat ; when dried, of a reddifh co-
lour, and have a cortex of a fnow-white colour on the in fide.
The beans are aftringent, bitter, round, and fmooth, a little
flattifh, lying in a tranfverfe pofition with refpeft to the pod,
and of a green, inchning to a chefnut colour. It is ever-
green, and grows in Malabar.

The juice of this tree, together with lemons and green
turmeric, boiled for a confiderable time in cocoa-nut oil, is
a good ointment for the leprofy, and of great ufe in inveterate
ulcers. Raii Hift. Plant. 1766.

WAGEERAH, iti Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Balana ; 20 miles W.N.W. of Nan"uck.

WAGENAAR, John, in Biography, a Dutch writer,
diftingnifhed by his moral qualities as well as literary ac-
quirements, was born in 1709 at Amfterdam, of which he
was appointed hiftoriographer in 1758. He died in 1 773.
His princij)al work, which is reckoned one of the chief
ornaments of Dutch literature for depth of refearch and
purity of llyle, is a " Hillory of Holland from the earliefl
Period till 1751," in 21 vols. 8vo. ; of which a fecond edi-
tion with engravings, both maps and portraits, was printed
at Amfterdam in 1752 — 1759. Among his other per-
formances are enumerated, " An Hiilorical Defcription of
the City of Amfterdam," Amft. 1760, 3 vols, folio ; " The
Character of John De Witt placed in its true Light ;" and
" Hiftorical and Political Mifcellanies," Amft. 8vo. 1776.
Gen. Biog.

WAGENDRISL, in Geography, a town of Hungary j
J miles S. of Kapfdorf.

WAGENINGEN, a town of Holland, in the depart-
ment of Guelderland, fituated in a marftiy country, on the
north fide of the river Leek, fuppofed to be the Vada of
Tacitus, which was fo ftontly defended by Julius Briganticus
againll his uncle Civilis, the famous Batavian general. On
one iide there is a large barren heath, and on the other are
pleafant meadows and arable lands. It is tolerably well built,
»nd reckoned the third town of that part of Guelderland
called the " Veluwe." Its inhabitants have a pretty good
trade in cattle and tobacco ; 7 miles W. of Arnheim.

WAGENIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingr.-itz ; 12 miles E. of Konigingratz.

WAGENSEIL, John Christoi-her, in Biography,
was born at Nuremberg in 1633, and having ftudied at f^c-
veral univerfities, lie became tutor to the fon of a nobleman
at Altdorf, and accompanied him in his travels through a
great part of Europe. At Turin he difcovered in the
cabinet of tlie duke of Savoy the famous Ifiac Table, which
had been loft ever fiiice the pillage of the duke of Mantua's
cabinet. In the progrefs of his hfe he acquired a high de-
gree of reputation, and was diftingnifhed among other fo-
reign literary perlons by the muiiilicence of Lewis XIV.,
Having been honoured with the degree of LL.D. at Or-
leans, lie became profelfor of law ami hillory in the univerfity
of Altdorf in 1667, and afterwards was advanced to the
chair of Oriental languages, and the flation of public li-
brarian. He was alio a member of the academies at Turin
and Padua ; and died at Altdorf, at the age of 72, in the
4 K year

WAG

WAG

year 1 705. TIic moll dilliiiguilhcd of his writings arc,
" A DilR'rtalion on a fuppofed Fragment of Pctroniiis ;"
" Fafcituliis Opufculorunn. variorum Hiltoricorum et Phi-
lologiconim ;" " Tela ignea Satana;," 3 vols. 410. being
a colledtion, with a refutation, of fome of the principal
Jevvifh works againll Chriftianity ; " Differtatio de Mone-
lali veterum Romanorum ;" " Commentatio de Civitate
Norimburgenfi ;" and " Differtatio de Academiis." He
had a daughter, named Hehn-Stbllla, celebrated for her
knowledge of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages.
Moreri.

Wagexseil, George Christopher, a harpfichord
matter and compofer at Vienna, a difciple of the learned
Fonchi, firft maeftro di capella to the emperor. Till
Emanuel Bach changed the ilyle of playing on keyed in-
ftruments throughout Germany, Wagenfeii's Compofitions
for the harpfichord were in favour throughout Europe, and
juilly admired for their fpirit and originality ; as he had
quitted the dry, laboured, and crowded ftyle of his prede-
ceflbrs, and given way to fancy, with no unfuccefbful at-
tempts at new effefts in his accompaniments.

Wagenfeil was many years harpfichord mafter to the
archduchefs Maria Therefa, afterwards emprefs-queen, on
which account he enjoyed a penfion of 1500 florins a year.
Eut in 1772, when we faw and heard him at Vienna, he
had been confined to his room feveral year.i by a lamenefs,
which came on by degrees in a very uncommon manner.
The finews of his right thigh were contrafted, and the cir-
culation ftopt, fo that it was become incurably withered
and ufelefs. Befides this calamity, which conftantly con-
fined him to his couch, his left hand had been fo ill treated
by the gout, that he was hardly able to move two of his
fingers. However, at our urgent requeft, he had a harp-
fichord wheeled to him, and played feveral capricios, and
pieces of his own compofition, in a very fpirited and maf-
terly manner ; and though we could certainly believe that he
had been a much greater player, yet he had fufiicient fire
and fancy remaining to plcafe and entertain, though not to
furprife us very much-
He was at this time nominal mafter to the archduchefles,
for which he had a fmall penfion. Though utterly unable
to quit his room, he had fcholars who attended him there ;
and he continued to compofe for foreign countries, where his
fame was eftablifhed by his early compofitions.

In a fecond vifit which we made this worthy and in-
genious man, he had with him a little girl, his fcholar,
about eleven or twelve years old, with whom he played
duets on two harpfichords, which had a very good efFeft.
The child's performance was very neat and fteady. There
was a young count with him at this time, another of his
fcholars, who had a very rapid finger, and executed fome
very difficult harpfichord leffons with great precifion.

Wagenfeil, with all his corporeal complaints and infirmi-
ties, was allowed very extraordinary longevity ; as, ac-
cording to Gerber (Hift. and Biogr. Lexicon), he lived
till 1777, when he had arrived at his Qzd year.

We never heard of more than three vocal compofitions by
this compofer, which were an oratorio, " Gioas Re di
Gruda," written by Metaftafio, and two cantatas for the
imperial court, by the fame author ; but for the harpfichord,
nine different works of his compofition were pubhfhed in
different capitals of Europe, fome with and fome without
accompaniments ; which, like their author, were allowed to
live longer than ufual.

WAGER, Waging, in La-.v, vadari, fignifies the
giving of fecurity for the performance of any thing.

Thus, to wage law, is to put in fecurity, that you will

make law at the day affigned, i. e. take the benefit wliich
the law has allowed you.

Our anceftors confidered, that there were many cafes in
which an innocent man, of good credit, might be overborne
by a multitude of falfe witneffes ; and, therefore, ellabli(hed
this fpecies of trial, by the oath of the defendant himfelf.
This method of trial is not only to be found in the codes of
almoft all the northern nations that broke in upon the Ro-
man empire, and eftabhfhed petty kingdoms upon its ruins,
but its original may be traced back as far as the Mofaical
law. Exod. xxii. 10.

A manifeil refemblance may alfo be difcerned between
this fpecies of trial, and the canonical purgation of the Popifh
clergy, when accufed of any capital crime. Similar to this
is alfo the facramentum decifiouis of the civil law. But,
though a cuftom fomewhat like this prevailed formerly in
the city of London, yet in general the Englifh law does not
thus, like the civil, reduce the defendant, in cafe he is in
the wrong, to the dilemma of either confeffion or perjury.

The manner of waging and making law is this. He that
has waged, or given fecurity, to make his law, brings with
him into court eleven of his neighbours ; a cuftom which is
particularly defcribed fo early as the league between Alfred
and Guthrun the Dane. The defendant then, ftanding at
the end of the bar, is admonifiied by the judges of the na-
ture and danger of a falfe oath ; and if he ftill perfifts, he is
to repeat this or the like oath : " Hear this, ye juftices, that
I do not owe unto Richard Jones the fum of ten pounds, nor
any penny thereof, in manner and form as the faid R. hath
declared againft me. So help me God." And thereupon
his eleven neighbours, or compurgators, fhall avow upon
their oaths, that they believe in their confciences that he
fays the truth ; fo that himfelf muft be fworn de Jidelitate,
and the eleven de credulhate. Some have maintained, that
fev^^erthan eleven compurgators will fuffice ; but fir Edward
Coke is pofitive, that there muft be this number ; and his
opinion is approved andfupported by judge Blackllone, who
obferves, that as wager of law is equivalent to a verdift in
the defendant's favour, it ought to be eftablifhed by the
fame or equal teftimony, namely, by the oath of twelve
men.

In the old Swedifli or Gothic conftitulion, wager of law
was not only permitted, as it ftill is in criminal cafes, unlcfs
the faft be extremely clear againft the prifoner, but was
alfo abfolutely required in many civil cafes. But with us
in England, wager of law is never required ; and is then
only admitted, where an aftion is brought upon fuch matters
as may be fuppofed to be privately tranfafted between the
parties, and in which the defendant may be prefumed to
liave made fatisfaftioB without being able to prove it ; as in
aftions of debt upon fimple contraft, or for an amercement
in aftions of detinue and of account, where the debt may
have been paid, the goods reftored, or the account balanced,
without any evidence of either ; and not, when there is any
fpecialty, as a bond or deed to charge the defendant, but
when the debt groweth by word only. Nor doth it lie in
an aS^ion of debt, for arrears of an account, fettled by audi-
tors in a former aftion. By fuch wager of law, when ad-
mitted, the plaintiff is perpetually barred ; for the law, in
the fimplicity of ancient times, prefumed, that no one
would forfwear himfelf, for any worldly confideration.
Wager of law, however, lieth in a real aftion, where the
tenant alleges he was not legally fummoned to appear, as
well as in mere perfonal contraft?. A man outlawed, at-
tainted for f^lfe verdift, or for confpi/acy or perjury, or
otherwife become infamous, (hall not be permitted to wage
his law. Neither ftiall an infant under the age of twenty-

^V A G

one, for he rannot be admitted to liis oath ; nor fhall tlic
defendant, where tlie plaintiff is an infant, wage his law.
But a fen>e-covert, when joined with her hufband, may be
allowed to wage her law ; and an alien ftiall do it in his own
language. It is, moreover, a rule, that where a man is
compellable by law to do any thing, by whicli he becomes
creditor to another, the defendant in that cafe (hall not be
admitted to wage his law ; for then it would be in the
power of any bad man to run in debt firft, againft the in-
clinations of his creditor, and afterwards to fwear it away.
But where the plaintiff hath given voluntary credit to the
defendant, there he may wage his law. In no cafe where
a contempt, trefpafs, deceit, or any injury with force is
alleged againft the defendant, is he permitted to wage his
law. Executors and adminiftrators, when charged for the
debt of the deceafed, fhall not be admitted to wage their
law. The king alfo has his prerogative ; for, as all wagers
of law import a refleftion on the plaintiff for difhonefty,
therefore there (hall be no fuch wager on aftions brought
by him ; and this prerogative extends and is communicated
to his debtor and accomptant ; for, on a writ of quo minus,
in the exchequer for a debt on fimple contraft, the defendant
is not allowed to wage his law.

Notwithftanding all the reftriftions to which wagers of
law were fubjeft, it was at length confidered, that it threw
too great a temptation in the way of indigent or profligate
men ; and, therefore, by degrees new remedies were <le-
vifed, and new forms of adlion were introduced, in which
no defendant is at liberty to wage his law ; fo that wager of
law is quite out of ufe, being avoided by the mode of bring-
ing the aAion ; but ftill it is not out of force. And, there-
fore, when a new ftatute inflifts a penalty, and gives an
aftion of debt for recovering it, it is ufual to add, in which
no wagtr of law fhall be allowed : otherwife a hardy delin-
quent might efcape any penalty of the law, by fwearing he
had never incurred, or elfe had difcharged it. Blackft.
Comm. book iii.

Wager of Battle. See Battle and Duel, &c.

Wager'j Straits, or River, in Geography, a river of
North America, which empties itfclf into Hudfon's bay,
N. lat. 65° «'. W. long. 87°.

WAGES, the plural of the obfolete fmgular "wage,
denote the pay or recompcnce given, according to cullom,
(lipulation, and enaftment of law, for any kind of work or
fervice. ( See Labouii, Laboukek, and Servant.) As
difputes have often occurred between mafters and fervants,
the law has interpofcd to fix the wages of tliofe that are
employed in various departments of fervice. Accordingly
by ^ Eliz. c. 4. the jullices of every (hire, riding, and hberty,
or the major part of them, the (hcrifT, and every mayor, and
other head officer within any city or town corporate, in
which is any juftice of the peace witliin the limits of the faid
city or town corporate, andof the faid corporation, (hall yearly
in Eailer fcffions, or within fix weeks afterward, affemble fuch
difcreet perfons as they (hall think meet, and having rcfpcft to
the plenty or fcarcity of the time, and other circumilances,
fhall have authority to limit, rate, and appoint the wages as
well of fuch artificers, handicraftfmen, hufbandmcn, or any
other labo\ircr, fervant, or workman, whofe wages in lime
paft have been by any law rated and appointed, as alfo the
wages of all other labourers, artificers, workmen, or appren-
tices of hufbandry, which have not been rated, as they (hall
think meet by their difcretions, to be rated, limited, or
appointed, by the year, or by the day, week, month, or
otherwife, with or without meat and drink, and what wages
every workman or labourer (hall take by the great for
mowing, reaping, or thrafhing of corn and grain, or for

^V A G

mowing and making of hay, or for ditching, paving, rail-
ing, or hedging, by the rod, perch, lugg, yard, pole, rope,
or foot, and for any other kind of reafonable labour or fer-
vice. Alfo, by I Jac. c. 6. the juftices, or major part of
them, refiant in any riding, liberty, or divifion, where the
fclTions are feverally kept, (hall have power to rate the
wages within fuch divifions, as if the fame were done in the
general fcflions of the county ; and by the faid ftatute, the
faid aft of 5 Eliz. (hall extend to the rating of wages of all
labourers, weavers, fpinllers, and workmen or workwoman,
whatfoever, either working by the day, week, month, or
year, or taking any work by the great or otherwife.

If any juftice refiant within the county, or mayor, fhall
be abfent at the rating of wages, and not hindered by fick-
nefs or other lawful caufe to be allowed by the juftices then
affembled for rating of wages, upon the oath and affidavit of
fome credible perfon, he fhall forfeit to the king 10/. to be
recovered in the feffions or other court of record, by indift-
mcnt or otherwife.

And the juftices ftiall yearly, between September 29 and
Decembes 25, and between March 25 and June 24, make
fpecial and diligent enquiry of the good execution of this
ftatute, and punifh defaulters ; and fhall have for every day
that they fit about the execution thereof (not exceeding
three days at a time) ^s. each out of the forfeitures due to
the king.

By the aforefaid aft of 5 Eliz. the rates were to be cer-
tified into the chancery ; but by the I Jac. c. 6. they need
not to be certified into the chancery, but (hall be kept
amongft the records of the county or town corporate.

And after the faid rates are made and engrolTed in parch-
ment under the hands and feals of the perfons having autho-
rity to rate the fame, the fheriff or mayor may caufe pro-
clamation thereof to be made in fo many places as to them
fhall feem convenient, and every perfon (hall be bound to
obferve the fame.

If any perfon upon the proclamation publifhed (liall di-
reftly or indireftly retain or keep any fervant, workman, or
labourer, or (hall give any more or greater wages, or other
commodity, than (hall be fo appointed in the faid proclama-
tio[i ; he Ihall on conviftion before any of the juftices or
other head officers above mentioned be imprifontd for ten
days without bail, and fliall forfeit 5/. ; half to the king,
and half to him that (liall fuc before the faid juftices in their
felfions.

But yet mafters may reward a well-defcrving fervant over
and above his wages, according as he (hall defcrvc, fo ft be
not by way of promife or agreement upon his retainder.

And every perfon that fiiall be fo retained and lake wages
contrary to the faid ftjtute of the 5 Eliz. or to the faid pro-
clamation, and fhall be thereof conviftcd before the juftices
aforefaid, or any two of them, or before the mayor or other
head officers aforefaid, (hall be imprifuncd for 2i days with-
out bail.

Every retainer, promife, gift, or payment of wages, or
other thing contrary to the faid aft, and every writing and
bond to be made for that purpofe, (hall be void.

If any clothier, or other, (hall refnfc to pay fo much wages
to their weavers, fpinfters, workmen, or workwomen, as
fhall be rated, and be conviftcd thereof by coafelfion, or
oath of two witneftes, at the afTizes, or felfions, or before
any two juftices (i Q.); he (hall forfeit icw. to the party
grieved, to be levied by didrcfs and fale.

All artificers and labourers, being hired for wages by the

day or week, fhall, betwixt tlie niidjl of March and midll of

September, be and contmue at their work from five in the

morning till after fevcn at night (except in the timcof break-

4 K i faft,

WAGES.

faft, dinner, or drinkinfj, which (hall not exceed two hours
and an half in a day, that is to fay, at every drinking, one
half hour, for his dinner one hour, and for his fleep, when
he is allowed to fleep, that is, from the midft of May to the
midft of Auguft, half an hour at the moft, and at every
breakfaft one half hour : ) and all the artificers and labourers
between the midft of September and the midil of March
(hall be and continue at their work, from the fpring of the
day in the morning until night, except it be in the time
before appointed for breakfail and dinner; on pain to forfeit
id. for every hour's abfence, to be dedufted out of their
wages.

And every artificer and labourer lawfully retained in
building or repairing any church, houfe, (hip, mill, or other
piece of work taken in great, in tafk, or in grofs, or who
ihall take upon him to make or finilli any fuch thing or
work, ihall continue and not depart therefrom ( unlefs for
non-payment of the wages or hire agreed on, or appointed
to ferve the king, or other lawful caufe, or without licenfe
from the mafter or owner of the work, or of him that hath
the charge thereof,) before the finifhing thereof, on pain of
imprifonment by one month, without bail, and forfeiture of
5/. to the party from whom he fliall fo depart, recoverable
by aftion of debt in any court of record ; befides fuch
ordinary cofts and damages as may be recovered by the
common laws for any fuch offence.

We fhall here obferve, that the firft ftatute, regulating the
wages of labour in England, paffed in the reign of Ed-
ward III. ; and in the fame year ^ 1351 ) the earlieft law in
Spain on the fame fubjeft was publilhed by Peter the Cruel.
At an earlier period, labourers were ferfs, and confequently
no laws were required to regulate their wages. The imme-
diate caufe of the laws paffed in both countries, in the middle
of the 14th century, was the plague which laid wafte
Europe from 1347 to 1349, and carried off a great portion
of its inhabitants. The confequence of this devaftation was
a fcarcity of labourers, and a rife in the price of labour ;
which alarmed the employers of labourers both in Spain and
in England, and induced them, in their legidative capacity,
to enaCl laws, which reduced the price of labour to its
former ftandard, and impofed heavy penalties on all who
gave or accepted more. A few years probably reftored
Europe to its former population, and rendered thefe laws
fuperfluous ; but they ferved as examples to future times,
and encouraged governments to interfere and regulate the
wages of their fubjetls. In England, the flatute of
labourers was frequently renewed, with fuch alterations as
the change of circumftances required ; and, by an equitable
provifion, the juftices of every county were empowered, by
the ftatute 13 Richard II. c. 8. to meet once a year between
Eafter and Michaelmas ; and after taking into confideration
the price of provifions, to regulate, by proclamation, the
wages that fhould be received in the enfuing year. But
though this power was confirmed to the juftices by the
ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 4. they feem to have exercifed it fparingly ;
and, when they aded, to have been guided by a fteady bias
in favour of the mafters.

By the ftatute 1 1 Henry VII. c. 22. a common labourer
was allowed 4^. a day, without diet, from Eafter to
Michaelmas. In the 35th of Elizabeth the juftices in the
Eaft Riding of Yorkfhire, determined that the wages of the
common labourer, without meat or drink, fhould be limited
to ^d. a day, from the ift of March to the feaft of All
Saints. At the former period, a labourer who had ^d. a
day could earn a quarter of wheat (at 6^. ^d. its price) by
20 days labour, a quarter of rye (at 4J. ) by 12 days labour,
and a quarter of barley (at 3;. ) by 9 days labour. At the

latter period, or in tlie latter part of the reign of queea
Elizabeth, a common labourer could not earn a quarter of
wheat (at 20s.) by lefs than 48 days labour, nor a quarter
of rye (at 13J. 4^/. ) in lefs than 32 days, nor a quarter of
barley (at 12s.) in lefs than 28^ days. In other words, a
common labourer could earn a greater quantity of wheat
in 1495, than he could of barley in 1593. If, therefore,
barley was his common fuftenance, he could earn more thaa
three times as much in 1495 as in 1593 ; if r)e, 2| as
much ; atid if wheat, 2,;. Confequently, as far as the
neceffaries of life are concerned, the fituation of the labourer
was not one-half fo advantageous in 1593 as it had been in
1495. In the interval, America had been difcovered, the
precious metals depreciated throughout Europe, and the
currency of England deteriorated by the operations of the
government.

A change in the value of money, limilar to what happened
in the i6th centur)', has taken place m our own times. The
precious metals have been depreciated throughout Europe,
in confequence of the increafed produftivenefs of the Ame-
rican mines during the laft 40 years ; and in our own country,
the rife of prices, which this neceffarily produced, has been
aggravated by a depreciation of our currency, occafioned by
the exceffive iffue of paper not convertible into fpecie.
What have been the confequences ? The price of labour
has not rifen in proportion to the rife of commodities.
But the labourer has the difference made up to him in the
fliape of poor's rate. An unmarried man can ftill fupport
himfelf by his nominal wages. But a married man, who has
two children to maintain, receives as a matter of courfe
affiftance from his parifh. A calculation is made of his
wages, and of the price of bread. So much bread is allowed
to him, according to the number of his family. What his
wages will not furnifh, the parifh provides. This beneficent
fyllem, as it has been called, turns out to be an engine in
the hands of mafters, to keep wages as low as will fuffice for
the maintenance of the labourer and his wife, with a provi-
fion in the fhape of charity for the fupport of his children.
It cannot be doubted, that if fuch a provifion had never
exifted, the wages of the labourer would have been higher —
that what he now receives as charity, he would then have
received as his own — and that the operation of this fcheme
of benevolence is to increafe the gains of the rich, and to
deprive the poor of that fhare in the good things of this
hfe, which the provifions of nature, and their own induftry,
might otherwife have given them. In thus keeping down
the wages of labour, the poor-laws have accomplilhed, under
the mafk of charity, what the old ftatute of labourers had
vainly attempted by the infliftion of pains and penalties.

Wages, in /tgriculturc, a term employed to fignify the
price or hire which is paid to fervants or labourers for the
performance of different kinds of farm-work. It is noticed
in the Report on the Agriculture of the County of Peebles,
in Scotland, that the demand for labour, as for every other
marketable article, neceffarily varies according to circum-
ftances ; and that the price muft, of neceffity, be regulated
by the proportion between the exifting quantity of the
article and the demand. That where capital, and profitable
employment for capital, abound in proportion to the popu-
lation, the demand for, and confequent reward of labour,
will neceffarily rife to the higheft rate ; but that the reverfe
muft as neceffarily enfue upon the oppofite fuppofition.
That if, in the former cafe, it fhould be attempted to lower
the wages of labour below what the demand can afford, the
competition of employers, poffeffed of capital, would lead
them to break through, or evade, all fuch regulationa. If,
in the latter cafe, it fhould be attempted to raife v^ages

aboTc

WAGES.

above wliat t]ie demand can allow, the competition of
labourers tor employment would beat them down, avowedly
or fecretly, to their natural market price. And that the
only effeft of fiich nugatory regulations, muft iffue in the
occafioning of more or lefs embarralTnKnt, in the contrivance
of evafions to efcape the penalties of tluir contravention.

Indeed, in the above way alone, it is faid, could the
exifting capital in employment be equally diffiifed among the
labourers of a country, fo as that each fliould receive his
proper (hare of it, in proportion to liis willingnefs and
ability to work : if it were pofliblo to carry into efFoft any
regulations for railing wages to an higher rate, the infallible
confequence mull be, it is thought, that the diilribution of
the above noticed capital would be confined to a fmaller
number of labourers, and that the remainder could get no
work or employment, and muft therefore fubiift on charity.
But that if tlie charity comes exclufively from the pockets
of thofe poflefTed of capital, the capital, thus (liortened, is
able to employ ilill fewer at the regulated rate : if it comes,
in part, from the employed labourers, it is to them, it is faid,
all one whether this diminution of wages arifes from their
giving it in charity to the idle, or from its being taken from
them through the competition of the induftrious.

The writer of the corrected account of the Agriculture
of Middlefex, too, dates, that the high value of the landed
eftates of this country depends very much upon the low
price of labour : that if the farmers could have their work
executed for one moiety of the prelent coft, other thinge re-
maining the fame, it would enable them to pay a much
higher rent for the land which they hold. Suppofing the
labour of land, it is faid, to be twenty (hillings an acre, in
cafe this could be reduced to ten fhillings, proprietors might
then add fifty per cent., it is thought, to their rentals, and
that the farmers could pay fuch increafed rent, with more
convenience to themfelves, than they can pay their prefent
rents at the prefent price of labour. The rent of land is,
it is faid, about fourteen fhillings an acre ; if the price of
labour could be lowered ten fhillings, the farmer, by adding
fifty per cent, to his rent, would pay his landlord feven
fhillings, it is faid, and increafe his own profits three fhillings.
That, on the other hand, if, by any means, the price of
labour fliould be increafed from twenty to twenty-four
fhillings per acre, the rent would, it is faid, be abforbed in
the price of the labour, in which (late of things the landlord
would be unable to procure any rent. The then (1807)
price of labour, and rent of land, being as much as the
farmer can afford to pay ; increafing the labour at once, fo
much as to be equal to the jirefent labour and rent, would,
it is fuppofed, reduce the rent to nothing. It would feem
to be evident, it is thougiit, that an addition to the then
price of labour of about feventy per eent. would annihilate
the rental of land. It is confequently alked, if tht advocates
for increafing the price of labour or rate of wages, are aware
of the evil tendency of their arguments and opinions ? have
they, it is enquired, contemplated the didrcfs which would
take place, if the land (hould not produce any rent ?

Advancing the hire of labour, witiiout, at the fame time,
increafing the price of tlie produce of land, would create, it
is fuppoied, a ilruggle of fliort duration between the land-
lords and the farmers, which would reduce the former to
farmers, and the latter to labourers. The labouring clafs
would be inordinately increafed in number, and the work to
be done greatly reduced in quantity. The former would be
employed two or three days in a week ; this would create a
competition among the labourers to obtain conftant work,
which could only be done by working for lefs money than
ufual ; the price of labour would fall greatly below what it

I

was at this time ; the land would be imperfeftly cultivated,
and the agricultural part of the nation would be thrown, it
is faid, fome hundred years back.

Every advance in the coft of agricultural labour muft, it
is faid, be paid either by the community or the landlords.
If grain and animal food are made to advance in price, in
order to enable the farmers to pay additional wages to their
labourers, it becomes a tax, it is faid, on the community, and
to which thofe identical labourers contribute. If the price
of grain and aiiimal food fliould continue flationary, and
labour fhould increafe in price, it will infallibly, it is
thought, occafion an equivalent deduftion in the rents of
the land. It is of high importance, it is contended, to the
landed interefl, that the labourers in agriculture fhould be
fed at a very low rate of expence. Any material increafe
of the wages of labour can only be made, without doing
great injuftice to the landlords, by a proportionate advance,
it is faid, in the prices of grain and cattle.

The writer would feel much fatisfaftion at meafures
being taken to increafe the price of labour, and ameliorate
the condition of the workmen of the country, if it could be
accomplifhed without greatly injuring the nation, and par-
ticularly if it could be effefted without any material inter-
ruption to the progrefs of fcience, of arts, and of commerce.
But the fuccefs of agriculture, manufaftures, and com-
merce, all depend upon the price of labour being low, even
very low : in order that our arts and our commerce (hould
be highly fuccefsful, the price of labour, it is maintained,
(hould be low as poflible.

It is further remarked, that the circumftances of the
country have of late, until within this little while, made
greater calls than ufual on the labouring clafs ; the con-
fequence of which has been, what under fimilar caufes
always will be the cafe, an advance in the wages of labour.
At the former price of corn, that would have lowered the
rent of land, which would, it is faid, have fallen exclufively
on the landed intereft ; therefore, to prevent fo confiderable
an inconvenience, the corn laws and regulations have been
altered in fuch a manner as to allow the price to rife. The
fame able writer, in fpeaking of the bad effcCls of public-
houfes on labourers, remarks it as almoft a general rule,
that the higher their wages arc, the lefs they carry home,
and confequently, the greater is the wretchednefs of them-
felves and their families. Comforts in a cottage are moftly
found, it is laid, where the man's wages are low, at leaft fo
low as to require him to labour fix days in every week.
For inftance, a good workman, at nine (hillings per week, if
advanced to twelve, will fpend a day in the week at the ale-
houfe, which reduces his labour to five days, or ten fliillings ;
and as he will fpend two (liillings in the public-houfe, it
leaves but eight (liillings for his family, which is one lefs
than they had when he earned only nine (liillings. And
that if by any means he be put into a fituation of earning
eighteen (hillings in fix days, he will get drunk, it is faid,
on Sunday and Monday, and go to his work in a ilupid
ftatc on the Tuefday ; and (hould he be a meclianical
journeyman of lome genius, who by conllant labour could
earn twenty-four (hillings or thirty (hillings per week, at
fonie of them can, he will be intoxicated half the week,
infolent to his employer and every one about him. Further,
too, (liould his mafter have bufinefs in hand that requires
particular dilpatch, he will then, more than at any other
time, be abfent from his work, and liis wife and cliildren
will experience the extreme of hunger, rags, and cold.

It has alio been fuggcfted by Mr. Ruggles in another fitu-
ation, that if greater wages are given, they will be given for
expcnces in articles widely different from the ncccflaries of

life

W A G

W A G

life they will be given for the encouragement of idlcnefs,

and for the increafe of the excife revenue. Idlencfs is the
root of all evil, it is faid ; — articles of excife are the moif-
ture which nourifhes that root.

The increafing number of public-houfes is confequently
to be greatly deplored as it operates in this way. As there
the poor and thoughtlefs labourers are irrefiftibly, it is faid,
tempted to fquander their money, in bad beer and fpirits,
to the manifeft injury of their conftitutions ; whereas, it is
thought, a fubftantial meal at home, with a little good ale,
would enfure that health and vigour fo elFential to thofe
who muft earn their bread by the fweat of their brows. It
cannot but be noticed, it is faid, that the increafe of thefe
forts of houfes is more ruinous to the loweft orders of fociety
than all other evils put together. The depravity of morals,
and the frequent diftrefs of the poor labourers' families, it
traced to their true fource, would, it is thought, be gene-
rally found to originate in the public-houfe. That, on the
contrary, where there is not fuch a houfe in the pariih, and
feme fuch parifhcs there ftill are, tho\igh in diftant fituations,
the wife and children of the labourer, generally fpeaking, it
is faid, enjoy happinefs, compared with thofe where many
public-houfes are feen. They are alfo, it is thought, lefs
difoofed to deceive and pilfer ; are better clothed, more
cleanly in their perfons, and agreeable in their manners.

In all cafes, a great deal more, probably, depends upon
the manner of training and bringing up the working clafs
than is commonly fuppofed ; as where they are taught and
accuftomed from infancy to depend upon themfelves and
their own indullry, exertion, hard labour, and honefty, they
will form much better and more orderly fervants and la-
bourers than where they are made to place their dependance,
from fuch an early period, on the bounty or charity of
others, as is too much the cafe, without having the exam-
ple of fuch habits of honed induftry, exertion, and in-
dependance before them. A better, more induftrious, and
foitable mode of educating and bringing up the children of
the labouring poor, is indeed a matter which is much to be
defired.

The wages of fervants and labourers differ greatly, in dif-
ferent diftrifts and fituations, as the nature of them may be,
and according to the goodnefs or indifference of the workmen
they may contain, but in all they have confidcrably increafed
for the laft fifteen or twenty years, except very lately. They
may, perhaps, be dated, as varying under different circum-
dances, from eight or nine to fixteen or eighteen {hillings
by the week, and from eight or nine pounds to fourteen or
fifteen by the year. This is nearly the cafe in the two
great arable didrifts of Edex and Norfolk.

However, in addition to the dipulated wages, the la-
bourers have often other advantages from their employers,
fuch as corn or meal at a reduced price, pieces of potatoe
grounds or gardens, cow grounds, or cows kept, fmall
houfes, and many others, which increafe the real, though
not the nominal wages.

A plan and form of book for regulating and keeping an
account of the time and wages of all forts of work-people
employed by the day, or in other ways, have lately been
prepared and printed at Liverpool, by which, it is faid, the
trouble of arranging and managing fuch accounts will not
be a tenth of what it is in the ufual modes of proceeding in
fuch bufinefs. If thefe means diould be found capable of
leffening the difficulty and trouble of this fort of accounts
on a full trial, they will certainly be of great utdity in many
departments of labour, as fomething of this fort has long
been wanting.

VTAGGAMAW, in Geography, a lake of North Caro-

lina ; 30 miles S.W. of Exeter — Alfo, a river of North
Carolina, which runs into the Great Pedee, 15 miles S. of
Kingfton, in South Carolina.

WAGGEL, in Ornithology, a name given by the people
of Cornwall to a fpecies of the larus, or fea-guU, known
among authors by the name of martinazzo.

WAGGON, in ylgriculture and Rural Economy, a kind
of vehicle or carriage in common ufe. There are divers
forms of waggons, accommodated to the divers ufes they
are intended for. The common waggon confids of the
Jhafts, or rndj, which are the two pieces the hind horfe bears
up ; the ivelcls ; the Jlotes, which are the crofs pieces that
hold the fhafts together ; the holjler, being that part on
which the fore-wheels and axle-tree turn, in wheehng the
waggon acrofs the road ; the chejl, or body of the waggon,
having the daves or rails fixed thereon ; the bales, or hoops,
which compofe the top ; the tilt, the cloth thrown over the
hoops ; befides the wheels, axle-tree, &c.

Waggons are too frequently condrufted without that
proper attention to the nature of the roads, or the forts
of articles which are to be conveyed by them, which is necef-
fary, being in general heavy, clumfy, and inconvenient convey-
ances. There i3,however, awaggonof this kind,which is much
employed in the county of Berks, that is formed and built
on a more fimple and convenient principle than thofe com-
monly met with in mod other fouthern parts of the country,
and which has not either the height or weight of them,
while it pofTefTes fufficient drength, and is eafy in the
draught. The writer of the iird account of the agricul-
ture of that diftrift has, however, fuggeded an improve-
ment to be made in it, which is that of leaving the fpace
fufficiently deep in the body or bed for the fore-wheels to
lock round in the fhorted pofTible curve, as in the prefent
manner of its conftruftion, a great deal of time is neceffarily
lod in the turning at the ends of the fwaths and plats in
carrying hay or corn, as well as on fome other occafions, as
in this way the inconvenience may be removed without
doing the fmalled injury, it is faid, to the fymmetry or
drength of the carriage or waggon.

In the correfted report on the agriculture of that diilrift,
which has been more lately drawn up, it is however noticed,
that fome farmers of the fored part remark on the above,
that the waggon would be much weakened by the propofed
alteration ; and add, that an improvement has lately been
made on the waggons of this county, which is found to an-
fwer the purpofe of the above fuggeded alteration, which
is the locking chain, as it is called ; which is a chain from
the pillar of the waggon, to about fix inches before the
middle bed day, which is made of fuch a length, as effec-
tually to prevent the waggon catching on the lock. Where
the beds of the waggons are draight, as is common, it is
faid, in the fouthern parts of the fame county, the improve-
ment fird propofed would probably, it is thought, be ufe-
ful ; but that in the vale and middle parts, the beds are
otherwife conftrufted, and fcarcely admit of alteration for
the better.

A waggon, too, which is peculiar to Cornwall, is faid to be
light and elegant, being ufed there for carrying corn and hay
in harved time, and faggot -wood, as well as for many other
purpofes. The body is open, which with a lade of five
bars fixed before and behind gives it great length, while an
arch put over the hind wheels gives it breadth ; the fore-
wheels turn clear under ihe body, fo that it can fweep round
in a very narrow compafs ; the load is fecured by two ropes
tightened by a fort of winch fixed behind the waggon ; it
carries about three hundred (heaves of corn at a tiree. A
tongue tree, foractimcs called a middle tree, or (hafts, are

oeca«

WAGGON.

occafionally fixed to the axle of the fore wheels, according
as it is intended to be drawn by an ox or a liorfc-team.
This light waggon is thought to be deferring of a place on
almoft every large farm in the kingdom.

But the writer of the rural economies of the different
counties of the kingdom, who has attended much to tlie
fubjcft, thi iks that thofe which are employed in the county
of Gloucelkti" are to be preferred to any others in the coun-
try ; as by means of crooked fide rails, bending archwife
over the hiiid wheels, the bodies or frames of them are kept
low, without the diameter of the wheels being much leffened.
The bodies are likewife, it is faid, made wide in proportion
to their fhallownefs, and the wheels run fix inches wider than
thofe of moft other waggons, whereby advantages in carry-
ing top-loads are, it is faid, evidently obtained. Mr. Rudge,
too, in his account of the agriculture of the fame diftrift,
has remarked that, in many parts of it, waggons are the prin-
cipal carriages employed in getting in the hay and corn, and
are either full-bedded or with three-quarter beds. That the
former have the advantage of a greater length of bed, but
are not fo convenient for turning ; and that the latter, though
diminiflied in fize, have the convenience of locking the fore
wheels, and turning in almoft as narrow a compafs as a
chaife, in confequence of the bed being hollowed out on
each fide near tlie middle, to admit the exterior part, or fel-
loes of the fore wheels. Both tiiefe forts of waggons are
capable of carrying nearly, it is faid, the fame weight, though
the former, as being deeper in the bed, is fomewhat better
adapted, it is thought, for the carriage of heavy articles,
fuch as bags of corn, and other fuch materials. For the
purpofc of carrying hay and ftraw, or of harvefting, their
length and width are, it is faid, increafed by light lad-
ders before and behind, and of fimilar contrivances, called
" rathes," the whole length of the fides. The ladders are
put on and taken off at pleafure in both kinds, but the fide
additions are generally fixed ; except in the ftraight-headed
fort, which are in ufe, it is faid, on the weftern fide of the
Severn, in this county ; in thefe they are made removeable,
fo as to leave the bed quite naked.

Another fort of waggon, which partakes, in fome mea-
fure, of the properties of both the waggon and cart, on
which account it has been appropriately denominated the
hermaphrodite, is, it is faid, frequently made ufe of in the
county of Norfolk, when the pair of fore wheels and fliafts
are occafionally attached to a common cart by a pole con-
nefted with the axle, to which are added the ladders. This
is, it is faid, a light, cheap, and convenient fort of waggon,
which is capable of carrying nearly as much hay or ftraw as
that of the Berkfliire.

As it has been obferved, that from its having been long
a complaint among large farmers, and others, whofe bufinefs
requires the conftant ufe of carts, and only tlie occafional
ufe of waggons, that the waggon, however well prtferved
by a (hed or other fuch building, is daily decaying and get-
ting worfe while out of ufe, particularly the iron work of
it, which is fhortly deftroyed by ruft ; and that, in like
manner too, with thofe whofe concerns re<|uirc the almoft
conftant ufe of waggons, and but the occafional ufe of carts;
the latter, while unemployed, bear a very -joiifiderable pro-
portion to the wear and tear of carts which are in conftant
ufe : thefe circumftanccs and effefts have led and induced a
Mr. Rood to dcvifc and bring to pcrfeClion, at a very confi-
derable expcnce, a ctHitrivaucc of this particular kind, by
which the fame carriage may, in a few minutes, be made by
the carter into two complete tip carts of ihe common ilimen-
fions, and applicable to all the ufes of carls in general, or
into one waggon, fo complete, that a narrow infpedioa i», it

6

is faid, [ncceffaty to diftinguifh it from a common waggon.
And that there is no complication of parts in this waggon,
the whole being fo contrived, that none of its parts are ever
out of ufe, confequently not liable to be miflaid or loft.
The carts, too, when it is formed into them, have a contri-
vance by which to render them more fafe and eafy to the
horfe in going down a hill, and have moveable fide ladders,
which will, it is faid, be found of great ufe in carrying corn,
bark, and other fuch materials. It is noticed, that it may
be conftrufled by the wheelwrights of any county or dif-
trift with perfeft cafe and facility, and that its ihape and
particular dimenfions are capable of being fuited to the
wifties of the owner, or to the local fafhion of the neigh-
bourhood in which he lives. That the refult of confideiable
experience and enquiries enables the inventor to ftate that
it maybe completed, in any county or diftrift, for about five
pounds more than the coft of two common carts. It is ad-
mitted, however, that it is fomewhat more clumfy than a
common waggon.

It is united and held together by four ftrong pius, which
are to be removed when it is difunited and ufed in the fepa-
rated ftate.

A reprefentation of it may be feen in the fecond volume
of the " General Diftionary of Agriculture and Huf-
bandry."

In the county of Norfolk, Mr. Douton, of Brandon,
according to the writer of the correfted report on the agri-
culture of that diftrift, has found a confiderable faving by
the ufe of light caravan waggons for two horfes abreaft,
with which he carries, it is faid, a chaldron and half of coals,
and other loads in proportion ; and that, it is thought by
him, every man, who reduces the teams of any county or
diftrift, will be fure to do this until he arrives at perfeftion
in a one-horfe carriage.

In moft counties, however, ilill much too heavy carriages
of the waggon kind are in ufe for the bufinefs of farming as
well as road purpofes. In Kent, the carriages of this fort
employed in conveying the corn to market and other places
are large, and called hutches, being drawn by four horfes ;
and generally loaded with not more than from feven to
twelve quarters of corn, according to its weight, and the
diftance it is to be carried. They are thirteen feet long, are
made crooked at the fides, the width cannot however be
pofitively afcertained ; but they are generally three feet
wide before, and four behind at the bottom ; and about
fix or eight inches wider at the top, being twenty inches
deep : they are boarded at the fides and ends clofe enough
to carry fand. If made with wooden axle-trees, they coft,
it is faid, about twenty guineas : if with iron, twenty-five.
Such waggons arc, however, quite unfit for many farm
ufes.

In Staffordfhire, it has been obferved by Mr. Pitt, that
the reduflion of the weight of waggons, in moft cafes, but
particularly to thofe who are common carriers, is highly be-
neficial, being a gain of not lefs than fifty pounds a year by
each team conftantly employed on the road ; and that if it
be made with good materials a light waggon will laft as long
as a heavy one. The coft of a narrow-wheeled waggon
there is twenty-fix pounds ; fix inch, thirty-fix ; the axle-
tree is moft commonly of wood.

The aulluir of the " Prefcnt State of Agriculture and
Hufl)aiuhv in Great Britain," remarks that waggons arc
chiefly ufed in getting in the hay and corn liarvefts, carrying
the hay and grain to market, and bringing manure and
coals from a diftance. That they are generally drawn by
the whole team on the farm, where one only is kept, what-
ever number of animals it may confift of, and that two men

and

WAG

W A G

and a boy are moftly neceffary to attend them. That in
performing diftant carriages, when the roads are level and
fubftantially made, and the waggons at alltimes fully loaded,
one of them may probably be as advantageoudy ufed as
two or more carts of lefs dimenfions. But that where
the labour is required to be performed with expedition, as
in the hay and corn harvefts, thefe unwieldy machines and
contrivances are without doubt ill calculated for the purpofe ;
and that on every occafion, when they return half or a third
loaded, it is evident the farmer fuftains a confiderable lofs.
Inftances have occurred to the writer, it is faid, in more
than one open-field pariih in this part of the country, where
a waggon, with three or four perfons and as many horfes,
has been difpatched to coUeft and carry home fcattered
parcels of hay from the ends of ridges, which, after going
over a great extent of the parifh or diftrift, returned only
partly loaded. Confidering the very high rate of labour,
and the (hamefuUy extravagant manner in which, in hay or
corn harveft, labourers and farm fervants are maintained in
this part of the kingdom, it is furprifing, it is thought, that
every farmer does not exert himfelf to devife and find out
means by which he may perform his work with greater ex-
pedition, and at lefs expence. There are forae, however,
who think that this fort of carriage or conveyance, however
well formed and conftrufted, from its neceffary great weight
and unwieldinefs, as well as its expeiice, is moftly far from
being advantageous to the interell of the farmer ; as while
ic is highly deftrnftive to the roads, it requires great power
to draw it, which muft be procured at much coft, without
affording an adequate compenfation in the increafed quantity
of materials which it carries.

Waggons unqueflionably require much more power in
the draught in proportion than carts, which is certainly a
material objeftion againft them, though they are capable of
conveying a much greater load ; but, befides, they are far
from being fo handy and convenient for many forts of farm-
work ; and fome too are of opinion that more bufinefs may
be done in any particular fpace of time, with the fame
number of horfes, by carts than by waggons, in the general
run of huibandry work, efpecially where the diftance is
fmall between the places of loading and unloading. That
where waggons are ufed for farm-work, they (hould be made
wide and low, as the moft fuitable in different intentions.
Manures may be carried in thefe forts of waggons almoll as
well, it is fuppofed, as in carts. Broad wheels are improper
for pafling and repaffing upon tillage lands ; as if in fallow
they prefs the land too much, making it fo hard as to
prevent its being ploughed until wet comes ; but on grafs-
land, wheels of the broad kind are proper and fuitable for
all purpofes. In Berkfhire, Mr. Loveden is faid to put
narrow fore-wheels to his waggons, and broad ones behind,
in order to prevent injury to tender grafs-land. The hind-
wheels in this way roll over the tracks made by the fore, and
remove the mifchief they have done. The method is thought
to be excellent, and of very eafy application.

On the whole, waggons are probably the moft proper and
fuitable fort of conveyances for different kinds of heavy
loads that are to be carried to a diftance ; but that for home
ufes, efpecially field and other work, which requires to be
executed in a fpeedy manner, carts with proper fhelvings
and other conveniences are to be preferred, as more ready
and economical. See Cart.

In the work of reducing the weight of waggons for farm
ufes, as well as for road and other purpofes, it ihoiild always
be done with much care and attention, in order that it may
be taken from fuch parts of them as have not great force of
draught or preffure upon them, and that thofe parts which

are much expofed in thefe ways may be left fufficiently
llrong. In the weight and (hape of the wheels fome reduc-
tion and alteration may likewile take place, as may be feen
in fpeaking of wheels. See Wheel.

Waggon, in the Military Economy, is a four-wheeled
carriage, drawn by four horfes, and applied to varidus
purpofes.

Waggon, Ammunition, in Military Language, is a waggon
ufed in carrying all kinds of ftores, and alfo bread ;
for which purpofe it is lined on the infide with baiket-
work.

WAGGOfi-MaJler-General is he who has the ordering and
marching of the baggage of the army. On a day of march
he meets the baggage at the place appointed in the orders,
and marfhals it according to the rank of the brigade or re-
giment each waggon belongs to, which is fometimes in one
column, fometimes in two ; fometimes after the artillery ;
and fometimes the baggage of each column follows their re-
fpeftive column.

WAGG0N-/r<7y, the fame with TiAlL-lVay ; which fee.
WAGGONER, in jljlronomy, a kind of conftellation,
called alfo Ciiarles's wain.

Waggoner is alfo ufed for a routier, or book of charts,
defcribing the feas, their coafts, &c.

Waggoner, in farm work, the perfon or labourer who
has the care and management of the waggon teams in
driving, feeding, and other ways. It is of confiderable ad-
vantage to the farmer to have good and careful waggoners,
in faving time, wafte, and labour; A waggoner is alfo a
term applied to the man who drives and direfts waggons on
the public roads. See Road.

Waggoners, Royal, or Royal IVaggon Train, a corps of
waggoners lately eftablilhed, confifting of nine troops, each
troop being 60 rank and file : but fince its firft eftablifh-
ment reduced.

WAGHKUNK, in Geography, a town of New York;
7 miles N.W. of Kingfton.

WAGING, a town of the archbiihopric of Salzburg ;
17 miles N.W. of Salzburg.

WAGIOL, one of the fmaller Papuan iflands. See New
Guinea.

WAGNA, a town of the duchy of Stiria, on the Salm ;
1 7 miles S. of Gratz.

W AGNAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat, on
the gulf of Cambay ; 45 miles S.S.W. of Gogo.

WAGNER, Joachim, in Biography, a celebrated Ger-
man organ -builder, who crefted a large organ, in the gar-
rifon church at Berhn, in 1725, which is remarkable for
compai^s, &c. having 50 keys in the manuals, and for its
number of pipes, amounting to 3220 ; but ftill more fo for
the ornaments and machinery- of the cafe, which are in the
old Teutonic tafte, and extremely curious.

At each wing is a kettle-drum, which is beat by an angel
placed behind it, whofe motion the organift regulates by a
pedal ; at tlie top of the pyramid, or middle column of pipes,
there are two figures, reprefenting Fame, fpreading their
wings when the drums are beat, and raifing them as high as
the top of the pyramid ; each of thefe figures founds a trum-
pet, and then takes its flight.

There are likewife two funs, which move to the found of
cymbals, and the wind obliges them to crofs the clouds ;
during which time two eagles take their flight, as naturally
as if they were alive.

The name of Wagner occurs twelve times in Gerber's con-
tinuation of Walther's Mufical Diftionary. Seven of the
number have diilinguiflied thenifelves in mufic, fome way or

other

W A H

other by their talents. The other fivf have been organ-
builders and makers of keyed inftruments.

WAGOE, in Geography, one of the Farcer iflands,
well of Stromoe.

WAGOLY, a town of Hindooflan, in Dowlatabad ; 15
miles N.E. of Poonah.

WAGON, a fmall ifland on the weft fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63^ 12'. E. long. 13° 38'.

WAGRA, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles S.E. of
Maiittern.

WAGRAIN, a town of the arclibifhopric of Salz-
burp, near the Gros Arl ; 6 miles W. of Radftadt.

WAGRAM, a town of Auftria ; 2 miles N.E. of
Voglabruck.

Wagram, or Deutfch Wagram, a town of Auftria ; 8
miles E.of Korn Neuburg.

WAGRIA, a diftria of Holftcin, fituated in the
N.E. part, between the Baltic and the Trave.

WAGSTADT, or Bilowes, a town of Silefia, in
the principahty of Troppau ; 24 miles W. of Tefchen.
N. lat. 49= 28'. E. long. 18^.

WAGTAIL, in Ornithology. See MoTAClLLA.
WAGTER, NoRD, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
gulf of Tonquin, near the coaft of China. N. lat. 21'' 13'.
E. long. 109*^ 30'.

Wagter, Zuyd, a fmall idand in the Chinefe fea, near
the coaft of Cochinchina. N. lat. 17' 18'. E. long.
io6° 34'.

WAGUOIT Bay, a bay of the Atlantic, on the S.
coaft of Maftachufetts. N. lat. 41" 30'. W. long.
70° 28'.

WAGUR, Little, a diftrift of Hindooftan, on the
coaft of the gulf of Cutch.

WAHABEES, Wahabies, or Wehhabis, appella-
tions that diftinguifh a formidable body of warlike feftaries,
who fprung up in Arabia about a century ago, commenced
their career as reformers of the Mahometan religion, and
extended their migrations and conquefts. According to
Niebuhr, the founder of this feft was one Abd ul Wehhab,
(Abdoulwehhbah, or Ubdool Wahab,) a native of Aija:ne
(Ujuna), a town in El Ared (Ool Urud), one of the two
diftrifts of Nedsjed in Arabia. This man, in his youth, is
faid to have ftudied at home (or at Medina) tliofe fciences
which are chiefly cultivated in Arabia ; he afterwards fpent
fome time at Bofra, and made feveral journeys to Bagdad,
and through Perfia. After his return to his native place,
fays Niebuhr, he began to propagate his opinions among
his countrymen, and fucceeded in convertinir feveral inde-
pendent fchiecks, whofe fubjeds became followers of this
new prophet. Thofe fchiecks, who had before been in a
ftate of hoftility againft one another, were reconciled by the
mediation of Abd ul Wehhab, and agreed for the future to
undertake no enterprife without the advice of their apoftle.
In procefs of time, Abd ul Wehhab reduced great part of El
Ared ; and being afterwards joined by fchieck Mecrami,
of Nedsjeran, who was alfo the head of a particular feft, he,
or rather his fon Mahomet, as he fucceeded his father, was
enabled to reduce the Sunnite fchiecks, and as they afted
in concert to fubdue many of their neighbours. After the
death of Abd ul Wehhab, his fon retained the fame authority,
and profccuted his father's views, of courfe he fuftained the
fupreme ecclefiaftical charafter in El Ared ; and thouph the
hereditary fchiecks, which were more independent, llill re-
tain a nominal authority, yet Mahomet is in faft the fove-
rcign of the whole, and exafts a tribute, under the name of
«• fikka," or aid, for the purpofe of carrying on the war
againft the infidels. The Sunnitcs complain of his perfc-
VoL. XXXVIL

W A H

cution ; but, more probably, as Niebuhr fays, this bigotted
and fuperftitious feft hate and calumniate Mahomet for his
innovations in religion. However this be, the inhabitants
of Nedsjed, who demur againft embracing the new religion,
are retiring to other parts of the country. Zobaner, the
ancient Bafra, wliich had decayed to a condition little better
than a hamlet, has been peopled by thcfc refugees, and is^
now a large town.

As to the religious doftrine taught by Abd ul Wehhab,
and adopted by his followers, Niebuhr ftates, that he be-
lieved God to be the only objcft of worfhip and invocation,
and the creator and governor of this world. He forbade
the invocation of faints, and fo much as the mention of
Mahomet, or any other prophet, in prayer, as praAices fa-
vouring of idolatry. He confidered Mahomet, Jefus Chrift»
Mofes, and many others, refpedled by the Sunnites, under
the charafter of prophets, as merely great men, whofe hiftory
might be perufed with improvement ; at the fame time de-
nying that any book had ever been written by divine iufpi-
ration, or brought down from heaven by the angel Gabriel,
He alfo forbade, as a crime againft Providence, the making
of vows, in the manner of the Sunnites, with a view of ob-
taining deliverance from danger. This new religion of
Abd ul Wehhab, according to the account given of it by
the fchiecks, which, however, in fome refpefts, differs from
the ftatement of the Sunnites, may be regarded as a re-
formation of Mahometanifm, propofing to reduce it to itg
original fimphcity. Experience muft decide whether a reli-
gion, fo ftripped of every thing that might ferve to
ftrike the fenfes, can long maintam its ground among, a
people fo rude and ignorant as the Arabs. Abd ul Wehhab
has alfo thought it neceffary to impofe fome religious ob-
fervances on his followers ; and has interdifted the ufe of
tobacco, opium, and coffee ; and he has enafted a variety
of civil regulations, with regard to the collection and diftri-
bution of the revenues.

Of thefe Wahabees other travellers have more recently
detailed a variety of particulars, and we Ihall here avail our-
felves of the information concerning them, communicated in
the travels of Ali Bey, whofe refidence in Arabia, and pil-
grimage to Mecca, afforded him an opportunity of acquaint-
ing himfelf with the hiftory and religious ufage» of this tribe
of feftariej. Of their founder we have already given a brief
account. He commenced his career among the wandering
Bedouin Arabs of the defert; and his firft profelyte of any
importance is faid to have been Ibn Saaoud, a prince of cer-
tain tribes inhabiting the country to the eaft of Medina ;
and this prince took occafion, in the diffemination of his new
doftrine, to attack and fubjugate the neighbouring tribes.
His fucceffor, or, as fome fay, his coadjutor, was Abdel-
aaziz (Ubdool Uzecz), who profecuting his fyftem, carried
in one hand his creed of reform, and his fword in the other ;
and having made himfelf mafter of the interior of Arabia,
extended his military excurfions as far as the vicinity of
Bagdad ; and in the year 1801, totally dcftroyed by fire the
town of Imam Hoffein, near this capital. The men and
male cliildren were all put to the fword ; while a Wehliabitc
doAor, from the top of a tower, excited the maffacrc, by
calling on the foldiers to kill " all the infidels who gave
companions to God." In 1802, Mecca was taken after a
trifling oppofition by Saaoud, the fon of Abdclaazii, who
razed to the ground all the mofques and chapels confccrated
to the prophet or his family. This young warrior fuc-
ceeded to the command of tlic Wciiiiabis the following year,
on the aflaffination of his father; and, in 1R04, maJe him-
felf mafter of Medina, which had before ofifted his arms.
The conqucft of Arabia wao now nearly completed ; and

^h the

WAHABEES.

tlie fultan Saaoud became a formidable neighbour to the
furrounding pachas of Bagdad, Damafcus, and Egypt.

The conilitution of this new fovereignty was fingular in
its kind. The town of Draaiya, among the deferts, 390
miles to the caft of Medina, formed a fort of capital, or
centre, of the governments of the Wehhabis. The various
tribes of Arabs, fcattered widely in tents and barracks over
this vaft extent of country, yielded obedience, both civil and
military, to the fultan Saaoud. The tenth of their flocks
and fruits was paid in tribute ; an order from the fultan ra-
pidly alTembled a multitude of armed men, fubfifting them-
felves at their own expence, totally unorganized as foldiers,
but deriving force from their numbers — from their aftive
fpirit as feftaries — and from the large plunder they obtained
in their military expeditions. Defcending frequently from
their defert recefles upon the coaft of the Red lea, they ar-
retted the caravans, and levied contributions upon the pil-
o-rims journeying to Mecca and Medina. In the year 1807,
when Ali Bey vifited Mecca, the Wehhabis were in their
greatetl power. Their army, which he faw encamped in the
vicinity of the facred mount of Arafat, he eftimates at
45,ocomen, — a large proportion of the number mounted on
camels and dromedaries, and with a train of a thoufand
camels attached to the different chiefs of the army. He de-
fcribes with fome fpirit the appearance of another body of
Wehhabis, whom he faw entering Mecca, to take poffeffion
of the city, and fulfil the duties of their own pilgrimage : —
a multitude of copper-coloured men, who rufhed impetu-
oufly into the place, their only covering a narrow girdle
round their waift, to which was hung a khaujear, or large
knife, each one carrying befides a firelock on his flioulder.
Their devotions were of the moft tumultuous kind ; the
lamps furrounding the facred kaaba were broken by their
guns ; and the ropes and buckets of the well of Zemz.em
deftroyed in their eagernefs to reach the holy water. All
the other pilgrims quitted their more decorous ceremonies,
till the Wehhabis, having fatisfied their zeal, and paid their
alms to the well in gunpowder and coffee, betook themfelvos
to the ftreets, where, in conformity with the law of Abd ul
Wehhab, their heads were all clofely (haved by the barbers
of Mecca. The fultan Saaoud, whom Ali Bey faw at
Arafat, was almoft as naked as his fubjefts, diftinguilhed
chiefly by the green ftandard carried before him, with the
charafters, " La illaha ilia Allah,'" — " there is no other God
but God,'" embroidered upon it.

With refpecl to their religious tenets, the Wehhabis niay
be defcribed, generally, as the Socinians of the Mohamme-
dan church. Abd ul Wehhab, while acknowledging fully
the authority of the koran, profeffed obedience only to the
literal text of this book ; rejefting all the additions of the
imams and doftors of law, and condemning various fuperlli-
tions which had fullied the purity of the faith. He forbade
all devotion to the perfon of the prophet, and pilgrimage to
his tomb at Medina ; regarding him limply as a man charged
with a divine million ; which being completed, he became
again an ordinary mortal. The (lory of Mahomet's afcent
to Paradife on El Borak, the horfe of the angel Gabriel, he
wholly denied ; together with a hoft of other miraculous
events, with which hifl;ory has celebrated the life of the pro-
phet. The Wehhabis fimply fay " Mohammed," inilead of
" Our Lord Mohammed," according to the ufage of other
MulTulmen. They have equally rejeded the uidireft wor-
{hip of certain faints, who had been gradually inlinuated
into the Muffulman calendar, dellroying the chapels and
tombs which had been confecrated to them. The grand
doftrine of the feft, and what they regard as the bafis of
true Illamifm, is the unity of God. This forms their cry

when they go to war, and juttiiies to themlelves the violences
they commit upon tlie corrupters of the faith. The Muf-
fulmen who deviate from this fimple principle of belief they
call Moufchrikinns, or fchifmatics ; making a diftinftion
between this term and that of Coffar, or idolaters.

As it was the general cuftom of MulTulmen to fliave the
head, with the exception of one tuft of liair, the law of the
Wehhabis forbade the tuft, and enjoined the Ihaving of the
whole head. Their founder alfo prohibited not only the
ufe of tobacco, but that of filk and the precious metals.
Their religious fervices are performed underneath the
open llvy, and not below the roofing of a mofque. Not-
withftanding thefe changes, however, and the general fpirit
of their doftrine, they ftiU retain certain fuperilitions, com-
mon to other MulTulmen. While forbidden to make fome
pilgrimages, others are permitted to them. They kifs the
Ifone of the Kaaba, drink of the water of Zemzem, and
throw Hones againft the pillar faid to have been built by the
devil at Mina.

The pacha of Egypt, with a view of employing his
troops, amounting, at this time, to 15,000 men, and in
order to gain favour with the Porte, and reputation among
true MulTulmen, determined to liberate the holy city and
(lirine from the power of thefe heretics, and declared war
againil them. In the vigorous profecution of it, his army
was tranfported to the Arabian coalls ; and the men and
horfes compofing it, were fupplied with provifions, carried
up the Nile as far as Kenneh, thence tranfported acrofs the
defert on camels to ColTeir, and (hipped for Janibo, or fome
other port on the eaftern coaft of the Red fea. Several
armed veffels alfo were built at Alexandria, taken to pieces,
and conveyed on the backs of camels to Suez, where they
found a fmall fleet, which greatly aided his military opera-
tions on the Arabian coaft. The pacha, it is faid, received
fome arms from the Englilh ; but permiflion was refufed, as
we are told by Mr. l>egh, to his requeft that his veflTels
might go round the Cape of Good Hope, to enter into the
Red fea. The Wehhabis, on the other h.wd, are reported
to have received aftiftance from the French government, con-
veyed through the I He of France, and with the policy of
creating a French intereft in Arabia, which might be fub->
fervient to their pretenfions in the Eaft.

The campaign of the pacha of Egypt againft the
Wehhabis, in 1812, had been unfuccefsful ; and his army
fuffered very greatly in an engagement at Jedda, the port
of Mecca on the adjoining coaft. He redoubled, however,
his exertions ; organized new troops ; and, early in the
fpring of 181 3, brought the war to a triumphant termina-
tion. The Wehhabis were driven with lofs from the coaft ;
Mecca, Medina, and Jedda, were all retaken, and reftored
again to the authority of the Porte, and to the worfhip of the
true believers. Mohammed Ali fent bis youngeft fon,
Ifmael-Pacha, to Conftantinople, to lay the keys of Mecca
at the feet of the grand fignior. The acquifition was ren-
dered of the utmoft importance, by the peculiar feeling of
all MulTulmen towards the actual polTelTor of the holy
city..

The progrefs of thfs fed, fays Mr. Kinneir, appears to
be now at a ftand ; few profelytes have been made for a
number of years paft ; and the moft paltry fortifications
have been found fufficient to arreft the career of their
conquefts.

It does not appear certain, however, that this fuccefs is
complete, or that its confequences will be perm.anent. The
Wehhabis retired from tlie coaft to their defert receiTes in
the interior of Arabia ; where their loiTes may eafily be re^
paired, if the fpirit of the fe£l is maintained in its former
S* vigour.

W A H

vigour. We have very recently heard, from what we be-
lieve to be good authority, that they are again becoming
more aftive ; and, though the military talents of the pacha
of Egypt may reftrain them at the preR'nt moment, we fhall
not be at all fiirpriled, aniidH the many revolutions of the
Eaft, if they fliould re-cilablifh their power in Arabia ; and
concur, witli other caufcs, to overthrow the tottering fabric
of Turkidi empire in this part of the world. Niebuhr's
Travels, vol. ii. Waring's Tour to Sheeraz. Legh's
Narrative of a Journey in Egypt, and the Country beyond
the Catarafts.- Ah Bey's Travels in Morocco, &c. 2 vcls.
1816. Kinncir's Geog. Mem. of Perfia. Edinb. Rev.
No. liv.

AVAHAL, a river which branches off from the Rhine at
Schencken Schans, joins the Meufe firlt at the fmall illand
of Voorn, feparates from that river, and wafhes the north
fide of the ifland of Conimelwaert, and joins the Meufe again
at Worcum, when both rivers form one llreani, fometimes
called Mcrwe, and fometimes Meufe. See Saiialis.

WAHE. SeeWA.

WAHLBO, a town of Sweden, in Geftricia ; 4 miles
S.W. of Gefle.

WAHLBOMIA, in Botany, named by Thunbcrg, in
honour of his countryman, Dr. John Guftavus Wahlbom,
of whom he fpeaks as an ardent botanift, and celebrated
phylician. — Thunb. Aft. Holm, for 1790. 215. t. 9.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1244. Lamarck lUullr. t. 485.
Poiret in Lam. Dift. v. 8. 782. — Clafs and order, Poly-
andria Telragynia. Nat. Ord. Sent'tcojiz, Linn. Rofncet,
JufT. Ditleniacea, De CandoUe.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of four leaves. Petals four. Fruit
oblong. Styles permanent. IVil/ilenow.

I. W. indica. Thunb. as above. Willd. n. i. — The
only fpecies, found by Thunbcrg in the ifland of Java, near
Batavia, flowering in January. AJhnib, with round alter-
nate branches, covered with hoary pubefcence. Leaves
alternate, (lalked, elliptic-lanceolate, acute, ferrated, three
or four inches long ; entire at the bafe ; paler, but fcarcely
downy, beneath. Flnnvers fomewhat umbellate, or cymofc,
near the ends of the branches, on downy Italks. Calyx ex-
ternally downy. Petals yellowifh, deciduous. Stamens
brown, with yellow anthers. Pericarps four, beaked with
the permanent_^j/i?x.

We have mentioned already that Willdenow was inclined
to fink this genus in Tetrackha ; fee the end of that
article. Profed'or De CandoUe has aftually done fo, in his
Sy(l. Nat. V. 1. 403, where the plant in queftion ftands
under the following n.ime and charafter.

T. IVahlbomia. " Leaves eUiptical, pointed ; ferrated
towards the end ; downy beneath, like the footitalks ; fur-
nifhed with ftipulas at the bafe ? Panicle of four or five
flowers. Segments of the calyx four, externally downy."
— The author doubts whether this plant be even fpecilically
dillinft from his T. AJfa, defcribed in the fame place, the
AJfa indica of Houttuyn, of which we have already fpoken
likewife at the conclufion of Tetracera.

WAHLIS, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the county of Hcnncberg ; 5 miles N.W. of Smal-
kalden.

WAHLSTADT, i. e. The Field of Battle, a town of
Silefia, in the principality of Lignit/. ; near which, in the
year 1241, a moll bloody battle was foiight between duke
Henry II. and the Tartars, wherein the latter were vitto-
rious, and the duke (lain. In memory of this event the
place was built ; and the narrative of this engagement is
annually read to the people from the pulpit, in the Lutheran
•church ; 5 miles S.E. of Lignit/,.

W A I

WAHLWINKEL, a town of Saxony, in the princi-
pality of Gotha ; 4 miles S.W. of Gotha.

WAHOE, one of the Sandwich iflands, 37 leagues to
the N. of Morotai, and about 30 from Owhyhee, nearly
40 miles long, from N.W. to S.E., and about half that
extent in breadth. It is the molt important ifland in the
group, on accourit of its fuperior fertility, and becaufe it
poirefTes the only fecurc harbour in thefe iflands. The ca-
pital of the ifland is Hanaroora, the refidence of the king.
Pearls and mother-of-pearl fliells are found here in great
abundance.

WAHR, a river of Germany, which rifes near Fran-
kenau, in the principality of Hefle, and runs into the
Lahn near Kirchhayn.

WAHREN, or Waarex, a town of the duchy of
Mecklenburg, fituated near the lake of Calpin ; 22 miles'
S.E. of Guftrow. N. lat. 53° 30'. E. long. 12° 39'.

Wahren See, a lake of the Ucker Mark of Branden-
burg ; 1 1 miles W.N.W. of Prenzlow.

WAHRENBRUCK, a town of Saxony; 2 miles
N.N.W. of Liebenwerda.

WAHRIEN, a town of Mecklenburg, in the princi-
pality of Schwerin ; 14 miles N.E. of Schwerin. N.
lat. 53° 50'. E. long. 11° 38'.

WAHTO, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo ; 10 miles N. of Abo.

WAIBLINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg. This
town was almoft deftroyed in the thirty years' war ;
7 miles E.N.E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48" 50'. E.
long. 9° 25'.

WAICHMAR. SeeWECHMAR.

WAIDENHOLZ, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles
W.N.W. of Efferding.

WAIDERSFELDEN, a town of AuRria ; 1 2 miles
E. of Freyftatt.

WAIDGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 30
miles E. of Allahabad.

WAIDHAUSEN, a town of Bavaria ; i6 miles
N.N.E. of Nabburg.

WAIDHOVEN, or Bavarian IVaidhoven, a town of
Auilria, on the river Ips ; 26 miles S.S.W. of Ips. N. lat.
47^^54'. E. long. 14^43'.

Waidhoven, or B'nhmifch Waidhoven,^. town of Auftria,
on the river Taya ; 40 miles W. of Laab. N. lat. 48° 48'.
E. long. 15°.

WAIDPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles N.N.W. of
Iflamabad.

WAIF, or Wafe, a term primarily applied to ilolen
goods, which a thief, being either purfucd, i)r overburdened,
flies, and waives or throws away in his flight.

The king's officer, or the bailiif of the lord within
whofe jurifdiftion fuch waifs or waif goods were left
(having by grant, or prefcription, the franchife of waif),
may feize the goods to Lis lord's ufe ; except the owner
come witii frcfli fuit after the felon, and fuc an appeal of
robbery within a year and a day, or give in evidence againft
him, and he be attainted. In which cafes, the owner (hall
have his goods again.

Waived goods do alio not belong to the king, till feized
by fomebody for his ufe ; for if the party robbed can
fei/.e them tiril, though at the diftancc of twenty years,
the king (hall never have them. If the goods arc hid
by the thief, or left any where by him, fo that he had
them not about him when he fled, and therefore did not
throw them away in his flight ; thefe alfo arc not bona
luaiviata, but the owner may have them again when he
4 1, 2 plcafcs.

W A I

pleaTes. The goods of a foreign merchant, though
llolen and thrown away in flight, fhall never be waifs.

Waifs, things loft, and eftrays, are faid to be pecus va-
grans, and are titiUius in bonis uhi non apparet dominus.
And therefore they belong to the lord of the franchife
where they are found ; who muft caufe them to be cried,
and publifhed in the markets and churches near about :
elfe the year and day do not nin to the prejudice of him
that loft them. See Estray.

Though waif be properly fpoken of things ftolen,
yet it may alfo be underftood of goods not ftolen. As,
if -a man be purfued with hue and cry, as a felon,
and he flies, and leaves his own goods, thefe fhall be
forfeited as goods ftolen ; and they are properly called
fugitive goods.

WAJIDA, in Geography, a town of Algiers ; 25 miles
S.W. of Tremecen.

WAIJOO, or Wadjoo, one of the moft confiderable
of the Papu?n iflands, fituated at the N.W. extremity of
Papua, or New Guinea ; which fee. This ifland is faid
to contain 100,000 inhabitants. The land is high, with
lofty mountains, and on the N. fide are two excellent har-
hours, Piapis and Offak. This illand is called by the
natives Ouarido ; it is covered with very large trees, and
abounds with mountains of a confiderable height, even at
a fmall diftance from the fhore. Cottages of bamboo wood
are feen, elevated on ftakes about 1 2 feet above the ground ;
and covered with leaves of the macaw tree. The natives
are wholly naked, except the parts generally concealed,
which a;o covered with a coarfe cloth. Their chiefs are
drefled in very large pantaloons, and vi-aiftcoats of cloth,
which they buy of the Chinefe, whofe language they fpeak,
and like them they wear conical hats made of the leaves of
a tree. They have thick and long curly hair ; their (kin
is not very dark, and fome of them let their whiflcers grow.
They fubfift upon hogs, tortoifes, fowls, Siam oranges,
cocoa, papays, pompions, rice, lugar-canes, potatoes, lemons,
allfpice, and ears of maize, which they boil when green.
Labillardiere found in this ifland the beautiful promerops
of New Guinea, o^ Buffbn, the large cockatoo, quite black
(pfittacus aterr mus), and a new fpecies of hydrocorax. The
wild cock and grouiid-pheafant of the Indies are very com-
mon in the woods.

WAIL, a town of France, in the department of the
ftraits of Calais ; 5 miles S.E. of Hefdin.

WAIN, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to an
ox or horfe-cart of a particular form, and which, in fome
diftriiSs and places, is without any fide-rails, or ladders ;
but which in others has (helvings added to it, the body
being large and open. The Comifti wain, the writer of the
account of the agriculture of that county reprefents as a
light ufeful carriage for conveying corn and hay : it con-
fifts of a light open long body, borne upon two wheels ; a
railed arch put over the wheels prevents the load bearing
upon them : it will carry from two hundred to two hun-
dred and fifty flieaves of corn, they being fecured by ropes,
as in the waggon. Mr. J. Dayman, of that diftnft, con-
fiders it alfo as an admirable contrivance for clearing hay or
corn-fields ; and that when well conftrufted, it is thought
the beft invention for that purpofe yet contrived. That it
is likewife cheap, as the ftiafts and wheels of a common cart
may be ufed with it, and, of courfe, the only additional ex-
pence is the body. Befides the railed wings, which prevent
the load from choaking the wheels, it has a roller behind,
with a hole in it, in which is fallened the rope which crofles
the load, and which, after taking a turn round a crook put
for the purpofe, returns again to the back of the carriage,

10*

W A I

and then forward to the other fide, where it is faftened ; the
whole is then drawn tight by the roller, which is wrought
by two iron handles, in the mai.n"r of a fmith's vice.
Thefe wains are made either with tongue-trees, or Ihafts, as
they may be defigned for oxfn or horfes

In th > county of GlouceP.er, too, they adapt their wains
to harveft-work, it is faid, by fixing ladders and rathes on
them. In the lower part of the vale of that diftrift, they
are called, it is afferted, dung-pots ; but in the foreft part,
where drawn by oxen, waii. '.

They are a fort of carriage which is not very commonly
met with at prefent in many farming diftrifts. See
Cart.

Wain, in Aftrommy. See CHARbTls's Wain.

VJ wa-HouJe, in Rural Economy, a term made ufe of ia
fome diftrifts to fignify a waggon and cart houfe, or
lodge.

WAINFLEET, or Waynflete, in Geography, a
market-town in the wapentake of Candleflioe, in Lindfey
divifion of the county of Lincoln, England, is fituated in
a marfti, on a fmall creek through which the river Limb
flows into Bofton deeps, at the diftance of 17 miles N.E.
from Bofton, and 132 miles N. by E. from London. Dr.
Stukeley affirms it to be the Vainona of Ravennas ; whence
he fuppofes the name to be evidently derived. He ob-
ferves that Salter's Road, which crofles the fen, was pro-
bably the Roman road between Banovallum and Lindum.
Leland defcnbcs Wainfleet as " a praty market ftonding on
a creke nerc to the fe. To this toune long fmaul veflisls.
It hath beene a very godde toune, and yn it 2 paroch
chirches. The fchole, that Wainflete bifshop of Win-
cheftre made and endowid with xli. lande, is the moft no-
table thing. Shippeletes cam in hominum memoria up to
the fchole. The haven now decayith." The negleft of the
haven was in confequence of the waters of the fens being
diverted more foutherly towards Bolton, by which that
place became the port town : Wainfleet haven, however,
affords fecurity to veflels driven on the coaft in tempeftuous
weather. It is probable that the town, previous to the
decay of the harbour, ftood higher up the creek, for the
church of All Saints ftands at a place called High Wain-
fleet. This church is a refpeftable edifice, but apparently
not older than the time of bifliop Waynflete : it has a brick
tower of modern date, and is rapidly decaying. In the
fouth aifle is an alabafter monument, which was erefted by
the pious bifliop to the memory of his father. St. Mary's
church, in Low Wainfleet, has nothing worthy of note.
The fchool-houfe, founded in 1459, is yet ftanding, and has
a handfome window, alfo two oftagonal turrets. Four
annual fairs are held, and a fmall weekly market on Satur-
days. In the return to the population aft of the year 181 1,
the number of houfes in Wainfleet is ftated to be 229, in-
habited by 1 165 perfons. This town is memorable as the
birth-place of that celebrated prelate above-named, who was
lord chancellor, and founder of Magdalen college, Oxford.
He died Auguft 11, i486. — Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. ix., Lincolnfliire : by J. Britton, F.S.A. See
Chandler's Life, &c. of Waynflete.

WAINSCOT, in Budding, the Umber-work ferving
to line the walls of a room ; being ufually made in panels,
and painted, to ferve in lieu of hangings.

Even in halls, it is common to have wainfcot breaft-high,
by reafon of the natural humidity of walls.

It was formerly the cuftom to wainfcot rooms up to the
ceihng, and to terminate it by a cornice ; but it is now
commonly raifed only chair high, or from two to three
feet ; the reft of the wall is either covered with paper,

which

W A I

whicli is oflfii parted on thin cloth, and fixed in frames, to
prevent its being fpoilcd by the dampnefs of the wall,
or elfe it is finilhed with ilucco. Walls (hould be tho-
roughly dry before they are wainfcotted, and the Huff of
which the wainfcot is made (hould be dry and well fea-
foiied.

Some joiners put charcoal behind the panels of tlic wain-
fcot, to prevent the fweat of (lone and brick-walls from
unghiing the joints of the panels. Others ufe wool for the
fame purpofe. But neither the one nor the other is fuffi-
cient for fome houfes : the only fure way, is by priming
over the backfides of the joints with white lead, or Spanifh
brown and linfeed oil.

Wainfcotting is meafured by the fquare yard of nine
feet ; and in taking dimenfions, they ufe a firing, which
they prefs into all the mouldings ; it being a rule, that they
are to be paid for all where the plane goes.

The cornice is meafured and paid by the foot in
length.

WAIORA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Kaarta.
N.lat. 14°48'. W. long. 6° I o'.

WAISCHOWIZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Olmutz ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Profnitz.

WAIST, in Ship-building, a name given to that part of
the topfide of a (hip, above the upper-deck, between the main
and fore drifts: or it is that part which is contained be-
tween the quarter-deck and fore-cadle, being ufually a hollow
fpace, with an afcent of feveral fteps to either of thofe
places. When the waift of a merchant-fhip has only one
or two (leps of defcent from the quarter-deck and fore-
caftle, (he is faid to be galley-built ; but when it is con-
fiderably deeper, as with fix or feven fteps, (he is called
frigate-built. Falconer.

WAIT's River, in Geography, a river of Vermont,
which runs into the Connefticut, N. lat. 43° 58'. W. long.
72° 5'.

WAITS, in Mujlc, attendant muficians on great perfon-
ages, mayors, and bodies corporate, generally furni(hed with
fuperb dreffes, or fplendid cloaks. We have an account in
Rymer's Foedera, (tom.ix. " De Miniitrielles propter Sola-
tium Regis providendis," ) and in the " Liber niger Domus
Regis," of the edablifhment of the mindrels and waits, in
the fervice of the court during the reign of Edward IV. The
account of the allowances to the waits at this early period
is curious.

" A wayte, that nightelye from Mychelmas to Shreve
Thorfdaye pipethe the watche withen this courte fowcr
'ymes ; in the fomere nyghtes iij tymes, and makethe
bon gayte at every chamhere-doare and offyce, as well for
feare of pyckeres and pillcrs. He eateth in the halle with
myndrielies, and taketlic lyvcrey at nighte a loffe, a galone
of alle, and for fomere nightes ij candles picli, a buflicl of
coles ; and for wintere nightes half aloafeof bread, a galone
of ale, iiij candles piche, a bufhel of coles ; daylye whilfte lie is
prefente in courte for his wages in cheque roale allowed iiij d.
ob. or elfe iij d. by the difcrefshon of th'- deuarde and tref-
forere,and that,aftere hiscominge and difcruingc; alfo cloath-
inge with the lion(hold yeomen or myndrielies lykc to the
wages that he takethc ; and he be fyke he taketh twoe loves,
ij melfe of great mcate, one gallon of ale. Alfo he partethe
with the hou(holde of general gyfts, and hathc his beddingc
carried by the comptrollers affygment ; and under this yeo-
man to be a groome watere. Yf he can cxcufc the yeoman
in his abfcnce, then he takctherewardc, clotheinge, meat, and
all other things lykc to other grooms of houfliold. Alfo
this ycoman-waighte, at the makingc of knightcs of the
batlie, for his attendance upon them by ni^htc-tymc, in

VV A K

watchingc in the chappelle, hathe to his fee all the watchinge-
clothing tjiat the knight fliall wear uppon him."

WAI "SF'ELD, in Geography, a town of America, in
the date of Vermont, and county of Chittenden ; containing
647 inhabitants.

WAITZEN, or Vaitz, a town of Hungary, fitiiated
on the Dan'.be ; the fee of a bilhop, founded in the year
1074. This town chiefly owes its profperity to a large
annual f;\ir, and a good market for cattle. The number of
mhabitants is about 8000 ; 72 miles E.S.E. of Prcft)urg. N
lat. 47° 29'. E. long. 18° 38'.

WAITZENKIRCH, a town of Audri. ; 4 mUes
W.N.W. of Efferding.

WAIVE, in Law, a woman that is put out of the pro-
teftion of the law.

She is called waive, as being forfaken of the law ; and
not outlaw, as a man is ; by reafon women cannot be of the
decenna, and are not fworn in leets to the ki. g, nor to the
law, as men are ; who are therefore within the law ; whereas
women are not, and fo cannot be outlawed, (ince they never
were within it.

In this fenfe we meet with waviarla mulierh, as of the fame
import with utlegatio viri.

WAIWODE, or Waywode, the appellation that dif-
tmguilhes, in the Ottoman empire, the governor of a fmall
province, or of a town, which not forming part of a pa-
chalik, is fometimes the appendage of a fultana, of the grand
vifir, of the captain-pacha, or of any other great officer of
the empire. He enjoys all the prerogatives of a pacha with
two tails, but occupies an inferior rank. When he is re-
quired to march at the head of the armed force of his de-
partment, he joins his colours to thofe of the pacha with
three tails. Both the one and the other are charged with
carrying into execution, in their provinces, the fentences pro-
nounced by the judges.

In the iflands of the Archipelago, the Muffulmen or Greeks
fimply charged by the Porte with the gathering of the tax,
and with the poUce of the place, arelikewife didinguidied by
the name of waiwode.

The palatines, or governors of provinces in Poland, alfo
bear the quality of waywoJes, or waiwoiUj. See Pala-
tine.

The Poles likewife call the princes of Walachia and l/lo\-
davia TDiyrwo^/w ; as edecming them no other than on the
foot of governors ; pretending that Walachia and Moldavia
are provmces of Poland, which have withdrawn themfelvcs
from the obedience of the repubUc. Every where elfe thefe
are called hojpodars.

Du Cange fays, that the name waywoile is ufcd in Dal-
matia, Croatia, and Hungary, for a general of an army ; and
Lennclavius, in his Pandcds of Turkey, tells us, it ufually
fignifies eaptain or commander.

WAKARI, in Geography, a fmall ifland on the ead
fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60" 51'. E. long.
20° 47'.

WAKAYGAGH, or Four, a river of America,
which runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 42° 58'. W. long.
87^9'.

WAKE, William, in Biography, a famous Engli(h pre-
late, was born at Blandford, in the county of Dorfet, in
1657, and admitted at Chriilchurch college, at Oxford, in
1672, where he took his degrees in arts, and entered into
lioly orders. He afterwards accompanied his fellow-collegian,
lord vifconnt Prellon, to France, as Iuh chaplain, and return-
ing from thence to England after the accelTion of .Fames II.
was elctlcd preacher to the fociety of Gray's Inn. In 1686
he pubhihcd " An Expofition of the Dottrine of the Church

W A K

W A K

of England," upon the plan of BofTuet's •' Expofition of
the Doftriiieof the Catholic Church ;" and he alfo publilhed
two defences of his treatife againft the replies of BofTuet and
his coadjutor. In the popiih controverfy, which at that
time occupied the public attention, he wrote other pieces,
and clofed the difpute with his " State of the Controverfy."
In 1685, having abandoned his patron lord Preflon, who was
attached to king James, he arrived in 1688, took a degree
of D.D. at Oxford, became canon of Chriftchurch, and in
1689, deputy-clerk of the clofet to king William and queen
Mary. In 1693 he publifhed " An EnglilTi Verfion of the
genuine Epiftles of the Apoftohcal Fathers, with a pre-
liminary Difcourfe concerning the right Ufe of the Fa-
thers." In this work, of which an enlarged edition was
publilhed in 17 10, he afcribes an " authority to the fathers
in matters of doftrine next to infallible." In 1694 he was
prefented to the reftory of St. James's ; and in 1697 he
pubHfhed his " Defence of the Power of Chriftian Princes
over their Ecclefiaftical Synods, with particular refpeft to
the Convocations of the Clergy and Church of England."
By this and fome fubfequent publications of a fimilar kind,
fuch as his " Vindication of the King's Supremacy againft
both popifh and fanatical Oppofers of it," and " The State
of the Church and Clergy of England," 1703, fol. here-
commended himfelf to the crown ; fo that in 1702 he ob-
tained the deanery of Exeter, and in 1705 the bifhopric of
Lincoln. During the prevalence of whig principles, which
were then fafhionable, the bifhop recommended a comprchen-
fion with the Diffenters, and zealoufly concurred in the cenfure
and puniihment of Dr. Sacheverel. He maintained his mo-
deration in the reign of queen Anne, and oppofed the into-
lerant meafure of the fchifm-bill. Soon after the accefiion
of George I. he was advanced, January 1715-16, to the fee
of Canterbury. This elevation gave a new turn to his fen-
timents and temper, fo that in 1 7 1 8 he oppofed the repeal
of the fchifm and conformity bill, and alfo of the tell and
corporation afts, alleging that " the DifFenters were never
to be gained by indulgence ;" and exprefling much difplea-
fure againft Hoadly's celebrated fermon, " Chrift's Kingdom
not of this World ;" and concurring in a bill for impofing a
new teft againft the opinions of the Arians. Thefe mea-
fures, which did no credit to the confiftency of his charafter,
were juftified under a pretence of zeal for the church. By
his earneft endeavours to eKeO. an union between the Englifti
and GaUican churches, on the condition that each ftiould retain
the greateft part of its peculiar doftrines, he incurred a con-
liderable degree of cenfure, particularly on the part of the
author of the " Confeffional ;" but his charafter and inten-
tions were vindicated by Dr. Maclaine, in an appendix to
his Tranflation of Molheim's Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, to
which, as well as to the Biographia Britannica, we refer for
a ftatement of this bufinefs. After all, his difcretion and faga-
city as to the objeft and conJuft of this tranfaflion did not
efcape juft aiiimadverfiO[i. Such, however, was his con-
ciliatory difpofition, and his difpolltion to promote concord
and union, that he acknowledged the foreign Proteftant
churches to be true members of the Chriftian community,
and recommended forbearance and toleration with regard to
theological doftrines. It is, however, a matter of regret,
that his treatment of feparatifts at home did not manifeft,
to the degree that might have been wiftied, a fimilar fpirit
of toleration. His conduft towards father Courayer, an emi-
nently liberal Catholic, redounded greatly to his honour.
In the latter period of his life, his increafing infirmities ren-
dered it neceffary for him to transfer the exercife of his
ecclefiaftical duties to Dr. Gibfon, biihop of London ; and
at length he clofed his life and labours, January 1736-7, in

his 80th year, leaving fix daughters, who were all married,
and bequeathing his hbrary, MSS., and coins, to the college in
wliicli he was educated. Four editions of a treatife, intitled
" A Preparation for Death," &c. and 3 volumes of his

Sermons, Charges, &e. were pubhftied Biog. Brit. Mofti.

E. H. Appendix, N"^ iv. vol. vi. ed. 8vo. 181 i.

Wake, in Geography, a county of North Carolina, con-
taining 17,086 inhabitants, including 5878 flaves.

Wake of a Ship denotes the print or track imprefied by
the courfe of a ftiip on the furface of the water. It is formed
by the reunion of the body of w.ater, which was feparated
by the (liip's bottom whilft moving through it, and may be
feen to a confiderable diftance behind the ftern, as fmoother
than the reft of the fea. Hence it is ufually obferved by
the compafs, to difcover the angle of lee- way.

By this, a guefs alfo may be made of the fpeed fhe
makes.

When, in a ftiip's ftaying, (lie is fo quick, that fhe does
not fall to leeward, upon a tack, but that, vi-hen tacked, her
wake is to the leeward, they fay, Jhe Jlays to the tueather of
her 'wake ; which is a fign fhe feels her helm well, and is
nimble of fteerage.

Alfo, when one ftiip, purfuing another, is got as far into
the wind as (he, and fails direftly after her, on the fame
tack, or on a line fuppofcd to be formed on the continuation
of her keel, they i^y,Jlje is got into her ivakc.

Two diftinft objedis obferved at fea are faid to be in the
wake of each other, when the view of the fartheft is inter-
cepted by the neareft ; fo that the obferver's eye, and the
two objefts, are all placed upon the fame right line.

WAKE-Rolin, or CvcKOW-Pint, in Botany. See Arum.
The root of arum, dried and powdered, is ufed by the
French for walhing their il<.in, and is lold at a high price
under the name of Cyprefs powder ; it is both a good and
an innocent cofmetic.

Thefe roots are faid to poffefs a faponaceous quality, and
have been ufed in waftiing linen inftead of foap. In their
dry ftate, when they have been deprived of their acri-
mony, they have been made into bread, and alfo prepared as
ftarch.

The leaves and flowers of arifarum trqualis, broad-leaved
friar's cowl, are deterfive and vulnerary ; and applied either
in the form of ointment or decoftion to malignant ulcers.
Its root taken in powder is efteemed againil the plague, the
dofe being from a fcruple to a drachm. Of the root alfo
are made collyria, which are ufed in curing fiftulas of the
eyes. Vide Lemery, des Drog. in voc.

WAKEFIELD, Gilbert, in 5/of/-a/)/yi, an eminent claf-
fical fcholar, wasthe fon of the Rev. George Wakefield, reftor
ofSt. Nicholas, Nottingham, and born in that town in the year
1756. After a previous grammatical education, he was ad-
mitted, in 1772, into Jefus college, in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. Here he purfued his ftudies with an affiduity which
eftabliftied his reputation ; and having taken his degree of
B.A. in 1776, he was foon afterwards elefted a fellow of
his college. At this early period, he publiftied a fmall col-
leftion of Latin poems, and a few critical notes on Homer.
Having diretted his particular attention to theological in-
quiries, he began betimes to entertain doubts concerning the
articles of the church, and though he took deacon's orders
in 1778, he reproached himfelf for complying with the pre-
vious forms. He commenced his minifterial labours as a
curate at Stockport, and thence he removed to Liverpool,
difcharging the duties of his office with a fuitable fenfe of
their importance. Diffatisfied, however, with the doftrines
and liturg)' of the church, he determined to furrender his
conneftion with it; and having married in 1779, he accepted

W A K

ail invitation to be claffical tutor at the difTenting academy
of Warrington, without avowing himtelf as a Diilenter.

Having in i 78 i publifhed his plan of a new verlion of the
New Teiiament, with a fpecimen of the propofcd work,
he prefented to the pubhc, in 1782, " A New Tranflation of
the Gofpel of St. Matthew, \v\l\\ Notes critical, philological,
and explanatory," 4to., which was well received. Upon the
difTolution of the academy at Warrington, he removed to
Bramcotc in Nottinghamftiire, where he received private
pupils; and here he publiflicd in 1784 the firll volume of
an " Enquiry into the Opinions of the Chriftian Writers
of the firll Three Centuries concerning the Perfon of Jefns
Chrift," 8vo., which was received in a manner that dif-
couraged him from purfuing his plan. Being diiabled by
the attack of a diforder in one arm to undertake any literary
performance that required any conliderable exertion, he
intermitted his conftant occupations ; till at length in 1789
he commenced his " Silva Critica, five in AuAores facros
prophanofque Commentarius Philologicus ;" of which three
parts appeared fuccelTively to the year 1795, the three firll
being iffued from the Cambridge prefs. Mr. Wakefield, in

1 790, removed from Nottingham to Hackney, in order to
alTume the office of claffical tutor in the dilfenting college of
that place, where his fervices were highly acceptable, till the
publication of his " Enquiry into the Expediency and Pro-
priety of public or focial Worfliip," in 1791 ; which being
intended to jullify the difufe of the public exercifes of de-
votion, oceafioned a termination of his conneftion with that
inilitution. From this time he employed himfelf in atten-
tion to the inftruflion of his own family, and to feveral lite-
rary works ; the principal of which were his " Tranflation
of the New Tellament, with Notes critical and explanatory,"
3 vols. 8vo. i792,of which a fecond edition appeared in 1795,

2 vols. 8vo.; and " Memoirs of his own Life," publifhed m
the fame year. His other produftions were " Evidences of
Cliriflianity," and " Replies to the Two Parts of Thomas
Paine's Age of Reafon ;" a volume of Pope's Works, a
volume of" Notes on Pope," and an edition of his verfion of
the Iliad and Odyfiey of Homer. His " Silva Critica" was
alfo enlarged to the 5th volume ; and he prelented to the
public editions of feledt " Greek Tragedies," of " Homer,"
" Bion and Mofchus," " Virgil," and " Lucretius," in

3 vols. 4to., a work highly elleemed.

Avowing himfelf an enemy to war in general, and to the
war againll France in particular, he publilhed a pamphlet
in 1798, entitled " A Reply to fome Parts of the Bifhop of
Landaff's Addrefs to the People of Great Britain," which
fubjefted him to a profecution : this terminated in a trial and
conviftion in February 1799. His fentence was iroprifon-
ment for two years in the county gaol of Dorcheller. Many
concurring circumftances contributed to render this punifli-
ment fingularly grievous to him ; but it was in aconfiderable
degree alleviated by the fympathy and refpecl of his friends,
and by a liberal fubfcription towards tl.e fupport of himfelf
and his family. His courfe ofiludy was thus unfortunately
interrupted, fo that he could only prepare for the prefs " Se-
left EiTays of Dio Chryfodoni, tranllated into Eiiglifli from
the Greek, with Notes," 1800, 8vo., and " NoCtes Carce-
rarisE, five dc Legibus Metricis Poetarum Gnfcoriim, qui
Verfibus Hexametris fcripferunt, Difputatio," 1801, izmo.;
and make collections for his propofed Lexicon, Greek and
Englifh. InMay 1801 he was liberated from his confinement ;
but on September the 9th of the f.ime year, a typhus fever
terminaitd his life, in his 46th year, to the grief of his
family and the regret of numerous friends, by whom he was
highly elleemed.

The afTiduity of. his literary application, and the fingular

W A K

temperance of his habits, though they occasioned a ftclu-
fion from much of that focial intercourfe which was inte-
pelling to his family, and a degree of refervc in his own
temper, enabled him, however, to acquire great reputation
as a philological writer and critic during comparatively a
fhort life. IJfnder this charafter, he refembled Bentley and
Markland, being, like them, in his coujeftural criticifm,
" always learned, fometimes bold, and frequently happy."
Polfeffing a ver)- retentive memory, his extenfive reading
furnilhed him with an ample (lore of pafFages for illuftration
or parallel, of which he could avail himfelf as occafions oc-
curred. With regard to his moral difpofition and charac-
ter, they were marked, as a biographer who knew him well
has delineated them, "by an opennefs, a fimplicity, a good
faith, an affeAionate ardour, a noble elevation of mind, which
made way to the hearts of all who nearly approached him,
and rendered him the objeft of their warmell attachment."
The fecond edition of his " Memoirs," publilhed after his
death, contains a catalogue of all his works, feveral of which
have been omitted in this concife account of his life and
labours. A colleftion of letters between him and Mr. Fox,
by whom he was highly elleemed, chiefly on fubjefts of
Greek literature, has alfo been publifhed. Memoirs. Gen.
Biog.

Wakefield, in Geography, a large market-town in the
lower divifion of the hundred of Agbrigg, in the Weft
Riding of the county of York, is fituated on the fide of an
eminence, gently Hoping fouthward to the river Calder, at
the dillance of 9 miles S. from Leeds, 32 miles S.W. by S.
from York, and 182 miles N.N.W. from London. It con-
fills of nine ilreets, of which three are very large and com-
modious ; and many of the houfes are fpacious and lofty.
The market-place is fmall, but has been recently rendered
much more convenient by the removal of the corn-market
into Weft-gate, an adjacent ttreet of great extent. Here is
a neat building called the Market-crofs, formed of an open
colonnade of the Doric order, fupporting a dome, with an
afcent of a circular flight of Hairs leading to a large room,
which receives its light from a lantern at the top : in this
chamber molt of the bufinefs of the town is tranfadled.
The market is held on Fridays, which is well attended, par-
ticularly for the fale of wool, which is fent from various
parts of England to the faftors in Wakefield, who difpofe
of it among the maiuifafturers in the adjacent diftrifts.
Here arc two annual fairs, each of which continues two days,
for horfes, horned cattle, pedlary ware, &c. A fair is alfo
held every fortnight, on the alternate WednefJays, for cattfe
and fiieep, which affords a conllant fiipplv of butchers' meat
to almoll the whole of this riding, and the borders of Lanca-
fliire. The parifh church of Wakefield is a fpacious and
lofty edifice ; and the fpire is one of the highell in the
county. By the Domefday record there appears to ha>t.'
been a church here at the time of the Conquell, but no part
of the prefent ftrufture can be referred to a more early pe-
riod than the reign of Henry III., and it has undergone
many modern repairs and improvements. In 1724 the fouth
fide was entirely rebuilt ; and the greatell part of the north
fide, together witii the call end, towards the clofe of that
century : a veilry-room has likewife been erefted. About
half a mile to the north is the new church, built about the
end of the eighteenth century. The grciund on which it
(lands was bequeathed for that pnrpofe by Mrs. Newllead,
a widow lady, together with 1000/. towards the hipport of
a miniller. But the will being litigated, the matter lay
dormant for lome years, liU the whole propi-rty of the tef-
tatrix w.is purchafcd by MelTrs. Maude and Lee, who, in
concurrence with fome other opulent pcrfous, procured an

aft

W A K

aft of parliament for building the church and enlarging the
town. The church was accordingly erefted, and a great
number of houfes, difpofed in ftreets and fquares, forming
a diftrift, which, as well as the church, is denominated
St. John's. In the town are three meeting-houfes for Dif-
fenters of the Prelbyterian, Calviniftic, and Methodift de-
nominations. Here is alfo a free grammar-fchool, founded
and endowed by queen Ehzabeth, but much improved by
private benefaftions : the fchool-houfe is a fpacious ftruc-
ture, erefted by the Savilles, anceftors of the earl of Mex-
borough. A charity-fchool is alfo eftabhfhed here for the
inftruftion and clothing of io6 boys and girls. Charitable
donations to this town are very confiderable, amounting to
looo/. per annum, under the direftion of fourteen truftees,
called governors : this money is apphed to the maintenance
of feveral exhibitions in both univerfities, to the apprenticing
of poor boys to various trades, to the fupport of aged and
infirm perfons, and to other benevolent purpofes at the dif-
cretion of the governors. At the end of Weft-gate, the
principal ftreet in the town, is the houfe of correftion for the
whole riding : this prifon is a fpacious ftone building, fur-
rounded by an outer wall, and contains above 150 cells.
A commodious feflions-houfe has been recently eredled ; and
great improvements are confequently taking place in the
adjacent ftreets. The quarter feflions for the Weft Riding
are held here in January ; and private feflions every fortnight
by the juftices in the vicinity. At the fouth-eaft entrance into
Wakefield is a ftone bridge, of nine large arches, over the
Calder ; it exhibits a fine fpecimen of the mafonry of Ed-
ward m.'s reign, in which period it was built. In the
centre of this bridge, projecting from the eaftern fide, and
partly refting on the ftarhngs, is an ancient chapel, formed
in the richeft ftyle of eccleliaftical architefture, about ten
yards in length and eight in breadth. The eaft window,
overhanging the river, is adorned with tracery, and the
parapets are perforated ; the windows on the north and fouth
are equally rich ; but the weft front facing the paffage over
the bridge exceeds all the reft in profufion of ornament,
being divided by buttreffes into compartments forming re-
ceffes with lofty pediments and pointed arches, with fpan-
drils richly flowered, and above is an entablature fupporting
five baflb relievos, the whole being crowned with battlements.
This chapel was built by Edward IV. in memory of his
father, Richard duke of York, and thofe of his party who
fell in the battle of Wakefield. This fuperb relic of an-
tiquity has of late years been ufed as a warehoufe, and its
embellifhments have received confiderable damage.

Wakefield was noted in Camden's time for its extent, build-
ings, cloth trade, and markets, as well a* for the chapel
above defcribed. Since that period, the improvements in
the woollen-cloth manufafture, with the introduftion of thofe
of tammies, camblets, and fancy articles, have greatly in-
creafed its wealth and population. A handfome hall has
recently been ei-efted by fubfcription for the fale of the
ftuffs : it is two ftories high, extending in length about
feventy yards, and ten in breadth ; through the middle, in
each ftory, is a row of repofitories, in all about two hundred,
facing each way, and properly labelled, fo that the ftand of
anymanufafturer maybe readilyfound. Wakefield being fitu-
ated on the edge of the manufafturing diftrift, of which the
Calder forms the eaftern boundary, fcarcely a fingle manufac-
turer is feen to the eaftward. The navigation of the Calder
has greatly promoted the trade of this town, to which the
river was rendered navigable in 1698. Great quantities of
coals are carried hence by water for the fupply of York,
Hull, and the adjacent parts. In the population return of
the year i8n, Wakefield is ftated to contain 1959 houfes,

W A K

and 8j93 inhabitants. The manor of Wakefield is very ex-
tenfive, including that of Halifax, and ftretching from Nor-
manton weftward to the confines of Lancafhire : it is more
than thirty miles in length, from eaft to weft, and comprifes
1 18 towns, villages, and hamlets. By the Domefday-book it
appears to have been part of the royal demefnes of Edward
the Confeflbr, and at the time of the furvey it belonged to
the crown. During the four fubfequent centuries, it was
granted to various branches of the royal families, and other
diftinguifhed nobles. In 1461 it reverted to the crown in the
perfon of Edward IV., and remained in the pofteffion of the
kings of England till 1554, when it was united to the duchy
of Lancafter. In the reign of Charles I. it was granted to
Henry earl of Holland, who was beheaded in 1649, ^7 '^'^
fentence of the high court of juftice. Being afterwards
granted to Robert earl of Warwick, the manor went, by the
marriage of his daughter, to fir Gervafe Clifton, who, in
1663, fold it to fir Chriftopher Clapham, from whofe heirs
it was purchafed in 1 700 by the duke of Leeds, in whofe
family it ftill continues.

About a mile and a half to the eaft of Wakefield is the
village of Heath, which, for fituation, variety of feats, and
beautiful lawns, is juftly efteemed the fineft in the kingdom.
Here is an elegant feat of W. Farquier, efq. ; and at this
place was alfo the feat of the late right honourable
John Smyth, member for PontefraA, and a lord of the ad-
miralty.

Two miles fouth of Wakefield is Sandal, a fmall village
chiefly remarkable for its ancient caftle, built in the reign of
Edward II. by John earl of Warren, and afterwards the
property of Richard Plantagenet, dukeof York, who, afpir-
ing to the crown, was flain before its walls, December 31,
1460, in the memorable " battle of Wakefield," fo called
from Wakefield Green being the fcene of aftion. The place
where he fell was inclofed with a wall, and on it was ereAed
a crofs of ftone, which was deftroyed in the civil war of
Charles I., in whofe behalf the caftle was garrifoned ; but it
furrendered after a fiege of three weeks in Oftober 1645,
and in the following year the caftle was demohfhed by order
of parliament. At prefent fcarcely a veftige is left of its
former ftrength and magnificence ; the principal remaining
part is occupied as a farm-houfe. — Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xvi. Yorkfliire. By J. Bigland.

Wakefield, a town of America, in the ftate of New
Hampfhire, and county of Strafford ; containing 1 1 66 inha;.
bitants ; 30 miles E. of Concord.

Wakefield, Upper, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Bucks, containing 1271 inhabitants.

Wakefield, Lower, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Bucks, containing 1089 inhabitants.

WAKEFULNESS, or Watching, in/omnia.. See
Watching.

WAKES, formed from the Saxon tutcce, vigUia, tx-
culite, luatch, •vigils, or country -wakes, are certain ancient
anniverfary feafts, in feveral parifhes ; wherein the people
were to be awake at the feveral vigils, or hours to go to
prayer. See Vigil.

They are ufually obferved, in the country, on the Sun-
day next before the faint's day to whom the parifh-chutch is
dedicated.

The learned Mr. Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchefter,
hath given a particular account of the origin of wakes and
fairs. He obferves, that every church at its confecration
received the name of fome particular faint : this cuftom was
praftifed among the Roman Britons, and continued among the
Saxons ; and in the council of Cealchythe, in 8 16, the name
of the denominating faint was exprefsly required to be infcribed

W A K

on the altars, and alfo on the walls of the church, or a
tablet within it. The feaft of this faint became of courfe
the feftivil of the church. Thus Chriftian feftivals, in the
~ room of the primitive ayaTra,-, or love-feafte, were fubllituted
for the idolatrous anniverfaries of heathenifm : accordingly at
the firft. introduftion of Chrillianity among tiie Jutes of Kent,
pope Gregory the Great advifed what had been previoufly
done among the Britons, viz. Chriftian feftivals to be infti-
tuted in the room of the idolatrous, and the fuifering-day of
the martyr whofe relics were repofited in the church, or the
day on which the building was aftually dedicated, to be the
eftabhftied feaft of the parish. Both were appointed and
obferved ; and they were clearly diftinguifhed at firft among
the Saxons, as appears from the laws of the ConfefTor,
where the Jies dedlcatlonls, or dsdicatio, is repeatedly difcrimi-
nated from the propria fe/liviiat fanSi, or celebratio fanfli.
They remained equally diftinft till the Reformation ; the
dedication-day in 1536 being ordered for the future to be
kept on the firft Sunday in Oftober, and the feftival of the
patron faint to be celebrated no longer. The latter was, by
way of pre-eminence, denominated the church's holiday, or
its peculiar feftival ; and while this remains in many parifhes
at prefent, the other is fo utterly annihilated in all, that
biftiop Kcnnet, fays Mr. Whitaker, knew nothing of its dif-
tinft exiftence, and has attributed to the day of dedica-
tion what is true only concerning the faint's day. Thus
iaftituted at firft, the day of the tutelar faint was obferved,
moft probably by the Britons, and certainly by the Saxons,
with great devotion. And the evening before every faint's
day, in the Saxon-Jewifli method of reckoning the hours,
being an aftual part of the day, and therefore like that ap-
propriated to the duties of public religion, as they reckoned
Sunday from the firft to commence at the fun-fet of Satur-
day ; the evening preceding the church's holiday would be
obferved with all the devotion of the feftival. The people
adually repaired to the church, and joined in the fervices of
it ; and they thus fpent the evening of their greater feftivi-
ties in the monafteries of the North, as early as the conclufion
of the feventh century.

Thefe fervices were naturally denominated from their late
hours ivaccan or wakes, and vigils or eves. That of the
anniverfary at Rippon, as early as the commencement of the
eighth century, is exprefsly denominated the vigil. But
that of the church's holiday was named cyric ivtccan, or
church-wake, the church-vigil, or church-eve. And it was this
commencement of both with a wake, which has now caufcd
the days to be generally preceded with vigils, and the
church-holiday particularly to be denominated the church-
wake. So religioudy were the eve and feftival of tlie patron
faint obferved for many ages by the Saxons, even as late as
the reign of Edgar, the former being fpent in the church,
and employed in prayer. And the wakes, and all the other
holidays in the year, were put upon the fame footing with
the oftaves of Chriftmas, Eafter, and of Pentccoft. When
Gregory recommended the feftival of the patron faint, he
advifed tlie people to creft bootlis of branches about the
church on the day of the feftival, and to feaft and be merry
in them with innocence. Accordingly, in every parifli, on
the returning anniverfary of the faint, little pavilions were
conftruftcd of boughs, and the people indulged in them to
hofpitality and mirth. Tlie fea(l;ng of tlie faint's day, how-
ever, was foon abufed ; and even in the body of tlie cluirch,
when the people were affembled for devotion, they began to
mind divcrfions, and to introduce drinking. The growing
intemperance gradually ftaiiied tlie 1". -vice of the vigil, till
the feftivity of it wa» converted, as it now is, into the rigour
•of a faft. At length they too juftly fcandahzed the i'uri-

VoL. XXXVI 1.

W A L

tans of the feventeenth century, and nuinbers of the wakes
were difufed entirely, efpecially in the eaft and fome weftern
parts of England ; though the order for abohftiing them was
reverfed by the influence of Laud : but they are commonly
obferved in the north, and in the midland counties.

This cuftom of celebrity in the neighbourhood of the
church, on the days of particular faints, was introduced
into England from the continent, and muft have been fami-
liar equally to the Britons and Saxons ; being obferved
among the churches of Afia in the fixth century, and by
thofe of the weft of Europe in the feventh. And equally
in Afia and Europe, on the continent, and in the iflands,
thefe celebrities were the caufes of thofe commercial marts
which we denominate fairs ; which fee. The people re-
forted in crouds to the feftival, and a confiderable provifion
would be wanted for their entertainment. The profpeft of
intereft invited the httle traders of the country to come and
offer their wares ; and thus, among the many pavilions for
hofpitality in the neighbourhood of the church, various
booths were erefted for the fale of diff'erent commodities. In
larger towns, furrounded with populous diftrifts, the refort
of the people to the wakes would be great, and the attend-
ance of traders numerous ; and this refort and attendance
conftitute a fair. Bafil exprefsly mentions the numerous ap-
pearance of traders at thefe feftivals in Afia, and Gregory
notes the fame cuftoms to be common in Europe. And as
the feftival was obferved on a feria or holiday, it naturally
affumed to itfelf, and as naturally communicated to the mart,
the appellation of feria or fair. Indeed, feveral of our moft
ancient fairs appear to have been ufually held, and have been
continued to our time, on the original church-holidays of
the places : befides, it is obfervable, that fairs were generally
kept in church-yards, and even in the churches, and alfo on
Sundays, till the indecency and fcandal were fo great as to
need reformation. See Burn's Eccl. Law, art. Churches.

WAKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon ; 60 milas W. of Meaco.

WAKKAMAW, a lake of North Carolina, which
communicates, by means of a river of the fame name, with
Winyah Harbour, after a courfe of about feventy or eighty
miles.

WAKOW. See Wigstadsel.

WAKUA, a fmall iHand on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 45'. E. long. 21° 15'.

WALA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Weft-
manland ; 26 miles N. of Stromfliolm.

WALACHIA, a province of European Turkey,
bounded on the north by Moldavia and Tranfylvania, on
the eaft by Beflarabia, on the fouth by Bulgaria, and on
the weft by tlie baniiat of Tcmefvar and Tranfylvania;
about 280 miles from E. to W., and 150 from N. to S.,
where wideft ; but in fome places hardly 60 : by the inha-
bitants it is called " Romuha," and by the Hungarians
" Havafalfoldgyc." The air is temperate, the fou very
fruitful, particularly in grain, wine, and melons ; grariery
here, too, is very confiderable ; but its principal reputation
is for excellent horfes. The country is watered by a
confiderable number of large and fmall rivers, moft of
which run from N. to S., difchargiiig thcmfelves imme-
diately into the Danube, or in conjimdlion with other rivers.
The principal of tliefe are the Aiaiit, which lifes in the
mountains of Tranfylvania, ami divides Walachia into two
unequal parts, namely, the Weft and Eaft ; the Jalonit/a,
which has alfo its fource in the borders of Tranfylvania ;
and the Sireth, or Sirech, the boundary on the fide of Mol-
davia. Their bridges are all Iniill with wood, which is
plentiful ill the country. The Walacliiaiia, confidcreJ at
4 M inbabitauts

W A L

W A L

inliabitants of the country, are defcended from the old Ro-
man colony fettled here by the emperor Trajan. They
profefs the Eallern Greek religion ; and as in writing they
ufe the fame letters with the RulTians, fo they agree with
them in all their religious ceremonies. According to the ac-
count given of them by Jackfon (Journey from India), they
feem to be very fnpcrftitious. They eredl crucifixes, fome
of ftone and others of wood, near the roads ; all of tliem
are painted ; fome having Jefus Chrift, fome the Virgin Mary,
others the twelve apoilles, fome the ten commandments,
prayers, Sec. depifted upon them. Thefe crucifixes are
very numerous, and mod of the country-people pay refpeft
to them as they pafs. The commonalty are mod wretchedly
ignorant ; and even the highcil attainments which the eccle-
fiaftics themfelves aim at, feldom go beyond reading and
fmging well. Bucharell is a kind of univerfity to them,
whither they go to learn a polite deportment, the elegancies
of the Walachian language, and ceremonies of the church.
The peifons of rank among the Walachians are fo fond of
the Italian language, that they apply themfelves to it more
than their mother-tongue, and generally fend their fons to
ftudy at the univerfity of Padua. Great numbers of Ma-
hometans live alfo intermixed with the Walachians; fome
Jews, and alfo Germans. The Romans, after their decifive
viftory over Decebalus, king of Dacia, made themfelves
mailers of his kingdom. Trajan fent hither feveral Roman
colonies, who not only cultivated the land, but built them
towns, which they embellifhed with fine edifices. His fuc-
ceflbr, however, in the empire, tranfplanted the greatell
part of them into Mcefia and Thracia, where, minghng with
the Bulgarians, Thracians, Servians, and Ligurians, they
came to fpeak a new language or jargon. Thefe kingdoms,
which lie on the Danube, afterwards conftituted part of the
dominions of the emperors of the Eaft. In procefs of
time, the Walachians moved farther north, to the borders of
Podolia and Ruffia, where they applied themfelves to agri-
culture and the breeding of cattle. The converfion of the
Bulgarians and their neighbours to Chriftianity was followed,
in the ninth century, by that of the Walachians, who em-
braced the Grecian doftrines. Towards the beginning of
the twelfth century, a numerous colony of Walachians,
under the conduft of one Nigers, or Negrovot, for the
fake of pafturage, religion, and other motives, paffed on
towards the fouth, and fettled in the modern Walachia,
founding the towns of Tergovifta, Bucharell:, and Pitefti.
They choofe their own princes, whom they Ilyle waywodes,
or defpots. The kings of Hungary, becoming powerful,
made feveral attempts on the Walachians ; and, in the four-
teenth century, obliged them to pay tribute. But in the
year 1391, and 1394, they were greatly haraffed by the
Turk?, who, in the year 1415, alfo laid the whole country
wafte with fire and fword, compelling Dan, the waywode,
to pay them an annual tribute. It was in the year 1608, be-
fore the Walachians could rid themfelves of this burthen,
when they put themfelves under the proteiftion of the em-
peror of Germany. But the treaty of Carlowitz refigned
them up again to the Tuvkifh dominion. In the beginning
of the feventeenth century, they fuffered various calamities
by the plague, war, and the many revolutions among their
princes. At the treaty of Pafiarowitz, in 1718, the weftern
part of Walachia, as far as the river Alaut, was ceded to
the emperor, but loft again in the year 1739. Walachia is
governed by a waywode, or prince, flyled alfo the hofpo-
.dar, who is a vaffal af the Ottoman Porte, and whofe
yearly tribute generally amounts to 58 or 60,000 ducats.

WALADIA, El, a town of Morocco, fituated in an
extenfive plain, 35 miles S. of Mazagan. Annexed to it is

9

a fpacious harbour, capable of containing 500 fail of tha
line, but the entrance is obftrufted by a rock or two, which
might, it is faid, b- eafily blown up ; otherwife this would
be one of the fin. it liarbours for (hipping in the world.
The coaft of El Waladia is lined with rocks, at the bottom
of which, and between them and the ocean, is a table land,
almott; even with the furface of the water, abounding with
fprings, where every neceffary and luxury of life abound.
The view of the land from the plains above the rocks is ex-
tremely beautiful and pifturefque. The town of El Wa-
ladia is fmall, and encompafied by a fquare wall, and con-
tains but few inhabitants. Its name teems to indicate that
it was built by Muley El Walad, towards the middle of the
feventeenth century. Jackfon's Morocco.

WALRUS, John, in Biography, a celebrated anato-
mift, was born in 1604, near Middleburg, in Zealand, and
ftudied phyfic at Leyden, where he graduated in 1631. In
1632 he was nominated a medical profeflTor extraordinary,
and in 1648 he obtained a chair in ordinary. His praftice
was extenfive, and his academical duties numerous ; and
yet he employed himfelf much in the difieftion of living
animals, and was enabled to illuftrate the funftions of di-
gellion, the dillribution of the chyle, and the attion of the
heart. He firft taught publicly the Harveian do£lrine of
the circulation of the blood ; though from jealoufy of the
honour of the inventor, he was difpofed to announce vef-
tiges of the facl which he dilcovered in the writings of the
ancients. He died at Leyden in 1649. His Anatomical
Obfervations, which are reckoned excellent, are contained
in " EpiftolcE dux de Motu Chyli et Sanguinis ad T. Bar-
tholinum," Lugd. B. 1641. Haller. Eloy.

WALAFRIDUS, furnamed Strata, or Strabus, from
a fquint in his eyes, was born in Swabia in 807, and edu-
cated in the monallery of Reichcnau, whence he proceeded
to Fulda, to receive further inftrudtion from Rabanus.
After his return to his monallery he became director of its
fchool, and very much contributed to its reputation. Being
fent on an embaffy by king Louis to his brother Charles the
Bald, he died in the year 849. Of his works, which are
numerous, thofe moft worthy of notice are his " Glofia or-
dinaria," or fhort obfervations on the whole text of the
Bible, chiefly derived from the expofition of Rabanus, and
annexed to many editions of the Vulgate, printed in the
fifteenth and fixteenth centuries ; " De Exordiis et Incre-
mentis Rerum Ecclefiafticarum ;" " De Vita beati Galli
Confefforis, lib. ii.;" " Vita Otmari Abbafis S. Galli ;"
" Poemata," among which are, " Hortulns," or a delcrip-
tion of the garden which he cultivated, with its herbs and
flowers, and their medical ufe. Gen. Biog.

WALAJABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the Carnatic ; 10 miles E. of Conjevcram.

WALAKA, a low, infalubrious, but fertile, province
of Abvffinia, fituated between the two rivers Gefhen ai)d
Samba, having to the S. of it Upper Skoa. This province
is furrendered by the reigning prince to the Galla, who, at
his defire, have furrounded Skoa on every fide. But as it
is full of the braveft and beft horfemen.and bell accoutered
of any in Abyffinia, they can, whenever they pleafe, dif-
polfefs the Galla.

WALAN, in Botany, Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 214.
t. 139. Poiret in Lamargk Dift. v. 8. 783, the Amboyna
name of a tree, which Rumphius alfo calls IchthyoBonos mon-
tana, from its ufe in killing filh, but of whofe botanical cha-
rafters little or nothing is known.

This tree has a ftraight and lofty trunk, whofe bari is
thick, dry, brittle, reddilh, of a bright fiery red towards
the root ; the wood white, and of Iktle value, except the

heart

W A L

W A L

heart of old trees, which is brown and compadl. The roots
are red and copious. Leaves fcattered, ftalked, obovate,
pointed, entire, eight or ten inches long, tliree or four wide,
fmooth, rather flelhy, having a mid-rib, with feveral flight
tranfverfe veins. Of the Jlotvers no dcfcription is given,
but they are reprefented on fimple lateral^aW-j^, folitary or
in pairs, and feem formed of four xoxm^ petals. The jfruit
is faid to be as large as an orange, and of the fame colour,
drooping, making a beautiful appearance, intermixed with
the green leaves, in Oftober. Its fliape, however, is more
ovate, with a point, and the bafe is embracedby a cup-fhaped,
five-angled, permanent calyx, not unhke that of an acorn.
This fruit after a while turns red, and finally blackiih. The
pulp is infipid, dry, and fungous, containing four or five
feeds, or nuts, attached to the point of the fruit by four
cords, ^ach feed is near two inches long, and one broad,
comprefled, roughifh, of a fine brown colour. Sometimes
there is but a {ohtary feed.

The Walan-tree grows, not very frequently, in the
mountainous woods of Amboyna, wliere the foil is rich,
and of a red colour. The only ufe made of it is to
catch fi(h. For this purpofe the roots are coUefted
and prepared, with many foohfh ceremonies. An entire
root, with its bark, is beaten to pieces upon a (lone,
and when this is nearly accompliftied, one perfon, of the
party alTembled on the occafion, commands all the reft to
lie down at once in a circle, while he ftands in the centre.
They are to remain thus in perfeft ftillnefs, till one of them
crows three times, like a cock, upon which they ftart up all
together. While the bruifing of the root goes on, they are
forbidden to fpeak, cough, or fpit, or to make any noife
whatever. Tlie powder of the root thus prepared is col-
lefted into bafl<ets, and taken very early in the morning,
about the crowing of the cock, to the river fide. It is there
thrown, by a handful at a time, into the water, and ftirred
about till a foam is raifed to the height of feveral inches.
This being acconipUfhed, the whole party prefent lie down
as if dead, but if any one of them crows, they all ftart up.
While the powder is mixing with the water, no one may go
within fight of the river, except with fome cutting inftru-
ment, for fear of defeating the whole intention. At fome
diftance, lower down in the ftream, a net is placed acrofs,
which in the courfe of an hour becomes filled with fifh,
floating, half dead, upon the furface of the water ; the
acrimony of this root caufing fuch an irritation in their eyes,
as they cannot endure. If thrown into frcfli water, they
recover. Fifti thus caught are wholefome for immediate
eating, but will not keep for any time. Rumphius em-
ployed his fervants fucccfsfully to catch fifti in this manner,
omitting, as may be fuppofed, the above-mentioned peculiar
ceremonies. Perfons who bathe in the *ater thus impreg-
nated, feel only a flight itching of the fl<in ; but the fame
water is not good for drinking. The natives of Amboyna
rcftraiTi the exercife of this kind of filhing, to perfons of
particular families ; and endeavour to promote a belief that
others, who fliould attempt it, would be afflifted with in-
curable ulcers, or malignant cutaneous diforders.

WALBACH, in Geography, a town of Trance, in the

department of the Upper Rhuie ; 4 miles S.W. of Colmar.

WALBECK, a town of Germany, belonging to the

principality of Halberftadt, infulatcd in the duchy of

Mecklenburg; 24 miles S. of Halberftadt.

WALBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up-
land; 23 miles S.S.W. of Upfal.

WALCA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, on a lake ;
56 miles N. of Pofen.

WALCHEN See, a town of Auftria, on the Alter
See ; 4 miles S.W. of Voglabruck.

WALCHEREN, the moft wetterly and moft confider-
able ifland of the ftate of Zealand, about thirteen miles
from north to fouth, and eight from eaft to weft ; fituated in
the German fea, at the mouth of the Scheld. Middleburg
is the capital. N. lat. 51° 34'. E. long. 3° 29'.

Walcheuen or White Carrot, in Agriculture, a fort of
that root, which is faid to be cultivated there with much
fuccefs and advantage, as fome forts of the parfnip are in
the ifland of Guernfey. See a paper on the latter fubjeft
in the firft volume of the " Memoirs of the Caledonian Hor-
ticultural Society."

WALCKENSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Auf-
tria ; 2 miles N.W. of Eggenburg.

WALCKERSBRUN, a town of the territorj' of Nu-
remberg; 3 miles W. of Grafenberg.

WALCOUR, a town of France, in the department of
Gemappe, on the Heure. It was furrounded with walls in
the year 910 ; 21 miles W.S.W. of Namur.

WALD, a town of the duchy of Berg. Here is a ma.^
nufafture of knives ; 4 miles N.W. of Sohngen. — Alfo, a
town of Auftria ; 3 miles S.S.E. of St. Polten.

WALDACH, a river of Wurtemberg, which rifes
3 miles E.S.E. cff Dornftett, and runs into the Nagold^
about two miles S. from Nagold.

WALDAU, a town of Silefia, in the principahty of
Lignitz ; 3 miles N.W. of Lignitz.

WALDAW, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Samland ; 8 miles E. of Kbnigfljerg.
WALDBECK. See Wolbeck.

WALDBURG, a town and caftle of Germany, which
gives name to a county, fituated between the lUer and the
Danube ; 7 miles N. of Wangen.

WALDEBA, a town of Abyffinia ; 5 miles S.W. of
Sire.

WALDECK, a county of Germany, bounded on the
north by the bifliopric of Paderborn, on the eaft by Hefle,
and prefeAurale of Fritzlar, in the eleftoratc of Mentz,
on the fouth by Hefle, and on the weft by tlie duchy of
Weftphaha. The length is computed at twenty-four miles,
and its breadth twenty. The county abounds in grain and
cattle, having alfo large woods, and the mountains in it con-
tain lead, iron, and copper, and even fome gold, which is
efteemed equal in value to that of Hungary. Of the gold
which is gathered out of the Eder, the princes have caufed
medals to be llruck, and a magnificent fideboard to be made.
Some parts alfo aftord marble, alabafter, flate, and turf.
This co\nity contains thirteen towns and a market village.
The greater part of the inhabitants are Lutherans, and the
reft Calvinifts, witli fome Roman Catholics intermixed.
Tiic mauufaftures are, coarfe cloth, barragon, callimanco,
dimity, ratcen, and other ftulfs ; as alfo paper, and great
quantities of iron-ware, for exportation. The county of
Waldeck is thought to bring in above 100,000 rix-doUars
per annum to the prince, and that not improbal)ly, it being
one of the moft confider.nble counties in the wliole empire,
and preferable even to not a few principalities. The prince's
circular contingency was two companies of foot, but he ge-
nerally maintained three more.

Waldeck, a towi. of Germany, capital of a county of
the fame name, fo called from an ancient callle, wliich has
been repaired within the laft century, and fitted up to re-
ceive a garrifon ; part of the records of the principality are
kept here, and it is likewifc ufed as a prifon ; iS miles
W.S.W. of Caffel. N. lat. 5 '" ' 3'- E- '""g- 9° ^'■

4 M 2 Wai.dec K,

W A L

Waldeck, Hohtn, a town of Bavaria, and capital of a
lordfhip, formerly belonging to the princes of Waldeck,
but which, in the year 1734, fell to theeleaorof Bavana;
30 miles S.S.E. of Munich.

WALDEN, Saffron. See Saffron-Walden.

Walden, a town of America, in the ftate of Vermont
and county of Caledonia, containing 455 inhabitants ; 40
miles N. of Rutland.

Walden'^ IJland, a fmall idand in the North fea. N.
lat. 80° 37'. E. long. 18° 10'.

WALDENBERG, a town of Weftphalia, in the bi-
Ikopric of HildeHieim ; 13 miles S.E. of Hildefheim.

WALDENBRUCK, a town of Wurtemberg ; 8 miles
S. of Stuttgart.

WALDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the prm-
cipahty of Hohenlohe ; 6 miles E. of Ohringen. — Alfo, a
town of Saxony, in the lordfhip of Schonburg, on the
Mulda. The old town of Waldenburg, which lies direftly
fronting Waldenburg, on the other fide of the Mulda, is
famous for its brown and white earthen-ware, which confifts
of veflels for laboratories and apothecaries' (hops, together
•with pots of feveral kinds, fuch as pitchers, drinking vef-
fels, &c. Here is likewife a confiderable linen manufac-
ture. It is a lordfhip, invefted in the houfe of Schonburg,
called Schonburg-Waldenburg ; 44 miles W. of Drefden.
N. lat. 50° 48'. E. long. 12° 21'. — Alfo, a town of Swit-
zerland, and capital of a bailiwick, in die canton of Bale ;
15 miles S. of Bale. — Alfo, a town and citadel of the
duchy of Weftphalia ; 6 miles N. of Olpe.

Waldenburg, or IVallenburg, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Schweidnitz ; 8 miles S.W. of Schweid-
nitz. N. lat. 50'=' 35'. E. long. 16° 5'.

WALDENFELS, a town of Auftria ; 3 miles N.W.
of Freyftatt.

Waldenfels, or Wallenfells, a town of Bavaiia, in the
bifhopric of Bamberg ; 34 miles N.E. of Bamberg.

WALDENGELOCH, a town of Wurtemberg; 5
miles N.N.E. of Gochfheim.

WALDENSES. See Vaudois.

WALDERSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg ; i mile N.N.W. of Freyberg.

WALDHAUSEN, a town of Auftria; 4 miles
E.S.E. of Zwetl.

WAXDHAUSER, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt-
land ; I mile N.W. of Plauen.

WALDHEIM, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipfic, on theZfchopa; 25 miles S.E. of Leipfic. N.
lat.5i°4'. E. long. 12° 51'.

WALDKAPPEL. See Cappel.

WALD KIRCH, a town of the Brifgau, on the El-
fach ; 6 miles N. of Friburg. N. lat. 48° 7'. E. long. 8°.

WALDKIRCHEN, a town of Bavaria, in the bi-
fhopric of PafTau ; 10 miles N.N.E. of PafTau — Alfo, a
town of Auftria ; 7 miles N.W. of Efferding.

WALDMICHELBACH, a town of Heffe Darm-
ftadt ; 8 miles N.E. of Heidelberg.

WALDMUNCHEN, a town of Bavaria ; 30 miles
N.E. of Ratifbon.

WALDNEUKIRCHEN, atownof Auftria; 6miles
S.W. of Steyr.

WALDOBOROUGH, a fea-port town of America,
in the diftriA of Maine, and county of Lincoln, containing
;i6o inhabitants ; 50 miles N.E. of Portland. N. lat. 44° 2'.
W. long. 60° 16'.

W A L

' WALD RAN, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles S.W. of
Aigcn.

WALDRAPP, in Ornithology, a name given by fome
to the wood-raven, or corvus fylvatkus of Gefner, a bird of
the fize of a hen, of a gloffy black, and adorned with a
creft on its head.

WALDREICHS, in Geography, a town of Auftria,
near the Kamp ; 10 miles E. of Zwetl.

WALDSAXEN, or Waldsach, a town of Bavaria,
formerly imperial, but pillaged and almoft deftroyed in the
wars of the HufTites and the Palatinate ; fince which it has
never recovered itfelf. Near it is a rich Ciftertian abbey,
founded in the year 1133, the abbots of which were form-
erly princes of the empire. In 1802, this abbey was given
to the king of Bavaria ; 4 miles S.S.W. of Egra.

WALDSCHACH, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
14 miles S. of Gratz.

WALDSCHMIDIA, in Botany, a name given to the
Menyanthes nymphaoides of Linnaeus, by Wiggers, in his
Prlmitlit Flora Holfaticti, 20 ; which, like Gmelin and a
few other botanifts, he confidered as a diftinft genus from
Menyanthes; fee that article and Villarsia. If, how-
ever, this opinion were correct, the name is foreftalled by
Limnanthemum, given to the fame fuppofed genus by Gme-
lin, near twenty years before, and liable to no exception.
JValilfchmhiia was intended to commemorate William Ulrick
Waldichmidt, formerly profefTor at Kiel, wlio wrote a trea-
tife on the fexes of plants, in which he is faid to have well
explained the ufe and phyfiology of the anthers.

WALDSEE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Baden ; 12 miles N.N.E. of Ravenfperg. — Alfo, a lake of
Stiria ; 6 miles E. of Schlaming.

WALDSHUT, a town of tlie duchy of Baden, on
the Rhine ; 19 miles W. of Schaffhaufen.

WALDSICH, a town of the county of Henneberg ;
4 miles N.N.E. of Salzungen.

WALDSTADT, /'. e. The Forejl Towns, a name given
in Switzerland to the cantons of Lucern, LTri, Schwitz,
and Underwalden, probably on account of the quantity of
forefts found in them.

WALDSTADTER See, or Lake of Lucern, or Lakt
of the Four Cantons, one of the largeft lakes of Switzer-
land, extending from Lucern to Altdorf, 20 miles in length.
Its figure is very irregular, and it is for the moft part fur-
rounded with high mountains. The river Renfs pafFes
through it. See Lale of Lucern and Lake.

WALDSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 12
miles N.W. of Gratz.

WALDSTEINIA, in Botany, was fo named by the
late profefTor Willdenow, in compliment to a botanift of
great eminence, Francis von Waldilein, author of the Fhra
Hungarica. — " Willd. Nov. Aft. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Bcro-
lin. V. 2. 105." Sp. PI. V. 2. 1007. Ait. V. 3. 204. —
Clafs and order, Icofandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Senticofe,
Linn. Rofacet, JufT.

EfT. Ch. Calyx in ten fegments, the alternate ones
fmaller. Petals five. Styles club-fhaped, deciduous. Seeds
two, obovate, without awns.

I. W. geotdes. Avens-like Waldfteinia. Willd. as above,
V. 2. 106. t. 4. f. I. Sp. PI. n. I. Ait. n. I. ♦' Waldft.
et Kitaib. Hung. v. 1. 79. t. 77." — ^Native of umbrageous
forefts in Hungary, from whence it was introduced into
Britain, by the late Mr. George Don, in 1 804. A hardy
perennial, flowering in June and July. yiiton. Stem
afcending, round, ilriated, rather hairy, the length of the
radical leaves, which are flalked, five-lobed, ribbed, fome-
I i what

W A L

what hairy ; their lobes obtufe, {lightly three-cleft, toothed.
Stem-leaves three-lobcd, deeply toothed. Slipuhu ohlong,
acute, entire. Floiver-jlalhs two or three, terminal, ihread-
fhaped, very long. Floivers yellow. This plant is allied
to Gel'm, (fee that article,) but is diftinguiflied by the fmall
number of piflils, and the club-fhaped deciduous Jlyles.
From PoTENTii.LA, (fee that article ?nd Tormentii.la,)
it differs widely in habit, number of pyiils, and form of the
Jlyles. WilUenow.

WALDSTETTEN, in G^c>fr/7/i/>y, a town of Germany,
in the marquifate of Burgau ; 7 miles S.W. of Burgau.
— Alfo, a town of the county of Werlheim, in the Spef-
fart ; 1 1 miles E. of Afchaffenburg.

WALDT, a town of Upper Bavaria ; 8 miles S. of
Neu Getting.

Waldt ^us, a river of Auftria, which rifes on the bor-
ders of Bohemia, and runs into the Danube, 8 miles below
StejTegg.

WALDTHURN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Sternftcin ; 21 miles N.E. of Ambcrg.

WALDTNIEL, or Niel, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer ; 2 miles E. of Rurcmond.

WALDUBBA,afmallprovinceof Abyfrmi.i,fituatedbe.
tween therivers Guangueand Angrab. Waldubba, fignifying
" the valley of the hya;na," is a territory entirely inhabited
by monks, who have retired to this unwholefome, hot, and
dangerous country voluntarily, to fpend their lives in peni-
tence, meditation, and prayer. This too is the only retreat
of great men in difgrace or difguft. Thefe firft (have their
hair, and put on a cowl like the monks, renouncing the
world for fohtude, and taking vows which they refolvc to
keep no longer than exigencies require ; after which they
return to the world again, leaving their cowl and fanftity in
Waldubba. Thefe monks, however, are held ni great ve-
neration, and are believed to have the gift of prophecy, and
to work miracles ; and they are very aftive inftruments to ftir
up the people in the time of trouble. There are alfo wo-
men, who Aiould be called nuns, that occafionally go to
Waldubba, though not conftantly rofident there, and live in
familiarity with thefe faints, not altogether confiftent with
their fanftity. A hermit and a nun fometimes fequeflcr
themfelves for months, to eat herbs together in private upon
the top of the mountains. Thefe, on their return, are ex-
hibited as wonderful patterns of holinefs, lean, enervated,
and exhaufted. Mr. Bruce (Travels, vol. iii.) does not
prefume to decide, whether this change is to be wholly
afcribed to the herbs, as he never was at thefe retirements
of Waldubba. Tliofe who inhabit this diftriA are perpe-
tually fubjeft to fevers, and their colour is that of a corpfe :
many of them are dcilroyed by their neighbours the Shan-
galla ; though it is faid that they have been lately ftopped
by the prayers of the monks : but Mr. Bruce afcribes the
difcontinuance of tfie inroads of the Shangalla to the ra-
vages of the fmall-pox, by which their ftrength and number
are reduced, and whole tribes of them extinguifhcd.

WALE, Samuel, in Biography, an artilt of fome ce-
lebrity in his day, was born in London, and was one of the
founders of the Royal Academy. He was firll engaged as
an engraver on plate, but having ihidied drawing ni the
Academy in St. Martin's-lane, he apphed himfelf to paint-
ing, imitating the manner of Francis Hayman. He exe-
cuted fevcral decorative pieces for cielings, but was chiefly
employed in making drawings of hiflorical defigns for the
bookfellers, the greater part of which was engraved by
Mr. Grignion. He alTilied Gwynn the architeft in liia
drawings, and as he had made himfelf acquainted with pcr-
ipeftive, he was appointed tlie firll profcffor in that fcicncc

W A L

in the Academy. Upon the death of Wilfon he was ap-
pointed hbrarian, and held both places till his own death,
which happened in 1786.

WALE-KNOT, or WALL-ATno/, Single, is made by un-
twifting the ends of a rope, and making a bight with the
firft ftrand ; then paffing the fecond over the end of the firft,
and the third ftrand over the end of the fecond, and through
the bight of the firft, and haul the ends tight. ( See Plate I.

^i^S'"S>f^'-4> 5-)

W M.E-Knot, Double, is made by pafling the ends, fingly,
dole underneath the firft wale, and thrulling them upwards
through the middle, only the laft end comes up under two
bights. Fig. 6.

W Ai.E-Reared, an obfolete phrafe, implying •waU-fided.

WALEN, El, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Twat ; 115 miles W. of Gadamis. N. lat.
22° 15'. E. long. 3° 30'.

WALENBURG, a town of the county of Henneberg ;
5 miles N.W. of Smalkalden.

WALES, a large diftrift or portion of Great Britain,
fituated at the north-weftern extremity of the ifland, and
bounded on the north and weft by the Lifh fea, on the
fouth and fouth-eaft by the Briftol channel, and limited on
the eafl by the Enghfh counties of Monmouth, Hereford,
Salop, and Chefter. The length from north to fouth is,
on an average, 150 miles ; and the width from eaft to weft
65 miles. This area comprifes about 8125 fquare miles,
or 5,206,900 acres of land : of which, it appears, by the
reports to the board of agriculture, 900,000 acres are
arable, and 2,500,000 under pafturage ; leaving 1,700,000
acres in a ftate of wafte, of which 700,000 acres are re-
ported as capable of being brought into cultivation. Wales
was formerly of greater extent, having for its boundaries
the rivers Severn and Dee, as natural lines of demarca-
tion. The ancient dimenfions were, however, at various
periods, contrafted, by fevering from it portions of the
feveral counties, fituated wellward of ttiofe rivers ; and
taking out of it the whole county of Monmouth. The
limits of the various dillrifts of Wales, with the above ex-
ception, and their names, have been retained from a very
remote period to the prefent time, independently of the mo-
dern arrangement of them into fhircs, as impofed by the
Englifh government. The divifion made in the time of
Llewelyn ap GrufTydh, the laft prince of North Wales,
was into the three provinces of Aberfraw, Mathraval, and
Dinevwr. \n the diftribution of thefe into cantrefs or
hundreds, Aberfraw comprifed fifteen, which were again
fubdividcd into thirty-eight comots, or fmaller diftritts ;
Mathraval, fourteen cantrefs, fubdivided into fourteen co-
mots ; and Dinevwr, twenty-four, furtiicr divided into
feventy-eiglit comots. Nearly fimilar to this, is the prefent
civil divifion of the principality into twelve counties, fix in-
cluded ill Nortii Wales ; viz. Anglcfea, Caernarvon, Den-
bigh, Flint, Montgomery, and Merioneth ; and fix in South
Wales, wz. Cardigan, Radnor, Brecknock, Glamorgan,
Caermarthen, and Pembroke. The centurial divifious re-
main nearly the fame as in I^lewelyn's time. The whole
contains 58 market-towns, and 751 parilhes ; and according
to the enumeration made under the popuklion a<5l of 1811,
the number of houfes amounted to 123,512, inhabited by
61 1,788 perfons ; viz, 291,633 males, and 320,155 females:
36,044 families were returned as employed in trade, manu-
fafturcs, or handicraft; and 72,846 in agriciJture : and
the average fcale of mortality, according to rcgilleicd
burials, for a period of ten years, appears to have been in
the proportion of i to 60 of the exilliiig population. For
the adminiflraljon of jullia-, Wales is divided into four cir-

cuiti,

WALES.

cults, vl». the Chefter circuit, including the counties of
Chefter, Flint, Denbigh, and Montgomery : the northern
circuit, for thofe of Anglefea, Caernarvon, and Merioneth :
the fouth-eaftem, for thofe of Radnor, Brecknock, and
Glamorgan : and the fouth-weftern, comprifing the three
(hires of Cardigan, Caermarthen, and Pembroke. By a
ftatute, pafTed in the reign of EHzabeth, the king was em-
powered to appoint two perfons learned in the law to be
judges in each of the Weldi circuits, which before had but
one juftice. And by another ftatute of George II., it was
enafted, tliat where the kingdom of England is mentioned
in any zA of parliament, the fame (hall be underftood as
comprehending the dominion of Wales, and the town of
Berwick-upon-Tweed. Wales fends twenty-four members
to the Britifh fenate, one knight for each fhire, and one
burgefs for each county-town, except that of Merioneth ;
in lieu of which, two towns in Pembrokefhire return a
member each, viz. Pembroke and Haverford-weft. The
eldeft fon of the kings of England has, ever fince the time
of Edward I., been invefted with the title of prince of
Wales : and feveral branches of the peerage derive their
titles from various places in the principality.

Ancient Hi/lory, Roman Stations, and Roads. — Cambria,
the ancient name of this portion of the ifland, is deduced
by hiftorians from the original inhabitants having been a
tribe of the CeltK, or Gauls, known under the denomination
of Cimbri, or Cymri ; and the Romans called the country in-
habited by fuch people Cambria. Wales appears to have
been the acknowledged name of this region in the poetry of
a Wellh bard, fo early as the fixth century. The deriva-
tion of the Britons from the Gauls, both Cccfar and
Tacitus deduce from the vicinity of the two countries, and
the fimilarity of the manners and charafter of the people :
but a ftronger argument is found in the national appellation
of Gael and Gaul, equally attached to both countries. It
appears that the inhabitants of Wales were part of the
aboriginal pofTefl'ors of the ifland, whofe numbers muft have
been greatly increafed by thofe Britons, who, retreating
before the viftorious Romans, fled to this diftrift, as a der-
nier refort, to preferve their independence. After the in-
vaders had fecured the central part of Britain, by forming
Rations, and appointing garrifons, and had given to it the
name of Brituniiia Prima, they turned their attention to
the reduftion of the unconquered country lying weft of the
Severn. When Oftorius, the Roman general, furveyed
this country, which he was fent with an army to fubdue,
he found it poflenTed by three tribes of people, denominated
from their relpeftive diftrifts, Ordovices, Silures, and
Dimetac. The Ordovices poflefled all the country com-
prifed in the prefent North Wales : the Silures occupied
th£ diftrift now comprehended in the counties of Hereford,
Radnor, Brecknock, Monmouth, and Glamorgan, and the
fmall portion of Glouceftcrfliire now weft of the Severn ;
and had for their capital Caer-Gwent, in Moumouthfliire :
the Dimetii were fltuated weft of the Silures, and poflefled
the country at prefent including the counties of Cardigan,
Pembroke, and Caermarthen. Such were the inhabitants
of Wales, when the Romans firft entered it with an hoftile
army. Refpefting the condition or ftate of thefe Britons,
at the period in queftion, a great difference of opinion pre-
vails among our hiftorians. Some, m defpite of unexcep-
tionable authorities, treat thefe people as illiterate favages,
dellitute of deaths, dwellings, and arts : while others, fol-
lowing the Britifh hiftory, defcribe them as a martial,
learned, and flourifliing nation, poflfeffing foreign trade, and
at home erefting ftately edifices. Both thefe accounts are
probably much exaggerated. The beft hiftorians ftate that

the Britona had a reKgion remarkable for its nuraeron?
ceremonies ; th^ poflelTed an eilabliflied government ; and
had regular and well-difclphned troops, divided into cha-
rioteers, cavalry, and infantry. With refpeft to any great
naval power, though attempted to be proved by the learned
Selden, well-founded objeftions may be urged ; but as to
fmaller velFels, Cxfar bears ample teftimony to the ingenuity
of their conftruftion, and their great convenience : the
facility with which thefe vehicles were made, and their
peculiar portability, has occafioned a continuance of their
ufe, and corrodes ftill form the fifliing-boat?, employed on
fome of the rivers of Wales. They had fufficient corn for
their fupport, and their paftures were abundantly ftocked
with cattle, flieep, and hogs. In their dealing with each
other, for money they ufed rings, or fmall plates of iron
ftrung together, which paffed among them by weight, as
well as tale : fuppofing they poflefled no minted coins, this
circumftance alone would be a fufRcient evidence of their
civilization ; fmce it is deducible from hiftory, that no
nation in a ftate of barbarifm ever adopted a circulating
medium in buying and felhng. From the earlleft periods,
the Britons breathed a fpirit of genuine freedom, and always
ftudied to procure and preferve their liberty. Stimulated
by a noble ambition, never to be fatisfijd but by viftory,
nor extinguilhed but by death, they fought with a degree
of bravery that aftoniflied the legionary troops ; and dif-
puted every acre of ground with a tenacity and obftinai^
that extorted from their conquerors the tribute of admira-
tion. Suetonius Pauhnus overcame the Ordovices, and ex-
tirpated the remainder of the Druids, and their followers,
who had fled to the ifland of Mona, or Anglefea. Not-
wlthftanding this, the heroic Silures for years continued
their ftruggle for liberty, till at length Julius Agricola was
fent with a powerful army by *he emperor Vefpafian ; and
having entirely defeated the Britons under their intrepid
leader Caraftacns, in a decifive battle near Caer-Caradoc,
on the borders of Salop, he completely reduced that part of
the ifland to the Roman yoke. The aftablllty of Agricola
gained the affedtions of the people, and difpofed them to
imitate the Roman manners : he bellowed on them the
privileges of citizens ; received them into his armies ; pro-
vided for the education of their youth ; and lived amongft
them in a ftyle of great hofpitality. Thus, fecuring by
policy what he had gained by force, Cambria was dignified
with the name of Britannia Secunda : and the conquerors,
as they had prevloufly done in Britannia Prima, began to
ellabllfli jurlfdlftlons, and adopt nieafures for the due admi-
nliiration of the laws. Towns were built, ftations appointed,
and roads formed for communication between them. So
fpeedily and fuccefsfully did they proceed in then- fettlement
of this country, that in a few years Wales afl'umed all the
appearance of a Roman colony. The following ftations
were then formed. Caer Gybi, Holyhead, in Anglefea ; —
Segontium, Caer-Seiont, Caernarvon ; — Varis, Bodvary, in
Fhntlbire, near Denbigh ; — Caergwrle and Holt, alfo in
Flintfliire, appear to be fcites of ftations ; — Banchorium,
Bangor-Ifcoed, on the banks of the Dee ; — Heriri Mom,
placed by Stukeley near Bala, in Merionethftiire ; but, with
greater probability, at Tommen-y-mur, near Feftinlog ; —
Caer Gai, in the vicinity of the former place, feems alfo to
have been a ftation ; — Mediohnum, Meivod, or Myfod, in
Montgomeryfliire ; three other places in this county feem
to lay claim to fuch honourable diftinc\ion, •y/'z. Penalet,
near Machynlleth ; Caer-Sius, in the vicinity of Newtown ;
and the Gaer, near Montgomery ; — Magna, Gale and Stuke-
ley place at Old Radnor, but Horfley has removed it to
Kenchefter, near Hereford ; — Loventium, Lanio-ifa, in Car..

diganftiire ;

WALES.

diganfhire ; — Advigefimum, mentioned only in Uie Itinerary
of Richard of Cirencefter, is fuppofed by fome to have been
fituated at Cartel Fleming, and by others near Narbertli, in
Penibrokpfhire ; — Menap'm, the port for Ireland, near the
prefent St. David's ; — Marirlunum, Caermarthcn ; — Llanvar
ar y Bryn, in Catrmarthenihire, is esndcntly the fcite of a
ilation ■,—Leucarum. Louchar, or Lougher, in Glamorgan-
Ihire ; — Bomiiim, Boverton, near Ewenny ; — Nidum, Neath ;
— Tiiia /Imnis, CaerdifF ; — Gobtifinium, Abergavenny, in
Monmoullilhn-c ; — B/t://ium, Monmouth; — Burriiim, Ufl< ;
— I/ca Si/urum, the capital of the colony, and relidence of
a prietor ; — Venta Silurum, CAerw>:nt; — ^ J Sal/rinum, on
the Severn, near the new or old palTage.
• Of the Roman Roads, though more dillinft traces might
be fuppofed to exift in Wales tiian in England, from their
veftiges not having been equally liable to obliteration from
cultivation ; yet for want of due inveftigation, few of them
have been traced in a fatisfaftory manner. — yia Julia Mari-
tima, wliich received the name of Julia, from Julia Frontinus,
who fuccefsfully condufted the Roman arms againil the
Silures, is fuppofed to have connected the ftations con-
tained in the eleventh Iter of Richard of Cirenceiler.
This road was a continuation of the Alceman-ftreet from
ylqua-Solis, Bath ; and direfting its courfe wcftward acrofs
the Severn, pafTed through Glamorganfhire, Caermarthen-
fhire, and Pembroke(hire, to Ad Menapium, near St.
David's : few traces of this road have been difcovered. —
Via Julia Montana was an upper road, forming a communi-
cation from the more central parts of the ifland, by the
Ryknild-ftreet, coining from Glevum, Glouceller, and paf-
fing through part of Monmouthfhire, entered the county of
Brecknock, proceeded over the mountains to Llanvair ar y
Bryn, and thence along the vale to Caermarthen, where it
coalefced with the maritime or lower road above mentioned,
and both terminated at St. David's Via Ocridentalu ap-
pears to have extended along the wedern coall of Wales,
from Ad Menapium to Segontium, and formed connecting
links between the intermediate ilations. — Via Devana takes
a direftion through the centre of the principality from the

fouthern coall about Nidus, Neath, to Deva, Cheller

Via Orieutalis took a north-eaderly direftion from Ifca
Silurum, to Uriconium in Staffordfhire. — A brancli of the
Northern IValling-Jlrtet entered Wales at Cheller, and incli-
ning to the well, paffed the Ilation Varis, to Conovium,
near Conway. — A branch of the Southern Walling-Jlreet, ex-
tending from Uriconium to Segontium, enters Wales near
the village of Llandrinio, and proceeding to Mediolanum.
is there met by the Via Devana ; it afterwards joins the
Via Occidentalis, and continues with it to Segontium.
Numerous vicinal roads alfo traverfed the country from
Ilation to (lation, velliges of which are traceable in various
places. A road of communication branched off from the
Via Occidentalis at Penallt, and proceeded eallerly to Caer
Sws. Another road extended north-eallerly from Llanvair
ar y Bryn towards the (lation on the river Ython, between
which places it is difcoverable on the extenfive wades in the
vicinity of Llanrindod Wella. From Maridunum, a road
leads to Loventium : the conllruftion is evidently Roman,
being formed of various ftralitications ; is about thirty feet
wide, and edged with Hone. Another may be traced from
Llanio, running eaderly by Llanvair mountain, and paffiiig
through Caio, it goes to Lhmvair ar y Bryn, thence to the
Gaer near Brecknock, and fo to the grand dation Glevum,
Gioucedcr. In feveral places, having the denomination of
Sarn, traces of vicinal roads arc dillinguilliable ; and
wherever this Britidi word occurs, it is probable a Ro-
raan road paffed near ; as Talfarn, Penfarn, and Sarnau

in Cardiganfhirc. Numerous viUas, fudatorie«, aquedudls,
walls, milliaria, or mile-ftones, llatues, votive altars, in-
fcribed doiK s, tcflellated pavements, urns, pottery, bricks,
tiles, medals, coins, and various othi-r remains, have been
difcovered, which evidently point out the vediges of Roman
refidence, and by which the occupation of the country by
the Romans may be clearly deduced.

Civil Hijlory of Wales After domineering over Britain

above four centuries, the Romans bade a final adieu to the
idand ; which was foon expofed to the inroads of numerous
enemies. Adailed on the north by the Pifts and Scots, it
was equally infeded by the Irifli on the wed. The native
ftrength of the country had been exhauded by war ; the
number of its inhabitants further dimiiiinied by famine and
pedilence ; and ihe navy was fallen iiuo d cav. Under
thefe difadvantages, the people were alfo in want of that
unanimity fo elfential in times of emergency. They had
recourfe to their ancient form of goveriuneut, and eledled
for their governors certain reguli, or chieftains ; but thefe,
indead of combining to oppofe the common enemy by well-
concerted plans of co-operation, were principally occupied
in fecuring their feparate interefts. In this fad fituation,
without union, order, or difcipline, and attacked on all fides
by inveterate foes, the' Britons adopted the mod impolitic
of all expedients for national fafety, — that of calling in the
affidance of one barbarous nation to drive out another ;
which fubjedled them to a new and heavier yoke. At this
period, bcfides the many chieftains under whom the idand
was divided, a perfonal competition exided between one
who tyrannized over the red and held the fovereign autho-
rity, named Gwtheyrii, or (as called by mod Englirti
writers) Vortigern, and a chief of Roman parentage, called
Ambrofiiis, biit by the Wcldi, Enirys Wiedig. During
this conted, Gvvtheyrn, to reptl the incuifions of the Scots
and Pidls, called in the affidance of the Saxons, an army of
whom arrived under the command of Hengiil and Horfa,
defccndants of Woden, the founder of their nation. The
Saxon generals having driven back the enemy, and dif-
covered the pufiUanimity of the Britidi monarch, turned
their attention towards edablilhing their troops, and fecur-
ing to themfelves a portion of the territories they had de-
fended : this |)lan, through the treaciiery or incapacity of
Gwlheyrn, they were enabled to accomplidi. The enraged
Britons depofed Gwtiuyni, and placed Emrys on the
throne : he for a time prevailed againd the Saxons, but
fredi troops arriving under the command of Ella, they be-
came victorious, and extended their territory. On the
death of Emrys, his brother Uther, commonly called, from
his office, Pendragon, was eleAed to the fovereign dig-
nity. The intedine warfare was carried on with varied
fuccefs between the Britons and Saxons ; but numerous
hordes continually arriving from the north, the latter be-
came formidable in fever.d parts of the ifland. Arthur, the
celebrated foil and fucceffor of Uther, for a feries of years
coiiduftcd the war againd the invaders ; and in many def-
perately-fought battles led on the Britons to decifive vic-
tory. During the reigns of Uther and Arthur, the ancient
Britons had attained the meridian of their glory ; but it was
now drawing to a clofe : the death of Arthur decided the
fate of Britain. Civil didcntions prevailed among the
Britous, which were promoted by their crafty adverfaries.
During thefe troubles, many of the people fubmitted to the
Saxons and Scots ; others, to preferve their freedom, fled
to Armorica, which, from the number of the refugees, ac-
quired the name of Bivtagne ; fome retired into the wilds
of Devonfliirc and Cornwall ; fome took dielter in the
mountainous parts of the north of England ; but by far the

greatett

WALES.

greateft number found an afylum in the faftnefies of Wales,
-where they defended and preferved their independence long
after the expiration of the Saxon dynafty.

At the period when the Saxons had conquered the greater
part of Britain, and made their approaches to the borders
of Wales, this country appears to have been divided into fix
principalities, over which Maelgwyn, king of North Wales,
was invefted vrith the fovereign dignity, about the year 552.
The conteft was continued under feveral fucceeding mo-
narchs, till the death of Cadwallader, in the year 703,
clofed the imperial dignity, which for many centuries had
been annexed to the Britiih government ; during which time
the paramount princes chiefly refided at Diganwy, on the
water of Conway, and at Caer Segont near Caernarvon.
Roderic Moelwynoc nominally fucceeded to the fovereignty
in 720 ; but by continual and unhappy divifions, the ftrength
of the country was fo dimini(hed, as to be unable fuccefsfuUy
to refill the incurfions of the Saxorjs. The Mercians, under
king Offa, frequently laid wafte the country, and at length
wTefted a portion from the Welfti princes ; and to prevent
the new occupants from the retaliating vengeance of the
Welfli, Offa caufed that famous boundary to be made, from
the mouth of the river Dee to the Wye, which ftill goes
under the appellation of Clawdd Offa, or OfFa's Dyke.
By this the region was confiderably narrowed, and nearly
reduced to its prefent limits. Though the Saxons made
frequent inroads, yet they do not appear to have had any
permanent footing in the country ; fo that though the pages
of hiftory record many fanguinary conflifts between them
and the Welfh, yet fcarcely any veftiges remain to mark the
incurfions of the invaders. The Danes called off the atten-
tion of the Saxons from Wales, which from this circum-
ftance was left for many years in unufual tranquillity, and
fumifhes but few fubjefts of hiftorical record during the
Danifh dynafty. The Danes made fome incurfions on the
coaft, but effedled no permanent conqueft of the country.
On the acceflion of William I. to the throne of England,
the Wellh having refufed the annual tribute, which had
been extorted from them as a mark of fubmifliori by king
Edgar, the conqueror invaded their country with a power-
ful army, quickly awed them into fubmiflion, and obliged
them to do homage, and take an oath of fealty, as due from
vaflals to their fuperior lord. From this period the Englifh
monarchs preferred a claim to Wales, as their heritable pro-
perty. On the death of William, the Welfh, feeling the
galling yoke of their humbled condition, attempted to re-
cover their loft independence ; and joining in revolt with fome
refraftory Englifh barons, entered England, and by fire and
fword carried their devaftation to the banks of the Severn.
Thefe outrages determined William Rufus to attempt the
fubjugation of the country ; and for this purpofe he excited
his barons to conquer, at their own charge, under homage
and fealty to him, the territories of the Welfh. Thefe
barons, who were denominated lords marchers, endeavoured
to fecure their conquefts, by peopling them with Englifh,
and erefting ftrong fortreffes to defend them from the in-
roads of the Welfh. Thus was the laft afylum of the Bri-
tons broken into on every fide, and invefted by their
enemies. South Wales was fubdued ; while North Wales,
now greatly reduced, alone preferved the national charafter,
.and fupported its independence ; and the inhabitants, aided
by the valour of their princes, ftill upheld the ftruggle ; and
acquiring vigour from union, dictated by necefTity, not only
prevented tiie marchers from achieving further conquefts,
but rendered their exifting acquifitions of precarious tenure.
For a long period the Welfh, favoured by the mountainous
nature of the country, fupported an unequal but fpirited

contefl with their unjuft invaders. The death of David,
who had fucceeded his unfortunate brother Llewelyn, in
the reign of Edward I., clofed the only fovereignty that re-
mained of the ancient Britifh empire. Edward having at
length obtained the objeft of his ambition, by the entire
conqueft of Wales, annexed it to the crown of England.
He did not, however, for fome time, enjoy a tranquU pof-
feflion ; for three infurreftions broke out at one time in dif-
ferent places. To fuch a height did thefe commotions ar-
rive, that Edward was conftrained to conduft the war in
perfon, when he fhortly compelled the infurgents to lay
down their arms, and make an unquahfied fubmiflion.
Thefe difturbances, the fubfequent revolt of fir Gryffydd
Llwdd, and the rebellion of Owen Glendowr, were the laft
efforts the Wellh made to recover their independence.
From that period the concerns of the country, till the time
of Henry VII., are httle interefting ; for the inhabitants
were reduced to a ftate of the fevereft bondage. Henry VII.,
from the alTiftance the Welfh had afforded him in obtaining
the crown, was more favourably inclined towards them than
preceding monarchs, and granted the principahty confider-
able immunities. Several ameliorating ftatutes were paffed
in the reign of Henry VIII., to exonerate them from the
tyrannical oppreffions of the lords marchers ; and at length
the people, awake to their true intereft, folicited the king
to give his hberal defigns a more falutary effeft, by extend-
ing to them all the privileges of the Enghfh jurifprudence.
The prayer of their petition was granted, and Wales was
formally united and incorporated with England.

Wales abounds with the remains of encampments, hill-
fortreffes, caftles, and caftellated manfions : fpecimens of
mihtary architefture, therefore, in the diverfified ftyles of
different and diftant periods, conftitute fome of its moft pro-
minent and interefting features. While the Romans gene-
rally chofe for the fcite of their camps, or forts, a rifing
ground near fome river, or a lingula formed by the con-
ft'ience of two ; the Britons fele(fied the moft lofty, in-
fulated, and inacceffible mountains, the fummits of which
they fortified by excavating deep trenches in the folid rock,
adding valla, by heaping up the loofe ftones dug out of the
foffes ; and in fucceeding times, by adding ftrong walls, and
erefting maffy circular towers. The Normans introduced
a new ftyle of mihtary fortification ; and to fecure their un-
juftifiable feizurcs, and proceed in their aggreffions, they
creeled caftles, more formidable bath in number and extent,
fo that what are termed the marches of Wales confift of a
feries of fortreffes from the mouth of the Dee to the em-
bochure of the Wye. Fhnt, Denbigh, Montgomery,
Powys, Brecknock, Caerphih, and CaerdifF, furnifh bold
examples of the ftyle of thofe people. More were erefted
by the Anglo-Normans, as they progreffively encroached oa
the country ; for, to fecure the conquered poffeffions from
the retaliating vengeance of the expelled owaers, they were
neceffitated to repair and ftrengthen the fortreffes they took,
or build others. Thus did thefe buildings fo far increafe,
that Mr. Pennant enumerates 143 caftles in the principahty;
and that number is probably fhort of the aftual amount.
On the conqueft of Wales by Edward I., that monarch,
who had been crnfading in the holy land, and had there im-
bibed a fpirit of eaftern magnificence, for the purpofe of
overawing his new but refraftory fubjefis, conilrufted three
caftles in a ftyle, which for ilrength and grandeur have never
yet been furpaffed in this country. Harlech, Caernarvon,
and Conway, remain the proud monuments of that monarch's
age and times.

Ancient ConJlUulion, Government, and Latvs. — From the
accounts given by the Roman writers, a monarchical form

of

WALES.

of government was prcyalcnl among the early Britons. The
ifland was divided into fcveral petty fovereignties, each fub-
jeft to a feparate prince ; but in time of emergency and
danger, they were united in one, under an offict-r, fimilar
to a dictator among the Romans, called a ')endragt.n. I'o
him, l»y joint confent, was committed the whole military
governmtiit of the independent Hates. Nor was this dignity
temporary, like the power ; for though the latter appe.-rs
to have ceafcd with the neceflity that demanded it, yet the
former continued for lif?, and was heredi ary to the male
heir. But the right of fucceflion to the feparate govern-
ments does not feem to be ftriclly indefcaiible ; for, in fome
inftances, the lineal fucceflion was violated by the rule of
tanillry. By tliis the king's fon, brother, or nephew, be-
came the cuftomary inheritor of the crown ; the particular
perfon being feletted by the reigning monarch, with the
advice of his nobles. This fovereign eleft was denominated
by the law the tanill, or fecond in dignity. The Britons
were not unacquainted with that rational rellraint on mo-
narchical defpotifm, parliamentary fuffrage ; for a decifive
arguaient in favour of the exiftence of Britifli parliaments
is found in the preface or introduftion to the laws of the
great Cambrian Icgillator, Howel Dda. Six of the moft
intelligent and powerful perfons were fummoned out of
every cantreff, or hundred, to affill the king in the great
work of legiflation. This parliament being aflembled, pro-
ceeded to examine the ancient laws, cancelled fome, reformed
others, enafted new ones, and digeiled all into one regular
code of jurifprudence. This rcvifion they prefented to
good king Howel, who liaving approved it, gave the rati-
fying fanftion of royal authority. Both the monarch and
parliament then imprecated the power of the flate and the
^vrath of heaven upon any perfons who (hould violate, or at-
tempt to abrogate, any of tiiefc inflitutes, unlefs they (hould
be conftitutionally annulled in a national council, fimilar to tlie
one in which they had been recently decreed. From the
circumflances of this revifion, many of thofe in the code of
Howel Dda were pre-exiftent ftatutes, by which the early
Britons had been regulated in previous times. From thefe
it appears, that immediately below the fovereign ranked the
Uchelwyrs, or great men holding their lands from the crown,
and each prefiding as lord over his particular domain. As
immediate tenants of the king, they were obliged to per-
form certain fervices. Inferior to thefe, and holding from
them as feudatory lords, were the general mafs of the com-
munity, being in a Hate of villainage, but divided into two
clafFes : firft, fuch as might retain or relinquifli their lands
at difcretion, poffefTed the power of buying and felling, and
whofe feignorial fervice was the Icaft degrading of the menial
kind ; the other, denominated Caeths, were confidered the
property of the lord, attached to the foil, and faleable with
the ellate. Thefe were bound to fcrvices the moll ferviie,
to build or repair honfcs for the Uchelwyr, and perform all
the drudgeries of hulbandry. Both were fubjfft, like the
chiefs, to military attendance in time of war, and to contri-
butions in money or kind. Such were the tenures of lands
in Wales, prior to the introduftion of Englifh culloms, as
appears by the laws of Howel Dda, not formed by him,
but referable to previous inftitutes, afcribed to the early
Britons. And as they were evidently feudal in their cdence,
and military in their defign, the opinion of antiquaries, who
deduced the introduftion of afyftem of feuds into this ifland
from the Normans, mull be erroneous ; for the laws in
which it is found to have exifted in Wales were coUeftcd
into a digell, in the early part of the tenth century. The
moft prominent feature in the Howellian code is the law of
inheritance, denominated save! kind, by which the property
Vol. XXXVn.

was divided iiniong the Ions ; the icmalcs uf every degree
being excluded till the utter extinAion of the males, among
whom 110 diftinftion was made between the legitimate and
the f;;urious. While the Welfh preferved their independence,
this law of defcent univerfally prevailed ; but on the con-
quell of the country by king Edward I., he dir»>fted cer-
tain comniiffioners to inquire upon oaih into all the former
laws and ufages of the principality ; and the firft law pro-
mulgated by that moiia'ch for the ufc of Wales was the
celebrated ftatute of RhyJdlan. By this he permitted tht
ancient item to continue, but lopped off two of its principal
branches, mix. the admifiion of fpurious offspring to the in-
heritance, and the preclufion of females. But in the 34tk
year of Henry VIII., the venerable trunk was for ever
levelled with the ground, all the lands in Wales having beea
required " to be holden as Englifh tenures to all intents."
Since wliich period the laws of England, with the exception
of a few formal peculiarities, have continued to form the
jurifprudence of Wales.

Ecclejiajlical H'lfiory, Religion, l^c. — The religion of the
Britons, when Cxfar firft vifited the ifland, was of a kind
pecuhar to them, and to the kindred tribes of Gaul. It
abounded with flngular tenets, and the mode of worfhip
comprifed numerous fuperftitious rites, the remaining vef-
tiges of which form fome of the moft interefting antiquities
in the country. Bardijm, or the Druidical fyftem as it is
generally called, has been varioufly reprefented ; and th.e
term lard, given to the Welfti poets who were not of the
Bardic order, has tended to increafe the confufion on the
fubjoft. What may be confidered as the foundation of the
order was the principle of univerfal benevolence, fo that a
bard was prohibited by his tenets from bearing arms ; and
being recognifed as the herald of peace, he could pafs, when
clad in his azure robe, unmoleiled from one hoftile country
to another. The bards were divided into three claflcs, the
hard brainl, ovydd, and dcrivydd. To the bards braint be-
longed the perpetuation of the cuftoms and privileges of the
fyflein, and of its moral and civil inftitutes ; the ovyddon,
or ovates, particularly attended to the cultivation of the arts
and Iciences ; the derwyddon, or druids, were the prieft*
who officiated in religion : from which circumftance, and
from the great influence they confequently obtained over
fociety, this clafs was moft confpicuous, and became the
general denomination of the whole.

Their origin, learning, religion, authority, revenues, de-
cline, and extinftion, have been fully detailed in this work
under the article DiiUiDS.

In the fixth century, the archiepifcopal feat of Wales was
removed from Cacrleon to Menevia, which was fubfequently
known by the appellation of St. David's. At that time the
archbifhop had under him tiiree fuffragans, the bidiops of
St. Afaph, Bangor, and Landaff. In the tenth century,
St. David's loft its archiepifcopal honours; and in iioi, it
became fubjeft to the metropolitan fee of Canterbury ; to
which, on the fiibjugation of the country by Edward I.,
the whole of Wales, as to ecclefiallical affairs, fubmittcd ;
and at the diffohition of monafteries, the Welfli having been
fubjefted to the Englifh laws, the clergy in Wales were
brought under the fame regulations as thofe in England.
And from the clofe incorporation of the two countries, the
hiilory of the church, after that lime, is nearly fimilar in
both. In Wales are many fefts of what are confidered regular
Proteftanl dilfenters from the eft.ibliflied church, which had
their rife in the reigns of .lame; I. aiui Ch.irlcs I., and more
efpecially during tlie proteftorate of Oliver Cromwell. But
the grcatell number of feccders from the eflablifhed church
are the different defcriptions of Mcthodifts, whofe places of
4 N affcmbling,

WALES.

a/lemblijiK, multiplied over the face of the country, receive
the appellation of chapels. Of this increafing diflent, one
reafon is affigned to be the generally illiterate ftate of the
regular clergy: for moll of the livings in Wales are fo
fmall, and the ftipeiids of curates fo fcanty, that no induce-
ment is held out for youth being properly inftrufted for the
miniftry, and confequently the churches mulf be fervcd by
incompetent minillers. But this evil is likely foon to be
rejnedied ; for by the zealous endeavours of the prefent
wortliy birtiop of St. David's, two feminaries are inilituted
for the education of youth defigned for holy orders, who
are provided with tutors. Moft places in Wales have the
benefit of a free-1'chool ; and in the year 1749, for the in-
ftruftion of the children of the lower orders, 142 itinerant
fchoolmafters were appointed by the fociety for promoting
Chrillian knowledge. Thofe among Proteftant diffenters
have been provided for in this refpeft by the pious bequeft
of Dr. Daniel Williams, many years the refpedable pallor
of a congregation in London, who left a large fum of money
for ellablifhing charity-fchools, where fuch inftitntions were
wanted ; by virtue of which the trullecs have erefted many
in the principality.

The lovers of etrle/iaJUcal, monajik, 3.nA fepulchral archilec-
lure, will find ample fcope for amufcment and admiration, in
the remains of religious edifices, both in an integral and di-
lapidated ftate, ftill vifible in various parts of the princi-
pality.

Mountains, Lairs, Rivers, anil Climate. — Wales exhibits
all the features of a detached diilrift from England, confift-
ing of almoft continued ranges of lofty mountains, and im-
pending crags, interfefted by numerous deep ravines with
extenfive valleys, and affording endlcfs views of bold, wild,
or romantic fcenery. To enumerate the mountains which are
nominally known to the natives, and form very ftriking objedls
to the traveller, would be fuperfluous ; but a general view
of them, as they are grouped with multifarious ramifications,
may be ufeful. The chains generally extend in a direClion
from fouth-eaft to north-weft, having their efcarpment, or
molt abrupt declivity, on the latter bearing. Numerous
pro'ietting ridges laterally expand on various parts of the
oompafs, in countlefs ramifications, many of which are fur-
mounted by lofty eminences, that are formed into fo many
diftinft mountains, fo that, like the Alps, they feem to be
mountain piled upon mountain, and hills conglomerated
upon hills. The principal range in North Wales is that
denominated the Snoiudonian chain, from the lofty moun-
tain Snowdon occupying its centre. Commencing at
Bardfey ifland, in the fouth-weft extremity of Caernar-
vonlhire, the line, varied at irregular intervals by conical
peaks, extends in a north-eallerly direction to the promon-
tory of Penmaen-bach, in the bay of Conway. The inter-
mediate parts confill of the loftiell mountains in Wales.
The Feriuyn chain occupies the eallern part of Merioneth-
(hire, and branches out into Denbighlhire. Its length is
about fixteen miles, and the breadth varies from five to ten :
Cader Fcrwyn, Cader Fronwen, and the Sylattin, are the
moft elevated points. Another line branches off into Mont-
gomeryfhire, and joins the Breddin chain, extending into
Shropfliire. Another chain, or rather a continuance of the
fame, extends in a fouth-wcll direftion from Pennant, near
the vale of Tanad, in Montgomery fhirc, to the fea-coaft
near Langyllinin in Mtrionethfliire. In this extenfive ridge
are confpicuous feveral lofty mountains, known under the
appellation of the Arrans and the Arrenigs ; tlie moft emi-
nent of which are Arran-ben-llyn and Arran-fowddy, and
the extremity of the line is grandly marked by the triple
head of the lofty Cadir Idris. The celebrated PUnlimmon

proudly elevates his crcft above a range of table land, cx'
tending from the vicinity of Llanvair in the north-eaft, till
they decline in the fouth-weft, and end in the abrupt cliffs,
which bound part of the bay of Cardigan, near Aberyft-
with. Among particular elevations in this line, after the
fovereign of the group, the Carno mountains ftand the moll
pre-eminent. South Wales, though not equally mountainous
with the northern part of the principality, nor fo diftin-
guilliable for its Alpine heights, is yet far from being de-
ficient in elevations and depreffions. An extenfive chain of
mountains ftretches from Bleddva forell, north-eaft of Uian-
drindod Wells, in Radnorfhire, croffes the northern part of
Brecknockfliire, continues in a fouth-wellerly direftion
through Caermarthenftiire, and terminates iii the confpicuous
ridge of the Prefcely or Prefcelau mountain in the county
of Pembroke. The Fothoc hills, on the caftcrn fide of
Brecknockftiire, commence another line, principally known
under the general appellation of the Black Mountnins, from
the appearance given to them by the dark vegetable covering
of heath and ling. Among individual elevations, remark-
able for their height, are Tre-beddw mountain. Pen Mallard
hills, the black mountains ftridlly fo denominated, and the
high table land which in the fouth part of Caermarthenftiire
is doled by the ifolated mountain, called Pembre hill. In
tiiis mountainous region, lakes are exceedingly abundant ; an
attempt to defcribe, or even to enumerate them, would be
endlefs : Mr. Gough reckoned from fifty to fixty in Caer-
narvonftiire only. The moft diftinguilhed for extent, or tlie
beauty of the furrounding fcenery, are, in North Wales,
Lynian Nantle, Llyn Cywellin, Llynian Llanberris, and
Llyn Conway, in Caernarvonftiire ; with Pimble-meer, and
Talyllyn, in Merionethfhire. In South Wales, Llyn Bych-
lyn, in Radnorfliire, and Llyn Savathan, or Langor's pool,
in the county of Brecknock.

Rivers. — Wales, though a mountainous country, is equally
remarkable with England for its numerous ftreams, which
iffning from confiderable lakes, or aided by their waters,
meander through the country, and form excellent harbours
at their confluence with the fea. The principal rivers are
the Severn, the Wye, and the Towy, in South Wales ; the
Conwv, the Clwydd, and the Dee, in North Wales : thefe
have not only attained pre-eminence in fanie for the utility
of their navigation ; but, by poets, have been celebrated in
long. The former conftitutes the eaftern, and the latter
the north-eaftern boundary of the country, between the em-
bochures of which many others, though lefs diilinguifhed in
a commercial point of view, are highly valuable for their
fiftieries and other properties. Thefe, tracing their fources
in the order in which they unite their waters with the
ocean, are, in North Wales, the Ogwen, Sciont, Gwynedd,
Drwydd, Avon, and Dovey ; in South Wales, the Rhei-
diol, Yltwith, Eiron, Tivy, Nevern, Gwyn, Cleddy, Itrog,
Taf or Tave, Loughor, Tawy, Nedd, Avon, Taf or Taffe,
Rhymny, and Ullc. A particular defcription of the moft
confiderable, will be found under their refpeClive names.

The climate of Wales differs materially from that of the
portion of England, lying in the fame parallel of latitude ;
and affimilates more with the northern paits of the liland. In
a general view the .rir is ftiarp ; in tlie mountainous parts
bleak ; moderately mild in the vales, and thole parts adja-
cent to the ocean, elpecially on the fouthcrn coall, and
particularl): in the celebrated vale of Glamorgan. From the
greater degrees of cold prevalent in the Cambrian atmo-
fpliere, fnow is more frequent in Wales than in England,
lies much deeper, and is feen covering the tops ot the higheft:
mountains, for many months in the year. The wet feafon
in this country is not ufually confined to the winter months ;

for

ter-
peaks

WALES.

fjT rains are frequent at all times of the year. The gaged fteep rocks, tending in the afcciit more or lefs towards an

quantity of rain which annually falls in England, according to acute or lleudcr pointed fuminit, the lofliell mountains are

the experiments of Dr. Hales, is about twenty-two inches ; centnc;dly (ituated in tlie chain, whicli commencing and

while the average that defcends in Wales may be cllimated miiiating in abrupt precipices, with the infulated pi

at thirty-four. From numerous obfcrvations refpecting this that interrupt the general outline, form a llrikinir and dif-

fubjeft, the refult has uniformly been, that more falls on tindive charader. Secondary mountains, chiefly compoled

the weflern than on the eailern fide of the kingdom, and of fchiftofe fubllances, range next in the fcale, and are dif-

moft in the mountainous dillrids ; confequently Wales mull tinguilhable from the former by tlieir inferior hei^rlit the

participate largely in fuch an excefs of humidity. In the evennefs and fquarenefs of the individual links wliicli com-

year 1802, the quantity of rain which fell in London was pofe the chain, and by the eafy waving though varied line

fifteen inches, and in Brecon twenty-fix inches. Moift as of the general contour: inllances of whicii are confpicuous

the climate of Wales mull confequently be from this va- in the Ferwyn and Breddni mountains previoufly noticed.

porous ilate of its atmofphere, yet the air is in general Derivative, or calcareous and liliceous hills, range conridi-r-

highly falubrious, and the country healthy. Scarcely a ably lower than the fecondary or flate mountains, ufually

cemetery in the principality, but bears fome teftimony to rifing by a gradual afcent at one extremity, and terminatinjr

the longevity of the inhabitants, even to the protraded abruptly at the other. The lime- ilone lulls frequently affume

age of a century, and in fome inllances even to a greater a pyramidical fliape, while the ridges of the fand rocks, and

extent. banks, are broader and rounder than thofe of lime. Thefc,

Natural ProJualons and Minerals. — Few countries can vie however, often trap into each other, and then little diflimila-

with Wales in the multifarious variety of its produdions, rity is difcoverable in their form. The primitive mountains

•while none perhaps have been fo long and undefervedly neg- in mafs contain no metals ; copper is however found in fe-

leded. Some animals, rarely to be met with, frequent the veral of the horn-ilone llratified mountains, of which the

wilds of this diverfifiedcoiuitry. The goat is here found in its Parys mine, and thole at Llanberis and Pont-Aberffladyn

ferine Hate, and is far fuperior in fize, and in the length and are examples. In thefe mines, the ore is for the moll part

finenefs of his hair, to that of moll other mountainous coun- yellow, fulphuret of copper, the green and blue malachites

tries. Though this iifeful animal has been long domellicated, or carbonates of copper, arc found in lime-Hone as at

yet many of the inhabitants of North Wales fuffer the goats '^ 1 1 .t,

to run in a wild ilate, and bound from crag to crag. Thefe
they are accuftomed to kill during autumn for the fake of
the fat and fcins : thus goat-fliooting and goat-hunting are
ftill pradifcd by the people in Wales. Roebucks were an-
ciently numerous, but are now confined to the moll intri-
cate parts of the country, and they are rarely to be feen.
Of the feathered tribes, many fpecies, not found in other
parts of the ifland, are to be met with here. The golden
eagle is an inhabitant of the Snowdonian mountains, which
thence are fuppofed to have derived their appellation of the
Eagle rocks. The peregrine falcon, fuppofed to be the

Ornics-head and Llanymynech hill, where copper 13 not pro-
duced in any other ilate but th.at of carbonate, which is
alfo found in the calcareous cement of fand rocks. The
llrata generally moll produdive of the metallic ores are
lime-llone ; and moll fpecies of whin-ilones, or the argilla-
ceous mountain rocks, of which there are many varieties ap-
pearing in thick, thin, and mediate flrata ; fome of thefe
rocks are moderately and others exceedingly hard. They
afTume various colours, though principally one or other of
the numerous fliades of grey. Several rich and valuable
mines are difcovered in granite or moor-ftone mountains.
Thefe three orders or clafles of rocks, with their concomitant

bird which furnifhed the amufement of falconry to our ancef- llrata, are ufually interfeded by mineral fid'ures and con

tors, and formed a fort of criterion for nobility, breeds abun-
dantly among the rocks of Llandidno, in Caernarvonlliire.
The merlin, ufed in hawking, migrates from Wales to Eng-
land generally in September. The water rail is found in
Anglelea, early in the fpring ; and immenfe flocks of
puffins vifit the ifland of Priellholme about the fame time.

tain the largefl quantity of mineral fubllances, and metallic
ores. But of all clairified llrata, in which the richeft mine-
ral veins have been difcovered, the indurated argillaceous
mountain rocks are the moll prolific and extcnfive. Many
of the mines in North Wales, nearly the whole of the nu-
ne about the fame time, merous valuable lead mines in the comity of Cardigan, and
The guillemot, and the black-backed gull, frequent the moll of the mines in other parts of South Wales, are found
Wellh coall during the winter. Among the numerous fifh, in this kind of matrix or llrata. The principal fubtcrra-
vvhich abound in the rivers of Wales, in addition to thofe neous fubllances produced in Wales, may be divided into
generally known in England, may be noticed the crooked three clalFes, metalline, mineral, and lapideous ; and the
perch found in Llyn Raithlyn, Merionethfhire, and the de- places where they are dug receive the dillindive appellations
formed trout, faid to be peculiar to a brook, called Syrcian, of mines, pits, or quarries. Silver is obtained in confidera-
in Cardiganfiiire: (thefe two fpecies are defcribetl by Dailies ble quantities, though not at prefent found in what may be
Barrington, in a communication to the Royal Society exclufively denominated lilver mines. Cwmfymlog mine in
1767) : alfo the famlet is frequent in the upper part of the Cardiganlhire confills of filver ore, lead ore, and quartz ;
Severn and the Wye ; the fewin, the red char, the filver which, from the rich produce of the more p'recious metal,'
char, and the gwir.iad. Some of thefe, howeve^, are not received tiie appellation i)f the Wellh Potofi. Daren vawr^
exclufively peculiar to the princip.ility, but are found in Daren vach, Goginan Cwm Evyn, and Mynydd bach, conl

fome of the rivers of Scotland, and in the lakes of Weil-
moreland and Cumberland.

The mineral produdions of Wales form the moll inte-
relling ])ait of tlie fubjed, and furnillt an inexhaullible
fource of profitable inveiligation to individuals, and of na-
tional wealth. The mountains ami hills may be feparated
into three dillind clalTes, viz. primitive, fecondary, and de-
rivative, wliicii in a general view may alfo be dilliiiguillied
by the peculiarities of their form, as well as their relative
iituation. Primitive irranite mountains confill

tain fimilar fubllances to thofe of Cwmfymlog, tliough not
equally produdive of filver. Llanvair is at prefent the
richell mine worked in the principality ; comprifing filver,
lead, (luart/, fpar with a fmall portion of copper, and
yields about oiie-fixth of lead ore. About fixty to eighty
ounces of filver are extraded from a ton of ore, and twelve
hundied and a half weight of lead. Cupper, wlilch was
known and appreciated by the Romans wlule in ijodelfion
of Britain, is abundant through difl'eient parts of the ill.md,

Primitive granite mountains confifl of craggy but was not an objed of commerci;d inveiligation till witliin

4 N 2 about

WALES.

about two centuries paft ; nor in Wales to any confiderable
purpofe till the middle of the laft. The copper works of
the Romans lay for ages neglefted ; and to the public and
enterprifing fpirit of Nicolas Bailey, the country owes the
revival of refearch for this valuable metal. Parys moun-
tain in Anglefea ccnfifts wholly of copper, either in a ftate
of native copper, fulpliate, black ore, or malachite : the
matrix is a dark grey chertz, and the fuperftratum alumi-
nous flate. The copper ore found at Llanberris in Caer-
narvonlhire, is of a very fuperior quality to that of Parys
mountain, yielding from eight to ten per cent, weight of
metal. This ore fubfifts in the primitive ftratified rocks,
and generally in a matrix of fchiilofe hornblende, or quartz.
The fame mountainous ridge, confilling principally of whin
and horn-ftone, divided by the immenfe chafm over which
is thrown the bridge called Pont-aberglaflyn, contains an-
other copper mine producing ore fimilar in quahty to that
of Llanberris ; and it is highly probable the whole of this
diftrift is pregnant with copper. Efcair vraith mine in Car-
diganrtiire confifts of copper ore, fpar, quartz, and a fub-
ftance, termed by the miners gozin, which forms an envelope
to the quartz. Lead, for which this ifland vi'as always fa-
mous, is found in a variety of places through Wales, but
particularly in the counties of Flint, Caernarvon, Montgo-
mery, Caermarthen, and Cardigan ; indeed the latter may be
confidered as the moft extenfive and richeft mining field in Bri-
tain. A mineral traft ftretches from Pen-yr-allt, or Bryndi-
gri, in a line to the weftern borders of the parifti of Holywell
in Flintlhire, and is known under the name of Whiteford rake.
The ores differ in quality ; the lamellated, or common kind,
uluaUy named potter's ore, yields from fourteen hundred to
fixteen hundred and a quarter of lead, out of twenty hun-
dred of the ore : but the laft produce is rare. The veins are
found either in chert or hme-ftone rocks, and fome of the bed
ore has been dug at the depth of ninety yards. In this traft
feveral levels have been driven and fhafts funk, and lead con-
tinues to be obtained in very confidemble quantities. Be-
tween Gwydir and Capel Cerrig in Caernarvonfhire, within
an extenfive dip between lofty mountains, are very exten-
five lead works. The furrounding rocks confift of flate,
bituminous (hale, and trap or whin ; the matrix of the ore
is quartz, and calcareous fpar ; they produce lead and cala-
mine, mixed with iron ochre, and a fmall quantity of cop-
per pyrites. Thefe different fubftances are fo blended, that
in the fame fpecimen a variety of them may be found. But
Cardiganfhire may be peculiarly denominated the region of
lead mines, the whole country apparently having its rocks
cemented together with veins of this metal. For avaft ex-
tent the land is excavated, and the furface covered with the
opening of mines alretidy worked, or the veftiges of nume-
rous others that have furnifhed their fubterraneous treafures
to remote generations. The principal lead mines in this
county are Cwm-yftvvyth, Llewerne^j, luys Cynvelin, Peny-
banch, Bron-y-goch, Llwynwn wch, Grogwnion,GelIan Erin,
and Nant-y-Crier. The ore found in moft of the Cardigan-
(hire mines is nearly of a fimilar nature, confifting chiefly of
lead, mixed with quartz and fpar, accompanied frequently
with quantities of an ore of zinc, denominated by the mi-
ners, from its daik appearance, black jack. This, whi«h
formerly was appropriated to the repair of the roads, has
lately been difcovered to be a valuable article, conftituting
an excellent flux for brafs ; and, mixed in due proportions
■with copper, makes a hard metal, fimilar to the orichalcum
of the ancient Romans. Iron, the moft ufeful, and through
the wife diftribution of Providence, the moft common of all
metals, is plentifully difperfed aver the Britifh ifles ; and
Wales is not deficient in this particular. Yet, notwithftand-

ing the mountains of this country are full of iron-ftone, it
was not till within about half a century, that the public at-
tention was turned to this inexhauftible fource of internal
wealth. Iron is moft abundant in South Wales, though
evident marks of its exiftence may be traced in North
Wales ; and it has lately been procured, and works erefted
in the vicinity of Ruabon in Denbii^hdiire. The feveral
fpecies of iron which have been difcovered are hematites,
kidney ore, or compaA brown iron-ftone ; grey ore, or
black iron-ftone ; bog ore fwampy iron-ftone ; and a variety
of fulphurated and arfenical ores, which clafs under the ge-
neral denomination of pyrites ; but the kidney and grey
ores are the moft frequently found. Ttie principal iron
works are Mertliyr Tydvil, AberdarL, and Cyfartha, in
Glamorgaufhire ; and the Union, Llanelly, Beaufort, and
Hirwan, in Brecknockfliire. Coal is found in every county
of Wales except Cardigan, Merioneth, and Caernarvon.
The coal fometimes underlays the calcareous ft rata, or, in
the miner's phrafe, has a lime-ftone roof; but more fre-
quently it is found on the northern or fouthern fide of a
lime-ftone ridge ; and when a traft of low lar.d is included
between two fuch ridges, it may be inferred, that coal lies
beneath. Twi3 parallel hncs of calcareous ftrata extend
through South Wales in an eafterly direftion, from St.
George's Channel acrofs the whole country. Thefe are
accompanied by two lines of coal. Upon the upper line,
coal has been found at Jolinfton, Picion, Jeffrefton, and
Begeley, in Pembrokefhire. Thence keeping on the fouth-
ern fide of the hme-ftone ridge, it croftes the Towy, form-
ing the bar at the mouth of that river ; and pafling through
the upper part of Caermarthenfhire, Brecknockfhire, and
Monmo'jthlhire, crofles the Severn to the collieries of
Kingfwood near Briftol. The different fpecies of coal in
Wales are the newcaftle, the rock, the ftone, or fplent,
the cannel, or parrot, and the culm, or blind coal, denomi-
nated in England Welfli coal, becaufe almoil pccuharly the
produce of Wales. Some varieties of the cannel coal are
fo fine and folid in the contexture, and fo fufceptible of a
high polifh, as to be capable of being turned in the lathe,
and formed into various utenfils, toys, and trinkets. The
fchiftofe mountains of Wales afford another fubftance, if
not of equal importance, yet of general utility. Slates,
cuftomarily called Cornifli tile, becaufe originally procured
from Cornwall, conftitute an elegant and ufeful roofing to
houfes much cheaper than lead, for which it is latterly be-
come a very common fubftitute. Slate quarries are nume-
roufly fcattered over the country, but the principal are
thofe of the Rheidiol near Aberyftwith, Cardiganfhire ;
Llangynnog, Montgomeryfhire ; and the extenfive ones in
Snowdonia, Caernarvonfhire. Thofe of the former place
produce fpecimer.s of tlie large and coarfeft kind of flate,
which lie in compact maffes, refembling flag-ftone, of a
rough texture, but feparating eafily into large plates. Llan-
gynnog flate alfo divides into large plates, is not of quite fo
coarfe a quality, and forms a very profitable building article.
Thefe quarries, Mr. Pennant obferves, yielded from No-
vember 1775 ^° ^'"^ fame month in the following year
904,000 flates, which were fold from fix to twenty fhillings
per thoufand. The Snowdonian flates are generally of a very
fine grain, a beautiful blue colour, and when quarried fe-
parate into exceedingly thin lamins ; properties, which
render them particularly eligible for handfome roofing, and
manufafturing into writing flates. So great have been the
quantities of late years procured from this diftrift, that a
fma'.l infignificant creek has been dignified with the name of
Port-Penhryn, from the export trade of this article only.
On viewing the different apertures of the fchiftofe moun-
tains,

WALES.

tains, a ftiiklng geological faft will refult, correfpor.dent
with the principle of uniform though unequal declivity.
It is obfervable that the flates are always coarfcil in their
texture on the northern or nortii-weftern fides of the
ridge, and lefs fo on the fouth and fouth-wcllcrn fides ; be-
coming gradually finer as they approximate the lime-Hone
hills. Wales affords numerous quarries of other valuable
ftones ; i'/z. diftcrent kinds of marble fit for monuments,
columns, chimney-pieces, and other ornamental fculpture ;
ferpentinc and other fpecies of horn-ftone ; chert or petri-
folex, and pure quartz, for the ufe of the potteries. Nor
fliould that rare and curious fubftance be omitted, which
furnifi^es the albeftus, indellruftible by fire, found on the
ihorcs of Anglefea. The mona marble, from the ifie of
Anglefea, is now much ufcd in chimney-pieces and fancy
furniture. ( See Marble, Britijh. ) The Britons, as already
obferved, underftood the ufe of metals, and were further in-
ftruAed in the arts of mining by the intelligent Romans ;
but after the departure of the latter, felf-prefervation occu-
pied the attention of the natives, and peaceful fcience funk
under the devaftating hand of war. Yet their mines were
not wholly neglefted, for it was probably by means of this
fubterraneous wealth, that the Wel(h were enabled to fnp-
port againft the Englifh an unequal warfare for fo long a
time. During centuries after the conqueft, in England
the crown alTerted its exclufive right to all mines and mine-
rals ; and no perfon could fearch for ore unlefs empowered
by a royal grant, under conditions impofed at the difcretion
of the monarch. Edward I., on his conqueft of Wales, ex-
tended his mining authority over that country ; and it does
not appear that the proprietor of the land, on which a mine
was opened, had any fiiare in tlie profits, till the reign of
Henry VI., when the duke of Bedford having obtained a
leafe of all mines containing any gold or filver, a refervation
was made of a twentieth part of the proceeds to the owner
of the land. Queen Elizabeth, however, adopted a found
policy : flie fent over for fome experienced Germans, and
granted letters patent to them and their heirs for ever, to
fearch for and conduft the bufinefs of mines, through feve-
ral fpecified Englifh counties, and the whole principality of
Wales. The patentees divided part of their tenure into
fharcs for fale ; and with the purchafers of fuel) fharcs, they
were incorporated by the flyle of the " governor, afTiftants,
and commonalty of the mines royal." But though the
foundation was thus laid for the prefent fuccefs in mining, yet
little of importance was effedled till the reign of Charles I.
According to the tcftimony of Schlutter, the lead
mines in Flintfhire were not worked before the year 1698,
when Dr. Wright and his affociated adventurers ellablifhed
a fmclting-houfe at Halkin. The fubfequent extenfion of
mining concerns was encouraged by the repeal of former
reflridlive ftatutes, and by the enaftment in the firlt year of
William and Mary, that perfons having mines Ihalt enjoy
the fame, although claimed as royal mines ; the king having
the right of pre-emption in the ore at certain regulated
prices.

Agr'icuUurc, BriJges, Roads, and Canals. Wales in a general
view may be confidered a century, at leafl, behind England
in its flate of agriculture. The mode of ploughing, the
courfe of crops, the deficiency of manure, the want of drain-
ing, and the rude implements of hufbandry, are ill calcu-
lated for making a progrefs in agricultural amelioration.
Many of the errors evidently arife from the ignorance, pre-
judice, indolence, and poverty of the tenants ; but other
caufes are attributable to the proprietors of ellatcs. One is,
not granting proper Icafes, the lands for the moil part being
let from year to year : a flill more injudicious ciiltom is the

letting farms by auftion. But though this is the general
ftate of agriculture, yet ftriking and honourable inilances
occur, in divers places, of more rational coiiduft. Many
gentlemen are fetting the example of the moft improved
pradlice ; and almoil in every county, affociations of intel-
ligent agriculturifts have been formed for the introduftion
and encouragement of a better fyftem of hufbandrv. From
the nature, as well as number of the rivers in Wales, the
creclion of bridges mufl have excited, at an early period>
the attention of the Welfh. Infurmountable barriers mu'l
have been oppofed to the traveller, without the aid of what
may be termed pendent bridges ; that is, fuch as are thrown
from crag to crag, at a prodigious height above the water.
Of this kind is the bridge, or rather two bridges, called
Pont-ar-Mynach, near Hafod, in Cardigan fhire, forming a
pafs over an awful yawning chafm, through which the river
rolls its waters to tl-.e Rheidiol. Another, called Pont-
aber-glas-Iyn, forms a communication over a narrow defile
in the mountainous ridge frparating the counties of Caer-
narvon and Merioneth. Numerous bridges, of a fingle arch,
are fcattered over the country ; of tliisclafs is the celebrated
Pont-y-Prydd, crofTuig the boifterous TafFe in Glamorgan-
fhire. Among thofe bridges compofed of more than one
arch, the triangular-arched bridge over the river Dee at
Llangollen, is curious for its mode of conftruflion, and great
antiquity: the bridge acrofs the Conwy, near Llanrwft, is
an elegant llrufture, and does honour to the flcill of its ar-
chiteft, Inigo Jones ; the bridge of five arches at Batigor-
ifcoed, in Flintfhire, is a fine fpecimen of architefture. The
town of Caermarthen is entered by a long ancient bridge ;
but the ftupendous aquedudl, by which the continuation of
the EUefmere canal is carried over the Dee, at Pont CyfTyllte,
between Llangollen and Cliirk, in Denbighfhire, is the chef
d'oeuvre of this fpecies of architecture ; and can only be
exceeded in grandeur or utility, by the projefted bridge over
the Menai ftraits, by which it is propofed to form a land
communication between the county of Caernarvon Jnd the
ifland of Anglefea. Wales, though long famed for its
bridges, was, till of late years, nearly a llranger to good
roads. Except the two groat mail-roads, forming the com-
munication with the north and fouth of Ireland, by the way of
Milford and Holyhead, vvlience the packets fail for that
country, fcarcely a road could be found, calcidated for the
paffing of carriages. But to this effenlial point for profit
and convenience, the land proprietors have recently direded
their attention with tlie moft beneficial efFefts ; and tli*.'
country may now be traverfed in alnioft every direflion.
Under the aufpices of that public-fpirited nobleman, the
late lord Penrhyn, a grand road has been cut through the
immenfe range of lofty mountains, denominated Sninvdonia,
by which an cxtenfive communication has been opened be-
tween the internal parts of North Wales and the coaft ; and
the great thoroughfare from Loiulon to Dublin by way of
Holyhead diniinifhed in Icnglli, compared with the former
one by way of Shrewfbury and Conway, twenty-five miles.
Numerous roads have been widened, fliortened, and olhcrwife
improved, by the addition of drains, arches, bridges, &c.
to the great accommodation of travellers, and gencr.il be-
nefit of the inhabitants. Already has the country begun to
experience the advantages bv new coinmunications having
been opened for the producctof the interior, in the redudlion
of the rate of carriage, aiul in the ealy accifs thus afforded
for the conveyance of ponderous articles to the fea-coall, or
to the inter-communications with the navigable rivers by
inland canals.

Improvement by internal uavigation was long ncglcAcd
in this country, though equally cap.iblc of fuch advantages

as

WALES.

as England. In North Wales, the firft projeft which en-
gaged the attention of the landed intereft, was the junftion
of the navigation on the rivers Severn and Dec, by opening
an aquatic communication through the counties of Denbigh '
and Flint, with various ramifications into the mining and
manufadluring diftriets in the adjacent covuities. This is
called the EUefmcre canal, connefted with which is the
Montgomery canal. Thofc in South Wales are the Kid-
welly, Cardiff and Merthyr Tydvil, Aberdare, Neath,
Brecknock, and Svvanfey canals. For a particular defcrip-
tion of each, Ice their refpeftive names under the article
Canal.

Mnnufaclurrs, till within thefe few years, were not very
extenfively diffnfed, nor could be confidered of much ac-
count in the general fcale of produtlive indullry. Wales,
however, has for centuries been celebrated for its flannels,
and may be confidered as Handing unrivalled in this ufeful
article. The woollen fubftances manufaftured are webs,
flannels, ftockings, wigs, gloves, and focks. Webs are dif-
tinguiflied by the trade into two forts ; the ftrong or high
country cloth, and the fmall or low country cloth. Strong
doth is made in Merioncthlhire, and principally in the vi-
cinity of Dolgelly and Machynlleth : at the latter place is
a nianufaftory upon a fmall fcale, a circumltance only
worthy of notice, as forming the commencement of a change
in preparing the wool, which will probably foon become
general. The ftandard width of this cloth is feven-eighths of
a yard ; the length of a piece, or what is emphatically ilyled
a web, is about 200 yards ; the quality is of various degrees.
Small cloth is the produce of Denbighfliire ; it is chiefly
manufafturcd within the parifh of the Glynn, a large traft
of country including Llangollen and Corwen. This article
is about one-eighth of a yard narrower than llrong cloth ;
the length is the fame. Flaimel conftitutes the mofl: im-
portant of the Wehli manufaftures : it is chiefly the pro-
duce of Montgomery fliire ; but by no means confined to
that county, being made in vario\is places within a circle of
about twenty miles round Welflipool. A manufaftory of
note has been ellabhflred a confiderable time at Dolobran ;
and two on a large fcale have been recently erefted near
Llanydloes, where the various machines, ufed in the woollen
trade by the Englifh, are applied to the purpofes of manual
labour. The principal markets for webs and flannels are
Welfhpool and Shrewfbury ; the quantity made is not
eafdy afcertained. Mr. Pennant, in his Snowdonia, pub-
liflied in 1781, mentions, th.at there were brought " annually
to Salop 700,000 yards of webs ; and to Welfhpool an-
nually between 7 and 8oo,oco yards of flannel." Stock-
ings, wigs, locks, gloves, and other fmall knit articles, are fold
chiefly at Bala, Merionethfliire, being made in that town
and neighbourhood. Stockings, to the amount of from two
to five hundred pounds worth, are fold each weekly market-
day. Very confiderable manufactories of cottons and cot-
ton twiil have been eflablifhed in the counties of Flint and
Denbigh, the principal of which are Northop, Greenfield,
Sceiving, Newmarket, and Denbigh. In fome of thefe
faftories cotton yarn is fpun of fo fine a texture, that 130
hanks, each being S30 yards in length, make but a pound
weight. Numerous manufaftures of copper, iron, lead, tin-
plates, &c. have alfo been recently fet up in various towns
both in North and South Wales. Commerce may juilly be
confidered at prefent in its infancy, being chiefly confined to
the coafting trade. Except Caernarvon and Swanfea,
which have lately extended their views to Spain, Portugal,
and the Weft Indies, few of the Welfh ports poffefs veflels
of very confiderable tonnage ; though no part of the ifland
contains a greater proportion of harbours and roads, fome

7t

of which are fafe and good, and more might foon be made
fo, by the building of piers and other improvements, which
are obvious at tlie refpeftive places.

Peculiar CuJIoms, SuperJVihons, i^c. — Among' a variety of
Welfh cufloms, thofe in courtfhip, marriage, and at fune-
rals, excite particular attention. Hymeneal negociations
are frequently carried on by the Welfli peafantry in bed :
the young fwain goes fometimcs feveral miles to vifit the
objeft of his choice at her refidence ; the lovers retire to a.
bed-chamber, and between the blankets converfe on thofe
fubjefts which the occafion fuggefts. This ufage is con-
fined to the labouring claffes of the community ; and is
fcarcely ever produftive of thofe improprieties which might
naturally be expefted. Previous to the celebration of a
wedding, a friend undertakes the office of a bidder ; who
goes round the neighbourhood to invite all perfons of nearly
the fame fltuation of life as the contrafting parties : in con-
fequence, the friends and neighbours for a great extent
make a point of attending the wedding, laden with prefents
of money, butter, cheefe, and other provifions ; thefe are
carefully recorded by the clerk of the wedding, oppofite to
each refpeftive name, and are to be repaid in the fame pub-
lic maimer, on fimilar occafions, whenever demanded. This
cuilom is called pivrs a gwregys ; and making the pre-
fents is termed paying pwyddion. As an ancient ufage, it
is confidered as recoverable by law ; but a fenfe of the re-
ciprocal duty generally prevents litig.ation. Funerals in
Wales are attended by greater crowds of people than even
their weddings. When the proceflion fets out, every perfon
kneels, and the minifter repeats the Lord's prayer. At
every crofs-way, the fame ceremony is repeated, till they ar-
rive at the church ; the intervals of time being filled up by
finging pfnlms and hymns. A remarkable cuftom prevails,
in fome parts of Wales, of planting the graves of departed
friends with various evergreens and flowers. Box-thrift, and
other plants fit for edging, are planted round in the fhape
of the grave for a border, and the flowers are placed within,
fo that the talle of the living may be known by the manner
of embellifliing thefe manfions of the dead. The fnow-drop,
violet, and primrofe, denote the infant dull ; the rocket,
rofe, and woodbine, fhew maturer years ; while tanfey, rue,
and ftar-wort, mark declining life. Each has its little ever-
green, fond emblem of that perennial ilate where change is
known no more. It has been obferved, that mountainous
fcenery is peculiarly friendly to thofe aerial and imaginary
exiflences which conftitute the objefts of fuperflition. This
is exemplified in Wales. The belief of witchcraft is ftill
ftrong, and many are the fatal efFefts fuppofed to be pro-
duced by fupernatural agents : at every houfe may be feen a
horfe-flioe, a crofs, or fome charm of defence. Many old
women, on account of their age, and perhaps deformity,
bear the odium of preventing ttie cows from yielding milk,
and of inflifting diforders on men and cattle. The fup-
pofed witches find it their intereft to deny nothing that is
alleged to them ; and thus become held in fuperftitious fear
by the people, and obtain .a hvelihood from their imagined
extent of power. The belief of thofe elvine beings called
fairies appears to have been ancient and general, and is not
yet wholly eradicated. In fome degree conr.efted with
fairies, is another fpecies of fuppofed aerial beings, called
knockers : thefe, the Welili miners fay, are not to be feen,
but are heard under ground, in or near mines, and by their
noifes, which reprefent the dilferent flages in the progrefs ot
mining, generally point out to the workmen a rich vein of
ore. An opinion is prevalent witliin the diocefe of St.
David's, that previous to the death of a perfon, a light is
fometimes feen to proceed from the houfe, and purfue its

way

W A L

W A L

way to the clnircli, precifely in tlio track that the- funeral
will afterwards follow. This is traditionally attributed to
the fpecial prayer of St. David, that no one in his diocefe
fhould die without this intimation of departure, which is
called CanzL'yll corph, or the corpfe candle.

Language, is'c: — The Welfh language has an undeniable
claim to very high antiquity, as a dialeft of the Hebrew,
fpoken by the defcendants of Japhet : in its formation, as
well as grammatical conflruCtion, it has a near rcfemblance
to the original tongue ; and is, perhaps, without exception,
the moft primitive and uncorrupt living language in the
weftern world. It abounds with original words, more
efpecially technical terms, which other languages borrow
from the Greek, or exprefs by circumlocution, and is faid
to be peculiarly fitted for poetry. The orthoepy of the
Welfh is very diflterent from that of the Englidi. In the
language of Cambria arc forty-three letters; fixteen of
which are radicals, expreflive of the primary foundb ; and
the reft may be confidercd as ferviles, becaufe ufed as in-
flexions or mutations of the former ; for each of thefe there
is an appropriate charafter. But the language is gradually
getting into difufe, efpecially in the fouthern part of the prin-
cipality. The gentry of the country are principally edu-
cated in England, and confequcntly few of them fpeak it,
and many with for its extermination. The example of the
higher clafles extends, and ere long the language and man-
ners of Cambria may coalefce with thofe of the inhabitants
to the eaft of the Severn. See grammar attached to Owen's
Dictionary of the Welfh Language, which contains an
ample critical dilfertatiou, &c. 2 vols. 4to. 1803.

Poetry was in high ellimation among the ancient Britons :
Wales, as their place of refuge, was early the feat of the
poetic mufe, and modern eifulions of original genius evince
that Ihe has not defcrted her favourite mountains. In no
nation, except the Hebrew, was genealogy confidered of fo
much importance, or carried to an equal extent, as in
Wales. Family dillinftion is purfued fo far, that perhaps it
induces the Cambrian to think more highly of himfelf
than is rational. Pride of anceflry was a delicate and ef-
fential point among th.e ancient Britons, and confequcntly
they were more defirous of noble than of rich connections.
So deeply was this principle rooted, that even the loweft
claffes of the people carefully prtferved the defcents of their
families, and were in general able from memory not only to
recite the names of their proximate progenitors, but to trace
their various relations back through numerous generations.
Whoever reads the hillory of tiie moll ancient inhabitants
of this ifland, the Cambro Britons, will find innumerable
inftances of the reverence which they paid to their poct-
muficians, the bards, both of Pagan and ChrilUan times ;
and fongs of very high antiquity have been preferved in the
Welfli language, though not all the tunes to which they
were fung. The harp, with which thefe fongs ufed to be
accompanied, was in fuch general favour in Wales, as to be
regarded among the pofrelfions neceffary to conllitute a
gentleman. ( Leges Wallica:. ) The moll ancient Welfh
poetry that is now intelligible was written about the year
1 1 00, and fome of the tunes that arc preferved in the late
Mr. Morris's MS., which were tranfcribed from the mufic-
book of William Penllin, the harper in queen Elizabeth's
time, are fuppofed by Dr. Davies (In Prxf. ad Gram.
Brit.) to be coeval with the verfes to which they were
fung, when he compofed his gramm.ir and catalogue of
ancient Cambro. BriliHi fongs. Unluckily the notation, or
tablature, in whicii tliele tunes have Ijcen written, is fo un-
common and difficult to reduce to modern charaders, that

though the gravity or acutcnefs of the fevcral notes can he
afcertaincd, yet their lengths, or duration, cannot be efta-
bliflied with any degree of certainty, by any rule which we
have been yet able to dtvife.

The nortliern annals abound with pompous accounts of
the honours conferred on muTic by princes who were them-
felves piroficients in the art, and the Cambro-Britifli inftitutes,
with laws and privileges in favour of its profLflbrs. As
the firft mufician, or bard, was the eighth officer in dignity,
at the court of the Wellh king?, and had a place in the
royal hall next to the fteward of the houfliold, fo the re-
fpeCt and dignity with which bards in general were treated
about this time, in all the courts of Europe, were equal to
thofe which Homer tells us their predccefTors Demodocus
and Phemius enjoyed in Greece. Mufic was now a regal
accomplifhment, as we find by all the ancient metrical ro-
mances and heroic narrations in the new-formed languages
of the tmies ; and to Cng to the harp was neceffary to a
perfcc! pnnce and complete hero.

The firft Greek muficians were gods ; the fecond heroes ;
the third bards; the fourth beggars! During the early
times of mufic, iu every country, the wonder and affedlions
of the people have been gained by Jurpii^i: ; but when
muficians became numerous, and the art was regarded of
eafier acquirement, they loft their favour, and from being
feated at the tables of kings, and helped to the firft cut,
they were reduced to the moft abjett ftate, and ranked
among rogues and vagabonds.

For more particular accounts of different parts of Wales,
the reader is referred to the names of the twelve counties :

w's. AnGI.ESEA, BuECKSOCKSlIIKi;, CAEnXAIlVONSHIHE,
CAEHMAKTllEXSIliKi;, CARniGANSlUKE, DeMUOIISHIKE,
FlINTSIIIUE, GlAMOKGANSIIIRE, MERlONErHSHIUE,

MoNTooMERysiiiuE, PEMBROKEsiiinE, and Radnorsiiike.
— Hoare's Giraldus Cambrenfis, 2 vols. 4to. 1806. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. xvii., North Wales, by Rev. J.
Evans, I«i2. Ditto, vol. xviii., by Rev. T. Recs, 1815.
Warrington's Hillory of Wales, 2 vols. 8vo. 1 788. Malkin's
Scenery and Antiquities of South Wales, 2 vols. 8vo. 1807.
Aikin's Journal of a Tour through North Wales, 1 2mo.

1797. Evans's Tour thi

North Wales, 8vo. 1802.

Ditto through South Wales, 8vo. 1804.

Wales, a town of America, in the diftricl of Maine, and
county of Lincoln, containing 471 inhabitants; 53' miles
N.E. of Portland.

Wales, New, a name given to a part of Nortli America,
fituated to the fouth-eall and fouth-weft of Hudfon's bay,
and divided into north and fouth : the former name is loft
in the more general term of Labrador. New South Wales
is fituated to the north-well of Canada, and extends along
the fouth borders of Hudfon's bay 450 miles, from N. lat.
54° to 58^ W. long. 85° to 95°.

Wales, New South, a name given to the eaftern part of
New Holland; which fee.

\Vali:s, in a Ship, an alfemblage of ftroiig planks ex-
tending along a Ihip's fide, throughout her whole length,
at different heights, and fcrving to reinforce the decks, and
form the curves by which the veffel appears light and grace-
ful on the water. As tlie wales are framed of planks
broader and thicki r tlian the reft, they refemble ranges of
hoops encircling the fides and bows. They are ufually dif-
tinguiflicd into the main-wale, and the channel-wale. The
fituation •f the wales, being afeertained by no invariable
rule, is generally fnbmilled to the fancy and judgment of
the builder. The politiDii of tlie gun-ports and fcupptrs
ought, however, to be particul.irly confidercd on this occa-

fion,

W A L

W A L

fion, that the wales may not be wounded by too many
breaches. Falconer.

Thofe flrakes of thick ftufF that are wrought on the
outfide of the (hip upon the main-breadth, or broadell part
of the body, are called the mam-nvafes. Thofe that are
wrought between the ports, which are the chantiel-nvales in
two-deck fhips, and the channel-wa'.es and middle orjheer-ivahs
in three-deck (hips. See Sinv- Building.

WALET, in Geography, a city of Africa, and capital
of Beeroo, or Biroo ; 250 miles W. of Tombuftou. N.
lat. 15° 45'. W. long. 2° 45'.

WALGOM, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 10 miles
N.W. of Candi.

WALGRUND, an ifland in the gulf of Bothnia, and
one of the cluflcr called the Quarken Idands, about ten
miles long, but of unequal breadth, in fome places three
miles, in others not half a mile. The figure is very irregular.
N. lat. 63° 13'. E. long. 20° 58'.

WALHAUSEN, a town of Saxony, in Thuringia ;
formerly an imperial palatine town ; 3 miles W.S.W. of
Sangerhaufen. — Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Lucerne ; 10 miles W. of Lucerne.

WALHEIM, a town of France, in the department of
the Sambre and Meufe ; 4 miles N. of Gemblours.

WALHOF, a town of the duchy of Courland ; 34
miles E. of Mittaw.

WALHORN, a town of France, in the department of
the Ourthe ; 9 miles S. of Aix-la-Chapelle.

WALI, or Walla, the title of an officer of the police
in various parts of the Ottoman empire ; who is the deputy
of the pacha, and patroles night and day, keeping a watch-
ful eye on the feditious, apprehending robbers, and, like
the pacha, judging and condemning without appeal.
This officer has a multitude of fpies, moll of whom are
thieves, and by their means knows every thing that pafles.
It is not, therefore, aftonifhing, fays Vohiey, that cities
like Cairo, Aleppo, and Damafcus, fhould be faier
than Genoa, Rome, or Naples ; but how dearly is this
fafety purchafed ! and how many innocent lives are facri-
ficed to the partiality and injuftice of the wah and his
agents ! The wali likewife prefides over the police of the
markets, infpefting the weights and meafures, and punifhing
delinquents with extreme feverity. For the fmallefl defi-
ciency in the weight of bread, meat, dates, or confedlionary,
he inflifts 500 Itrokes of the baftinado, and fometimes even
death. However, the office of wali does not comprehend
various objefts of utility that ought to be under the regu-
lation of the police, fuch as the cleanhnefs of the ftreets,
and the falubrity of the cities. They are never paved,
fwept, or watered, neither in Syria, nor in Egypt.

WALILABO, in Geography, a river of the ifland of
St. Vincent, which runs into the fea, one mile north from
Prince's bay.

WALINCOURT, a town of France, in the department
of the north ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Cambray.

WALINGHURU, in Botany, a name by which fome
authors have called the plant, of which the medicinal zerum-
beth is the root.

WALK, in Gardening, a dry firm track in the garden
or pleafure-ground, which is formed of different forts of
materials, as gravel, fand, &c. ; but where thefe cannot be
procured, it is fometimes l.iid with powdered coal, fea-coal
aflies, and powdered brick : thefe are, however, rarely ufed,
when either gravel or fand can be procured. Where fea-
coal afhes can be had they are preferable to powdered coal
or bricks, as they bind very hard, and never ftick to the

8t

feet in frofty weather. And for wildernefs-walks they are
better than moil other fubftances. There are likewife
walks fometimes formed of turf, or what are called
grafs- walks.

In forming the firft fort of walks, when they have been
marked out, the earth Ihould be taken away to a certain
depth, that the bottoms may be filled with lime-rubbifh,
coarfe gravel, flint-ftones, or other rocky materials, to pre-
vent weeds from growing through the gravel, as well as to
keep away worm-cafts. It fhould be laid ten inches or a
foot thick, over which the coat of gravel Ihould be fix or
eight inches, which fliould be very fine, but not fcreened,
the large ftones only being taken out. When the gravel
has been laid to this thicknefs, they muft be exafUy levelled,
and raked true from all great drips, as well as little
holes : by this means, moft of the ftones will be raked
under the feet, which may either be evenly fprinkled back
over the laft length that is raked, or buried in the bottom.
Walks are frequently laid too round, fo as fcarcely to be
walked upon with pleafure, and fo as to lefTen the effeft of
their breadths. The ufual allowance for a gravel-walk of
five feet breadth, is about an inch rife in the crown : confe-
quently, if twenty feet wide, it will be four inches higher
i!i the middle than on each fide ; and for twenty-five feet,
five icches ; for thirty feet, fix inches ; and fo on in the
fame proportion. When the walk has been carefully laid,
trodden down, and raked, either in lengths, or the whole
together, it fliould be rolled well, both in length and crofs-
ways ; the perfon who rolls wearing (hoes with flat heels,
that he may not make holes ; as, when thefe are once made
in a new walk, they are not eafy to roll out again. In
order to lay them firm, it will be neceffary to give them
three or four rollings, after good waterings or heavy rains,
as this will caufe the gravel to bind, fo that when they be-
come dry they will be as hard as terrace. Iron-mould
gravel is faid to be the beft for binding, or fuch as has a
little binding loam amongft it ; which latter, though it be
apt to ftick to the heels of (hoes in wet weather, binds better
than any thing elfe in dry weather ; and when the gravel is
over-fandy or Iharp, clay is frequently mixed with it, which,
when caft together in heaps and well mixed, binds like a
rock : loofe gravel is very uncomfortable and uneafy to
walk on.

Walks of this fort are not only neceffary near the houfe,
but one fliould always be carried quite round the garden,
as being (oon dry after rain, and proper for walking on in
all feafons and times.

Thofe about the houfe fliould be larger than the others,
and laid out according to the particular nature and fituation
of the grounds in which they are to be formed.

And the walks laid with fand or other materials, in the other
different parts of gardens or pleafure-grounds, fhould be
formed in the fame manner, having regard to the nature of the
foil, fo as to render them as dry as poflible at all feafons. The
breadth in thefe walks fhould be in fome meafure according
to the nature of the ground. Where this is fmall, five or
fix feet may be fufficient ; but in large grounds much
wider, as ten or twelve. In modern grounds of this fort,
they are moftly laid out in winding or ferpentine direftions,
according to the nature of the fcites, fo as to have them
concealed, and rendered as private as poflible, by the trees
and plants on their fides ; the turns being contrived in as
eafy and natural a way as can be effefted. See Garden,
Gravel, &c.

In forming grafs-walks, diS'erent methods are had recourfe
to ; but previous to any of which, it is conilantly neceffary

to

WALK.

to liave the ground properly prepared by fuitable levelling,
treading, and raking, as well as other means, in the view
of making the furfaces perfeftly firm and even for the pur-
pofe. In making walks of fmall and moderate extents, the
common praftice is then to have them laid with turf cut
from fome neighbouring wafte-ground, or other place, beat-
ing it well down at the time, fo as to form a clofe, fmooth,
even furface. But where the extents of them are very con-
fiderable, it is moftly found more convenient and proper to
have the fward formed by the fowing of them with proper
grafs-feeds at fuitable feafons, in doing which, they fliould
be fown in rather a thick and regular manner, and the feed
be raked into the earth in an even way, the furfaces being
afterwards, when quite dry, rolled regularly with a mode-
rately heavy roller, in order to render their upper parts
level, and to clofe the earth or mould well over the feeds.
See Turfing.

The walks of pleafure-grounds and gardens have a rela-
tion to utility as well as ornament. In the former, they
are for the mod part more fpacious and extenfive than the
neceffary ones in thofe of the common latter kinds, being
ufually made in conformity with the other decorative com-
partments, fo as to form and conftitute variety in the com-
pofition of the general plan and defign, and for conne<Eling
with them, and the pleafure of walking through them, to
enjoy the view and beauty of their differently varied arrange-
ments, and the diverfified growths of their refpeftive plants,
trees, fhrubs, flowers, and fruits, as well as any thing elfe
that may be curious.

In the latter, or gardens, they are neceffary as forming
the communication between the different parts, and for
dividing the ground into fuitable portions, as may be need-
ful in any fort of culture, as well as for the purpofe of oc-
cafional walking on for pleafure, and by way of ornament.

In general, all thofe walks of the garden, whether of the
kitchen or other kinds, may be faid to be ufeful, which are
required for the feparation of the ground into quarters,
beds, and borders, as well as other llmilar parts ; and
which ferve to conneA and lead to the different parts, or
from one to another crofs-wife ; and which extend round
them at the diflancc of a proper border from the boundary
fence. And where kitchen-gardens and pleafure-grounds
are connefted, the principal walks fhould be of a more
capacious nature, having handfomc borders on the fides,
fuch borders being dellincd for fmall efculent plants, as well
as thofe of the flower and ornamental kind.

Walks which are very much wheeled and wrought jUpon
in kitchen-gardens fhould always be made of fuch firm folid
materials as the above ; but where they cannot be had,
good road-fluff, that is, the fcrapings of them, may be
employed. Grafs-walks are never to be had recourfe to
in thefe cafes.

The walks in the principal divifions, or more confpicuous
parts of pleafure-grounds, fhould in general be of larger
dimenfions, and more elegantly formed, than thofe of the
orditiary kitchen-garden, thofe near the refidence being often
of very confiderable widtli, as already noticed. They fliould
moftly be laid with fome of the above forts of hard mate-
rials, though, in fome cafes, large turf-walks are in ufe in
particular parts.

The walks in pleafure-grounds are ufually varied as
much as pofTible, running in winding irregular direftions, and
occafional varying flraight lines, as may be niofl fuitable to
the nature, plan, and quality of the grounds ; and the fame
18 the cafe in large gardens ; but in thofe of the fmaller fort,
they are commonly made in fomewhat ftraight and crofs
4ireftion3. In moft large pleafure-grounds a large walk it

Vol. XXXVII.

run fomewhat parallel to the main refidence, extending to the
interior of them and the gardens and other parts, having
other walks connefting with it, with fhrubberies, clumps,
and flower-borders ; but in fome others, the chief walks go
off to the right and left towards the fides, leaving the
middle parts in lawns with fhrubberies, flower-borders, and
plantations of other kinds, or lead to fome fide plantation
of a fhady nature, as private walks, or are carried forward
in an eafy, winding, natural manner through the whole
extent of the grounds and plantations in different turnings
to other more extenfive grounds of the nature of parks, &c.
at a greater diftance ; there being other fimilar fmaller
walks within the confines of the pleafure-grounds, branching
off and diverging in a varied irregular manner to other in-
ternal parts of the fhady kind, as thofe of groves, thickets,
and fhrubberies, as well as to thofe of the more open and
airy fort, as large grafs divifions, detached planted clumps,
and other kinds, in various bendings for the purpofe of ex-
hibiting various views of the different fhrubby compartments,
trees, plantations, flower-borders, grafs lawns, plots of
water, and other curious and interefling rural ornaments.
However, on the whole, the beft and moft modern modes
of laying out the walks of pleafure-grounds and gardens,
are thofe which moft perfectly accord with the nature and
fituations of them, and which are the moft remote from any
fort of regularity and formality in their defigns.

In ornamented grounds, Mr. London thinks, that walks
have partly one of the effefts of buildings, which is that
of giving force and fpirit to the fcenes of verdure and cul-
tivation. Their direftions, it is fuppofed, fliould be dic-
tated by their propriety and convenience, and their width
by the utility of them. In rcfpeft to their ornamental
effefts, they chiefly depend upon their margins, their fur-
faces, and the colour of the materials from which they are
formed. In avowedly artificial fituations, the firft fhould
be parallel to each other, and properly limited ; but where
the contrary is the cafe, they fliould be irregular in their
direftions as well as compofitions, as in natural pleafure-
grounds, pafture-ficlds, paiks, forefts, dingles, 3cc. In
loofe fcattered bufliy lawns with trees, the fwecps and turns
of the walks fliould, in a comparative degree, be abrupt, the
breadths being varied to a great extent, groups of fhrubs,
or fingle trees, frequently dividing them, and reducing their
widths to narrow courfee which are nearly in the fame direc-
tion, by which they fliortly unite again in the fame track,
and affume their former breadths. Woody banks and
commons, it is faid, abound with walks of this nature. In
thickets and woods, whether of natural trees and under-
growths, or of exotics, as in complete fhrubberies, the
edges of the walks or paths fhould be wholly annihilated
on both fides, and be bounded only by the irregularity of
the lowcft growths. Many places, as thofe of Foxly and
Dunglafs, afford beauties in full illuftration, it is fuppofed,
of the propriety of thefe principles.

In fliort, the formal, ftiff, liarfh edges of made walks, it is
thought, conftitute one of the moll ftriking deformities in
rural works of this kind.

Ill cafes where grafs-walks arc intended, they fliould com-
monly be of fome extent in refpcft to width, as narrow
trifling flips have a bad efltft, as already feen. In lar^e
pleafure-grounds they fliould be fufliciently fpacious to fuit
their different extents ; and in thofe of the fmaller kinds,
as well as in gardens, they fhould feldoni have lefs breadths
than eight, ten, or twelve feet. Their fituations and direc-
tions may be various, according to the nature and pofilions
of the grounds ; as fome near the refidence for ornament
and fummer-walking upon in dry feafons ; others more
4 O difVsnt,

W A L

W A L

dillant, in tlie internal parts, chiefly for variety. They may
be laid out in various irregular direftions, fo as to fuit the
tafte and the nature of the grounds, having broad, irregular
borders of flovrers, floping winding fhrubberies, and trees
or plantations on their fides, and in other parts.

In regard to the general care and management of walks,
thofe of the gravel, fand, or other hard kinds of materials,
(hould be conilantly kept in neat and clean order by occa-
fional weeding, fweeping, and cleaning them, and by fre-
quently roUing them well with an iron or ftone-roUer, as
once or twice a week during the fummer months, as their
furfaces may appear in a loolc ard difordered ftate, taking
the opportunity of doing it, r.s often as poflible, after
ftiowers of rain. This renders them firm and folid, fettling
any inequalities that may be prefent, and brings them into
a fmooth even ftate of furface. They fhould alfo be occa-
fionally rolled in dry open weather, during the winter and
fpring months, to keep them in a level regular ftate.

When the furfaces of them become foul, moffy, or full of
weeds, the gravel or other materials (hould be turned, which
is beft done in the early fpring, by means of digging them
up to a (light depth, and placing the former furface part
downwards, by which the frefh bottom gravel will become
the top, and then treading, raking, and rolling the whole
well down again, by which means a new clean furface for
the enfuing fpring and fummer feafons is obtained wathout
any great trouble or expence.

The different grafs-walks (hould have the fward con-
ftantly kept clofe and clean by frequent mowing, fweeping,
and rolling, during the fpring and fummer months ; and in
the winter time by occalional poling and rolling when the
weather is open and dry, the former fcattering the worm-
caft earth about, wliile the latter, which is commonly of the
wooden kind, cleans up the difperfed earth by its adliering
to it, and thereby not only renders the furface free from dirt,
but the whole furface clofe, firm, and even, whereby it be-
comes capable of being mown with eafe and facility.

The walks of pleafure-grounds, gardens, and other fuch
places, Ihould never be fiiffered to have leaves, weeds, or
any fort of rubbi(h, remaining upon them for any length of
time, as they foon become injured and fpoiled by them.

Where feats are had recourfe to in the walks of fuch
grounds, they fhould be introduced and managed with con-
fiderable judgment, tafte, and nicety, fo as to fuit the
nature of them and the grounds, and be at the fame time as
ornamental as pofhble.

Walk, in the Manege, is the (loweft and leaft raifed of
all a horfe's goings. The duke of Newcaftle fays, that this
motion is performed with two legs, diametrically oppofite in
the air, and two upon the ground at the fame time, in form
of a St. Andrew's crofs ; but this, in reaiity, is the motion
of a trot ; and accordingly all the latter writers agree, that
this author is miftaken, and that the walk is performed, as
any one may obferve, by the horfe's lifting up its two legs
on a fide, the one after the other, beginning with the hind
leg firft. Thus, if he leads with the legs of the right fide,
then the firft foot he lifts is the far hind-foot, and m the time
he is fetting it down (which in a flep is always fhort of the
tread of his fore-foot on the fame fide ) he hfts his far fore-
foot, and fets it down before his near fore-foot. Again,
juft as he is fetting down his far fore-foot, he lifts up his
near hind-foot, and fets it down again juft fhort of his
near fore-foot, and juft as he is fetting it down, he lifts
his near fore-foot, and fets it down beyond his far fore-
foot.

This is the true motion of a horfe's legs in a walk ; and
this is the pace in which many things are beft taught. For

inftance, when the horfe is to be taught to turn to the right
and left, or from one hand to another, he is firft to be
tav'.ght it on the walk, then on the trot, and finally on tl»e
gallop.

The walk is a pace to which team, carriage, and road
horfes, fhould conftantly be well broke, as being of great ufc
in all fuch cafes and intentions. It is an excellent pace, too,
in a faddle-horfe, when well performed by being properly
taught.

Wat-K, Ring, among Hunters. See RlNG-^fl/i.

Walk, Terrace. See Terrace.

Walks, Sheep, in jigrkulture, the high dry lands where
(heep pafture in fome diftrifts. Thefe walks and paftures may,
it is fuppofed, be rendered more found and healthy, in fome
cafes, by fowing parts of them with artificial grafs feeds,
fuch as thofe of rye-grafs, rib-grafs, white clover, or tre-
foil, and others of the fame kind, in mixture with thofe of
the natural grafs fort, and keeping them clofely fed down ii'.
a proper manner. In different inftances, a number of va-
luable plants of this nature are found to rife fpontaneoufiy
on the foundeft fheep-walks, and moft of tliem, when de-
(irable, are capable of being raifed and produced by feed as
above. Such plants are faid to proteft fheep well againfl
the rot or poke, and fome other difeafcs, in fuch walks and
paftures. See Rot and Sheep.

Walk-MUI, in Rural Economy, a name fometimes ap-
plied to the fulling-mill.

WALK.£PETHIGA, in Botany, a name by wliich
fome authors have called the tree, on which the gum lacca
of the (hops is ufually found.

WALKENRIED, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the lordfhip of Klettenberg, with an abbey, founded in
the year 1127, by Adelheida, confort to Volkmar, count
of Klettenberg, and countefs of Lohra. Tiie doftrine of
Luther was introduced in the year 1546; at the peace of
Weftphaha, the abbey was afllgned to the duke of Brunf-
wick ; 8 miles N.W. of Nordhaufen.

WALKENSEE, a' town of Bavaria, fituated by the
fide of a lake of the fame name ; 18 miles S.S.E. of Weil-
haim.

WALKER, Robert, in B'ngraphy, one of the earlieft
of our portrait painters : he was contemporary with Van-
dyck, and improved himfelf by ftudying the works of that
eminent artift. He did not attraft much pubhc notice till
the time of the Commonwealth, when Cromwell made him
his portrait painter, and he drew that extraordinary per-
fonage feveral times. One pifture of him by Walker is at
Horfeth, the feat of lord Mountford in Cambridgefllire :
it was given to his lordfhip by Mr. CommiiTary Greaves,
who found it at an inn in that county. Another is at Ca-
fhiobury, the earl of EfTex's. Another pifture of him,
with general Lambert, was in lord Bradford's colleftion.
A fourth was purchafed at the coft of 500/. for the grand
duke of Tufcany. Walker had for fome time an apart-
ment in Arundel Houfe, and died a little before the Reflo-
ration. His own pifture which is a very fair fpecimen of
his povcer is in the gallery at Oxford.

Walker, George, F.R.S., a difTenting divine, and
eminent mathematician, was born at Newcaftle -upon-
Tyne, about the year 1734, and completed his education
at the univerfity of Edinburgh, under the celebrated
mathematician Dr. Matt. Stewart, and at Glafgow, where
he ftudied theology and ethics. In 1756 he fettled at
Durham as a diffenting minifter, and thence removed to
Yarmouth, where he remained for fome years, and was
highly efteemed. During liis refidence at Yarmouth he
1 1 married ;

W A L

married; and foon after, in 1772, he undertook the office
of mathematical tutor at the academy in Warrington. In
this place he publiflicd, in 1775, his " Dodlrine of the
Sphere," a work liiglJy appreciated, not only as a complete
treatife on the fubjcft, but as a model of geometrical de-
monftraiion. In the fame year he removed to Nottingham,
and became one of the miiiifters of the high pavement
meeting-houfe. Ardently attached to the principles of
liberty, and feeling no diffidence or timidity in the de-
claration of his fcutiments, his talents and difpofition con-
curred to give him influence amongft thofe who aficmbled for
pohtical purpofes ; and his charafteriftic energy of fpirit
and ftyle is difcernible in the addreffes and petitions that
ifiued from the corporation of the town. Of one of thefe
produftions Mr. Burke declared, that he had rather have been
the author of it than of all his own compofitions. So much
was Mr. Walker eileemed for his talents and temper, that
thofe who deteftcd his political principles fought his com-
pany and converfation, and both honoured and loved him.
His hofpitality and beneficence far exceeded his ability.
After a refidence of twenty-four years at Nottingham, he
was induced by a variety of circumdances to undertake the
office of theological tutor and direftor of a diffenting aca-
demy at Mancheiler. For the office of fuperintendant of a
public ceremony he was not peculiarly qualified, either by
the liberal difpofition of his mind, or the habits of his hfe ;
and he foon found this fituation unplcafant to him, more
efpecially as he was now advancing in years, and relaxation
from conftant labour became elFential to his enjoyment. He
therefore quitted this conneftion, and retired to the vicinity
of Liverpool. Since he had left Warrington, he bad pub-
liflied feveral fingle fermons; two volumes of fermons, cha-
raAerized by original thought and fervid expreffion ; " An
Appeal to the People of England," upon the teft-laws,
much admired and commended by Mr. Fox ; and the firft
part of a " Trealifo on Conic Sedlions," referred to with
deferved commendation in our article Conic Sedions. In
1807 Mr. Walker vifited London, in order to publifli two
additional volumes of fermons, and two volumes of Philofo-
phical eflays ; but he was fei/.ed with a diforder, which ter-
minated his hfe at the age of feventy -three, and his remains
were interred in Bunhill-fields, on which occafion Dr. Rees
delivered, at the vault, an oration, which was ])rinted by
his friends, and which contained a brief Iketch of liis cha-
rafter. " To a Hock of claffical knowledge," fays one of
his biographers, " he added an intimate acquaintance with
hiftory, ancient and modern, a famiharity with the beft au-
thors of various claflfes, a natural and glowing eloquence,
and a heart, in which every kind and focial affeftion occu-
pied a place." Athenaeum.

Wai.kerV Cove, in Geography, a harbour on the weft coaft
of North America, in Behm's canal : fo called from Mr. Wal-
ker, furgeon of the Chatham. N. lat. 55' 42'. E. long.
229° 20'.

Wai.keu'j Key, one of the fmall Bahama iflands. N.
lat. 26" 50'. W. long. 78' 54'.

WALKERIA, in Botany, was fo called by Schreber,
in juft commemoration of the founder of the botanic gar-
den at Cambridge, the Rev. Richard Walker, D.D. vice
mafter of Trinity-college. To this foundation a lefture-
(hip is attached, and both together are in the gift of five
truftecs, unfhacklcd by any of thofe limitations which
nfually tend only to defeat the purpofe of fuch e(labli(h-
ments ; for Dr. Walker cxprefsly orders, by lus will, that
any pcrfon, even a foreigner, fliall be eligible to the ap-
pointment, and may, if he pleafes, read his Icftures in
Latin. The prefent worthy profeflbr of botany, the Rev.

W A L

Thomas Martyn, B.D. is the only perfon who has hitherto
held the Icfturefiiip in queftion, of which, as long as hi»
health would permit, he regularly performed the duties.
Another IFalLeria, in honour of the fame liberal patron of
botanic fcience, was named by Miller and Ebret ; but that
genus having accidentally had various previous appellations,
is now eflablifhcd by the Linnaean one of Nolana, which

the reader will find in its proper place Schreb. Gen. 150.

Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1 145. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. (Mee-
fia ; Gai'rtn. t. 70. Lamarck lUuflr. t. 143.) — Clafs and
order, Pentandria Monogyma. Nat. Ord. uncertain ; akin

to OCHNA.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
ovate, acute, concave, fpreading, permanent fegments. Cor.
Petals five, lanceolate, acute, Spreading, rather longer than
the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, afcending, half
the length of the petals ; anthers roundifh. P//?. Germen
fuperior, globular, five-cleft ; ftyle briftle-lhaped, ereft, as
tall as the ftamens ; ftigma fimple. Peric. Drupas five,
obovate-kidneyfhaped, of one cell. Seed. Nut folitarj',
kidney-fhaped, rather bony.

Efl". Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep permanent feg-
ments. Corolla of five petals. Drupas five. Nuts foli-
tary, kidney-fhaped.

1. W. /errata. Serrated Walkeria. Willd. n. i. (Mee-
fia ferrata ; Gtertn. v. i. 344. Tsjocatti ; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 5. 95. t. 48. ) — Native of various parts of the Mala-
bar coaft, flowering and bearing fruit at various feafons. We
have not heard of this plant in any garden, nor are its dried
fpecimens frequent in coUeftions. The Jlem is ftirubby,
about twelve feet high, with round, fmooth, leafy, alter-
nate tranches. Leaves evergreen, fmooth and ftiining, al-
ternate, on ftiort ftalks, elliptic-lanceolate, acute, more or
lefs evidently and acutely ferrated, four or five inches long,
furnifhed with a ftrong mid-rib, and many fine, tranfverlc,
reticulated veins. Stipulas none. Panicles terminal, with
racemofe, compound, angular, fmooth flower-ftalks. Floivert
yellowifti, about half an inch in diameter, without fccnt.
Fruit reddifti, (hining, acid and bitter, feated on the dark-
red enlarged calyx. Some of the drupas, in each flower,
are often abortive. The quahties of the various parts of this
fhrub fcem to be of an aftringent and tonic nature.

Gsertner gives, as a fynonym to his Meefta, IVa/itra, a
Ceylon name, found attached to the feeds m the colleftion
at Leyden, from which he made his figure and defcription.
Schreber, in adopting Gartner's genus, found it necef-
fary to change his name, Meesia being appropriated to a
genus of mofles, which however is now funk in Bryum ;
fee thofe articles. We prcfume he meant to rc-cllablini the
old name Walkeria, of which, therefore, we retain the pro-
per orthography. It is not to be fuppofed that, in this in-
llance alone, he would adopt an entirely barbarous appella-
tion ; but the coincidence i^ fingular. Even this appella-
tion indeed proves to be corrupt. We have fought it in
vain in Hermann's Mufeum Zeylanicum, but we find there
Malkira, p. 9, whence, no doubt, it originated ; for Lin-
nx'us has written Ochna againft this MnlLira in his own
copy of Hermann's work, tlie very copy iifcd by him in
writing his Flora Zeylanica ; and the defcription of the leaves
in p. 93, 94, of the latter book, flieus his Ochna, var. a,
to be our IValkeria ferrata, whatever doubt may attach to
Burmann's t. 56.

WALKERS, a fort of foreft-officers, appointed by the
king to walk about a certain fpace of ground, committed
to their care and infpcftion.

Walkers arc the fame with what we othcrwifc call fo-
refters.

4 O 2 WAL-

AV A L

VV A L

WALKERSPACH, in Geography, a river of Wur-
temberg, which runs into the Rems.

WALKERTON, a town of Virginia, on the Matta-
pony ; 30 miles N.E. of Richmond.

WALKING-FiKE. See Ignis Fatuus.

WALKOOG, in Geography, a town of Holland; 10
miles N. of Alcmaer.

WALKUFFA, in Botany, a tree which grows in the
Kolla, or hotteft part of Abyflinia. This does not flower
immediately after the rains, like the other Abyffinian trees,
that is, between the beginning of September and the Epi-
phany, but towards the middle of January it appears firft
covered with flowers. Although beautiful, it has no fmell,
and is found to be deftruftive to bees, fo that it is rooted
up in thofe countries that pay their revenue in honey. In
its appearance it refembles the Englifli Kentifh cherry-tree :
the wood immediately under the bark is white, but under
that a brownifli-yellow, fomewhat like cedar. Although
the- wood is heavy, it fwims in water, contrary to the opi-
nion of the natives. Mr. Bruce has given a botanical de-
fcription of this tree in the Appendix to his Travels.

WALL, in ArchitcSuTe, Sec. a work of ftone, brick, or
the like, making the principal part of a building ; as
ferving both to enclofe it, and to fupport the roof, floors,

ice.

Walls, though built very thick and ftrong, and their
foundations laid deep, yet, if carried on (Iraight in a line,
are apt to lean, or fall ; and fuch as are built crooked,
though tliin and weak, are much more lafting. A wall
raifed over a river, on arches of pillars, fl;ands as firm as
others, whofe foundation is entire.

Hence, it appears, that a wall built much thinner than
ufual, by only having at every twenty-feet diflance an angle
fet out about two feet, or more, in proportion to the height
of the wall ; or bv having, at the like diftance, a column,
or pilafter, erefted along with it, fix or eight inches on each
fide, over and above the thicknefs of the reft of the wall,
will be much ftronger than if five times the quantity of ma-
terialB were ufed in a ftraight wall.

Walls are diftinguiflied into divers kinds, from the matter
of which they confift ; zs pla/IereJ or miid-'walli, brick-iualls,
Jione-vjalls, jlinl, or boulder-ivalls, and boarder-iualh. In
all which thefe general rules are to be regarded :

1. That they be built exaftly perpendicular to the ground-
work.

2. That the maffieft and heavieft of materials be the
loweft ; as being fitter to bear, than be borne.

3. That the walls, as they rife, diminifli proportionally in
thicknefs, for eafe both of weight and expence.

4. That certain courfes, or ledges, of more ftrengththan
the reft, be interlaid, like bones, to ftrengthen the whole
fabric.

Mud and plaftered walls are chiefly ufed in ordinary
timber-buildings. Thefe walls, being quartered and lathed
between the timber, or fometimes lathed over all, are plaf-
tered over again with white mortar.

In the conftruAing of brick-walls, which are the moft
important and ufual of any kind, it is neceflary to take par-
ticular care in laying and managing the materials ; that in
fummer they be laid as wet, and in winter as dry as poITible,
in order that they may be made to bind the better with the
mortar ; that in fummer, too, they be covered over as faft as
they are laid, in the view of guarding and preventing the
mortar and other matters from drying too quickly. That
in winter alfo, they be covered well, to proteft them from
heavy rain, fnow, and froft, which are all enemies to, and
greatly dellruftive of mortar ; that they be laid joint on

joint, in the middle of the walls, as feldom as-may be ; lb
that good bond be made there as well as on the outfides.
Care is likewife to be taken that the angles be firmly bound,
as they may be confidered as the nerves and finews of ttie
whole fabric. In order to which, in working up fuch walls,
it is not advifable to raife any of them above eight feet in
height, before the the next adjoining ones be brought up to
them ; fo that a good bond may be made as the work pro-
ceeds. It may be noticed that a wall of this kind, a brick
and a half thick, with the joint, will be in breadth fourteen
inches, or very near it ; and in which one hundred and fifty,
or one hundred and fixty bricks will lay a yard fquare, mea-
fured on the face of the wall ; and that to the fquare of ten
feet, feventeen or eighteen hundred bricks are ufually
allowed.

In building a houfe in the city of London, the walls are
to be of fuch thicknefles as are enjoined by aft of parliament.
See Building, and PARTY-waZ/j-.

In the forming of ftone-walls, the fame fort of care and
attention is requifite in protefting and preferving them from
the injurious effefts of external caufes of the above kinds,
ai well as in that of building them in a folid and feoure
manner. The foundations are alfo to be well looked to.
The two fides or faces are to be evenly carried up, and the
fillings to be put well and fufficiently in the middle parts be-
tween them, proper long ftones being occafionally placed
acrofs, to bind the two faces fecurely together, and prevent
their feparating. Thefe attentions are equally neceflary in
the ftone-walls of buildings, as in thofe of the better fort of
ftone-walls for other ufes and purpofes.

In the raifing of double walls in this way, as defences in
fields and grounds, which is fometimes done, the faces may
be bound in, where proper ftones as throughs cannot be had,
by thin layers or ftrips of the ftones, laid in mortar, at about
every fourteen inches in height, as they rile, the mortar
being in fuch cafes kept foft, fo as that it may lay firm hold
of the ftones. And with the fimilar intention of keeping
them upright, and preventing their feparation, they may be
carried up with a confiderable inclination inward, towards
each other, tapering upward as they rife, in the proportion
of about one inch, on each fide, to every foot or foot and
a half of rife or height.

In raifing fingle field-walls, which is not uncommon in
fome high fituations, and where large ftones are met with in
plenty upon the furface of the land, two benefits are attain-
ed, in fome cafes, by running them up in as open a manner
as the nature of the materials will permit, fo as to form good
work. Such open-work walls are lefs liable to be thrown
down by the winds in fuch expofed fituations, than thofe of
the clofe kind ; which is an inconvenience to which fingle
walls are expofed in fuch cafes ; as by means of part of the
blall palling throilgh them, its force is confiderably dimi-
niflied. And the wild mountain-breeds of flieep are lefs apt
to fcale walls fo conftrufted, than they are thofe which are
formed in a clofer manner, and liave a more folid appear-
ance. This is particularly the cafe if they belaid with fmall
ftones loofely on the tops.

It is faid that ftone-walls of the field fort, which are apt
to ftiatter with froft s, if laid only a foot deep in the middle
with mortar, or even road-lf uff made into it, are held well
together, and become durable.

Flint, or boulder-walls, are faid to be much ufed, in fome
parts of the counties of Suflex and Kent, for fence-walls in
furrounding court-yards, gardens, and other fuch places.
In performing the work of building them, a right and left-
handed man fuits well, as they have the hod of mortar
poured down upon the work, which they part between
12 them,

WALL.

them, each fpreading it towards himfelf, and in this way
they lay in the flints ; the mortar in this cafe being made
Tery iliff. Stone and earth walls are only of a temporary,
and not by any means of a complete nature ; they may, how-
ever, in fome cafes, ferve to defend rabbit-warrens and other
fuch places, when (tones are not wholly to be had for the
purpofe, and they are formed and conftrufted in a proper
manner. They are, however, very apt to be thrown down
by large animals, and to be foon deftroyed, confequently to
be expenfive in the end.

Turf or fod walls are in pretty much the fame fitiiation
in regard to their ufo, and form but a very indifferent fort
of defence ; they are, however, found ufeful on fome oc-
cafions, where other kinds of materials cannot be met
with.

Boarded walls are only had recourfe to in particular cafes,
as from their perilhable nature they are conftantly required
to be kept coated over with fome fubftance as a proteftion
at a confiderable expencc. They are formed in feveral
different ways, according to the nature of the circumftancee,
and their intended ufes.

Walls of different kinds, and banks of earth, are fome-
times employed in defending plantations of young trees from
the injuries to which they are liable and expofed in many
cafes ; and in fome fituations they form cheap and eligible
modes of effefting the bufinefs.

In fpcaking of building field-walls, Mr. London has re-
marked, that when lime is employed in fuch walls, if, in
place of flacking it, and letting it lie to mellow or four for
fome weeks, no more were flaked ard made ready for ufe
than what was worked up in the fame day ; — if the fand
were clean and rough, and well incorporated with the lime,
and the coping put carefully on, fuch walls would lafl an
inconceivable length of time. Lime ulod in thii way, it is
faid, binds immediately ; and that the longer it ftands the
harder it becomes. The furfaces of fuch walls, too, would
acquire a coating of mofTes, which, it is thougtit, would add
greatly to their beauty, and at the fame time prevent ducay.
Our anceflors, it is faid, ufcd lime in this way ; and their
buildings, in walls of the field kind, as well as in houfcs,
though under every difadvantage, remain, it is obferved, as
monuments of their fnperior knowledge in this particular.
But the modern builders in general, it is thought, dcflroy
their mortar before they make ufe of it : it is faturatcd, it
is faid, willi fixed air, or, in common language, has lojl band
before it is put in tlie walls : licncc tlic weaknefs and
fpeedy decay of modern walls and buildings, efpiH'ially thofe
of the rubble work kind. A proper notion of llie im-
portance of this hint is, it is thought, too feldom formed.
But let it be afked, whether it be moil defirable to build
walls that will fland for centuries with little or no repair, or
to build them in the common way, when, if they (land half
a century, they are to be pointed or rough called every
eight or ten years ; while the different modes coll nearly the
fame in the original expence ?

The ufes of (lone-walls as field defences are limited to
particular didricts and fituations, and the nature of their
conflrudtion and magnitude muil refl materially upon the
kinds and fizes of the (lones which are employed, and the
purpofes for which they are defigned. In erecting fucli
walls, thofe of the particular vicinity fliould be attended to,
and the mod fuitable forms of them adopted, proper elli-
mates of their expence of building being lirll procured.
See Fence.

Waj.i., /Ingle nf a. See Angle.
Wall, Coping of a. Sec Coping.
Wall, prmih of a. See Plj>;tjj.

Wall, Scenography of a. See ScENOGKAPiiy.

Walls, Painting on. See Painting.

Walls, Finer. See Fence, and Land, Inchfwg of.

Walls, Party. See Party.

Wall, Pias. See Picts.

Walls, Roman, were barriers or defences conflrufted
by the Romans for fecuring the northern frontiers of their
Britifh territories. Where they could not avail themfelves
of feas, firths, rivers, woods, and mountains, for their protec-
tion, they had recourfe to a variety of artificial modes of
defence; guarding thofe parts of their frontiers that were
mofl accefTible by chains of forts, deep ditches, elevated
moulids and ramparts of earth, and even ilone-walls.
Agricola, having in the fecond year of his government,,
A.D. 79, conduftcd his army northwards, and reduced the
Brigantes, the Ottadini, the Gadeni, and perhaps the
Sclgovs, to obedience, obliged them to give hoflages, and
begirt them with garrifons and fortreffes to fecure his con-
quefl. The forts which he built are fuppofed to have been
on or near the trail where Adrian's rampart and Severus's
wall were afterwards erefted. In his third year he pro-
ceeded as far N. as the river Tay, and in the following
fummer employed his forces in conflrufting a chain of forts'
between the firths of Forth and Clyde. The fpot was
wifely chofen for this purpofe ; and this chain of forts, each
of which was garrifoncd and furnifhed with provifions for
a year, ferved to keep the adjacent country in obedience, and
reflrained the incurfions of the Caledonians, while Agricola
profecuted his operations in Britain. But by the negligence
of his fucceffors, thefe forts became an infufficient fecnrity
after his departure. Although little is known of the oc-
currences that filled up the interval between the departure
of Agricola, A.D, 8;, and the arrival of Adrian A.D.
1 20 ; yet we have fufficient reafon for believing, that the
Britifh nation, in the fouth of Scotland and in the north of
England, had in that interval thrown off the Roman yoke.
The emperor Adrian, more intent upon fecuring than en-
larging his empire, contradled its limits in Britain ; and for
its protedlion dug a deep ditch, and threw np a lofty and
fpacious rampart from fea to fca ; and this was the fecond
artificial barrier of the Roman territories \n Britain. This
rampart was condrufted of earth, and extended from the
Solway firth, a little W. of the village of Burgh on the
Sands, in as direift a line as polTible, to tiie river Tine on the
call, at the place where the town of NewcalUe now ftands ;
fo that it mull have been above fixty Englilh, and near
feventy Roman miles in length. This work confilled of the
principal Agger or Vallum (rampart) on the brink of the
ditch ; the ditch on the N. fide of the Vallnni ; another
agger or mound of earth on the S. fide of the principal
vallum or rampart, at about five paces dillant from it, which
may be called the foulh agger ; and a large agger or mound
on the N. fide of the ditch, denominated the north agger.
This lafl is fuppofed by Horfley to have been tlie military
way to the ancient line of forts, built by Agricola, and alfo
ferving as a military way to tliis work. The fouth agger is
fuppofed to have been made for an inner defence, in c.ife the
enemy might beat its defenders from any part of the prin-
cipal rampart, or to protetl the foldiers again 11 a fuJden
attack from the Provincial Britons. It is generally iome-
wliat fnialler than llie principal rampart, but in fome places
it is larger. Thefe four works preferve a conllant parallelifm
one to another. Tlie dillance of llie north agger or mound
from the brink of the ditch is about twenty feet. It is con-
jeftured that the principal rampart was at leall ten or twelve
feet high ; the fouth one not imieh lefs, but the north one
confidcrably lower. The ditch was near nine feet deep, and

clcvca

WALL.

eleven feet wide at tlie top, but fomewhat narrower at the
bottom. Such was the rampart or defence erefted by com-
mand of the emperor Adrian, A.D. 120, for guarding the
Roman territories to the fouth of it from the incurfions of
the Britons on the north. This work was defended by a
competent number of Roman foldiers and auxiliary troops,
who garrifoned the forts and ilations, which were fituated at
proper diltances along the line of it. Moll, if not all, of
thefe forts and ftations had been fixed and conftrufted before
by Agricola and others. Adrian's rampart, however, did
not long continue to be the extreme boundary of the Roman
territories to the north in Britain ; for Antoninus Pius,
having brought the Moeats again under the yoke, com-
manded another rampart to be erefted much farther north,
between the firths of Forth and Clyde, in the traft where
Agricola had formerly built his chain of forts. From an
infcription on the fragment of a Roman pillar, it is inferred
that this work was executed in the third confullhip of An-
toninus, A.D. 140. This wall or rampart, as fome
imagine, reached from Caer-ridden on the firth of Forth to
Old-Kirkpatrick on the Clyde ; or, as others think, from
Kinniel on the E. to Dunglafs on the W. Its length ap-
pears to have been about 37 Englilh or 40 Roman miles.
Capitolinus fays, that it was conftrufted of turf; but from
remaining veftigea it is concluded with certainty that the
foundation was ftone. Camden fays, that the principal
rampart was faced with fquare ftone, to prevent the earth
from falling into the ditch. Its chief parts were as follow :
— A broad and deep ditch, faid to be twelve feet wide ; the
principal wall or rampart, about twelve feet thick at the
foundation, fituated on the S. brink of the ditch ; a mihtary
way on the S. fide of the principal wall, well paved, and
raifed a little above the level of the ground. This work, as
well as that of Adrian, was defended by garrifons placed in
forts and ftations along its hne. The number of thefe was
eighteen, at the diftance of two miles from each other. In
the intervals between the forts, there were turrets or watch-
towers. After the lapfe of more than 1600 years, we are
enabled to afcertain by what particular bodies of Roman
troops almoft every part of it was executed. This dif-
covery is made by means of infcriptions upon ftones,
originally fixed in the face of the wall, and found near its
ruins. The number of ftones with inlcriptions now extant
is eleven ; and from thefe it appears in general, that this
great work was executed by the fecond legion, the vexilla-
tions of the fixth legion and of the twentieth legion, and one
cohort of auxiliaries. If thefe corps were all complete,
they would compofe a body of 7800 men. This wall was
not long the boundary of the Roman territories in Britain ;
for we are told, by an author of undoubted credit (Dio),
that, in the reign of Commodus, A.D. 180, he had wars
with feveral foreign nations, but none fo dangerous as that
of Britain ; for the people of that ifland, having pafted the
wall which divided them from the Romans, attacked them
and cut them to pieces. We alfo know, that the country
between the walls of Adrian and Antoninus continued to
be a fcene of perpetual war and fubjeft of contention,
between the Romans and Britons, from the beginning of the
reign of Commodus to the arrival of the emperor Septimius
Severus in Britain, A.D. 206. This laft emperor, having
fubdued the Moeatse, and repulfed the Caledonians, deter-
mined to ereft a ftronger and more impenetrable barrier than
any of the former, againft their future incurfions. This
laft wall, the greateft of all the Roman works in Britain,
was begun A.D. 209, and finifhed A.D. 210.

It was built nearly on the fame tradl with that of the
rampart of Adrian, at the diftance only of a few paces

north. Its length, from Coufins-houfe near die mgutfi of
the river Tine on the eaft to Boulnefs on the Solway firth
on the weft, was a little more than 68 Englilh miles, and a
little lefs than 74 Roman miles. To the north of the wall
was a broad and deep ditch, fuppofed to have been larger
than that of Adrian. The wall itfclf, ftandingon the brink
of the ditch, was built of fohd ftone, ftrongly cemented
with the beft' mortar ; the ftones which formed both the
faces being fquare aftilers, and the filling ilones large flags,
fet a little llanting. The height of this wall was twelve
feet befides the parapet, and its breadth eight feet, accord-
ing to Bede, who lived near the W. end of it, and in whofe
time it was almoft entire in many places. Confidering the
length, breadth, height, and folidity of this wall of Severus,
it was without doubt a work of prodigious labour and ex-
traordinary magnificence. But the wall itfelf was only a
part, and not the moft diftingiiiftiing part of this work.
The great number and diff^erent kinds of fortrefles which
were built along the line of it for its defence, and the
military ways that pertained to it, are much more worthy of
admiration ; for an account of which fee Stations. The
caftella, or caftles, were the fecond kind of fortifications,
which were built along the line of this wall for its defence.
They were neither fo large nor fo ftrong as the ftations, but
much more numerous, being no fewer than eighty-one.
They were exaft fquares of fixty-fix feet every way; fortified
on every fide with thick and lofty walls, but without any
ditch, except on the N. fide, on which the wall itfelf, raifed
much above its ufual height, with the ditch attending it,
formed the fortification. The caftles were fituated in the
intervals between the ftations, at the diftance of about feven
furlongs from each other. In thefe caftles, guards were
conftantly kept by a competent number of men detached
from the neareft ftations. The towers, or turrets, were much
fmaller than the caftles, forming a fquare of about twelve
feet, and ftanding out of the wall on its S. fide. (See
Turrets.) The ufual complement of troops allotted to
the defence of this, confifted of twelve cohorts of foot, each
cohort including 600 men, one cohort of mariners in the
ftation at Boulnefs, one detachment of Moors, probably
equal to a cohort, and four alx or wings of horfe, confifting
at the loweft computation of 400 each ; the whole number
being 10,000. For the convenience of their march from
one part of the wall to another, to the wall were annexed
two mihtary ways, paved with fquare ftones, in the moft
folid and beautiful manner, one larger, and one fmaller : the
latter ran clofe along the S. fide of the wall, from turret to
turret, and caftle to caftle, for the ufe of the foldiers in re-
lieving their guards and fentinels, and fuch fervices ; the
larger way was not fo near the wall, nor did it touch at the
turrets or caftles, but purfued the moft direft courfe from
one ftation to another, and was defigned for the convenience
of marching large bodies of troops. This wall of Severus
proved an impenetrable barrier to the Roman territories for
near 200 years. But about the beginning of the fifth cen-
tury, the Moeatae and Caledonians, now called Scots and
Pifts, took advantage of the withdrawment of many of the
Roman forces from Britain, and broke through the waU,
while others failed round the ends, carrying their ravages
into the very heart of Provincial Britain. Thefe invaders
were often repulfed by Roman legions fent to the relief of
the Britons ; and the laft of thefe legions, under the com-
mand of Gallio of Ravenna, aftifted by the Britons, regained
the walls and its fortrefles, and then took their laft farewell
of Britain. The Scots and PiAs found little refiftance in
breaking through the wall, whofe towers and caftles were
tamely abandoned to their deftruftive rage. In many places

they

WALL.

they levelled it unlh the ground ; and in fubfequent times
it was fo far diCregarded, that it became the common quarry
for more than looo years, and of which all the towns and
villages around were built ; and it is now fo entirely ruined,
that the moft patient and penetrating antiquarian can
hardly trace its vanifhing foundations. Henry's Hiftory,
vol. ii. See Picts Wall, and Scotland.

Walls, Sea. See Dike.

Wall, in Fortification. See Rampart.

Wall, in Gardening, a fort of fence ereftion in gardens,
compofed of hard materials, built for the purpofe of ripen-
ing all fuch fruits as are too delicate to be perfefted in this
cUmate, without fuch airillance. Walls are raifed with dif-
ferent kinds of materials, as ftone, brick, earth, or mud, &c.
according as they can be bell procured, and at the cheapeft
rate. But for fruit-trees, brick is the beft, as being not
only the bandfomeft, but the warmeft and kindeft for the
ripening of fruit, as well as affording the beft convenience
of nailing ; for fmaller nails will ferve in them than in ftone-
walls, where the joints are larger ; and brick-walls, with
copings of free-ftone, and ftone pilafters or columns at pro-
per diftances, to feparate the trees, and break off the force
of the winds, make not only the moft beautiful but the moft
profitable walls that can be erefted.

Rammed earth-walls, as well as thofe formed of muddy
clay, anfwer very well in fome intentions, being very clofe,
corapaft, and warm.

Sometimes walls are built of mixed materials, as ftones
and bricks ; but in this way they fhould be carefully built,
or the brick front will feparate from the ftone behind.

Where walls are built entirely of ftone, there fhould be
trellifes fixed up againft them, fer the more convenient faf-
tening the branches of the trees : the timber of thefe
efpaliers need not, however, be more than an inch and a
half thick, and about two inches and a half broad. Thefe
fhould be fixed acrofs each other, at about four inches dif-
tance ; for if they are at a much greater diftance, it will be
difficult to faftcn the fhoots of the trees properly. As this
trellis will be laid clofe to the wall, the branches of the trees
will he about two inches from the wall ; in which pofition
the fruit ripens better than when it lies quite clofe to the
wall.

Many improvements have been attempted in building
walls in different forms, as in femicircular methods, in angles
of various forms, and projecting more towards the north, to
fcreen off the cold winds ; but not any method has yet been
found which fucceeds fo well as that of making them
ftraight, and building them in an upright manner. Some-
thing of the long-oval from eaft to weft might probably be
beneficial in the produAion of fruit, as there would be the
fmalleft fpace of it hid from the influence of the fun at any
one time.

Many other fchemes of expediting the ripening of fruits
on walls have been tried, fuch as painting them black, or of
a dark colour, as the dark colour is fuppofed to imbibe
more of the fun's rays, and retain the warmth longer.
This has, however, on the fame principle, anfwercd better
in theory than praAice.

Walls, where fubftantially built, anfwer much better than
thofe which are flight, not only in their duration, but alfo
in their warmth. A wall two bricks thick will lie found
to anfwer better tiian one brick and a half; and if, in the
building of garden-walls, they arc grouted with foft mortar,
to fill and clofe all the joints, the walls will be much ilrongrr,
and the air not fo eafily penetrate through them, as it does
through thofe which are built in the ufu.il manner.

In rcfpe£l to the afpedi for walls in this chmate, thofe

which have one point to the eaftward of the fouth arc the
beft, as they enjoy the benefit of the morning fun more, and
are lefs expofed to the weft and fouth-weft winds, which a- c
very injurious to fruits, than thofe which are built due
fouth : and the next beft afpedl is due fouth, and after that
the fouth-eaft. But as there will, for the moft part, be
fouth-weft and weft walls, thefe may be planted with fome
forts of fruit which do not require fo much heat to ripen
them as thofe defigned for the beft walls: but wherever
there are north walls, thofe will only be proper for baking
pears, plums, and morello cherries, for preferving ; or duke
cherries may be planted againft thefe walls, to continue them
longer in the feafon.

The ufual thicknefs of building walls with brick is thirteen
inches, or a brick and a half; but this fhould be propor-
tionable to the height : for if they are built twelve or four-
teen feet high, or more, as is often praftifed, then the
foundations of the walls fhould be at leaft two bricks and a
half in thicknefs, and brought up a foot or more above the
level of the furface of the ground, of the fame thicknefs ;
then be fet off two inches on each fide, which reduces them
to two bricks ; and five or fix feet above the furface of the
ground, they may be diminifhed on each fide, to reduce
them to the thicknefs of a brick and a half, which muft be
continued to the top. The piers in thefe high walls fhould
alfo be proportionably ftronger than is commonly allowed to
lower walls ; for, as being more expofed to ftrong gales of
wind, if they are not well built, they are in danger of being
blown down. The piers in thefe cafes ftiould be projefted
the length of a brick in the back fide, and the thicknefs of
a brick in the front, and be built about ten or twelve feet
afunder. There is, however, no neceffity for building walls
higher than nine or ten feet, unlefs for pears. Mr. London,
however, thinks that garden-walls fhould feldom be made
lower than twelve or thirteen feet, and that they never need
be higher than fixteen, except where they are connedled
with buildings of the hot-houfe kind.

In building of hot-walls, the ordinary height is ufually
about ten feet, which is fufficient for any of thofe forts of
fruits that are generally forced ; for by forcing the trees,
they are moftly weakened in their growth, fo that they do
not grow fo vigoroufly as thofe which are expofed to the
open air; 5nd where there is not a quantity of walling
planted fufficient to let one part reft every other year, the
trees are never very healthy, and laft but a few years. In
thefe walls the foundations fhould be made four bricks and
a half thick, in order to fupport the flues ; othcrwife, if
part of them reft on brick-work, and the other part on the
ground, they will fettle unequally, and foon be out of order :
for wherever there happens any crack in the flues, through
which the fmoke can make its efcape, it will prevent their
drawing ; and if the fmoke gets within the glaftls, it will
greatly injure the fniit, and give it a fmoky tafte. This
thicknefs of w.ill need not be continued more than fix inches
above the ground, where the foundation or the bottom of
the firft flue fliould be, whirh will be fufficient to raife it
above the damps of the earth : then the wall may be fet off
four inches on each fide, which will reduce it to the thick-
nefs of three bricks and a half, fo that llie back wall may be
two bricks thick, which is abfolutely iiecefTary to throw the
heat out more in front ; for when the back walls are built
too thill, the heat cfcapes thrmij;h them. The wall in front
next to tlie fruit fhould be only four inches thick, whereby
there will be an allowance of nine inches for the flues, which
may be covered with twelve-inch tiles ; for if they have an
inch and a h.df bearing on each fide, it will be fufficient.
The places in which the fires arc made muft be contrived on

the

WALL.

tlie back fide of the walls, which ftiould be in number pro-
portionable to the length of the walls. The length ufually
allowed for each fire to warm is forty feet, though they do
very well for fifty feet : they fhould be fhedded over with
brick and tile, to keep out the wind and rain, otherwife the
fires will not burn equally ; and as it is quite neceffary to
have the fire-places or ovens below the foundatioB of the firft
flues, there muft be fteps down into the fheds, to come to
the mouth of them to fupply the fuel : of courfe, they
Ihould not be narrower than eight feet in the cle::r. Where
the length of walling requires two ovejis, they may be in the
middle, being included in one {hed, which will fave expence,
and allow more room to attend the fires ; as, in this cafe,
the flieds muft be at lea-ft ten feet long, but not more than
fix in breadth, the fteps down being at one end.

In regard to the lower flue, through which the fmoke
firft pafies from the fire, it may be two feet and a half
deep : of courfe, the back wall ftiould be at leaft two bricks
and a half thick, as high as the top of this flue ; and then it
may be fet off to two bricks, which mutt be continued to
the top of the wall. The fecond flue, which fhould return
over the firft, may be made two feet ; the third, a foot and
a half; and the fourth, one foot deep; which four flues,
with their coverings, will rife near eight feet in height, fo
that there will be about two feet left for fixing of the frames
at the top to fupport the glaftes, and for the coping of the
wall : thefe four returns will be fufficient to warm the air in
the frames. But in the carrying up thefe walls, fome ftrong
iron hooks fhould be well faftened at convenient diftances,
projc6ting about two inches from the wall, to which the
treUis muft be faftened, which is to fupport the trees. The
flues muft be well pargeted with loam on their infide, and
loam be fpread under the tiles which cover them, to the
thicknefs of the hooks, that the flues may be very fmooth.
At each end of thefe flues fmall arches Ihould be turned in
■the back walls, in fuch a manner that there may be holes
opening to clean the flues of foot, whenever there is a ne-
ceffity for it. With refpeft to the borders in the front of
thefe v/alls, they fhould be about four feet wide, which will
make a fufficient declivity for the floping glaffes ; and on
the outfide of them Ihould be low walls, rifing four or fix
inches above the level of the borders, upon which the plate
of timber muft be laid, on which the floping glaffes are to
reft. The glaffes muft be divided into two ranges, being
contrived in fuch a manner, as that the upper row may flide
down, and be faftened at fuitable diftances, but the lower
may be either fixed or moveable ; and the floping timbers,
which fupport the glafs-frames, muft be faftened at bottom
into the ground-plate in the front of the border, and at the
top into ftrong iron cramps, fixed in the upper part of the
wall for the purpofe. They are beft made of fir, which
does not twift, as oak and fome other wood, where it is laid
in fuch pofition ; and on the top fhould be fixed, in a clofe
manner, a ftrong board, under which the upper row of
glaffes fhould flide, in order to fecure the upper part of the
glaffes from being raifed by the winds, and keep the wet
-from the trees. It may projeift on the top glaffes about
two inches. The width of the frames may be about three
feet, or according to the extent of the wall, the bars being
placed lengthways of them. See Stove, and Wall, Hollow
or Forcing.

Walls in gardens are not only of great utility, import-
ance, and advantage, as ferving the purpofe of defences
againft external injuries, and as flieltering againft cold, cut-
ting winds, high llormy blafts, and all forts of fevere ex-
pofure, but alfo as affording the means of having different
jTorts of fruit-trees trained againft them, for the produftion

of finer, more early, and better perfefted fruit. Indeed,
without their affiftance, many of the more tender forts of
fruit-trees cannot be made to mature and ripen their fruit in
any full perfection, in this climate.

Thefe are thofe of the peach, neftarine, apricot, vine,
fig, and other fimilar kinds, all of which ftand in need of
nearly the bell full fouth walls to produce their fruits in the
fullefl and fineft proportion, having their branches trained
in clofe, in a regular expanding manner upon them, in order
to have the full benefit of their warmth and proteftion during
the time of their early bloffoming, and fetting their fruits in
the fpring months ; and afterwards to obtain the moft com-
plete influence and advantage of the fun, in bringing them for-
ward in the moft effeftual manner to the above noticed ftate
of maturity, in due feafon, and with the greateft richnefs of
flavour.

Walls are likewife ufeful for moft or all of the more com-
mon hardy forts of fruit-trees, notwithftanding they are
capable of producing good fruits abundantly without the
aid of them, as they are thereby afforded more early, and
in fuperior ftates of perfeftion as to fize, beauty, and fine-
nefs of flavour. Where any of the better forts of thefe have
the advantage of being grown againft a fouth, fouth-weft,
or eaft wall, their fruits become ripe early, and in a per-
feAly mature manner ; and commonly the early as well as
later kinds acquire ftill more improved ftates of perfeftion
and finenefs of flavour, fome of them for immediate eating,
others for keeping different lengths of time. This is the
cafe in the chief forts of the cherry kind, in the choicer forts
of plums, the capital forts of the fineft eating pears, of the
fummer, autumn, and winter kinds ; as alfo in fome highly
valued forts of the eating apples of thefe different feafons.

And by planting fome of thefe feveral hardy forts of
fruit-trees againft walls fully to the fouth, others againfl
thofe which have a wefterly afpeft, and a few on thofe to-
wards the eaft and north, the beft forts of their different
fruits will be produced in fucceflion, both at an early and
late period.

Where walls are fituated in the interior parts of garden
grounds, or near their boundaries, with pieces of ground
and boundary fences exterior to them, they may be fur-
niftied and planted with the moft choice forts of fruit-trees
on both fides, fuiting them to the nature of the afpeft, in
both the tenderer and more hardy kinds, fome being placed
on the full fouth walls, others on the weft and eaft afpefts
of them, as well as on their northern expofures : however,
in general, allotting thofe of the beft forts, of the former
as well as latter defcription, to the walls with fouthern ex-
pofures or afpefts, as all thofe of the peach, neftarine,
apricot, vine, fig, and other hke forts of the tender varieties
of fruit-trees, as noticed already ; and fome of thofe of the
fineft kinds of cherries, plums, pears, and apples, in the
more hardy fruit-tree kinds.

The lefs fine kinds of all or moft of thefe tender and
hardy forts, but chiefly of the latter, may be planted againft
the walls which have weflern and eaftern afpefts ; and thofe
which have northern expofures or afpefts may have fome of
the latter forts, as fome kinds of fummer pears, plums,
morello cherries, and currants, for later fucceflional ripen-
ing, placed againft them.

Experience has now pretty fully fhewn, that the crops
of fruit are the moft abundant, and of the beft quality,
where the walls, againft which the trees are arranged and
nailed, are well built in the perfeftly flraight form, as they
proteft the bloffoms and young fruit in the moft favourable
manner for the purpofe.

Wall, Hollow or Forcing, that fort of wall which is con-

ftruded

W A L

W A L

ftriiAed in fuch a manner as to contain fire-heat for the pur-
pofe of forwarding and ripening the fniit of the trees
planted and trained againft it at an early feafon, as already
feen in fpeakinp of garden-walls. It is commonly fupplied
with a frame of glafs-vvork in the front of it, extending to
different diftances according to circumftances ; but is fome-
times without this convenience, in which cafe the mod ma-
terial circumftance, befides the arrangements for the con-
veyance of the fire-heat, is that of the furnace, and the
contriving and conftrufting of a covering of canvafs or
netting which is to be let down over the trees in fevere
weather, and in the night time. The flues being conilrufted
in fuch a manner as to diftribute the fire-heat equally over
the whole, and of fufficient thicknefs to prevent its too
great efcape or diflipation, the moft fit and bed adapted
furnace for the purpofe, is that made in the foundery of Cook
and others in London, as well as in thofe of fome other
places, and which is employed in moft modern '.ot-houfes,
to which a damper is connefted. Its great fuperiority has
been found, in a ftriking manner, in many different inftances
where trials were made with it by Mr. London. The cover-
ing is bed contrived and conftrufted of Scotch gauze, or a
fmall fort of netting, on fmall rafters fixed from the top of
the wall into the border about three feet diftance from the
roots of the trees ; along the lower ends of which the roller
for containing the covering is to be fallened ; when by
means of cords and pulhes it can readily and with facility
be drawn up to the top of the wall, or rolled down, as there
may be occafion.

On all walls of the hollow or forcing kind, a covering of
this nature is effentially neceflary, and fhould not be omitted,
as is too often the cafe, as it is of much importance in pre-
ferving the heat, and preventing the chilling effects of frofts,
dews, and other limilar wetneffes which are continually
taking place. The common modes of forming walls of the
hollow or forcing kind have been defcribed in confidering
garden->waUs, and improved methods of conflrudting the
flues in fuch cafes may be feen under the head ftove. See
Stove.

Hollow walls too, it is fuppofed, may be advantageous
for thofe of the common garden kind, in many cafes, by
containing air, &c. See a paper by Mr. Stevenfon, in the
iirft volume of the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticul-
tural Society.

Hollow, flued, or forcing walls, arc very great acquiil-
tions to fruit gardens in the northern parts of the kingdom
on many accounts ; and it is faid to be a great improvement
in them not to have the furnaces placed too clofe upon the
walls, or the flues to lead too direftly forward to the front,
but the former to be kept back, and the latter to fwecp
along five or fix feel, before they reach the front brick-
work.

W Ai.L-FruU is the name of all that fort which is pro-
duced by the trees which are planted and trained againft
walls, and which is raifed and procured by means of them,
mollly ui the fineil perfeftion. It comprehends a great
number of different forts of fruits both of tlic finer and
more common kinds, as all the peacli and nedtarine forts ;
moft of the apricot, fig, and vine kinds ; many of the finer
varieties of the plum, cherry, and pear forts'; fome of the
bell and moft early eating apples ; fomctimcs the early and
large mulberry ; the earlier and finer kinds of the goofe-
berry and the currant ; befides a variety of other forts in
different cafes. It confifts of much of the bed of our
finer as well as commoner forts of fruits, .md is that which
is generally held in moft eftimation, and of the grcatcd value
for the ufcs of luxjry. In order to Ir.ive it at the table in

Vol. XXXVII.

the grealeft perfeAion, it fliould always, in moft of the
kinds, be ufed as foon as poflible after it is taken from the
trees, and while it has its peculiar bloom upon it, as it be-
comes afterwards far inferior in its qualities for the purpofe
of eating as well as the beauty of its appearance.

WALL-Trees, fuch fruit-trees as are planted againft walls,
and have their branches trained to them in a fanned or fome
other regular manner, from three or four to five or fix inches
afunder, in order to produce their fruits more early and in a
fnperior degree of perfeftion. They are trees of the more
tender kinds, or fuch as will not ripen their fruits in this
climate, unlefs trained againft walls of a foutherly afpeft,
to have the advantage of the full fun ; and of the feveral
forts of the hardier kinds, to obtain their fruits in earlier
maturity, and of an improved growth and flavour.

The trees of this fort may be confidered as confiding of
two orders or forms of growth ; one of which is of the
common dwarf wall kind, and the other of the half dandard
wall fort. But thofe of other forms of growth may occa-
fionally be employed in this way with convenience and ad-
vantage.

Thofe of the fird of thefc kinds are fuch as are trained
with fliort dwarf ftems of only a few inches in height, and
which, of courfe, are made to branch out near to the fur-
face of tlie ground, in order that they may cover the wall by
their difierent branches in a regular manner quite from the
bottom of it in an upward dircftion to the very top, being
laid in in fomewhat a horizontal or fanning direftion, at the
didance from each other of not more than from three or
four to five or fix inches, according to circumdances as al-
ready fuggeded.

Thcfe are the common fort of wall-trees for general
planting in this way, all the different kinds being ufually
originally trained in the wall-tree order ; and for which ufe
thofe commonly raifed by means of grafting and budding
are always grafted and budded low in the dock or dem, as
within four or five inches of the upper part of the ground,
the fird main dioots proceeding direAly from the infertcd
grafts or buds, being when of one year's growth headed
down or cut in, in the early fpring months, to four or five
eyes, in order to the produftion of a proper fupply of late-
ral dioots, the fame year, from them near to the ground, to
give the trees tiie fuitable form of head at fird, they being
trained and laid in on the walls in a fprcading order both
ways of them, at their full lengths during the fummer ; and
ill the early fpring afterwards they are pruned or cut in to
fix or eight eyes for a further fupply of fimilar lateral
dioots, for the purpofe of increafing the bottom branches,
which are trained in the fame manner, in order to afford a
fuitable foundation, as it were, in the advanced heads, for
furnidiing in a gradual manner all the other neceffary
branches in a regular way up to the top of the walls, as
they may be wanted. And the fame methods mud be piir-
fued with fucli trees as are raifed and propagated by layers,
cuttings, and fuckers, as thofe of vines, figs, and fome
other forts, when they are intended for wall-trees; their
proper after-management being fuch as is directed under the
proper head of each individual fort. Sec thefe different
heads.

The latter fort, or the half llandard wall-trees, are nfnally
trained with rather high dems of the ftandard kind, as from
three, four, or five, to fix feet, being grafted or budded at
fuch heights, in order that they may branch or throw out
dioots above in the way which has been already noticed.

Thefe forms of trees arc fuited for occafional planting

againd high walls between thofe of the common dwarf

kind, ill the ticw of having the whole of them, both alinTc

4 P and

W A L

W A L

aod below, covered as foon as poffible, as ttie dwarf trees
occupy the lower parts, while the half ftandards take up
the higher, and, of courfe, there is not any lofs of empty
fpace fuftained. This fort of wall-trees have likewife their
firft and fecond year's (hoots from the grafting or budding
pruned in the fame manner as directed above, for the forma-
tion of the heads of the common wall-trees, and they are
trained to the walls in cxaAly the fame modes ; their after-
management having a relation to their particular natures, as
may be feen under their refpeclive heads. See alio Stand-
ard Trees, and TRAINED Trea.

The other forts arc only admitted as wall-trees, in parti-
cular cafes and fituations, and where they are of fuch na-
tures and kinds, as do not permit of the methods of pruning
and training, which are neceflary for the trees which are com-
monly employed as wall-trees.

Wall-trees may therefore be eicher young plantable ones
of one year's growth with proper heads, raifed by means of
budding or grafting, planted at once where they are con-
ftantly to ftand and grow, to be pruned and trained in the
above manner ; or they may be ready trained young trees,
of three or four years' growth or more, lurnifhed with
fpreading branchy heads, which have been regulated and
wrought on the walls, palings, ftakes, or other forts of fup-
ports in nurfery grounds for the above lengths of time, and
which are advanced to the proper ftates of growth for im-
mediate bearing, being kept in fuch public grounds for the
fupplying of fuch perfons as are defirous of having their
walls immediately covered with fuch forts of trees The
particular methods to be purfued in pruning, training, and
managing each fort, ir>:^y be feen defcribed under the above
heads of Standard and Trained Trees.

But there are befides, moflly in thefe nurfery grounds, a
great choice of all the different forts and varieties of the
fruit-tree kind for walls, both of the young untrained de-
fcriptions for being firft planted out and trained from the
beginning, as common dwarf or half ftandard wall-trees,
and which will reach the bearing ftate in from two or three
to four or five years, according to their kinds ; and of thofe
which have been already trained as above in all the different
forts proper for bearing in the following feafon.

Thefe forts of trees mull be trained to fouth walls, for
the principal forts of the more dehcate or tenderer kinds,
fuch as peaches, neCtannes, apricots, grapes, figs. Sec, to
have the benefit of the full fun, as they do not ripen in good
perfeftion without this affiftance. Some of the bell varieties
of the principal forts of the hardier fruit-trees, as the moil
elteemed cherries, plums, and pears, Ihould be alfo trained
to thefe v/alls to produce early fruit in the greateft perfec-
tion ; alfo fome trees of the choicer forts of fummer and
autumn apples, to have the fruit earher, and of an improved
rich flavour for immediate eating : likewife foine of the beft
red and white currants and goofeberries ; and on weft and
eaft walls to have trees of moft of thefe forts, to ripen in
good perfeAion, in fucceflion to thofe on the fouth walls,
efpecially cherries, plums, and pears, and occafionally fome
eommon peaches, neftarines, and apncots ; but \'ines and
figs generally on fouth walls, efoecially vines, which- require
all poffible benefit of the full fun to ripen the grapes in
proper feafon, and with a rich flavour : the north walls are
ebgible for any of the common hardier fummer and autumn
fruits, as cherries, particularly morellos, plums, and pears,
for late ripening, to fucceed thofe of the more funny ex-
pofures, and to continue a longer fucoeffion of particular
Jprts, which ripen for immediate eating from the trees ; alfo
■white and red currants for fucceffional ripening in the au-
tumn as has been already feen.

The proper feafon for planting wall-trees is either in au-
tumn, as in Oftober, November, &c., or in fpring, as Fe-
bruary and March, or not later than the beginning of April,
but before that time, if poflttble ; as late fpring-planting,
after the young trees begin to pufh their Ihoot-buds, is often
attended with bad fuccefs, as they are apt to become ftunted
or quite flopped in their growth.

The foil for wall-trees ihould be a good drv mellow gar-
den-earth, not lefs than one full fpade deep ; but if two or
more it will be advantageous : or where a good moderately
light loamy foil prevails, it is fuperi^r for moft forls of fruit-
trees ; and when enriched by good garden compoft it is ftill
more beneficial. The poorer borders (hould be enriched by
means of good furface loam and rotten dung before the
trees are planted in them.

In planting wall-trees, the borders flnuld either be wholly
dug over a good depth, as two fpits, or the parts about
where the trees are to be placed only, proper fized circular
holes or pits being made in depth aid width according to
the nature of the roots of the tree plants, the mould takea
out being laid on the fides ; the diftances from each other
being regulated by the height of the walls and the nature of
the growths of the trees. For thofe of the peach, nefta-
rine, apricot, fig, plum, and cherry kinds, fifteen or eigh-
teen feet are little enough. Vines require from five to ten
and fifteen or mere feet, according as they may be trained
in upright, horizontal, or other direftions, as they admit of
all thefe feveral modes of regulating their heads. Pears,
apples, and other trees of fimil^r growths, ftiould have
eighteen or twenty feet, efpecially when worked on free
flocks, and thofe on dwarf flocks not lefs than fifteen or
eighteen feet of diftance from each other.

The wall-trees intended to be planted are then to be care-
fully taken up from the nurfery or other grounds, with their
full fpread of roots as perfeft as poffible, the broken, bruifed,
and injured parts, with any tap-roots and flraggling ones,
being only cut awav and fliortened at the moment of re-
planting them ; and in the heads where they are young trees
of one or two years' growth only, with the firft main
branches or (hoots from the budding or grafting quite entire,
not having been headed down or cut in, in the nurfery, they
may be retained whole until after ihey are planted, or not be
pruned in until the fpring ; and where they are trained trees
of fome years growth with regular trained heads of fome
years (landing, the very irregular ill placed fore-right (hoots,
diforderly growths, and rank fummer (hoots, which are
unfitly fituatcd for training in (hoald be cut away : all the
well placed fide and terminal (hoots being left quite entire
until after the time of planting the trees at leaft. Then in
planting, place the trees in the pits or holes with the bot-
toms of the ftems about five or fix inches or more from the
walls, inclining the top parts and heads to them in a clofe
manner, fpreading the roots out with regularity in the pits
or holes, (hovelling in the mould or earth from the fides with
exadnefs and equality, breaking the lumps and clods well,
and (liaking the trees up and down a little, in holding them
by the ftems, in order to make the mould fink in well be-
tween the roots, fibres, and other parts, then filling them in
to the tops of the holes in a careful way, feeing that the
upper roots are at leaft three or four inches below the fur-
face, and ultimately treading the whole down in a moderate
manner, to fettle the earth about the roots, and give the trees
their proper pofitions againft the walls. Proper watering
will moftly be immediately neceffary in moft cafes, and which
may be repeated as there is occafion, to fettle the earth
more clofely, and promote the ftriking and growth of the
trees.

WaU-

W A L

W A L

Wall-trees require the above methods of pruning and
training to form their different heads in their young growths ;
and afterwards in an annual manner to retrench their over-
luxuriant (hooting, and keep them within due limits and in
regular order, for the produftion of full crops of the beft
fort of fruit of their different kinds. In thefe views they
(land in need of a regular fummer and winter pruning every
year, as well as a conftant unnailing and renailing in the pro-
per methods and times of the feafon.

The methods of planting, tradning, pruning, and nailing
of the different forts, are explained in the feveral heads, under
their particular culture.

Wall-trees befides walls are fometimes planted and trained
againft wooden ereftions, fuch as palings and thofe made in
a clofe manner with boards, which though they are not fo
warm as brick or ftone walls, and confequently not fo pro-
duftivc of early good fruit, yet they fometimes afford it in
tolerably good perfeftion at a little later period.

Great advantage is faid to have been lately attained in
bringing fome forts of wall-trees into a bearing ftate, efpe-
cially pears, bv turning the branches of them over the walls,
and nailing them in an inverted manner on the other fide.

It is dated by fir Jofeph Banks, in a paper in the firft
volume of the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural So-
ciety, that he has praftifed this method, which feems to
have been learned from a market-gardener in the vicinity of
London, with the bell fuccefs on the ganfel bergamot pear,
which is not very free of bearing. It had ftood againft a
north wall for feveral years, without once making a fruit
bud. About three years ago, he turned it over the wall,
and had it nailed with the branches pointing downwards :
the fpring after, it bore, it is faid, about a dozen of ver)'
tine pears, and this autumn, the fouth-fide wood, which has
increafed very much, produced at leaft ten dozen of the
fineft pears his garden afforded.

This praftice, it is fuggefted, is now become not unfre-
quent in the royal gardens, where pear-trees on a weft wall
have been turned over to the eaft fide, and confiderable
crops annually obtained from fuch inverted branches.

Sir Jofeph has likewife fucceeded perfcftly in bringing
duke cherries over from the north wall, on which afpeft
they here produce a valuable crop of cherries for the months
of July and Auguft. The branches brought over to the
fouth wall afforded the earlieft fruit, it is faid, and had the
largeft and faireft berries. This, in our climate, is fuppofed
a material improvement, as duke cherries feldom fucceed on
a fouth wall : the tree requires to have its root cool, and
when it is expofed to the rays of a fouth fun, produces in
general fmall and imperfeft fruit.

The fame mode, and fome other fimilar ones, v^ill pr9bably
fucceed with many other forts of wall-trees, as well as
thefe.

The taller forts of wall-trees are fometimes termed wall-
ftandards.

WALL-Crefs, in Botany. See Arabis.

VfALL-Flo'Ufer. See Cheiranthus.

VJ ALL- Pftnywort. See CoTYLEDOJJ.

VfALL-Pepper. See SediIm.

VfAhh-Rue. See AsPLENIUM.

WaI/L ef a Stack, in Agriculture, a term fometimes made
ufe of to fignifv the flem, body, or that part which extends
from the ground to tlie caves, and which fpreads out in its
upward dircClion fa as to throw off the water. It is of
fome confequeiice to have the walls of Hacks built in a neat
and exaft manner, in the preferving of the grain as well as
in the keeping of vermin out of them. Sec Stack.

Vi AhL-Eycs, in Horfcs, are thofe in which the iris, or

middle part, is of a very light grey colour. Such horfcs
are not conCdered handfome ; but fome fay that thofe horfcs
which have waU-eyes are moftly of a good kind. See
Horse.

WALI.-Springs, in Agriculture, a term applied to thofe
which break out through fome laminated rockv ftrata, or
on cold fpewy or fpringy wet clayey ground. The water
in thefe cafes moftly drops or oozes out in a flow manner.
See Spring.

V^ALL-Creeper, in Ornithology. See Picus Murarius.

Wall-A'To/s. See Moss.

WALL-Sided, denotes the figure of a (hip's fide, when,
inftead of being incurvated fo as to become gradually nar-
rower towards the upper part, it is nearly perpendicular to
the furface of the water, like a -wall ; whence the phrafe.
See Ship.

Wall's End, in Geography, a townfhip of England, in
Northumberland, famous for its collieries ; 5 miles E.N.E.
of Newcaftle.

WALLA, the name of an officer in the eaftern nations.
See Wall

WALLACE,5'/V WiLLiAM,in£;ofrfl/Zi^,aheroof Scot-
ti(h fable and romance, was a diftinguifhed patriot and warrior
in the thirteenth century, who belonged to an ancient family in
the weft of Scotland. Hardy and magnanimous, and ardently
attached to his country, he engaged in the arduous under-
taking of liberating the land of his nativity from the foreign
yoke of Edward I., king of England. Having killed an
Englifh officer in a quarrel, he retired for fafety into the
woods, and put himfelf at the head of a band of outlaws, and
commenced an incurfive war againft the Englifh, who were
ftationed in that country. Succeeding in his firft enterpnfes,
he was joined by many barons, whote caufe was fecretly fa-
voured by Robert Bruce. But earl Warrcne, appointed
by Edward to the government of Scotland, coUefted an
army of 40,000 men in the north of England, and march-
ing into Annandale, terrified the infurgents, fo that many
of the Scotch nobles fubmitted, and others joined the Eng-
lifh army. Wallace, with his adherents, retired northwards,
and being purfued by Warrene with his forces, he engaged
them near Stirling, and defeated them with great flaugh-
ter. This fuccefs enhanced the reputation of Wallace, and
he was declared regent of the kingdom under the captive
Baliol. Wallace retaliated on the Englifli, and extended his
ravages as far as Durham, and recovered Berwick. Ed-
ward, upon receiving this intelligence in Flanders, haftened
his return, and marched with 90,000 men to the northern
frontier. Wallace, perceiving the jealoufy and difcontent
occafioned among the nobility by his high rank, refigned the
regency, and merely retained his command over his own
followers. When the Scotch were joined by Edward at
Falkirk, in 1298, a battle enfued, in which the Englifh ob-
tained a viAory ; but Wallace, whofe body of forces was
unbroken, retired behind the banks of the Carron. After
this defeat Wallace ftill maintained an unfubdued fpirit, afid
affertcd his independence. Edward, apprized that he was
infecurc whilft fuch an adverfary as Wallace lived, ufcd va-
rious means for difcovering his retreat and fcizing his per-
fon. He at length fucceeded, by the treachery of^ his
friend, fir John Monteith. The captive was conveyed to
London, where, though he had never fworn fealty to the
Englidi fovereign, he was tried, condemned, and executed
as a traitor, Auguft 23, 1305. His memory is ftill re-
vered in his native country, and he has been celebrated by
national fongs, and a variety of eulogies, the fubjeds of
which have been partly true, and partly fabulous. Hume.
Henry.

4 P 2 WaLI/ACB,

W A L

Wallace, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coalt of
South Carolina. N. lat. 33° 54'. W. long. 78° 35'.

WALLACE-Tftifn, a town of Scotland, in Ayrfhire,
founded about the middle of the eighteenth century by fir
Thomas Wallace ; 3 miles N.E. of Ayr.

WALLACE, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Eras, at Lingen.

WALLA PA TAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of the Nayrs ; 14 miles W.N.W. of Palicaud-
chery.

WALLASEA, an iiland in the German fea, on the
coaft of EfTex, at the mouths of the Coin and Black Water.
It contains two parifhes, Eafl and Weft Merfey. It is
.ibout four miles long, and one and a half broad. N. lat.
51° 38'. E. long. 0° 48'.

WALLE, a town of Germany, in the county of Ver-
den ; 4 miles N. of Verden.

WALLEBERGA, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Schonen ; 38 miles S. of Chriftianftadt.

WALLENBURG, or Walenburg, a town of Swit-
zerland, and capital of a bailiwick, in the canton of Bale ;
1 2 miles S. of Bale.

WALLENFELS, a town of Bavaria, in the biftiopric
oi Bamberg ; 7 miles E. of Cronach.

WALLENIA, in Botany, was fo denominated by profef-
fcr Swartz, in honour of Matthew Wallen, efq., an Irifh gen-
tleman, longrcfident in Jamaica, the friend and coadjutor of
Dr. Patrick Browne, in his well-known Natural Hiftory of
that ifland. Mr. Wallen fpared no expence in the cultiva-
tion of plants. The ftoves of our moft diftinguifhed gar-
dens are indebted to him for their choiceft rarities. His
name occurs amongft the contributors to Kew Garden, and
he alfo fent many fine plants to the late marquis of Rocking-
ham ; amongft others, in the year 1778, the fplendid Eu-
phorbia punkea, Sm. Ic. Pift. t. 3, Curt. Mag. t. 1961,
which, being fuppofed a new genus, for fome time bore the
name of WaUenia, though without any fcientific claim to be
feparated from its congeners. — Swartz Prodr. 3 1 . Ind. Occ.
247. t. 6. Schreb. Gen. 789. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 618.
Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Poiret in Lamarck Di£l. v. 8.
785. Petefioides ; Jacq. Amer. 17.) — Clafs and order,
Tttrandr'ia Monogyma. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four
creft obtufe fegments, permanent. Cor, of one petal, tu-
bular : tube cylindrical, ereft, longer than the calyx : limb
in four ihallow, ovate, obtufe, erecl, converging fegments.
Stam. Filaments four, inferted into the bafe of the corolla,
dilated at the bottom, half ereft, as long again as the corolla,
and rather fpreading in that portion beyond its limb ; an-
thers ovate, incumbent. Pijl- Germen fuperior, oblong ;
ftyle awl-fhaped, fliorter than the ftamens and corolla,
permanent ; ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peru. Berry roundifh,
of one cell. Seed folitary, roundifh, with a brittle (hell.

Obf. Some male flowers occafionally occur, which have
no piftil, renderiiig the genus polygamous. Swartz.

Eif. Ch. Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Corolla tubular,
four-cleft. Berry with one feed.

I. W. laurifolia. Laurel-leaved WaUenia. Swartz. Ind.
Occ. 248. Willd. n. I. Poiret n. i. (Petefioides lauri-
folium ; Jacq. Amer. 17,3 temporary name only. Bryonia
nigra fruticofa, foliis laurinis, floribus racemofis fpeciofis ;
Sloane Jain. v. i. 234. t. 145. f. 2.) — Branches roimd. —
Native of bufhy places, on the mountains of Jamaica and
Hifpaniola, flowering in fpring and autumn. The Spaniards
call it Latirier. T\\^Jhm is woody, from ten to twenty feet
high, having a fniooth bark, and no thorns or prickles.
Branches long, fubdivided, round, as thick as a goofe-quill,

W A L

twining about every tiling in their way, marked with fcari
from the infertion of former foliage. Leaves on round
fmooth footftalks, (whether alternate or oppofite. Dr.
Swartz does not mention, nor can Sloane's figure be
trufted ; Jacquin fays alternate,) obovate, obtufe, entire,
fmooth, iTiining, llightly ribbed and ttriated, about four
inches long, and almoft half as broad in the middle.
Stipulas none. Panicle terminal, with fpreading, alternate,
partly level-topped, fubdivided branches. Flo'wers ftalked,
yellow, inodorous, about half an inch long, numerous, and,
according to Sloane, very beautiful. Berry fcarlet. The
calyx, corolla, fruit, and organs of impregnation, are fprin-
kled with glandular, orange-coloured dots. The ripe
berries are (lightly acid and aromatic, like the parts of the
Jloiver ; the feed taftes like the pepper tribe. Swaria.

We cannot but remark that Willdenow copies, without
examination or fcruple, two errors from Swartz, in the re-
reference to Sloane.

2. W. angularis. Angular-branched WaUenia. Jacq.
Hort. Schoenbr. v. i. 13. t. 30. Poiret n. 2. — Branches
angular. — Native of the Eaft Indies. Jacquin fays it is cul-
tivated in the ifland of Mauritius, from whence a living
plant was brought to the imperial garden at Schoenbrun.
It has flowered there in the ftove, every year in May, but
never bore any fruit. The Jlem, in the ifland above men-
tioned, attains the height of twenty-five feet, and is as thick
as a man's leg. Branches all angular, fmooth. Leaves
much like the foregoing, but larger ; alternate on the lower
part of each branch ; oppoCte, or even whorled, above ;
all very fmooth and fliining. Panicle terminal, ereft, many-
flowered, fomewhat corymbofe ; its ultimate divifions um-
bellate, or capitate. Flowers green, about the fize of fV,
laurifolia, but the calyx feems lefs deeply divided, more
hairy, and the corolla fmoother. Stigma downy.

WALLENSEN, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia,
in the principahty of Calenberg; 15 miles S.E. of Ha-
meln.

WALLENSTADT, a town of Switzerland, near the
E. end of Wallenftadt Lake, in the county of Sargan?, and
principal place of a bailiwick. This place has a Schul-
theife, and council of its own ; the firft of whom is nomi-
nated by the landvogt out of three burghers, prefented for
his approbation. It is a great thoroughfare for goods
to and from Italy. It is the place ^likewife where the
Switzers and Grifons hold their conciliatory meetings
on all claims made by either party ; 35 miles E.S.E. of
Zurich.

Wallenstadt, a lake of Switzerland, furrounded with
mountains and fliarp rocks, which render the navigation dan-
gerous ; 9 miles long, and 2 wide ; 9 miles S. of Utznach.

WALLER, Edmund, in Biography, an Englifti poet
of diftinguiflied celebrity, was the delcendant of an emi-
nent faniily, and born at ColefhiU, Hertfordfliire, in March
1605. His mother was the fifter of the famous Johp
Hampden. By the death of his father, when he was
an infant, he came into poffeflion of an eltate of 3500/. a
year. Having received his fchool education at Eton, he
was admitted at King's-college, in Cambridge ; and exhi-
biting fuperior talents, as well as poflefling powerful intereft,
ha became a member of parliament in his fixteenth or feven-
teenih year. Of his poetical talents he exhibited an inte-
refting fpecimen in his eighteenth year, by his verfes on the
" Prince's Efcape at St. Andero," which fur fiu-pafs in
poetical melody the prodiidlions of his predecedors. He
alfo, at an early period, augmented his patrimony by mar-
rying a rich city heirefs. IJuring the intermifiions of par-
liament, which occurred after the year 1628, he lived in a

retired

WALLER.

retired manner at his houfe near Beaconsfield ; purfued his
claflical ftudics under Morley, afterwards bifhop of Win-
chefter ; and acquired improvement as well as celebrity from
the fociety of polite fcholars into which he was introduced.
At the age of twenty-tive years lie loll his wife, and foon
afterwards became the fuitor of lady Dorothea Sydney,
eldell daughter of the earl of Leicefter, whom he has im-
mortahzed under the appellation of SaccharilFa. But much
as he admired this majellic and fcornful beauty, as he deno-
minates her, he was more delighted with the gentle Amo-
ret, fuppofed to have been lady Sophia Murray ; but failing
to engage the attachment of either of thcfe ladies by his
poetic drains, he fought comfort under the anguilh of
difappointment in a fecond marriage. When parliament
met in 1640, after a long fufpenfion, Waller was again
returned for Atrmondefliam, and joined the party which
thought that a redrefs of grievances fhould precede a vote
of fupplies, urging their plea by an energetic fp-ech. He
was alfo a member of the long-parliament, and warmly op-
pofed the exaction of (hip-money, after the example of his
juftly celebrated uncle, Hampden. He farther dillingnifhed
himlelf by h.s eloquence ni the impeachment of judge Craw-
ley, With the condu(il of which he was entrulled by the com-
mons. He continued for three years to give his vote in ge-
neral with the oppofition, without concurring in all the
meafures of this party ; particularly the abolition of epifco-
pacy. In the progrefs of the dif^jute between the king and
parliament, he difcontinued for a time his attendance ;
though he manifclled his inclination to the royal fide by
court panegyric, and when he again returned to ihe houfe,
by remonftrating agaiiift its proceei^ings ; and when the king
fet up his ftandard at Nottingham, it is faid that he fent him
1000 broad pieces. As he was one of the commiffioners ap-
pointed by parliament for treating with the king at Oxford,
he was kindly noticed by his majclly ; and he was probably
thus induced to engage m a plot in his favour. According-
ly, he concerted meafures with Tomkyn.«, clerk of the queen's
council, for refilling the payment of the taxes levied for the
fupport of the army, and promoting petitions for peace,
and thus conflraining parliament to adopt pacific meafures.
In the profecution of this plan, they fought the concurrence
of perfons of influence in the city. Whilft they were tlius
employed, fir Nicholas Crifpe, who was a zealous loyalift,
was exciting t!ie king's friends among the citizens to refill
openly the authority of parliament, and with this view he
had aftualiy obtained a commiflion of array from his ma-
jefty. Thefc two plots were, as Clarendon fuppofes, inde-
pendent of each other ; but however this be, the commif-
lion was known to Waller and Tomkyns. When thele mea-
fures became known to perfons in power, they were arretted ;
and the deficiency of evidence againll them was amply fup-
plied by the pufillanimity of Waller, who difclofed every fe-
cret of his party, and bafely betrayed a number of perfons, of
difFerciit rank and llation, w!:o had repofcd their confidence
m his honour. Of this number were the earl of Portland,
lord Conway, and the carl of Northumberland.' He at-
tempted alfo to perfuade lord Portland to confefs the charge,
and to lay the blame on the two other noblemen juil men-
tioned. Two coiifpirators, -viz,. Tomkyns and Chaloncr,
were hanged, and Waller faved his l;fe by afiecfting a rc-
morfe of confcience, which dilordered his underftanding ;
fo that he was merely expelled llic houle, tried and con-
demned, and after a year's in-.prifonment, and the payment
of a fine of io,coo/., permitted to go into exile. Thus dif-
graced in the ellimation ot all who made any prctcnfions to
probity and honour, he fird rcfided at Rouen, and from

thence removed to Paris, where he lived like a man of for-
tune, and in the exercife of hofpitality, on the means which
he derived from the falc of his wife's jewels. After the in-
terval of ten years, being reduced to his rump jewel, as he
called it, he folicited permiflion to return to his native coun-
try, and having obtained a licence to this purpofe, he took
pofleffion of a houfe which he had built near Beaconsfield.
Unreilrained by principle, he paid his vifit, by the effufion
of his proftituted mufe, to Cromwell, to whom he alfo paid
a tribute of adulation after his death. He loll no time,
however, in congratulating Charles II. on his refloration ;
and when the king took notice that his panegyric on Crom-
well furpafled his congratulatory poem, he replied, with a
happy courtly turn, " that poets always fucceed better in
fiction than in truth." Waller was again received into the
bell company, and though he drank only water, his wit and
vivacity made him an agreeable alfociate to thofc who lived
more freely and intemperately. He alfo obtained a feat in the
houfe of commons, of which, though advanced in years, he
was a lively and pleafant member. From the king he pro-
cured, in 1665, the appointment of provoll of Eton col-
lege : but Clarendon, who was then lord-chancellor, re-
fufed to fanftion it, becaufe he was a layman. The con-
du£l of the chancellor gave great offence to Waller, fo that
he joined the duke of Buckingham in his hollihty againfl
him, and both fpoke and voted for his impeachment. Upon
the accelTion of James II., Waller, in his eightieth year, was
returned for Saltafh, and availing himfelf of the privilege of
age, fpoke freely to the king, whilll he was treated by him
with condefcenfion and kindnefs. Once in converfation
with the king he fpoke of queen Elizabeth as the greateft
woman in the world, to which James retorted, " I wonder
you fhould think fo ; but it mud beconfeffcd fhe had a wife
council." " And when, fir," replied Waller, " did you
know a fool clioofe a wife one." When Waller was about
to marry his daughter to Dr. Birch, the king expreffed his
wonder, " that he fhould think of marrying his daughter to
a fallen church." He returned a mefiage, in which he ex-
preffes his fenfeof the honour done him by the king's interefl
in his domeflic affairs ; adding, " I have lived long enough
to obferve that this church has got a trick of riling again."
Forefeeing the florm that was gathering at the dole of king
James's reign, he obferved, " that he would be left like a
whale upon the flrand." In his " Divine Poems," indi-
cating the flate of his mind towards the clofe of life, " it is
jileaiing (fays Dr. Johnfon) to difcover that his piety was
without weaknefs, and that his intelleftual powers continued
llrcng and vigorous." His death happened at Beaconf-
field, in Odober 1687, in the eighty-third year of his age ;
and of feveral children by his fecond wife, his fun Edmund,
who reprefented Agmondclliam in parliament, became a
profelyte to quaktrilm. Of his moral principles and con-
di:<!il, efpccially in the earlier period of his life, we can form
no very high opinion. Lord Clarendon reprefents him asab-
jeCt, and wanting courage to fiipport l.im in any virtuous
undertaking, and as combining fervile adulation with a vain
and imperious temper ; but Clarendon, it will be recolledled,
was fomewhat prejudiced in forming a judgment, which is,
ujion the whole, too jult. He acknowledges, however,
that he pof.efled lui<erior powers of eloquence, and that the
cxiiberancc of his wit, and pleaiantneis ot his converfation,
winch made him a chofen companion, wire fufficient to
cover a multitude of great faults. As a poet, l,e is faid by
one of his biographers to have poffefled " chjufltr and in-
trinfic merit enough to retain no nuan feat on the EnghTIi
ParnafTus:" " he trifles with ingenuity, and is ferious with

an

W A L

an air of grandeur:" — and " his works can never fall inio
negleA with the {Indent of poetry." Biog. Brit. John-
Ion's Lives of the Poets. Clarendon. Gen. Biog.

Waller, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a perfon
employed in buildmg wall-fences, and other forts of walls,
as well as to a labourer engaged in manufafturing fait from
brine in falt-vvorks, who is fo called in confequence of
railing a bank or walling round the pit, by means of the
rubbifh colledled in long preparing fait. They both require
to be well experienced perfons. See Fence, Salt, and
Salt Brine Springs.

Waller See, m Geography, a lake in the archbifhoprie
of Salzburg, of an oval form ; four miles long, and two
broad, where widelt ; 4 miles N. of Salzburg.

WALLERIUS, Nicholas, in Biography, an eminent
Swedifliphilofopher and divine, wasborn inNenkain the year
1706, and completed his education at Upfal, whither he re-
moved in 1725. Having here dillinguifhed hinifelf by his pro-
ficiency in the Wolfian philofophy, he commenced, in 1 737, a
courfe of lectures on both philofophy and mathematics, which
employed, in confequence of the number of attendants, a
very confiderable portion of his time. In 1751 he took or-
ders ; in the following year he was honoured with the degree
of doftor in theology ; and in 1755 he was advanced to the
chair of the new theological profeiTorfhip, founded by Dr.
Kelfenius, bifhop of Weftcros, with a view of vindicating
the truth, and evincing the excellence of Chriflianity ; and
in, this fituation he gained univerfal efteem. He was alfo a
member of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and of
the Academy at Upfal, the tranfaftions of which were en-
riched by feveral of his communications. His important and
ufeful life was terminated by a fever in Auguft 1 764. His prin-
cipal works are " Syltcma Metaphyficuni," 1 750, 4 vols.
8vo.; " Compendium Logic*," 1754, 8vo.; " Compendium
Metaphyfices," i755,8vo.; " PfychologiaEmpirica," 1755,
8vo.; " Pfychologia Rationalis," 1758, 8vo.; " Praeno-
tionum Theologicarum," fix parts, from 1756 to 1765,
8to. Gen. Biog.

WALLERN, in Geography, a town of Auftria, on the
Inn ; 4 miles S. of Efferding. — Alfo, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Prachatitz ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Prachatitz.
WALLERSDORF, a town of PrufTia, in Natangen ;
18 miles S.W. of Brandenburg.

WALLERSTEIN, a town of Germany, with a caftle
belonging to the counts of Oettingen, called Oettingcn Wal-
lerftein ; 4 miles N. of Nordlingen.

WALLERSVILLE, a poft-towu of the ftate of
Georgia; 729 miles S. of Walhington.

WALLETZ See, a lake of Brandenburg, in the
Ucker Mark ; i mile W. of New Angermunde.

WALLEY, or Wallia, a town of Africa, with an
European fadtorv, in the kingdom of Yani.

WALLHAUSEN, a town of the marggravate of
Anfpach ; 4 miles N. of Creillheim.

WALLI, a kingdom of Africa, to the fovereign of
which Mr. Park paid cuftom in his journey. — Alfo, a fe-
cond river.

WALLING of BricL. See Brick.
Walling, Lead. See L.EA'O-lVilling.
WALLINGFOllD, in Geography, a very ancient bo-
rough and market-town in the hundred of Moreton, and
county of Berks, England, is fituated on the wellern banks
of the Tham-'S, at the dillance of 15 miles N-N.W. from
Reading, and 45 miles W. by N. from London. There are
reafons for fuppofuig it to have been a town in the time
of the Romans, though its ancient name is loit : the

W A L

prefent, wliether derived from the Britifh word Guallen, or
the Roman Vallum, owes its origin to the andent fortifica-
tion with which it was furrounded, and its ford over the
Thames. The earlieft mention of Wailingford in hiftory is
in the year 1006, when it was deftroyed by the Danes : it
appears to have been foon rebuilt, as Svvein, king of Den-
mark was there in 1013. In Edward the Confeffor's reign
it was a royal borough, and contained 276 houfes, the inha-
bitants of which owed perfonal fervice to the king. The
town was incorporated by king James I.; by whofe charter
the civil government is vetted in a mayor, five aldermen, a
town-clerk, and other officers, chofen out of the burgefies,
who are eighteen in number. Wailingford has fent meirf-
bers to parhament from the 23d year of Edward I.: the
right of eleftion is in the corporation, and iuliabitants pay-
ing fcot and lot. That eminent lawyer, fir V/illiam Black-
ftone, who had a feat here, now the property of his fon, re-
prefented this borough in parliament. Wailingford is a mar-
ket-town by prelcription : it appears by the Norman Sur-
vey, that in the reign of William Rufus the market was
held on Saturday ; it was afterwards changed to Sunday ;
and by a charter bearing date izi8, from that day to Mon-
day. Here are now two weekly markets, on Tuefday and
Friday, and four annual fairs. The market -houfe is a con-
venient ftrufture, having a town-hall, and feffions-houfe over
it. The town conCfts of two principal ftreets : its
population, in the return of the year 18 11, was ftated
to be 1901 ; the number of houfes 380. The chief
employment of the inhabitants is in agriculture and malt-
making ; of the latter article, i20,coo bulhels have been
annually made here. Leland fays, here were anciently
fourteen parifli-churches, and that in his time there were
perfons living, who could (hew the places where they ftood.
At prefent here are but three ; St. Mary's, St. Peter's, and
St. Leonard's : the two latter were nearly deftroyed in
1646, when the town, being garrifoned for the king, was
befieged for the parliament. St. Leonard's was repaired
and opened for divine fervice in 1704 : St. Peter's continued
in ruins till the prefent reign ; it was rebuilt principally by
the exertions of fir William Blackftone, who erefted the
fpire at his own expence ; the new church was finilhed in
1769, the fpire in 1777. St. Mary's, which is the princi-
pal church, has a tower furmounted by the figure of an
armed knight on horfeback. Here are alfo four meeting-
houfes for diffenters of different denominations ; a free-
fchool, founded by Walter Bigg, alderman of London,
in 1659 ; and an alms-houfe for fix women, endowed by
Mr. WiUiam Aungear and his fitter, about the year 1687.
Wallingford-bridge, which croffes the Thames, is a fub-
flantial ftone ftrufture, three hundred yards in length, and
confifts of nineteen arches : from its appearance, it feems
to vie with the oldeft fabric of the kind on the river, but
the time of its ereftion cannot be afcertained : the pointed
angular ftarlings on the upper fide are fo well conftruCted,
as to be able to refift the moft vij^ent floods ; and the whole
appears to be of immenfe ftrength. Near the river fide are
the mouldering ruins of the ancient cattle, which, in the
eftimation of former ages, was regarded as impregnable, but
they give no idea of that ftrength which regal armies be-
fieged in vain. Camden was of opinion that it was of Ro-
man origin ; and Mr. Gough adds, that " the outer work
of the cattle is evidently Roman, and in a fragment of the
wall at the entrance, the Hones are laid herring-bone fafhion,
juft as in the walls of Silchetter." Having been deftroyed
by the Saxons and Danes, the cattle was rebuilt and enlarged
by William the Conqueror, when we learn, from Domef-

day-

\V A L

day-book, that eight houfes were demolifhed to make room
for this fortrefs. During the conteft between king Stephen
and the emprefs Maud, the latter refided in tiiis cattle,
which was ftrongly fortified in her behalf: Stephen befieged
it feveral times ; but all h:s alfauks were fruitlels ; the
ftrength of tlic place, and the bravery of the garrifon, effec-
tually refiiled his utmolt exertions. In the reigns of king
John and Henry III., this fortrefs was the fcene of nego-
ciation between the kings and the difcontented barons: it
alfo bore a confpicuous part in the civil war between
Edward II. and his nobles. When cardinal Wolfey was
about to found a college in Oxford, Henry VIII. gave him
this caftle as a part of the endowment of his intended col-
lege ; but on the cardinal's attainder, the grant appears to
have been refumed. Leland, who vifited Wallingford about
that time, fays, " the caftlc yoinith to the north gate of tlie
toune, and hath three dikis, large and deap, and welle
waterid. About ech of the two firft dikis rennith an em-
batehd waulle, now fore yn ruine, and for the molt part de-
faced. Al the goodly building, with the tourres and dim-
geon, be within the three dike." Camden, fpeaking of this
caftle, fays, " Its fize and magnificence ufed to llrike me
with aftonifhment when I came hither a lad : it is environed
with a double wall and double ditch, and in the middle, on a
high artificial hill, Hands the citadel, in the afcent to which
by fteps, I have feen a well of immenfe depth." At an
early period of the civil war between Charles I. and his par-
liament, Wallingford-caflle was put into a ftate of repair ;
and being well garrifoned, was efteemed one of the moll im-
portant fortrefles in the king's pofleffion. It efcaped a
fiege till nearly the termination of the war: in 1646 it
furrendered to the parliamentary forces ; and an order of
council for its demolition was iffued November 18, 1652.
So well was this order obeyed, that the greater part of it
was dcftroyed. Within the walls of the caille was an ancii-nt
college, founded and endowed by Edmund, earl of Corn-
wall, nephew to Henry III., for a dean, four prebendaries,
fix clerks, and four chorifters. Its revenues were further
augmented by Edward the Black Prince and king Henry VI.
Juil within the weft gate of the town was a convent of Be-
nediftine monks, founded in the reign of William the Con-
queror, by Paul, abbot of St. Alban's. The priory ellate
is now the property of William Hucks, ffq. who has a
farm-houfe on the fcite. Among the more dillinguifhed na-
tives of Wallingford, were Richard, abbot of St. Alban's,
and John, a monk of the fame place, who both derived a
furname from the place of their birth : the former was emi-
nent as a mathematician, the latter as an hiftorian.

One mile fouth of Wallingford is Chofeley-farm, one of
the largeft and nioft compadl in England ; being let .'or
1000/. per annum : there is a barn on it lOO feet in length.
It was formerly in the pofrelTion of the earls of Warwick ;
but is now the properly of lord Kenfiiigton. — Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. i. BcrkHiire ; by J. Britton and
E.W. Brayley, 1801. Lyfons' Magna Britannia, vol. i.
Berkftiire, 410. 1806.

Wallingfohd, a town of the (late of Vermont, in the
county of Rutland, containing 13^16 inhabitants ; 40 miles
N. of Bennington. — Alfo, a town of CouneAicut, in the
county of New Haven. This town, called by the Indians
Coginchauge, was fettled in 1671. It now contains 2320
inhabitants; 12 miles S.W. of Middleton.

WALLIS, John, in Biogniphy,a well known mathemati-
cian, was born at Afhford, in Kent, in the year i6l6, and
after finifhing his fchool education, was admitted, in 1632, at
Emanuel college, Cambridge, witli a view to the church.
10

^V A L

Having taken orders, he commenced the duties 0/ \m mi-
nifterial office in 1641, as chaplain to fir William Darnley,
in Yorkfliire ; and whilft he occupied the fame Ration in the
family of lady Vere, he had an opportunity of exhibiting
his extraordinary talent in the art of decypheruig. Id
1643 ^^'^ parliament, to which he was then attiiched, con-
ferred upon him the fecjueftrated living of St. Gabriel, ia
Fenchurch-ftreet, London ; and in this y-ar he publiftied a
quarto volume, entitled " Truth tried, or .-^niinadverfions
on Lord Brookes's Treatife of the Nature of Truth." At
this time he became pofleflcd of a handfome patrimony by
the death of his mother j and in 1644 he was appointed one
of the fecretaries of the alTembly of divines. In the fol-
lowing year he concurred with thofe perfons who laid the
foundation of the Royal Society, and communicated fpeci-
mens of his Ikill in mathematics; and in 1647 he difco-
vered a new method of folving cubic equations. When the
independents acquired an afcendancy* over the covenanters,
Wallis united with other minifters, who alTembled at Sion
college, in fubfcribing a paper, entitled " A Teftimony
to the Truth of Jefus Chriil, and to the Solemn League
and Covenant, as alfo againll the Errors, Herefies, and Blaf-
phcmies of thofe Times, and the Toleration of them." Ill
1648 lie fubfcribed a rcmonllrance againll putting the king
to death, and another paper, denominated " A ferious and
faithful Reprefentation of the Judgrn'Mit of Minifters of the
Gofpcl, within the Province of London, in a Letter from
them to the General and his Council of War." In the
next year he was appointed by the parliamentary vifitor Sa-
vilian profefliDr of geometry, and quitting his church in Lon-
don, entered himfelf of Exeter college, Oxford, where he
became mafter of arts, and foduloufly difcharged the duties
of his office, connecting himfelf with thofe wlio formed the
Philofophical Society in that city. Towards the end of
this year he became acquainted with Cavalleri's method of
indivifibles, which he thought applicable to the quadrature
of the circle ; but after beftowing confidcrable attention
upon it, it failed in completely anfwering his expectations.
In 1653 he publiftied, in oftavo, his " Grammar of the
Englifti Tongue, in Latin," with an " Introduftory Trea-
ti(e on Speech," containing a philofophical inquiry into the
formation of articulate founds. MS. copies of letters which
he had decyphcred were this year depofited in the Bodleian
library, together with an " Account of the Origin and Pro-
grefs of Cryptography, or Secret Writing." In the fol-
lowing year he was admitted to the degree of doiElor in divi-
nity. In ifijj he printed the propofitiou in his " Arith-
metica Infniitorum," relating to the quadrature of the circle,
which he fent to Oughtred, and he afterwards publiftied the
whole work in quarto, with an introduftory treatife on the
conic fedlions, the principal properties of which he demon-
(Irated, independently of the cone, by his method of infi-
nites. At this time he publiftied his " Elenehus Geometriae
Hobbianx," containing a confutation of Hobbes's meihod
of quadrating the circle, which was followed by an angry
controveriy of fomc continuance. In 1656 he brought out
his trad " On the Angle of Contaift," in which he con-
tradifted the opinion of Peletarius, who had maint.iined
that tins angle had no magnitude. In the following year he
pubhihed his " Mathefis Univerfalis, &c." and carried on a
controveriy with M. Fermat and M. Freniele, in letters,
which ai)prared in the" Commercium Epillolieum," in 1658.
About this tune he was chofen " cullos archivorum" to the
univerfity ; and he folved fome prize queftions propofcd by
Pafcal, that related to the cycloid. His letter to Huygena,
" De Conoide et Corporibus inde genitis," and alfo " Dc

Cycloide,

W A L

Cycloidc, &c." was publifhed in 1659. His talent for de-
cyphering recommended him to Charles II., by whom he
was gracioiifly received after his reftoration ; and who, be-
fides continuing him in his offices at the univerfity, made him
one of his chaplains in ordinary. In 1660 he was concerned
with thofe who were employed in reviewing the book of
common prayer ; and having complied with the requifitions
of the aft of uniformity, he retained his conneftion with the
church till his death. Having fuggefted that it was poffible
to teach a deaf man to fpeak, he tried his ilall. in 1660, upon
two deaf fubjeds, with a confiderable degree of fuccefs.
After the eftablilhment of the Royal Society in 1663,
Dr. Walhs, who was one of its firft members, very much
contributed to its reputation and permanence by his own
communications, and by his account of mathematical pa-
pers, tranfmitted to it by other perfons. He alfo publifh-
ed, in 1663, his traft " De Proportionibus," and his illuf-
tration of the laws of motion in the colhfion of bodies ; and
in 1668 he prefented to the public his hypothefis concerning
the tides, in his treatife " De ^llu Maris, Hypothefis
nova." In the following year appeared the firft part of his
principal work, intitled " De Motu," which was followed
in the two fucceeding years by the other two parts ; and in
1 67 1 he completed the whole, under the title of " Mecha-
nica, five de Motu, Traftatus Geometricus." His other
publications were " Horocii opera Pofthuma, with Flam-
ftead's Difcourfe on the Equation of Time," 1673, and
•'Archimedes' Arenarius," and "Dimenfio Circuli," " Pto-
lemsei Opus Harmonicum," with Latin vcrfion, and notes,
1680, and an " Appendix de Veterum Harmonica, ad ho-
diernam Comparata ;" " Porphyrii in Harmonica Ptole-
msei Commentarius ex Codice Manufcripto, Graece et La-
tine editus, et Manuelis Bryennii Harmonica ex Cod. Man :"
his " Algebra," 1684, with his Arithmetic of Infinites, the
Infinitefimal Method of Leibnitz ; and that of Fluxions,
by fir I. Newton ;" — " Three Differtations upon Melchi-
zedek. Job, and the Titles of the Pfalms," 1685 ;— " In-
ftitutio Logica," 1687 ; " Ariftarchus Samius de Magnitu-
dine Sohs et Lunx," with " Pappi Alexandrini Libri Se-
cundi Colleftionum Mathematicarum hadtenus defiderati
Fragmentum," 1689 ; and alfo a letter to fir Samuel More-
land, in order to prove that Des Cartes borrowed his im-
provement in algebra from his countryman Harriot : — " The
Doarine of the Ever-blefled Trinity," 1690; and " On
the Chriftan Sabbath," 1 691. About this time the cura-
tors of the univerfity-prefs at Oxford began to coUeft his
mathematical works, with a view of publifhing them in the
Latin tongue. The firft volume was committed to the
prefs in 1692, and the firft two volumes appeared in 1696 ;
and the third volume, containing the Commerciura Epiftoh-
cum, or Letters concerning the original Author of the Me-
thod of Fluxions, and a Letter concerning the annual Pa-
rallax of the Earth, from Mr. Flamftead, was publilhed in
1698. Thus clofed the fcientific and literary labours of
Dr. Walhs, who died in Oftober 1703, in the 88th year of
his age ; leaving behind him one fon and two daughters.
Of his general charafter, moral and political, it will be fuf-
ficient to fay, that he was prudent and moderate, endea-
vouring, in the collifion of parties, to promote what he con-
ceived to be the true intereft of rehgion and fcience, and of
the public community. As a mathematician, he is thought
to have excelled in judgment and induilry more than in ge-
nius. Biog. Brit. Hutton's Math. Dift.

Dr. WaUis was the firft in our country who wrote on fym-
pathetic vibrations, and the difcovcry of LefTons Harmo-
aiques, or the harmonics of a fingle ftring ( Phil. Tranf. ) ;
7

W A L

but he feemed not to know that Galileo and Lemnii Roffe
in Italy, and Pere Merfenne in France, had preceded him
in accounts of that phenomenon. See Basse Fondamon-
TALE, and Harmonics.

Dr. Wallis was the firft man of fcience in England who
had read the Geeek writers on mufic piibliftied by Meibo-
mius, who underftood modern harmony, and who denied it
to the ancients. He pubhftied Ptolemy's Harmonics, with
a Latin tranflation, and notes ; Porphyry ; and Bryennius.
He feems to have iludied and underftood the fubjeft of the
mufic of the ancient Greeks better than any of our countrj'-
men. His papers in the Phil. Tranf., his Appendix to
Ptolemy's Harmonics, and notes on the authors he has
tranflated, are fuch as manifeft at once, by their clearnefs,
learning, meditation, and fcience.

Wallis'j Bay, or Harbour, in Geography, a bay in the
ftraits of Magellan ; 12 miles N.E. of Cape Forward.'

Wali.is'j Ijland, a fmall ifland near the fouth-eaft coaft
of New Ireland, at the entrance of Gower's-harbour, called
Ifle de Marteaux by M. Bougainville ; 9 miles N.W. of
Cape St. George.

Wallis'j IJlands, in the South Pacific Ocean, difcover-
ed by Capt. Wallis in the year 1767, furrounded by a reef
of rocks. The inhabitants were robuft and aftive, quite
naked, except a kind of mat wrapt round the middle. No
other animal was feen, either bird orbeaft, except fea-fowl.
The trees were of different forts, and many of them large,
the only fruit were a few cocoa-nuts. S. lat. 13° 18'. W.
long. 177°.

WALLISHOFEN, a village of Switzerland, in the
canton of Zurich. Here the French were defeated by the
Auftrians ; i mile S.W. of Zurich.

WALLKILL,apoft-townftiip of New York, in Orange
county, with 42 1 3 inhabitants, on a creek of the fame name ;
20 miles W. of Newburgh.

WALLOE, or Valloe, a town of Denmark, in the
ifland of Zealand ; 3 miles S. of Kioge.

WALLOE, a town of Africa, on the Ivory coaft. N.
lat. 5° 20'. W. long. 4° 55'.

WALLOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
5 miles S.E. of Ongole.

WALLOP'S Island, an ifland in the Atlantic, near
the coaft of Virginia. N. lat. 37^ 48'. W. long. 75°
28'.

WALLSEY, ore of the Shetland iflands, on the North
Atlantic Ocean, fituated near the eaft coaft of Shetland ;
about fix miles in length, and three in breadth. N. lat. 60°
35'. W. long. 1° 5'-

WALMER Castle, a fort of England, on the call
coaft of Kent, near Deal. See Deal.

WALMERSLEY, a townfliip of England, in Lanca-
(hire ; 4 miles N. of Bolton.

WALNEY, a narrow ifland in the Irifh fea, feparated
from the coaft of the county of Lancafter by a narrow chan-
nel ; about nine miles in length, but hardly one in breadth.
It has two or three fmall villages, and a chapel. The fouth
end is about 16 miles W.N.W. from the mouth of the
Lune. N. lat. 54° 3'. W. long. 3° 10'.

WALNUT, a townfliip of Ohio, in the county of Fair-
field, containing 694 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfliip of
Ohio, in the county of Pickaway, containing 759 inha-
bitants.

Walnut Hills, a mountainous ridge in the Mifliflippi
territory, on the eaft bank of the Mifliffippi, near the mouth
of the Yazoo ; N. lat. 32° 20'.

Walnut-

WALNUT-TREE.

Walnut-7V«, in Botany, Gardening, and tlic Materia
Medica. Sec Juglans.

Walnut-7Vc?, in ^Agriculture, the common name of a
tree which is well known for the ufe of the nuts which it
produces for the table, as an article for the deffert, and of
their rind?, liufl^s, or coats, as well as themfelvcs in their
unripe llatc, as an elegant, valuable, and agreeable pickle ;
alfo for its wood as timber, and its ornamental cfTed. It
is on thefe and other accounts a very defirable tree for cul-
tivation ; but, in the tiril intention, this is often in a great
degree prevented, from the very great length of time which
is required, in the ordinary modes of raifing it, before it
becomes capable of bearing fruit in any fufficient quantity.
The inconvenience arifing in this way has, however, lately,
in a great mcafure, been obviated by direfting the following
methods atid means of producing and growing it. In addi-
tion to what has been faid of its modes of culture under
Juglans, it may be farther noticed, that an ingenious
cultivator of garden and orchard plants has, within thefe
few laft years, from confidering the nature of what takes
place in raifing fruit-trees of the apple and fome other kinds,
from old bearing branches of other trees of the fame forts,
by the praftice of grafting ; fufpefting that they never
form what may with propriety be denominated young trees,
the (locks into which they are inferted only affording them
nouriftiment ; and the new plants retaining, in all cafes, the
charafters and habits of the particular bearing branches of
which they once formed parts, and commonly producing,
in two or three years from the periods of their infertion,
fupplies of fruit ; been induced to believe that the effefts of
time might be anticipated in the culture of this and feveral
other fruit-trees, which remain unproduftive for a great
many years after their being planted ; and that parts of the
bearing branches of them, when cut and detached from the
old trees, and made ufe of as grafts, would Hill retain the
character and liabits of bearing branches.

Some walnut-trees of two years old or growth, wliich
had been planted in the fpring feafon, fome time before, in
garden-pots, were, in confequence, raifed up to the bearing
branches of an old wahnit-tree, by placing them on the tops
of poles fet into the earth, and grafted by approach with
parts of them. Their union took place during the fummer,
and in the autumn the grafts were detached from the parent
ftock. The plants thus obtained were afterwards planted
in a nurfery-ground, and, without any peculiar care or ma-
nagement, produced both male and female blolfoms in the
third fucceeding fpring, and have fince afforded bloffoms
every feafon. It is noticed, however, that the froit has
rendered their bloffoms, as well as thofe of other trees in
their neighbourhood, wholly unprodudlive during the laft
three years; and in the fpring of the year 1805, almoft
wholly deftroyed the wood of the preceding year.

It is remarked that a fimilar experiment was made the
fame year on the mulberry-tree, but under many difadvan-
tages. Not having any young plants of this tree, the ex-
periment could only be made with fcions of one year old or
growth ; and of thefe there were oidy two, which had
iprung from the roots of a young tree, in the preceding
year. Thefe were planted in pots, and raifed in the former
method, to the bearing branches of an old tree. One of
the fcions died ; the other, which had very few roots, fuc-
ceedcd ; and the young grafted tree bore fruit the third
year, and has continued annually produftive. In the lail
fpring it was introduced into the vinery, where it* fruit
ripened in the greateft ilate of pcrfeftion.

The walnut as well as mulbcrry-trcc fucceede fo ill in
Vol. XXXVII.

grafting, in any other manner than that by approach, that
attempts to propagate them in any other way can fcarcely
be recommended ; but when they fuccced by other modes of
this nature, nearly the fame advantages will probably be ob-
tained. It is fuggeltcd, however, that the habit of the
bearing brancli is lead diftiirbed by grafting in the approach
method. The latter has been found capable of being pro-
duced by layers and cuttings from the ftrong bearing
branches, and to be equally produtlive in thefe ways of
raifing them. Great advantages, too, have attended pinning
them in a careful manner, and training them agaiiift foulh
walls, palings, and other fuch fences.

The Spanifh chefniit fuccecds, it is obferved, readily,
when grafted in almoll any of the ufual ways ; and when the
grafts are taken from bearing branches, the young trees
afford bloffoms in the fucceeding year. And it is further
fuggefted, that there is reafon to think, from experiments
which have been made on this tree, that by felefting thofe
varieties which ripen their fruit early in the autumn, and by
propagating with grafts or buds from young and vigorous
trees of that kind, which have only jufl attained the age ne-
ceffary to enable them to bear fruit, it might be cultivated
with much advantage in this country, not only for the ufe
of the fruit, but for that of the wood as timber.

Similar experiments have likewife been tried on many
other different forts of trees, which, it is remarked, have
conflantly been attended with the fame refult ; and no doubt
is entertained but that the effedts of time might be thus an-
ticipated in the culture of any fruit, which is not produced
until the feedling trees acquire a confiderable age. For the
conviftion of long and extenfive experience has fully (hewn,
that the graft derives nutriment only, and not growth, from
the young itock into which it is inferted ; and that with the
life of the parent ftock, the graft retains its habit and con-
ftitution, as well as perhaps other properties, as already
fuggefted. See Juglans. See alfo different papers in the
Tranfaftions of the Horticultural Society of London.

The walnut is alfo a well-known deciduous tree, which
was formerly much grown and cultivated in the field, and
lield in great efteem in this country for its wood, which is
not unfrequently very finely veined ; but which, in confe-
quence of its aptnefs to be wcrm-eaten, has now, for the
moft part, given place to mahogany. It is likewife an
ufeful tree for the purpofes of ornament, and for its produce
in fruit.

There are different forts of it, which are capable of being
raifed and grown in thefe intentions with advantage ; fuch as
the common fort of walnut, which is a very large, lofty,
fpreading tree, and which has many varieties, as the oval
and round walnut, the large and fmall-fruited walnut, the
double early and late walnut, the tender thin-(helled walnut,
and the hard thick-fhelled walnut ; the white fort of walnut,
which has the fruit (haped like the common walnut, but in
wliich the (hell is not furrowed, the tree being of a light
colour. It is faid by fome to be a tall tree in North
America, where it greatly prevails under the title of hiccory
nut-tree ; and the black walnut-tree, which is large, and
has the outer covering of the nuts rough, with the form of
them more round than in the firft of thefe forts. The (hell
is very hard and thick, but the kernel fmall, though very
fwcet and agreeable to the tafte. Thefe two latter forts of
walnut-trees are lefs hardy than that of the common kind,
though very proper in fome cafes of planting. It has been
noticed that all the firft forts of thefe trees vary again, when
raifed from the feed, and that as the nuts from the fame
tree will produce different fruit. Thofe who plant the
4 Q walnut

AV A I.

walnut for the produce of its fruit {hould make choice of
the young trees for that ufe, in the places where they ftand,
when they have their fruit upon them.

However, where thefe trees are intended for timber, it is
probably the beft praftice to plant them out at once in the
places where they are to Hand or grow, as they thrive fafter,
and form better trees, it is faid, in that method of raifing
them, than by any other means. The feed or nuts of the
two latter forts are to be procured from North America,
and fhould be fuch as have been well ripened and fecured.

Thefe trees delight in a firm, rich, loamy foil, or fuch as
is inclinable to chalk or marie ; but they will thrive very
well, it is faid, in ground which is of a ftony nature, or on
chalk-hills, as is evident from thofe large plantations of them
about Leatherhead, Godilone, and Carfhalton, in the county
of Surrey, where great numbers of thefe trees, planted on
the downs near thefe places, produce, it is faid, annually
large quantities of fruit, to the no fniall advantage of their
■owners. Mr. Carlifle found the walnut raifed from feed to
be produftive of fruit at a very early period, in one cafe,
when grown on a foil the furface mould of which was of a
dark colour, and of from eighteen to twenty inches in
depth : it was what the workmen called a light foil ; and
immediately beneath which was a fine filiceous fand, about
two feet thick ; then a ilratum of ochrey flint gravel ; after
which a red clay ; and, at the depth of twelve feet, good
water, arifing from clean white fand.

The writer of the correfted account of the agriculture
of Gloucefterrtiire has, however, dated that this fort of
tree will grow almoil in any foil, that it wants no pruning
or care, and that in lefs time than the oak it will make a
large tree.

In planting thefe trees, when they are defigned for the
purpofe of fruit, in fuch fituations, it (hould not be done at
lefs diltance apart than about forty feet ; and if more, it will
be the better m many cafes, where the foil is particularly
fuitable. But when for the wood or timber only, it may
be performed in fomewhat a clofer manner with propriety,
in moft inftanccs ; though the trees, in fuch cafes, Ihould
never be too much crowded together. Wlien for ornament,
fingle confpicuous trees have probably the bcit efFeft ; but
fometimes a few may be planted together with good effect.

The above writer remarks that the wood of this tree is too
valuable to apply to the ufual purpofes of timber-trees, and
is confequently always ufed either for cabinet-work, or for
gun-ftocks : for the latter ufe indeed, fo great, it is faid,
has been the demand for a few years paft, from the Bir-
mingham gun-makers, that the diftridl he is fpeaking of has
been ranfackcd for this timber-wood, and very high prices
have been held out to tempt the fale of it. In confequence
of which, the ftock has been much diminifhed there, fo that,
with very few exceptions, only a folitary walnut-tree is feen
growing here and there ; but that in the parifh of Arling-
ham, in that county, there are more perhaps than in many
other parilhes of the fame diftrift combined : fo abundant
indeed was the fruit, it is faid, that year (1805), that it
became an article of commerce, and two veflels were then,
in the beginning of Oftober, being laden with walnuts for
Scotland, at the above place, at a rate as low as four or five
(hillings a thoufand ; and that even at this price, the pro-
duce of a tree of this fort is highly valuable, as 20,000 nuts
are not confidered an extravagant calculation for a large
tree.

Nay, were it only for the oil that thefe nuts afford, the
trees that produce them would, fome think, be worthy of
fome care. Evelyn has indeed obferved, that one buihel of

W A L

them will yield fifteen pounds of peeled kernels, and that
thefe will yield half that weight of oil, which the fooner it
is drawn is the more in quantity, though the drier the nut
the better in quahty. It is added too, that the lee, or marc
of the prefling, is an excellent fubilance for feeding hogs
with. It would certainly be good manure for land, as
are the cakes of linfeed, rape, and fome others, after the
oil has been fqueezed out of them. The green hulks boiled,
without any mixture, it is faid, make a good colour for
dying a dark yellow ; and that the kernel rubbed upon any
crack or chink of a leaky veffel, will flop it better than
either clay, pitch, or wax.

Thefe trees may, of courfe, be faid to be doubly profit-
able, as in their annual crops of fruit, while growing, and
in their timber, when felled or cut down.

The nuts are the bell preferved, for planting and raifing
the trees, in fome fort of dry fandy material ; and advantage
is faid to be gained, in rendering the trees more early pro-
duftive, by fuch means as prevent their roots from running
too much downwards.

In the intention of preferving and ufing the nuts or fruit
as feed, they (hould be left upon the trees until they be
perfeftly ripe, which is (hewn by the outer huflcs eafily fe-
parating from the nuts, and by thefe hulks occafionally
opening and letting the nuts drop out. It is ufually about
the latter end of September. In trees of large growth, the
nuts are ufually beaten down by long poles, as it would be
difficult and troublefome to gather them by the hand ; but
it (hould not be done with fuch violence as is commonly
ufed, from the mittaken notion that the trees are thereby
improved, as mofl certainly they cannot be benefitted by
fuch a rough manner of forcing off the young wood, upon
which this fruit moftly grows at the extremities of the
branches. As foon as gathered, they are to be laid in
heaps a few days to heat and fweat, to caufe the complete
feparation of the huflcs, then be cleaned from the rubbilh
that hangs about them, and be depofited in a dry room for
ufe, covering them well with dry ftraw, when they will keep
fome months.

Walnuts are always of ready fale in the markets of large
towns, in which, at their firll coming in, they are com-
monly bought with their hu(l<s on, and fold by the fack or
bulhcl, but afterwards cleaned, and difpofed of both by
meafure and the thoufand.

The ordinary length of time required for the walnut to
bear well, when raifed from the nut or feed, is moflly about
twenty years.

WALO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Upland ; 30 miles N.E. of Upfal.

WALOM, a town of Hindoodan, in Gnzerat ; 16 miles
S. of Puttan.

W A LOON, or Walloon, a kind of old French;
being the language fpoken by the Walloons, or the in-
habitants of a confiderable part of the French and Auftrian
Low Countries ; -viz,, thofe of Artois, Hainault, Namur,
Luxemburg, and part of Flanders and Brabant.

The Waloon is held to be the language of the ancient
Gauls, or Celts.

The Romans, having fubdued feveral provinces in Gaul,
eftabli(hed praetors, or proconfuls, &c. to adminifter juf-
tice in the Latin tongue. On this occafion, the natives
were brought to apply themfelves to learn the language of
their conquerors ; and thus they introduced abundance of
the Roman words and phrafes into their own tongue.

Of this mixture of Gauliih and Latin was formed a new
language, called Romans ; in contradiHindlion to the ancient

unadulterated

W A L

unadulterated Gaulifh, w^iich is called Waloon, or Walloon.
This diftinftion is kept up to this day ; for the inhabitants
of feveral of the Low-Country provinces fay, that in France
they fpeak Romans ; whereas they fpeak the Walloon,
which comes much nearer the fimplicity of the ancient
Gauliih.

WALOUGA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Whidah ; lo miles N. of Sabi.

WALPACK, a town of the (late of New Jerfey, in the
county of SufTex, containing 591 inhabitants; 25 miles
W.N.W. of Morriftown.

WALPERSDORFF, atownofAuftria.ontheTrafen;
4 miles N. of St. Polten.

WALPING See, a lake of Pruflia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 4 miles S.W. of AUenftein.

WALPIT, a town of France, in the department of the
Lis ; 3 miles N.N.E. of Courtray.

WALPO,or Wai.pon, a town of Sclavonia, wliich gives
name to a county, fituated on a river which runs into the
Drave, defended by an ancient caftle ; 20 miles N.W. of
Efzek.

Walpo Taro, a rock in the Spanifli Main, near the
Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 14° 30'. W. long. 82° 40'.

WALPOLE, Robert, in Biography, earl of Orford,
the third fon of Robert Walpole, efq., was born at Hough-
ton in Norfolk, the feat of his father, in Auguft 1676, re-
ceived his preparatory inftruftion at Eton, and completed
his courfe of education at King's college, Cambridge ; be-
ing diftinguifhed at fchool for his talents for public fpeaking,
and at the univerfity by the ardour of his attachment to
Whig principles. He was originally defigned for the
church ; but his views were changed by the death of his
eldeil furviving brother in 1698, and lie was initiated in the
habits and purfuits of a country gentleman. In 1 700 he
married a lady, whofe fortune enabled him to clear the in-
cumbrances of an eftate of 2000/. a year, which came into
his pofTefiion after his father's death, and in this year he be-
came an aftive member of parliament in connexion with the
Whig party, as a reprcfentative of the boroiigli of Cattle
Rifing. In queen Anne's firll parliament, 1702, he was
returned for Lynn, and continued to repreft-nt that borough
till he became a member of the houfe of peers. Having
availed himfelf of two or three opportunities which oc-
curred for gaining the efteem and confidence of his party,
lie was appointed by the Whig adminiftration in 1708 fe-
cretary of war, which office he held for a (hort time in con-
ncftion with that of treafurer of the navy. After the trial
of Sacheverel, which ilfued unfortunately, he publifhcd a
pamphlet, in which he fixed the ftigma of .lacobitifm on the
abettors of that turbulent prielt. Upon the difmiffhl of tiie
Whig miniftry, he refigned his office; but having provoked
the difpleafure of the ruling party by his fpirited defence
of lord Godolphin, he was charged with venality and cor-
ruption, while he held the place of fecretary at war, ex-
pelled the houfe, and committed to the Tower in January
1712. During his confinement, he was regarded as a mar-
tyr to the Whig caufc, and vifited by feveral perfons of
diftinftion ; and he employed himfelf in writing a pamphlet
in his own vindication. After his releafe in .luly, thougli
he could not take his feat, he ferved his party by his coun-
fel and by liis pen. The diffohition of parliament took
place in 1713 ; and Walpole was induced to expofe the mea-
fures of the Tory muiiltry by a pamplilet, intitled " A
(hort HiRory of the Parliament," to wliieh he affixed the
motto, " Vcnalis populus, Venalis Curia Patrum." IJeing
returned again for Lynn in February 17 14, he was aftive
in oppofing the queen's Tory minillry ; and particularly

W A L

diftinguilhed himfelf by a fpeech in favour of Steele, who
was profecuted by the houfe for two publications. To-
wards the clofe of this reign, he difplaycd great zeal for the
Proteilant fuccelTion in the houfe of Hanover. Upon the
death of tlie queen in Auguft 17 14, and the acceffion of
George I., a new Whig miniftry was formed : and Wal-
pole was recompenfed for his fufferings and loffes by the
two lucrative places of paymafter of the forces, and of
Chelfea Hofpital. He was ailively employed in connec-
tion with lord Townfhend, principal fecretary of (late, who
liad married his fiiler ; and became chairman of the fecret
committee appointed to inquire into charges againfl the late
minifters, and moved the impeachment of lord Bolingbroke.
Being a zealous fupporter of government in the rebellion of
1715, he was advanced to the important ports of firtt lord
of the treafury and chancellor of the exchequer. Although
illnefs prevented his fupporting the feptennial bill in parlia-
ment, he was decidedly attached to the meafure. During
fhe divifions that afterwards occurred in the cabinet, he
(leadily maintained his conneftion with lord Townfhend, and
on his difmiflion in 17 17, refigned his office ; and even joined
the Tories in oppofing meafures, for which, as a minilter, he
would have been an advocate. He contributed by a fpeech
delivered on the occafion to the rcjeftion of the peerage bill
in 1 7 19, and he oppofed in 1720 the South-fea fcheme for
the liquidation of the national debt. Lord Townfliend and
Walpole received overtures from the earl of Sunderland,
whofe minillry was embarrafiud, and a partial coalition was
effefted, in confequence of which the latter was rellored to
the poll of paymafter of the forces. He had previoiifly
effefted a reconciliation between tlie king and the prince of
Wales, between wliom a variance had long fubfilled. To
him the public attention was direfted during the difafters
that fucceeded the failure of the South-fea fcheme in 1721 ;
an event which ferved to difplace lord Sunderland from the
poft of firft lord of the treafury, in which Walpole was re-
eftabli(hed. At this time he adopted meafures for advanc-
ing tlie trade and manufadlures of the country, which have
been much applauded by Jean Tucker. In 1 722 a new
parliament aflemblcd, in which tlie Whigs compofed a ma-
jority ; and Walpole diftinguifhed himfelf in the profecu-
tion of bifhop Atterbury for liis plot in favour of the pre-
tender, which terminated in the baniftiment of this prelate.
In recompencc of his fervices, which were fuch as not to
allow his removal from the lioufe of commons, his fon was
made a baron. His brother, Horace Walpole, was ap-
pointed minifter to the court of France, and he was ho-
noured with being nominated knight of the garter. Sir
Robert Walpole was at tliis time prime minifler. In 1725
he promoted the bill for reftoring lord Bolingbroke to his
country and eftate, though his attainder was Hill fiibfiiluig ;
and this partial benefit gave fuch offence to his lordfhip,
that he became a powerful antagonift to Walpole's adminif-
tration. His pacific meafures higldy recommended him
both to the nation and the king ; but the death of his nia-
jefty in 1727 occafioned changes tluit are generally incident
to a new reign. Walpole was no favourite with George II.,
but the influence of queen Caroline prevailed againft the in-
trigues of botli Pulleney and lord Bolingbroke, and when
he was confidered as a fillen miniller, re-eftabli(hed in the
offices of firft lord of the treafury and chancellor of the
exchequer, with a greater degree of power tlian he had ever
before pod'eded. Of courfe his deferted levees were crowded
with thofe wiio bafl< in tl\e fiin-fliine of court favour. W.il-
pole, however, was alTailed by a hull of able and aftive ad-
verfaries ; among whom win' Pulteney at the head of dif-
contcnted Whigs, Sir William Wyndham and the Tories,
4 Q 2 and

WALPOLE.

and a group of Jacobites. For felf-defence, when argu-
ment, which derived every poffible advantage from his elo-
quence, failed, he had recourfe to the more powerful in-
fluence of corruption ; and this latter mode of conviction
which he not only praftifed from neceffity, but fyftemati-
cally vindicated and recommended, gave a diftinguifhing
charafter to his adminiftration, and entailed reproach on his
memory. In order to fecure the favour of the court, he
augmented the civil lift, and obtained for queen Caroline a
jointure of 100,000/. Soon after, it/s. in 1 730, the differences
with the court of Spain were terminated by the treaty of
Seville in 1 729, but Townlhend, difgufted by the fuperiority
which his kinfman Walpole was affuming, refigned his office
of fecretarv of ftate, and withdrevs- from public bufinefs with
dignity and honour. In the year 1733, Walpole propofed
two meafures of finance, which occafioned much oppofition
and clamour ; one was the alienation of the finking fund,
and the other the introduftion of the excife ; but notwith-
/landing the did'atisfaftion produced by thefe meafures, and
by his difappointing expeftations which he had encouraged
the Diffenters to indulge with regard to the repeal of the
Teil Aft, the minifter maintained his ground ; and fuc-
ceeded in his endeavours for preferving peace with foreign
nations. The difagreement between Frederick prince of
Wales and his father was the fource of much uneafinefs
and trouble, and thcfe were aggravated by the death of
queen Caroline, who had been long attached to him, and
fupported his interell with his royal mafter. Differences
that occurred between this country and Spain, on account
of the commerce in South America, was the occafion of
additional anxiety ; and though he much wilhed for the con-
tinuance of peace, the difcontented party prevailed, and in
1739 war was declared againft Spain. With a mind thus agi-
tated, and contending with a powerful oppofition, he fought
leave to refign, but the king would not confent. At length,
I'iz. in 1 740, a motion was made in the houfe of commons
for his removal from the king's prefence and councils ; but
though it was then negatived, the clamour againft him in-
creafed ; and lofing the fupport of the houfe, he was created
earl of Orford in February 1 742, and refigned. He fuc-
ceeded, however, by his influence, in forming a Whig minif-
try, at the head of which was Pulteney. His conduft dur-
ing his adminiftration became the fubjeft of parliamentary
inquiry, but his enemies could not prevail againft him ; and
he fo far retained his majefty's regard and confidence, as to
be confulted by him, and to advife Pelham to be placed at
the head of the treafury. Having long been afflifted with
calculous complaints, which were aggravated by a journey
from Norfolk to London, by command of the king in No-
vember 1 744, he was obliged to recur for temporary relief
to large dofes of opium ; but after a difplay of extraordi-
nary fortitude and refignation during the progrefs of his
fevere diforder, it terminated in his death, on March i8th,
1745, in the 69th year of his age. As to his political cha-
rafter, one of his biographers fays, " that the defire of pre-
ferving peace abroad, and avoiding all fubjefts of conten-
tion at home, and promoting gradual improvements in the
trade and finances of the country, and purfuing ufeful ra-
ther than fplendid objects, joined with a fincere zeal for the
Froteftant fucccffion, were the leading principles of his go-
vernment ; and the means which he employed were pru-
dence, moderation, vigilance, and, it mull be allowed,
corruption, though it may well be doubted whether he left
pubhc men more corrupt than he found them." As a man
of bufinefs, he was methodical and dihgent ; and, accord-
to lord Chefterfield, " an artful rather than an eloquent
fpeaker ;" and more a man of found fenfe and quick dif-

cernment than of genius. In private life, he is faid to have
been good-humoured, eafy and agreeable in his temper,
frankly familiar in his manner, and of courfe much cfteemed
by his friends and conciliatory to his enemies. His man-
ners, however, were inelegant, his mirth coarfe, his converfa-
tion and morals hcentious, acceffible to flattery, and the eafy
dupe of women. In his domeftic relation, he was kind and
benevolent ; but Re neither loved nor patronized literature.
Coxe's Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole. Gen. Biog.

Walpole, Horace, lord Orford, the youngeit fon of
the preceding nobleman, was born in 1718, and educated
firll at Eton and afterwards at King's college, Cambridge,
where he wrote " Verfes in Memory of King Henry VI."
dated in 1738. Having been nominated on leaving the
univerfity to fome patent finecure places, he commenced his
tour to the continent in 1739, in which he was accompanied
by Gray, from whom he parted, as he candidly acknow-
ledges, by his own fault, and to whom in 1 744 he was re-
conciled. His moft intimate friend, however, was his na-
tural coufin, general Seymour Conway, to whom he was
attached from his youth, and with whom he correfponded
from 1740 to 1795, '^^ y^^ °^ ^^'^ general's death. His
firft appearance in parliament was in 1741, as a reprefenta-
tive for Callington. But more attached to literature and the
arts than to the occupations of public life, and unambitious
of obtaining any emoluments befides thofe which his places
afforded him, or any rank and ftation connefted with politi-
cal purfuits, he rather chofe to retire from the world than
to take an aftive part in parliamentary bufinefs. On all
occafions, however, he manifefted his fteady adherence to
thofe Whig principles which he had imbibed from his youth,
and his conduft as a member of the legiflature was always
pure and independent. Having, in 1748, purchafed a fmall
houfe at Twickenham, called Strawberry-hill, he devoted
his time and attention to the improvement of it in the Go-
thic ftyle of architefture ; and to the furnifiiingof it with fuch
a colleftion of books, pidures, and other fpecimens of the
fine arts, as made it a very deCrable place of refort in the
vicinity of the metropolis, and he gratified the public cu-
riofity and tafte by appropriating three hours a day in the
fummer months for the accommodation of vifitors. In this
Angular and interefting manfion, he amufed himfelf with the
cultivation and exercife of his literary talents by contribut-
ing fome papers to a periodical pubhcation, entitled " The
World ;" by his " Catalogue of Royal Noble Authors,"
printed by his own prefs ; and by a collection of his " Fu-
gitive Pieces;" by his " Anecdotes of Painting in Eng-
land," publifhed in 1761, in 2 vols. 4to., to which he after-
wards added two more volumes ; by apolitical pamphlet on
general Conway's difmifiion from the army for his vote in
parliament on general Warrants, which appeared in 1764;
and tale of the " Caftle of Otranto," publilhed in 1765.
During his vifit at Paris in 1765, he provoked the refent-
ment of the irritable Rouffeau, by addrefling to him a let-
ter in the name of the king of Pruffia, expofing his vanitv
and felf-conceit. This letter was afterwards printed, and led
Rouffeau to fufpeft, that this was part of a concerted plan
to ruin his reputation, and that Hume and the French philo-
fophers had contrived it for tliis purpofe. Walpole was juftly
cenfured for the part he took in this bufinefs ; nor could his
beft friends vindicate him for the contemptuous treatment
with which he treated thofe who were authors by profeffion.
In 1767 Walpole withdrew from pubhc bufinefs, and de-
clined a return for the borough of Lynn in the enfuing
parliament. Soon afterwards he publifiied his " Hiftoric
Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard III." In
1766, he printed at his own prefs his tragedy of the " Myi-

tcrious

W A L

tv;irwus Mother;" and about the fame time ho was concerned
in the tranfaftions that occurred between him and the unfor-
tunate Chattertoii. In 1791 the death of his nephew ele-
vated him to the rank and title of earl of Orford ; but this
circumftance requiring fome change in his fixed habits,
gave him rather uneafinefs than fatisfaftion. Towards tlie
clofe of his life he was much afflidted with a conftitntional
gout, by which he was much debilitated ; and yet he at-
tained to his 79th year, quietly expiring in March 1797.
His printed and MS. writings, of wliich an edition was pub-
lifhed in 1798 in 5 vols. 410., were bequeathed to Robert
Berry, efq. and his two daughters. A pollhumous work,
viz. " Letters from the Hon. Horace Walpole, Efq. to
George Montague, Efq. from the Year 1736 to 1770," royal
4to. has been piiblifhcd.

Although Horace Walpole, as to the habits of his life,
was more inclined to perfonal enjoyment than to focial inter-
courfe, his difpofition was affeftionate, and he was occafion-
ally generous to his friends. Although he was not pro-
foundly learned, he encouraged literature and the arts by his
own writings, and by various domellic arrangements and
conveniences adapted to this purpofe. Nichols's Lit. Anecd.
Walpole's Works. Gen. Biog.

Walpole, in Gecgraphy, a town of New Hampfhire, in
the county of Chefhire, on the Connefticut, contaming 894
inhabitants ; 76 miles N.W. of Bofton. — Alfo, a town of
the ftate of Maflachufctts, in the county of Norfolk, con-
taining 1098 inhabitants; zi miles S.W. of BoHon.

WALPUSCH, a river of Poland, which runs into the
Narew, near Pultuflt.

WALRABENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Naflau Weilburg ; 3 miles N. of Id-
rtein.

WALKING, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
4 miles N.W. of Mclrichftadt.

WALRUS, in Zoology, the name by which fome au-
thors call the morfe, or fea-horfe, called alfo by others rof-
marus, a creature very different from the hippopotamus, or
river-horfe. See Mouse.

WALSALL, in Geography, an ancient market-town in
the fouth divifion of the liundred of Offlow, in the county of
Stafford, England, is fituated on an eminence at the dillance
of 16 miles S.E. by S. from the county-town, and 126
miles S.W. from London. It is a place of remote antiquity,
and is regarded as the fecond town in the county. The
civil government is veiled in a mayor, recorder, twenty-four
aldermen, and a town-clerk : the mayor, late mayor, and
fenior aldermen, are in the commilfion of the peace, and
TCgularly hold qnartcr-feirions. According to the return of
the year 1811, the inhabitants of the toun amounted to
5541, occupying 1 1 50 hoiifes, which are diipofed in twelve
Ilrtets. The manufafture chiefly carried on hen: is that of
buckles, fpurs, ftirrups, and in general all forts of hard-
ware articles connetled with fadlery. A well-fupplled
market is held on Tnefdays ; and three fairs annually for
horfes, cattle, cheefe, and bacon. A remarkable cul'.oni,
mentioned by Dr. Plot, Hill prevails here : on the eve of
Epiphany, a gift of one penny is regularly dillributed to
every pcrfon refiding in the town, or ni the villages thcrilo
belonging ; not only to the fixed inliabitaiits, but to all
ilrangers who may happen to be there. This was an
ancient endowment of an inhabitant of the name of Moriey.
The church is a very ancient edifice, of a cruciform con-
Ilniition. At the fouth-wcll angle rifes a llrong, plain
tower, furmounted Ijy an 0(t\agonal fpire. The inttrior is
lofty and fpacious, and prefents a fingular appearance: each
iide of the chancel has feveii Halls, the feats of which are
ornamented with a great variety of grotefque figures carved

6

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in ballo-rehevo. Under this part of the church is an arcir
way of maffy workmanfhip, forming a common paffagc
through the eaflern divifion of the church-yard. Here are
alio fcveral places of worfhip appropriated to various clafTes
of diflenters : and a free grammar-fchool founded by queen
Elizabeth.

This parifli includes the foreign of Walfall, a diftrift com-
prehending the hamlets of Great Bloxwich, Little Blox-
wich, Caldmoor, Little London, and the Windmill. In
the year 181 1, the population of this dillrift was flatcd to
be 5648 ; the nuniber of houfes 1099 : making the in-
habitants of the whole parifh 11,199 '< '^''^ houfes 2249.

About a mile and a half to the north of Walfall is RuJhaU-

Hall, the feat and park of the Rev. W. Leigh Bcfcot-

Hall is one mile from the town, and occupies the fcite of
the ancient baronial manfion of the Hillarys and Mountfords :
it is furrounded by a moat, over which is a pifturefque
bridge : the iron-gates, formerly flanding clofe to the houfe,
are now placed at a confiderable dillance, greatly improving
the approach. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii.
Staffordfhire.

WALSCHIED, a town of France, in the departmeat
of the Meufe ; 6 miles S.E. of Sarburg.

^^ ALSDORF, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Naflau; 3 miles N.E. of Idftein. — Alfo, a town of
Bavaria ; 4 miles W. of Bamberg.

WALSEE, a town of Auflria, on the Danube ; 14
miles E. of Ens.

WALSH, William, in Biography, was bom at Abberly
in Worceflerfliire in 1663, and having finifhed his education
as gentleman-commoner of Wadham college in Oxford, he
travelled abroad for further improvement, and after his re-
turn attracted notice as a man of letters and of fafhion. He
alfo affumed a political charsfter, and reprefented his native
county in parhamcnt, and diftinguifhed himfelf by aAively
promoting the Revolution. He is fuppofed to have died in
1709. Dryden, with whom he cultivated friendfhip, repaid
his attentions with that praifc which he was difpofed hbe-
rally to bellow on thofe whom lie wifhed to dillinguifh, de-
nominating him " the befl critic of our nation," and he
furnifhed a preface to his " Dialogue concerning Women."
Pope alfo acknowledges early obligations to him in the fol-
lowing terms:

" And knowing Walfh would tell me I could write."
In his " Effay on Criticifm," he denominates him the
" Mufe's judge and friend," and with the ardour of youth,
gives him tlie credit of having " taught his early voice to
fing." It has been obferved, however, that Mr. Walfh's
rank in the fcale of literature fcarcely entitled him to the
high panegyric either of Dryden or of Pope ; for neither
his mifcellaneous poems, nor his profe pieces, of which one
was his " EfTay on Pafloral Poetry," juflify the very dif-
tinguifhed honour which they conferred upon him. Biog.
Brit. .lohiifon's I^ives of the Poets. Gen. Biog.

Wai,.sm, John, opened a mufic-fhop in Catherinc-llrcct
ill till- Strand, 1710 ; and was the firlt in our country who
flainpt nuilie on pewter. He was fuccceded by his ion,
who was Handel's publillier ; the publilhcr of Corelli, and
ot the folos and concertos of Geminiaui. Indeed he and
Hule ill the city, fcemed for a long time to moiiopolize the
fale of iniific throughout the kingdom ; till .lohnfon of
Cheapfide, who attended all the great fairs in the kingdom,
and Breniner from Edinburgh, opened a fhop in the Strand,
and becanu' extcnfive pubhfheis, and formidable rivals to
Walili iiid his fucceflor and relation, Randal.

Till Dutch, during the whole lad century, engraved or
flampt mufic on copper, fuperior to the natives of all other
countries. The only engraver iii that metal in our own

country

W A L

W A L

country was Cluer in Bow church-yard, who engraved in
gvo. feveral of Handel's operas in fcore, in the neateft and
moil correft manner which we remember to have feen, par-
ticularly Julius Caefar, in 1720, which we keep as a
curiofity.

Walsh, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied m
fome cafes to the peculiarly infipid tafte of fome vegetables,
roots, and other fuch fubltances.

Walsh, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of New
Guinea. S. lat. 8° 24'. E. long. 137°.

WALSHAM, North, a market-town in the liundred
of Tunftead and county of Norfolk, England, is fltuated in
a level near the fea, at the diilance of 15 miles N.N.E. from
Norwich, and 124 miles N.E. by N. from London. In
the year 1600, a deftruftive fire occurred here, which con-
fumed 118 houfes, befides many barns, ftables, malt-houfes,
&c. ; the value of which was eftimated at 20,000/. The
town now confills of three ftreets, which form an irregular
triangle. At the junftion of thefe is the parifh-church, the
tower of which fell down in 1724. In the chancel is a fine
monument, with an effigy, &c. to the memory of fir William
Pafton, knt., who died in 1608, aged eighty years. He
agreed, in 1607, with John Key, a mafon of London, to
ereft and fit up this tomb, with his efligy in armour, five
feet and a half long, for which he was to pay 200/. Sir
Williani fettled 40/. per annum on the free-fchool, and 10/.
a year on a weekly lefturer. In this parifh are meeting-
houfes for Quakers, Methodifts, Prefbyterians, and Ana-
baptifts. An annual fair is held here, and a weekly market
on Thurfday. In tl>e reign of Edward VI. bifliop Thirlby
built a market-crofs here, which, being damaged by the fire
above mentioned, was repaired by bifhop Redman. In the
population return of the year 181 1, this parifh is ftated to
contain 448 houfes and 2035 inhabitants.

In the adjacent parifti of Bafton (lood Broomholme Priory,
founded by William de Glanville, in 1 1 1 3, for monks of
the Cluniac order ; the remains of this building, near the
fea-fide, fome time fince formed an interefting ruin ; but
moll of the walls are now incorporated with a farm-houfe,
and the rooms converted into domeftic offices.

St. BemuCs Abbey, at Holme, in the parifh of Horning in
this hundred, was founded in a fenny place, called Cowholme,
where formerly was an hermitage, which king Canute, in
the year 1020, etlablifhed for black monks of the Bene-
diftine order. The ample endowments firfl granted were
further extended by Edward the Confeffor, the emprefs
Maud, and other royal perfonages. It was one of the
mitred abbeys, and its abbots had a feat in the houfe of lords.
This abbey was fo ftroiigly conflrufted, that it appeared
more like a caflle than a cloifter ; and was fo well fortified,
that William the Conqueror in vain befieged it, till a monk,
on promiie of being made abbot, betrayed the place : the
king performed the condition, but hanged the new abbot as
a traitor. Some foundations of the walls, which inclofed an
area of thirty-five acres, are yet traceable ; but the remains
of the once-ftately building are now no more, except part
of tlie magnificent gate-way, and this is partially obfcured
by a draining-mill erefted over it. — Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xi. Norfolk. By J. Britten, F.A.S. 1810,
from Blomefield's Hiflory, &c. of Norfolk.

WALSINGHAM, Sir Francis, in Biography, an
eminent ftatefm^n, was defcended from an ancient family of
Walfingham in Norfolk, and born at Chiflehurft in Kent.
Having completed his education at King's college, Cam-
bridge, he fought farther improvement by foreign travels,
and having remained abroad during the reign of queen
Mary, he was introduced to public bufinefs by Cecil on his
return to his own country. He commenced his political

career as ambaflador to France, where he continued, dif-
charging his public duties with great afliduity and injury to
his own fortune, until the year 1573. His conduft in tliis
office is highly commended by Wicquefort ; and Dr. Lloyd,
in his " State-Worthies," pronounces a very flattering
eulogy on his political charafter. In 1573 he was ap-
pointed fecretary of ftace, admitted into the privy-council,
and knighted ; and fuch was his vigilance in guarding
againft plots which threatened to difturb the tranquillity
and fecurity of queen EHzabeth, that he is faid to have
maintained 53 agents and 18 fpies in foreign courts. In
1581 he went to France as ambaffador for the purpofe of
treating concerning a marriage between Elizabeth and the
duke of Anjou ; and on this occafion, it is faid, that " the
fickle coquetry of his miilrefs tried his patience, and exer-
cifed all his diplomatic dexterity." The refult of his
embafTy to Scotland in 1583 was a report of James's abilities
and learning more favourable than he really merited. In
the unhappy difpute that terminated in the execution of
Mary, Walfingham was a principal agent, and he has been
charged, as the reader will find under the article Elizabeth,
with recommending fome private method of putting that
unfortunate princefs to death ; but it has been thought that
the letter mentioned under that article, and faid to have been
iigned by him, is not genuine ; and that this is the cafe is
rendered more probable by the evidence alleged in proof
of Walfingham's having warmly oppofed fuch an aft of
villainy when propofed by the earl of Leicefler. After the
death of Mary, Walfingham was principally inftrumental
in producing a reconciliation between the Englifh and
Scottifh courts. This miniiler was a zealous Proteflant,
and feemed difpofed to countenance the Puritans, as the
moil zealous opponents of popery ; and he alfo manifefted
his attachment to the reformed religion by eflablifhing a
divinity-leclure at Oxford in 1586, for the purpofe of dif-
culTing the fundamental truths of Chriilianity, derived from
the fcriptures, and of thus forming a wider feparation be-
tween the ctinrcli of England and tliat of Rome. In ad-
vanced life, Walfingham retired from bufinefs ; and died in
April 1590, fo much in debt, notwithflanding the various
pofls and dignities which he occupied, that lie was buried
in St. Paul's privately and by night, left his body fhould be
arrelled. His poverty, however, feems to have been ex-
aggerated, though his expenccs in the conduft of public
bufinefs were known to be very great. His only daughter
was fuccelTively married to fir Philip Sidney, to the earl of
EfTex, and to the earl of Clanrickard. The negotiations
and difpatches of Walfingham, during his refidence at the
French court in 1570, were collected by fir Dudley Digges,
and pubhfhed in 1655, fol. Biog. Brit.

Walsingham, Thomas, a native of Norfolk, was a
benediftine monk of St. Alban's, where he was chanter, and
probably regius profefTor of hiflory about the year 1440, in
the reign of Henry VI., as he flyles himfelf hiftoriographer
royal. One of his works is intitled " Hilloria brevis," and
commences with the clofc of the reign of Henry III., where
that of Matthew Paris terminates. Another performance is
intitled " HypodigmaNeuftrie," and gives an account of tlie
affairs of the duchy of Normandy, from the time of Rollo to
the fixth year of Henry V. The materials of this clironicler's
narratives are in good eftimation ; and were pubhfhed by
archbifhop Parker, Lond. 1574, fol. Nicolfon's Hiil. Lib.
Gen. Biog.

Walsingham, Thomas, in the Hljiory of Mujic, was
the author of a treatife in the MS. of Waltham Holy
Crofs; for an account of which, fee Lionel Power. For an
account of Walfingham's treatife, fee the article Pro-
lation.

Wal-

W A L

Walsingham, a tune in queen Elizabeth's Virginal
Book, with thirty variations by Dr. Bull ; fo difficult, that
the famous finger, Margarita, after flit; had quitted the
ftage, and was ntiarried to Dr. Popufch, though (he became a
great harpfichord player, could never entirely conquer them.
See ViRGiN'AL Book of queen Elizabeth and Dr. Bull.

We at firil imagined that this tune might have had its
name of Walfingham, from the compofer of whom we have
been fpeakmg in the preceding article ; but find that in
Ward's Lives of the Prof, of Gres. Coll. it is faid to have
been fird compofsd by Birdo, with twenty variations, and
that Bull compofed his variations at different times. After-
wards, we thought then that the name might have been a
compliment to fir Francis Walfingham, the queen's minifter;
but that idea was relinquifhed on finding that it was the
tune of an old fong, beginning, " As I went to Walfing-
ham," in queen Elizabeth's book ; and " Have with you
to Walfingham," in lady Nevil's virginal book, where it is
inferted with twenty-two variations by Birde. Now it is
well known by tradition, in Norfolk, that Henry VHI.,
previous to the fuppreffion of the monalleries, viflted that
of our lady of Walfingham, fo rich in votive gifts from thofe
who had been cured of diicafes, or imagined themfelves
cured, by the waters of the holy well, that it has been fup-
pofed that Henry, tempted by the riches and fplendour of
the religious houles at Walfingham, precipitated their fall ;
and it is probable, that the words to the tune called Wal-
fingham were written about this time.

Walsingham, Liltle, or Neiv, in Geography, a confider-
able market-town in the hundred of North Greenhoe and
county of Norfolk, England, is fituatcd on the banks of a
fmall river at the dillance of 29 miles N.W. from the city
of Norwich, and i 14 miles N.N.E. from London. The
great celebrity which this town obtained for feveral cen-
turies was originally derived from the widow of Ricoldie
Faverches founding, about the year 1061, a fmall chapel in
honour of the Virgin Mary, fimilar to the Sanfta Cafa at
Nazareth. Sir Geffrey Faverches, her fon, confirmed the
endowments, made an additional foundation of a priory for
AugulHne canons, and eredled a conventual church. Im-
menfe wealth was accumulated by grants and offerings ;
and the image of the Lady of IValfingham was as much fre-
quented, if not more than the fhrine of St. Thomas a Becket
at Canterbury. Foreigners of all nations came hither on
pilgrimage ; many kings and queens of England alfo paid
their devoirs to it ; fo that the number and quantity of her
devotees appeared to equal thofe of the lady of Lorctto in
Italy. Erafmus, who vifited this place, fays, that " the
chapel, then rebuilding, was diftinft from the church, and
infide of it was a fmall chapel of wood, on each fide of
which was a little narrow door, where thofe who were ad.
mitted came with their offerings and paid their devotions ;
it was lighted up with wax torches, and the glitter of gold,
filver, and jewels, would lead you to fuppofe it to be the feat
of the gods." This far-famed image was, in the 30th year
of Henry VIIL, conveyed to Chelfea, and there publicly
burnt. The prefent remains of this once-noble monallic
pile are, a portal, or well entrance gateway, a richly orna-
mented lofty arch, fixty feet high, which formed the call
end of the church, fuppofed to have been eredled in the
time of Henry VII. ; the refectory, feventy-eight feet long,
and twenty-feven broad, and the walla twenty-fix feet and a
half in height ; a Norman arch, part of the original chapel,
which has a zigzag moulding ; part of the old cloiilers, a
ftone bath, and two wells, called the Wifhing Wells, from a
charm which fupcrllition attached to them. The principal
parts of thefc venerable ruins arc included in the plcafure-
9

W A L

grounds of Henry Lee Warner, efq. who has a commodious
houfe, which occupies the fcite of the priory. The prefent
proprietor has progreffively, for feveral years, been making
improvements in planting, and laying out the grounds in
the immediate vicinity of his manfion. The church of
Walfing;ham is a fpacious and interelling pile, difplaying in
its architedure, ornaments, monuments, and very elegant
font much to gratify the antiquary. The latter is not only
the finefl fpecimen of the fort in the county, but perhaps in
the kingdom. It is of an oaangular fhape, and the whole
of its bafe, fiiaft, and projecting upper portion, is covered
with fculpture, reprefenting buttrefies, pinnacles, niches,
crocketted pediments, &c. with feveral figures in baffo-
relievo. It is elevated on a plinth of four fteps, the ex-
terior faces of which are alfo decorated with tracery mould-
ings. (See an account and view of it in Britton's Archi-
teftural Antiquities of Great Britain. ) A houfe of grey
friars was founded in this town about the year 1346 by lady
Elizabeth de Burgh, countefs of Clare ; but its fame was
eclipfed by the fuperior grandeur of its neighbour, and
poverty thruft it ftill further into obfcurity. An hofpital
for lazars was founded here in 1492 : the building of which
is ufed now as a bridewell. A fair is held annually ; aud a
market weekly on Fridays. The population, by the return
of the year 1811, was ilated to be 1008, occupying 236
houfes.

At the diflance of a mile and a half N. by E. is the village
of Old Walfingham, which contains two churches ; and in
181 1 was returned as liaving 71 houfes, and a population
of 34y perfons.

In the adjoining parifh of Binham are the remains of
Binham Priory, formerly an edifice of great extent and
Uberal endowment. Its ruins are now very confiderable and
interefting, but are gradually mouldering away. Of the
once-fpacious collegiate church, only the nave and north
aifle, the chief part of the weilern front, and fragments of
the tranfept, are now left. Excepting the weft facade, the
whole is of the early Norman architefture, and moll pro-
bably conftitutes part of the original ftrudture founded in
the beginning of the reign of Henry I. The exterior of
the weiicrn front is wholly in the pointed flyle, and is an
interefting fpecimen of the ecclefiaftical architefture of the
thirteenth century.

Holkham Houfe, in the adjacent parifh of Holkham, the
magnificent feat and refidcnce of Thomas AVilliam Coko,
efq., was begun in the year 1734 by the earl of Leicefter,
and completed by his dowager-countefs in 1760. Tlie
central part of this fpacious manfion extends three hundred
and forty-five feet in length, by one hundred and eighty in
depth, and is accompanied by four wings or pavilions, whicli
are connefted with it by reftilinear corridors or galleries ;
each of the two fronts, therefore, difplays a centre and two
wings. In the centre are comprifed the principal rooms ;
and each wing has its refpcdlive deftination, and fuite of
family apartments. There may be houfes larger and more
magnificent than this, but fcarcely any one in the kingdom
that can equal it for convenience and appropriate arrange-
ment. The fitting up of the interior is in the nioft fplendid
ftyle, and in fome of the apartments with the moft elegant
tafte. A correfpoiiding ftyle prevails in laying out the cx-
tenfive pleafure -grounds and park. On the north fide of the
latter, a lake, covering about twenty acres, extends in nearly
a right line for 1056 yards ; it includes a fmall ifland, and
the fliore is finely clotlied with wool — Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xi. Ni>rf()lk. By .1. Britton, F.A.S. 18 10.
Blomcfield's Topographical Ilillory of Norfolk, vol. ix.
Svo. 1808.

Wal-

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Walsingiiam of Davis, Cape, a cape on the E. coaft of
America, at the N. fide of the entrance into Cumberland
ilraits. N. lat. 64° 10'. W. long. 66°.

Walsingham of Froh'ifitr, Cape, a cape at the S.E- ex-
tremity of Hale ifland in Davis's ftraits, at the entrance of
Frobifher's ftraits. N. lat. 62° 50'. W. long. 64° 58'.

WALSRODE, I.e. Walo's Cross, a town of Weft-
phalia, in the principahty of Luneburg Zell, on the Bolme.
It owes its rife to a monaftery founded in 986, by Walo a
prince of Anhalt, and is now a confiderable town with a
good trade in wool, beer, &c. ; 3 miles N.W. of Zell. N.
lat. 52° 54'. E. long. 9^ 35'.

WALSTORP, a town of the duchy of Holftem ; 1 1
miles S.W. of Lutkenborg.

WALT, in Sea Language, an obfolete or fpurious term,
fignifying crank.

WALTDORF, or Waltersdorf, in Geography, a
town of Silefia, in the principality of Neifle ; 5 miles
N.N.E. of Neiffe.

WALTENBUCH, a town of Wurtemburg ; 8 miles
S. of Stuttgart.

WALTER NiENBURG, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Anhalt Zerbft ; 6 miles W. of Zerbft.

WALTERSDORF, a town of Bohemia, m the circle
of Chrudim ; 13 miles N.E. of Leutmifchl.

WALTERSDORFF, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles
E. of ZifterdorflF.

WALTERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Gotha ; 4 miles S.S.W. of Gotha. N. lat.
50° 56'. E. long. 10° 38'.

WALTERSKIRCHEN, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles
N.W. of Zifterdorff.

WALTHAM, a town of Maflachufetts, in the county
of Middlefex, containing 1014 inhabitants ; 1 1 miles N.W.
of Bofton. — Alfo, a town of Vermont, in the county of
Addifon, containing 244 inhabitants.

Waltha.m, or IVeJlham, a town of Virginia, on the left
bank of James river ; 4 miles N.W. of Richmond.

Waltham Abbey, or Waltham Holy-Crofs, a large
irregular market-town in the half hundred of Wal-
tham and county of Eftex, England, is fituated on low
ground near the river Lea, at the diftance of twenty-three
miles W. by S. from Chelmsford, and twelve miles N. by
E. from London. This fpot was originally part of the
foreft of Eftex, and derived the appellation of Waltham
from the Saxon words Ham, a place, and Weald, woody ;
the whole fcite being anciently overgrown with trees. The
additional names were derived from the abbey afterwards
founded here, and the crofs to which the abbey was dedi-
cated. The firft mention of Waltham occurs in the reign
of Canute the Great, when Tovy, the king's ftandard-
bearer, founded here a village and a church, placing three
fcore and fix dwellers in the former, and two priefts in the
latter. After his death, Waltham reverted to the crown,
and was granted, in 1062, by Edward the Confeftor, to earl
Harold, on condition that he ftiould build a monaftery there.
Harold accordingly, in the fame year, re-founded and en-
larged the building erefted by Tovy, and endowed it as a
college for a dean and eleven fecular canons of the order of
St. Auguftine. A diftind manor was afligned for the main-
tenance of each canon, and fix for the fupport of the dean ;
the church was enriched with a great number of relics and
coftly veflels. The poflJeftions of the college were after-
wards confiderably augmented by various benefaftions, and
it continued in a ftate of progreflive advancement till the
reign of Henry H. This monarch, by a charter of licence
from pope Alexander, changed the old foundation of fecu-

W A L

lars into an abbey of regular canons of the fame order,
enlarging the number to twenty-four, and proportiuuably
increafing their revenues ; and tlie abbey and church were
re-dedicated to the Holy Crofs. Walter do Gaunt was ap-
pointed the firft abbot, with an exemption by tlie pope from
epifcopal jurifdiftion ; and this privilege has defcended to
modern times, Waltham being ttiU exempted from the arch-
deacon's vifitation. Richard L granted to the abbey the
wliole manor of Waltham, with various privileges aiid gifts,
which were greatly augmented by Henry HL, from whofe
time it became fo diftinguilhed by a ftries ot roya' an^i noble
benefaAors, as to rank with the moft opvlent in the king-
dom. Henry frequently made the abbey his refiuence ; and,
to provide, in feme meafure, for the rncreafed confumption
which his prefence and retinue occafionod, grrnced to the
town the privilegi^ of a weekly markt;t, and an annual fair
of fevcn days. The abbey having cxiflcd during the go-
vernment of twenty-fevcn abbots, exclulive ot rhi deans of
the firft foundation, was diflblved in the year 1539; whea
its annual revenues were valued at 900/. 4J. \\d. according
to Dugdalc ; or, as recorded by Speed, at IC79/. i2x. \d.
The fcite was granted to fir Anthony Denny ; from whofe
family it pafled in the next century, by manage, to James
Hay, earl of Carlifle : it has fince been in the family of fir
WiUiam Wake, bart. The abbey-houfe is faid to have been
a very extenfive building ; but it has been long fince wholly
dcmoliftied ; a gateway into the abbey-yard, a bridge which
leads to it, fome ruinous walls, an arched vault, and the
church, are now the only veftiges of the ancient magnifi-
cence of Waltham abbey. The cliurch, which was of a
much earlier ftyle of architefture than the other remains,
was built in the ufual form of a crofs, and confiftcd of a
nave, tranfept, choir, ante-chapel, &c. Some idea may be
formed of its great extent, from the fituation of king Ha-
rold's tomb, which ftood about 120 feet eaft from the termi-
nation of the prefent building, in what was then the eaft end
of the choir ; the interfeftion of the tranfept is ftiU vifible ;
above this rofe the ancient tower, part of which falling
through mere decay, the remainder was undermined and
blown up, and the whole choir, tower, tranfept, and eaft
end, were wholly demohfhed, fo that nothing was left
ftanding but the nave, which has fince been fitted up, and
made parochial, and conftitutes the prefent church. This
venerable relic, though much disfigured and mutilated, con-
tains feveral interefting and curious fpecimens of the orna-
mented columns, femi-circular arches, and other charafter-
iftics of the Norman ftyle of architedure. Its length is
about ninety feet ; and its breadth forty-eight. The body is
divided from the aifles by fix arches on each fide ; five are
femicircular and decorated with zigzag ornaments ; the fixth
is pointed, and apparently of a later conftruAion. At the
weft end is a heavy fquare embattled tower, rifing to the
height of eighty-fix feet, and having the date of 1558.
Almoft every ornamental veftige of grandeur and antiquity,
which formerly diftinguiftied the exterior of this church,
has been induftrioufly defaced ; and what remains owes its
prefervation to the durable nature of it? materials. In the
infide the hand of violence is lefs confpicuous ; but every-
thing difplays marks of the moft wretched parfimony : the
grandeur and fimplicity of the ancient remains are much
injured by white-waftiing ; the brafles are torn from the
grave-ftones, and it is with difficulty that their impreflions
can be traced. In this church were interred king Harold
and his two brothers. Girth and Leofwin, flain with him at
the battle of Haftings. Many other perfons of rank and
authority in early times were alfo buried here. The hiftory
of Waltham town is fo nearly identified with that of the

abbey.

W A L

^V A L

abbey, th*t but little remains to be faiJ of the foniier. In
the population return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of
this town arc enumerated as 2287 ; the houfos as 422.
Tuefday is the market-day, and here are now two annual
fairs. The chief manufadtures are thofe of printed linens,
and of pins ; for the latter purpofe fonie large buildings
have been recently erefted, in which a great number of chil-
dren of both fexes are employed. On one of the branches of
the Lea, near the town, are fome gunpowder mills, now in
the occupation of government ; thefe have been partly re-
built fince the year 1801, when confiderable damage was
done by the explofion of the Corning-houfe. The various
ftreams of the Lea, in this vicinity, are traditionally fup-
pofed to flow in the fame channels which the great Alfred
made to divert the current, when he drew off the water, and
left the Danifli fleet on (liore. Waltham parifli includes the
hamlets of Holyfield, Sewardftone, and Upfliire, which are
ftated to contain 297 houfes and 1398 inhabitants; making
the aggregate population of the parirti 3685, the number of
houfes 719. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. Eflex.
By J. Britton and E. W. Bray ley, 1803. Hiftory, &c. of
Waltham Abbey, by J. Farmer, Gent. 8vo. 1735.

Waltham, B'ljhop's. See Bishop's Waltham.

Waltham, Wejl, or Waltham Crofs, a hamlet in the
parifli of Chefliunt, hundred and county of Hertford, Eng-
land, is filuated half a mile from Waltham abbey, nine
miles S. by E. from Hertford, and twelve miles N. from
London. It derives the appellation of Crofs from one of
thofe elegant ftone croffes which Edward I. eredled to the
memory of his confort queen Eleanor, who died in Novem-
ber 1291, at Hareby near Grantham, in Lincolnfliire. Her
bowels were interred in Lincoln cathedral ; her body was
brought to London, and depofited in Weftminfl:er abbey.
At each of the places where the proceffion reflcd, during
this journey, the king afterwards erefted a crofs ; of which
only thofe of Geddington, Northampton, and Waltham, now
remain. Waltham crofs is the leaft perfcft of the three,
though the Society of Antiquaries have twice interelled
themfelves in its prefervation ; once m 1721, and again in
IJ57, when lord Monfon, then lord of the manor of Chef-
hunt, at the requell of the Society, furrounded the bafe
with brick-work : it was originally encompafled by a fligiit
of fteps, but thefe have been long removed. The upper
parts are alfo greatly mutilated ; much of the foliage is de-
faced, and the pinnacles and battlements are broken. The
form of the crofs is hexagonal : it is fcparated into three
Ilories ; the middlemoft. of which is open, and difplays lla-
tues of queen Eleanor crowned ; her left hand holding a
cordon, and her right a fceptre or globe. Each fide of the
lower flory is divided into two compartments, beneath an
angular coping, charged with fliields exhibiting the arms of
England, Caltile, Leon, and Ponthieu. The cornice over
the firil ilory is compofed of various foliage and lions'-hcads,
furmounted by a battlement pierced with quatrefoils. The
fecond ilory is formed of twelve open tabernacles, in pairs,
terminating in ornamented pediments with a finial on the
top: this Ilory alfo finiflics with a cornice and battlement
like the firll, and fupports a third (lory of folid mafonry,
ornamented with fingle compartments in relief, fomewhit
refembling thofe below. In this hamlet is an ancient Spital,
confiding of four rooms below, and three above, from time
immemorial appropriated for poor lame people. The work-
houfe for the pariili of Chcfhunt is fituatcd in thin hamlet.
— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. Hertfordfhire.
By E. W. Brayley. 1808. Lyfons' Environs of London,
vol. iv. 4to. 1796. Britton's Architedural Antiquities of
Great Britain, vol. i. 4to. 1807.

Vot. XXXVII.

Waltham, Greaty a townftiip of England, in Eflex
4 miles N. by W. of Chelmsford.

Waltham on the Wold, a town of England, in the county
of Leicefter, which had formerly a weekly market on
Thurfdav, now difcontinued ; 18 miles S.E. of Nottingham.
N.lat.52^50'. W.long.o°48'. SeeWALTOii-on-the.Wolds.

WALTHAMSTOW, an extenfive village in the hun-
dred of Becontree and county of EiTex, England, is iituated
near the borders of the river Lea, at the dillance of fix
miles and a half N.E. by N. from St. Paul's cathedra!,
London. Its name is derived from the Saxon word •weald,
a wood, ham, a manor, zndjlotoe, a place. It covers a con-
fiderable traft of ground, and is divided into the following
ftreets, or hamlets : Wood-ftreet, Clay-ftreet, Marfli-ftreet,
Hoo-ftreet, Hale -end, and Chapel-end. The parifli church,
a fpacious brick flrufture, conlHls of a chancel, nave, and
two aifles. At the wefl. end is a fquare tower, which was
rebuilt by fir George Monox, alderman of London ; who
alfo built the chapel at the eaft end of the north aifle about
the year 1535 : the fouth aifle was built about the fame
year with a part of fome monies beqeathed for charitable
ufes by Robert Thoriie, merchant-taylor, and citizen of
London. About the year 1740, a meeting-houfe for Pro-
teftant diflenters was eftabliflied in this village: in 1787
fome difputes among the congregation occafioned the build-
ing of a new meeting-houfe, which was opened in July
in that year : it has a cemetery adjoining. Sir George
Monox, before mentioned, built and endowed thirteen
alms-houfes on the north fide of the church-yard, for
eight men and five women ; with a fchool-houfe and
apartments for a mafter : the endowments were augment-
ed in 1686, by the will of Henry Maynard, efq. Thirty
boys are now clothed and educated in the fchool ; and
the benefits have been extended to twenty girls, in a
fchool efl;abliflied in 1780. Here is alfo a fchool for very
young children, who are taken care of till of age to be ad-
mitted into the other fchools. In the year 1795, fix alras-
houfes were built and endowed by Mrs. Mary Squires, for
widows of decayed tradefmen. The parifli of Walthamftow
contains about 4320 acres of land, of which upwards of
3000 are inclofed ; chiefly pafture land. The population
return of the year 181 1 flates the number of houfes to be

562 ; the inhabitants 3777 Lyfons's Environs of London,

vol. iv. 4to. 1 79C.

WALTH ARN, a town of Hen"e Darmftadt ; 26 miles
E.N.E. of Heidelberg.

WALTHAUSEN, a town of Auftria, with a convent;
4 miles N.E. of Grein.

WALTHER, AuGLSTiKE FuEDF.uir, in Biography, an
anatoniill and phyfician, was appointed in 1723 profedor of
anatomy and furgcry, in the univcrfity of Leyden. Seve-
ral of his differtations on anatomical fubjedli arc upon the
whole commended, and have been reprinted by Haller. The
bell of his larger pieces are, " De Lingua Humana Libel-
lus," 1724, 4to. As a bolanifl, he publiflicd a cat.iIognc
of the plants in his own garden, and a work on the ilrnc-
ture of plants. He died about the year 1 746. Haller.
Eloy. See Waltheria.

Walthfr, Bernard, an eminent aftronomcr, was born
at Nuremberg in the year 1430, and having apjilied princi-
pally to the iludy of mathematics, and more efpecially of
allronomy, under Regiomontanus, was eminently ufcful by
his talents and opulence in encouraging the inventions and
aiding the obfervations of his preceptor, whilft he con-
timieil at Nuremberg ; and when by th;- invitation of pope
Sixtus IV. he removed to Rome, with a view to the re-
formation of the calendar, he continued his obfervations for
4 R nearly

W A L

nearly forty years, vi^. from 1475 to the time of his death
ill 1504. His inftruments were of the moft perfect kind
which he could then procure, and he was (kilful and perfe-
yering as well as fuccefsful in the ufe of them. He was
the inventor of a chronometer, or clock with wheels, which
indicated the time of noon with an accuracy correfponding
to the refuk of calculation ; and he is alfo celebrated as
the firft of the Moderns who obferved refraftion. ( See the
article John Muller.) The fingularity of his charafter,
however reftrifted the benefit which allronomy might
otherwife have derived from his own obfervations and thole
of his preceptor Regiomontar.us, or John Muller. After
the death of Muller, he purchafed his papers and inltru-
ments which he kept in his own pofl'efiion, without allow-
ing any one to fee them ; and after his death, they were
neglefted by his heirs, fo that many of chem were lolt. At
length the fenate of Nuremberg purchafed the writings of
thefe two mathematicians which they could procure, and
depofited them in the library of that city. Several parts
of them were afterwards extrafted, and publifhed by Scho-
ner and his fon. In the work entitled " Vranies Noricae
Bafis Aftronomicx, five Rationes motus annul ex Obferva-
tionibus in Solera hoc noftro et Seculo ab hinc tertio Norin-
bergK, habitis, a Johanne Philippo a Wurzlebau," Norinb.
1709, are contained obfervations by Waltlier and Wurzel-
bau, with inferences drawn from a comparifon of them,
which are faid by Kaftner to be very valuable, as the ob-
fervations were made under the fame meridian, and at the
interval of a century. Montucla Hift. du Mathem. Kaft-
ner Gefchite du Mathematik, cited in Gen. Biog.

Walther, John Godfrey, author of an excellent hif-
torical and biographical mufical diftionary, publifhed in
German at Leipfic, 1782, in 8vt). The German title is :
?@uOcalifcf)ES Lexicon oBfr ^tiacafifctjf :!BibIiotbfc. Of all
the books which we have confulted for information con-
cerning muficians and their works, we have never met with
more fatisfaftion than from this Lexicon ; which though
compre fled into an oftavo volume, is fo ample and accurate,
that we have been feldom difappointed, and never led into
error by it. This little volume contains, not only all the
technica of ancient and modern mufic, but biography, as far
as names, dates, and works, of almoil every eminent mnfician
that has exiftcd in ancient and modern times, till the year in
which the book was publifhed. The author's information,
of courfe, concerning Germany, is the moft ample, but
Italy and France have had a confiderable fhare of atten-
tion.

In 1790 and 1792 a new edition of this work, with addi-
tions to the time of publication, was printed at Leipfic in
two vols. 8vo. by Ernft Ludwig Gerber.

Walther, John Ludolph, author of another very
curious and ufeful diftionary, pubbfhed at Ulm in foho,
1756, in Latin, intitled " Lexicon Diplomaticum Abbre-
viationes fyllabarum et vocum in diplomatibus et codicibus
a Secillo VIII. ad XVI. ufque occurentes exponens.
Junftis Alphabetis et fcripturre Speciminibus integris."
The author was librarian and private fecretary to his Britifh
majefty Geo. II. as eleftor of Hanover. With a very
learned preface by Johji Hai-ry Young, regius fecretary in
the univerfity of Gottingcn.

The whole book is engraved on copper-plates ; and in the
lecond part, among the fpecimens of writing without abbre-
viations, we have examples of the firft attempts at mufical
notation from the ninth century, not only before lines were
in ufe, but even before points of different elevation were the
Tocal guides of the priefts in canto fermo.

This very curious, learned, sad elegaot publication feems

W A L

to have efcaped the notice of all our periodical works of
criticifm, nor have we ever feen it mentioned in any of our
catalogues of old and curious books.

WALTHERIA, in Botany, received its name from
Linnaeus, in honour of Auguftus Frederick Walther, pro-
feffor of Pathology at Leipfic, where he publifhed, in 1735,
an alphabetical catalogue of his own garden, with twenty-
four plates, no very great acquiiition to fcience. The au-
thor, being an able anatomill, gave fome attention to the
flrufture of plants, on whicii he publifhed an academical
treatile in 1740; but, as it appears by Haller's account,
without much that is new or inftruttive. He wrote alfo on
the cffential oils of vegetables, on the Egyptian Lotus, and
on the S'dphlum of the antients, as elucidated, if fuch a term
be allowable, by their coins. This author died in 1746, at
the age of 58. There have been feveral others of the fame
name, but fcarcely entitled to claim a fhare in the botanical

diflinftion here conferred Linn. Gen. 348. Schreb. 453.

Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 586. Mart. Mill. "Dia. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 4. 138. Cavan. Difi". 315. JufT. 289.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 570. Poiret in Lamarck Dift. v. 8.
323. — Clafs and order, Monadelphia Pentandria. Nat.
Ord. Co!umnifer/t, Linn. Mahoaci'^, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, double ; the outer
unilateral, of three leaves, deciduous : inner of one leaf,
cloven half way down into five acute fegments, cup-fliaped,
permanent. Cor. Petals five, inverfely heart-fhaped, fpread-
ing, their claws inferted into the lower part of the tube of
the filaments. Stam. Filaments five, united into a tube,
their upper part feparate, fpreading, fhort ; anthers ovate.
Pyi. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fliapcd, longer
than the ftamens ; ftigmas tufted. Peric. Capfule obovate,
of one cell and two valves. Seed folitary, obtufe, dilated
upwards.

Elf. Ch. Calyx double ; the outer lateral, of three leaves,
deciduous. Petals five. Style one. Capfule of one cell,
and two valves. Seed folitary.

A tropical genus, whofe jloiuers are fmaller than in moft
of the Mallow tribe, and always affembled numeroully into
little tufts or heads. The_/?/m is ftirubby. Leaves undivided,
more or lefs ovate, ferratcd, generally downy. The fimple
capfule, with only one feed, makes the peculiar charafter of
Wahheria, oppofed to otiiers of the fame natural order. —
Juffieu refers this genus, along with Hermannia and Maher-
nia, to a feftion of his Tiliacea, which he terms dubiie. We
make no fcruple to follow the example of Cavanilles, in re-
moving it to the Malvacete, with which it accords in every
effential point of charafter and habit.

I. W. Americana. American Waltheria. Linn. Sp. PI.
941. excluding the fyn. of Breynius. Willd. n. i. Ait.
n. I. (W. Indica; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 130. Mifc. Auftr.
V. 2. 323. W. arborefcens ; Cavan. DifT. 316. t. 170. f. I.
Monofperm-althasa arborefcens villofa, foho majore ; Ifnard
Mem. de I'Acad. dcs Sciences for 1721, German ed. 751.
t. 32. Betonica arborefcens, foUis amplioribus ; Pluk.
Almag. 67. Phyt. t. 150. f. 6. ) — Leaves oval, plaited,
downy, unequally and fharply toothed. Heads of flowers
ftalked. — Native of the Bahama iflands, and South Ame-
rica. Cultivated in the royal gardens at Hampton-court,
in Plunkenet's time. A ftove plant, flowering at various
feafons, after which it ufually dies, though fhrubby, and
perhaps naturally perennial. The branches are round,
downy, leafy, wand-like, very foft when young. Leaves
alternate, ftalked, one to two inches, or more, in length,
ftrongly veined, plaited at the edges, extremely foft on both
fides, with denfe, hoary, minutely ftarry, pubefcence. Sti-
pulai awl-fhaped. Flowers fmall, yellow, in denfe axillary,
1 2 folitary

W A L -

Tolitary tufts, each on a ftout ilraiglit downy (lalk, various
m length, but ufually about equal to the correfpoiuliug/oo/-
jlaH.

2. W. InJica. Eafl. Indian Wallhcria. Linn. Sp. PI.
941. Willd. n. 2. Ait. u. 2. ( Malvinda ulmifolia, flof-
culis pulillis mufcofis conllipatis ; Burn. Zeyl. 149. t. 68.
Betonica arborefcens madcrafpatana, villofis foliis pro-
fundi venoiis ; Pluk. Almag. 67. Phyt. t. 15c. f. 5.) —
Leaves oval, plaited, downy, bluntly toothed. Heads of

flowers felTile Native of the Eaft Indies. Cavaiiilles unites

it with the foregoing, but the blunter more (hallow teeth of
the leaves, whicli are perhaps lefs denfely downy, and the
conftantly fefhle heads oiJJowers, of a tawny yellow, appear
fufficient marks of diilintlion, efpecially as the native coun-
tries of thcfe two plants are fo remote from each other.
Mr. Alton marks the IV. InJ'tca as a fhrub, flowering in the
ftove from June to Auguft, and cultivated by Miller before
the year 1759- To the Americana he attaches the cliarafter
of biennial.

^.W. Lophanlhus. Crefted South-fea Waltheria. Ford.
Prod. 47. Willd. n. 3. { Lophanthus tomentofus ; Forft.
Gen. t. 14; fee Lophanthus.) — " Leaves roundifli-heart-
fhaped, ferrated, ftalked, clothed \Tith filky pnbefcence.
Heads of flowers ftalked. Bratteas imbricated." — Native
of the Marquis iflands. G. Forjier.

4. W. ovata. Roundifh-leaved Waltheria. Cavan.
DilT. 317. t. 171. f. I. Willd. n. 4. — Leaves roundifh-
ovate, acute, unequally toothed, denfely downy. Heads of
flowers feffde. — Gathered in Peru by Dombey, who, un-
aware of its real genus, named the plant Aubentonia. This
is a bufhyyi&rui, three or four feet high, downy and very
foft in every part. Leaves of a very broad ovate figure,
obfcurely lobed or angular, one and a half or two inches long,
(harply toothed. Floiiiers yellow, in fmall feflile tujts., fome
of the lower ones afTemblcd upon fhort, leafy, axillary
branches., not near fo long as the leaves.

5. W. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Waltheria. Linn.
Sp. PI. 941. Willd. n. 5. ( W. microphylla ; Cavan. DilT.
317. t. 170. f. 2.) — " Leaves oblong, obtufe, plaited,
toothed, hoary. Heads of flowers nearly feflile." — Native
of the Eaft Indies. Willdenow fays, " the Jlcm is ftirubby.
Whole plant inverted with thin pubefcence. Leaves half an
inch long, obtufe at each end. Heads fupported by very
{hort ftalks." We are obliged to adopt from him our ideas
of this fpecies, having no certain means of knowing what Lin-
naus intended. The plant of Fl. Zeylanica, n. 244. is pro-
bably different from that of Sp. PL but the fynonyms of
this and IV. indica are fo confufed, that they embroil rather
than illuftrate the fubjeit, nor does the Linnian Ixerbarium
throw any certain light upon it.

6. W. eliiptica. Elliptic-leaved Waltheria. Cavan. Did.
,316. t. 171. f. 2. Willd. n. 6. — Leaves elliptic-oblong,
obtufe, plaited, toothed, downy. Heads of flowers feflile.
— Gathered by Sonnerat in tlie Eaft Indies. Tlie leaves
are more downy, and thrice .13 long as in the laft, thougli
not broader ; the petals, according to Cavanilles' plate, ob-
tufe, not emarginate.

7. W. glabra. Smooth-leaved Waltheria. Poiret in

Lam. n. 7 Leaves fmooth, ovato-lanceolatc, bluntifti, with

tooth-like fcrratures. Heads of flowers alternate, on axil-
lary ftalks Native of Guadaloupe, defcrihed by Poiret

from the herbarium of profeftbr Dcsfontaines. A Jhnib
related in many refpefts to the IV. amerlcana, but fmooth in
all its parts. The branches are flender, a little coniprelfed,
Tery fmooth, dark brown. Leaves ftalked, oval, fomewhat
lanceolate, two or three inches long, one and a half or two
ijicheg broad ; fmooth on both tides ; paler beneath ; rarely

W A L

pointed. Fooljlalhs flender, fix or eight lines long. 5"rt'-
pulas lanceolate, pointed, deciduous. Flo'wirs in denfe, al-
moft feflile, leaflefs tufts, ranged alternately on an axillary
llalk. Outer calyx of three very narrow, fmooth, deci-
duous leaves: inner permanent, bell-ftiaped, very fmooth,
witii long, almoft thread-fhaped teeth. Corolla yellow,
fcarccly longer than the inner calyx. Capfule membranous,
\yith one /iv/. Poiret. The genus is clear by this defcrip-
tion.

8. W. cordala. Heart-leaved Waltheria. Leaves
fmooth, heart-fliaped, fliarply and unequally toothed.
Heads of flowers ovate, folitary, on ftraight axillary
ftalks — Native, we behere, of the Weft Indies. The
branches are round, elongated, brown ; very fmooth below ;
their younger flioots roughifli to the touch with minute
points. Leaves from one to two inches long, on roughifti
footjlalhs about a quarter of their own length, broadly ovate,
bluntifli, veiny, but not plaited ; more or lefs heart-fhaped at
the bafe ; very unequally toothed ; paler beneath. Stipulat
awl-fhaped. Common jloiuer-flalhs generally much longer than
the footftalks, ftout, each bearing a denfe head oi floivers,
about half an inch long. Calyx, &c. anfwering nearfy to the
defcription of the laft. The feed is folitary, turbinate, ra-
ther hard. The younger Linnaeus received this plant by
the name of IV. angujlifolia, which it cannot be. The
fmoothnefs of the leaves and moft other parts diftinguithes
it from every defcribed fpecies, except the laft, with whofc
defcription its leaves and injlorefcence will by no means
accord.

Waltheria, in Gardening, affords plants of the woody
exotic kind, in which the fpecies cultivated are the Ameri-
can waltheria (W.Americana); the Indian waltheria (W.
Indica) j and the narrow-leaved waltheria (W. angufti-
folia).

The firft is a foft woody-ftalked plant of fmall growth.

The fecond fort has a branching ftirubby growth. And
the laft is of the woody-ftalked kind.

They all aftbrd flowers during the fummcr months.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, which muft be fown on a hot-bed ; and when the
plants are fit to plant out, they muft be each removed into
a feparate fmall pot, and plunged into a frefti hot-bed, being
afterwards treated in the fame manner as other plants of the
fame nature, being kept in the bark-ftove. In the fecond
year tliey flower and produce feeds, but may be continued
three or four years if they be often ftiifted, and the roots
pared to keep them within compafs. In the view of keep-
ing the roots out of the tan, they fliould be drawn up out
of it at leaft once in fix weeks, during the fummer feafon,
and the plants be fliifted out of the pots once in two
months : with this management the fecond and third forts
may be continued feveral years, but the firll feldom endures
longer than two.

They have a good effeft in ftovc coUeftions among other
potted plants.

WALTON, Brian, in Biography, editor of the Englifh
Polyglott Bible, was born about the year 1600 in the diilriA
of Cleveland, Yorkftiire, and in 1615 admitted into Magda-
len college, Cambridge, whence he removed to Peter-houf*.
In 1623 he took the degree of M.A. being then curate and
maftcr of a fchool in .Suftolk. Upon his reniov.-U to London,
he became in 1626 rector of St. Martin's Orgar, and was dif-
tinguithed for his talents and diligence among the London
clergy. After having been inftitiited to other preferments
in the church, he took the degree of D.D. in 1639; but in
the civil war his livings were fequeftcred, and he was under
a neccflity of fcekiiig (heller among the royaLfts at Ox-
4 R 2 ford.

W A L

W A L

ford, where he formed the defign of the Polyglott Bible,
and which he aftually commenced, upon his removal to
London, in 1653. Indefatigable in his application, he
completed this work in fix vols. fol. in 1657 ; and it was
the firft work publifhed in England by fubfcription. The
proteftor's government alfo allowed him to import paper
exempt from duty. For an account of this, as well as the
other principal polyglotts, with a brief ftatement of their
refpeftive contents, we refer to the article Polyglott. It
is fomewhat curious in the hiilory of literature, that in the
firft preface to this work. Dr. Walton acknowledged his
obligations to the proteftor for his patronage ; but that
after the Rcitoration, feveral alterations were made in this
preface, and the paragraph in which he acknowledges his
obligations to the proteftor is fuppreffed, and another tranf-
ferrin^ his refpeft to Charles is introduced in its room.
(See HoUis's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 425. Bowyer's Origin of
Printino-, Appendix.) Thefe alterations have occafior.ed a
diftinftion among thofe who are curious in the editions of
books between republican and royal or loyal copies of the
Polyglott. The republican copy now before us is the
rareft, and therefore bears the higheft price. Dr. Owen in
1659 made an attack upon the prolegomena or appendix of
this bible, which was annexed to two of his trafts publifhed
at Oxford, and in the fame year Dr. Walton publifhed an
elaborate reply.

Soon after the Reiloration, Dr. Walton prefented his Po-
lyglott to Charles II., who, in recompence of his fervices
to religion and learning, appointed him his chaplain in ordi-
nary, and bifhop of Chefter, to which fee he was confecrated
in December in 1660. In the following year, he was one of
the commifTioners at the Savoy conference. After his re-
turn to London from a vifit to his diocefe, in the autumn
of that year, he was feized with a difeafe, which terminated
his life on the 29th of November. His remains were in-
terred in the cathedral of St. Paul's, and a fumptuous mo-
nument was erefted to his memory. Biog. Brit.

Walton, Isaac, was born at Stafford in 1593 ; and
fettling in London as a fhop-keeper, he married, about the
year 1632, the fdler of Dr. Ken, afterwards bifhop of Bath
and Wells. Satisfied with a moderate competency, he left
bufinefs, and removed from London. Upon the deceafe of
Dr. Donne, in 1631, whofe miniftry he attended during his
refidence in the city, he undertook, at the requeft of fir
Henry Wotton, to colleft materials for his life ; but as Wot-
ton, for whofe ufe they were intended, died before he had
an opportunity of executing his purpofe, Walton, though
deftitute of a literary education, wrote this life, which he
publifhed in 1640, and alfo that of Wotton, which appeared
in 1644. After his recefs from bufinefs, his favourite amufe-
ment was fifhing ; and being expert in the praftical part of
this art, he wrote a book upon the fubjeft, which he pub-
lifhed in 1653 under the title of " Complete Angler, or Con-
templative Man's Recreation," i2mo. This fmall traft,
drawn up in the form of dialogue, was rendered interefting
by the refleftions that were introduced, and by the engrav-
ings of fifhes that adorned it. Accordingly it became po-
pular, and five editions of it, with fucceffive improvements,
appeared to the year 1676 ; and it is now a kind of ftandard
book among thofe who purfue this recreation. Having loft
his wife in 1662, he affociated chiefly with the clerjry, and
whillt he was refident with Dr. Morley, bifhop of Winchcf-
ter, he was induced, by the fuggeilion of Dr. Sheldon, to
write the hfe of Richard Hooker, which was followed by
that of George Herbert ; and both were publifhed in 1670.
In 1677 he pubhftied the life of Dr. Sanderfon, which clofed
his literary labours. His life was prolonged to the age of

ninety, when he was carried off at Winchefter, in Decem-
ber 1683, by the feverity of a hard froft. In his difpolition
and charafter, he was amiable, loyal, and religious ; and in
his ilyle of writing fimple and unaffefted. A colleftion of
his lives with notes was printed by Dr. Zouch in 1796, 4to.
and again in 8vo., to which is prefixed a copious life of the
author. Gen. Biog.

Walton, in Geography, a poft-townfhip of Delaware
county, in New York, about 85 miles from Albany ; about
7 miles fquare, iituated on both fides of Conquago, or the
W. branch of the Delaware river ; it is mountainous and
hilly, v/ith good foil along the ftreams ; much of the hills is
arable or meadow land, and good for grazing. The town-
fhip is well watered, and affords timber, which is rafted to
Philadelphia. Here are a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe, and
feveral fchools. In 18 10 the whole population was 131 1,
with 128 eleftors, 173 taxable inhabitants, and 183,357
dollars of taxable property.

Walton, a town of Virginia ; 60 miles S. W. of Richmond.

Walton, a town of England, in Derbyfhire ; 3 miles

S.W. of Chefterfield Alfo, a village of England, in the

county of Gloucefter, where there is a medicinal fpring,
fimilar to Cheltenham ; I mile E. of Tewkefbury.

Walton le Dale, a townfhip of Lancafhire ; 7 miles
W. of Blackburn.

W ALTON-oii-the-IVolJi, a village and parifh in the hundred
of Eaft-Gofcote, and county of Leicefter, England ; 4 miles
E. of Loughborough. See Nichols's Hiilory, &c. of Lei-
cefterfhire.

W ALTOS -upon-Thames, a village in the hundred of Elm-
bridge and county of Surrey, England, is fituated on the
fouthern bank of the river, 14 miles N.E. by N. diftant
from Guildford, and 18 miles W. S.W. from London. Mr.
Gough fays it probably derived its name from an encamp-
ment on St. Georgt's-hill, in the vicinity, called Wall-town.
Thefe works are laid to have been of Roman conftruftion
as well as a larger encampment at Oatlands, and fome topo-
graphers contend that Julius Cxfar raifed a bridge over the
Thames near this place. This however is very doubtful,
although it feems fatisfaftorily proved, that many piles and
pieces of timber have been raifed from the bed of the river,
and that thefe as well as the fpot have long been called
Cowey-ftakes. In Walton are two annual fairs, one of
which was eftabhfhed by grant of king Henry VIII. Apfe-
court, in this paiiih, is an old manlion, belonging to Ed-
mund Hill, efq. ; but the land and extenfive walled gardens
are now let to a gardener. At Burwood-park is a handfome
modern houfe, built by fir John Frederick, bart., who has
lately much enlarged and improved the eftate. Burhill is a
feat in this parifh, belonging to fir Charles Kemys Tynte,
grandfon of general Johnfon, who obtained this eftate in
1720 by the bequeft of Peter de la Porte. Pains-hill is
much celebrated for its fine grounds and beautiful gar-
dens, which were firft laid out by the honourable Charles
Hamilton, and obtained very confiderable popularity from
having been formed from a fterile heath. Thus an apparent
defert was transformed to a terreftrial paradife. Walpole,
Gilpin, and other authors, have defcanted on the beauties
of this famed feat. One of thefe ftates, " there may be
fcenes where Nature has done more for herfelf, but in no
place that I ever faw has fo much been done for nature as at
Pains-hill. The beauty and unexpefted variety of the fcene,
the happy fituation, elegant ftrufture, and judicious form of
the buildings ; the flourifhing ftate, uncommon diverfity, and
contrafted groupage of the trees, and the contrivance of the
water, will not fail to awaken the moft pleafing fenfations."
Mr. Hamilton fold this place to Benjamin Bond Hopkins,

efq.,

W A M

WAN

pfq., wlio erefted a large manfion on the brow of the hill.
Pains-hill is now the feat of the earl of Carhanipton. At
Walton is a very long bridge over the Thames. In the
church is a large collly monument by Roubiliac, to the me-
mory of Richard, vifcount Shannon, who died in 1740, and
who was at that time field-marlfial in the army, and com-
mander-in-chief in Ireland. William Lilly, the allrologer,
was buried in the chancel of this church ; and in other parts
were interred the following pcrfons : Jerome Wefton, earl
of Portland, who died in 1662 ; fir Jacob Edwards, bart.,
and his lady ; Henry Skrine, efq., author of a tour in Wales,
&c. Several of the Rodney family were buried in the
church. In the chancel is a brafs-plate engraved with the
figures of a man on the back of a iiag, and faid to comme-
morate the following perfon and fatt : — John Selwyn, a
keeper in Oatlands park, was particularly neted for his
ftrength, agility, &c. One day when hunting a ftag in the
faid park, in the prcfence of queen Elizabeth, he fprang
from his horfe's back on that of the deer, and there pre-
ferved his feat, till the animal had reached a fpot near her
majefty, when Selwyn plunged his fword into the throat ot
the deer, and killed him on tlie fpot. — See Antiquarian Re-
pertory, vol. i. 1807. For an account of Oailands, Sec. fee
Weybridge. Hiilory and Antiquities of Surrey, by the
Rev. Owen Manning and William Bray, efq., three vols. fol.

WALTUNGI, a fmall ifiand on the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 34. E. long. 25°.

WALTWIESE, a town of France, in the department
of the Mofelle ; 7 miles N.W. of Sar Louis.

WALTZ, in Biography, a German bale finger, with a
courfe figure, and a Itill coarfer voice, whom Handel, when
abandoned by all the great fingers who had performed in the
operas which he compofed for the Royal Academy, was
obliged to employ in the place of Montagnana. It has been
faid, that Waltz was originally Handel's cook. He fre-
quently fung in chorufes and comic entertainments at Drury
Lane, in our own memory ; and, as an aftor, had a great
deal of broad humour. He played a little on the violoncello,
and ufei to divert the band in the mufic-room under the
ilage when not wanted in the orcheftra, with accompanying
himfelf in ridiculous and fatirical fongs.

Waltz, the name of a riotous German dance, of modern
invention ; of which the definition has not yet had admifiion
in any mufical lexicon. The tune is gay, and always in
triple time. All our great performers on keyed infirumcnts
have compofed and publiflied tunes of this ki;;d. The verb
vialtzen, whence this word is derived, imphes to roll, wallow,
welter, tumble down, or roll in the dirt or mire.

What analogy there may be between thefe acceptations
and the dance, we pretend not to fay ; but having feen
it performed by a feleft party of foreigners, we could not
help reflecting how uneafy an Englidi mother would be to
fee her daughter fo familiarly treated, and Hill more to wit-
nefs the obliging manner in which the freedom is returned
by the females.

WALUWE, in Geography, a town on the S.E. coaft
of Ceylon ; 40 miles S. of Yale.

WALWARNO, a river of England, which runs into
the Lee, in the county of Cheder.

WAMAR, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the W. coaft of Aroo. S. lat. 5° 30'. E. long. 134° 57'.

WAMIiA, a town of Spain, anciently called Gertica ;
6 miles N. of Valladolid. — Alfo, a province of the kingdom
of An/.iko, S.E. of Pombo.

WAMBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Ko-
iiigingralz ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Konigingratz.

WAMBRE, a river of Africa, in the kingdom of An-

ziko, which runs into the Bancaro, 25 miles N.E. of Con-
cabella.

WAMBULA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Abo; 48 miles S.S.E. of Biorneborg.

WAMMELOF, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Schonen ; 25 miles S.E. of Lund.

WAMPACH, a town of France, in the department of
the Forefts ; 6 miles E.N.E. of Houfalife.

WAMPOOL, or Wampui,, a river of England, in Cum-
berland, which runs into the Eden, at its mouth.

WAMPU, a town of China, fituated on the river be-
tween Macao and Canton, where velfels of different nations
lie to take in their lading ; not being allowed to go up
higher. The air is faid to be unwholefome ; 7 miles S. of
Canton.

WAMPUM, a fort of fliells, feveral of which, being
ftrung upon threads, are ufed as money among the Indians.

It is formed of the infide of the clam-fticU, a large fea-
fhell bearing fome refemblance to that of a fcallop, which
is found on the coafts of New England and Virginia. This
(hell is made into fmall cylinders of about one quarter of an
inch long, and a fifth of an inch over, and being bored as
beads, is ftrung in great numbers upon long ftrings. In
this ftate it palfes among the Indians in their ufual com-
merce, as filver and gold among us ; but being loofe it is
not fo current.

It is both white and black or purple ; and the meaneft is
in fingle ftrings, of which the white goes at five (hillings a
fathom, and the black at ten ; or by number, the white fix
a penny, the lilack at three. The next in value to thefe
fingle ftrings, is that which is wove into bracelets of about
three-quarters of a yard long, black and white, in (tripes,
and fix pieces in a row, the warp coiififting of leather
thongs, and the woof of thread , thefe the gentlewomen
among them wear, wound twice or oftener about their
wrifts.

The moft valuable of all is that woven into girdles or
belts. Thefe are compofed of many rows, and the black
and white pieces woven into fquares or other figures. Thefe
girdles are fometimes worn as their richell ornaments ; but
tiiey are oftener ufed in their great payments, and make
their nobleft prefcnts, and are laid up as their treafure.
Grew's Mufaeum, p. 370.

WAMWaLO, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 55 miles W. of Noanagur.

WAN.'\, a town of Sweden, in the province of Tavaft-
land ; 5 miles S.E. of Tavallhus.

WANASPATUCKET, a river of Rhode ifland, which
runs into Providence river.

WANDA, a town of Algiers, in the province of Tre-
mc9en ; 35 miles S.W. of Treme9en.

WANDASS. See WiNDAss.

WANDECHY, in Geography, a town of Bootan ; 4
miles N.W. of Tadafudon. N. lat. if ^2'. E. long. Sy"

3''-

WANDERSLEBEN, a town of Saxony, in the pnn-

cipality of Altcnburg ; 9 miles S.W. of Erfurt.

WANDESBECK, a town of the circle of HoUlcin ;
3 miles N.E. of Hamburg.

WANDIPOUR, a town of Bootan, defended by a ci-
tadel, and confidered as a place of great ftrength j 15 miles
E. of Tan"afndon. N. lat. 27^ 50'. E. long. 89' 47'.

WANDIWASH, a town of Hindooftan, ui the Carna-
tic , taken by the Britifli troops in 1760; 38 miles N.N.W.
of Pondicherry. N. lat. i 2* 3 1'. E. long. 79^^ 46'.

WANDLACKEN, a town of PrulTia, in the province
of Natancrn ; 4 miles E. of Gerdavcn.

WANULE,

WAN

WANDLE, a river of England, in the county of Sur-
Tey, which runs into the Thames, below Wandfworth.

WANDO, a river of Soutli Carolina, which runs into
the Alhlev, N. lat. 33° 50'. W. long. 79° 58'.

WANDSU, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of mon-
key found in the ifland oV Ceylon. It is all over of a fine
deep black ; but has a long white beard hanging from its

chin.

WANDSWORTH, or Wandlesworth, in Geogra-
phy, a village in the weilcrn divifion of Brixton hundred, in
the county of Surrey, England, is fituated on the banks of
the fmall river Wandle (which falls into the Thames in this
parifh), at the dillance of fix miles S.W. from St. Paul's
cathedral, London. The parifli, according to the popula-
tion return of the year 181 1, contained 905 houfes, and
5644 inhabitants, of whom 620 families were employed in
various trades and manufaftures. Aubrey, in his "Antiqui-
ties of Surrey," mentions a manufafture of brafs plates for
frying-pans, kettles, and other culinary vefTels, which was
eftabhfhed here by Dutchmen who kept it a myftery : the
houfes where this bufinefs was carried on bore the name of
frying-pan houfes. Towards the clofe of the 17th century,
when great numbers of French Proteftants fled from the
perfecution which prevailed in the reign of Louis XIV.,
many of them fettled at Wandfworth, and eftabhihed a
French church, which is now ufed as a meeting-houfe for
Methodifts. Among thefe refugees was a confiderable number
of hatters, who introduced their manufafture at this place
with great fuccefs. Though diminilhed in its extent,' the
manufafture ftill exifts. The art of dyeing cloth has been
praftifed here above a century, and is now carried on to a
confiderable extent : as is alio cahco-printing, of which here
are two extenfive manufaftories. Here are alfo eftablifh-
ments for printing kerfeymeres, for bolting cloth, and for
whitening and preffing fluffs : hkewife iron-mills, oil and
white-lead mills, vinegar works, and diftilleries. Wandf-
worth church, which itands nearly in the centre of the vil-
lage, is a brick ftrufture, and confifts of a nave, chancel,
and two aifles : at the well end is a fquare tower, built in
the year 1630. In 1780 the greater part of the church was
rebuilt, at the expence of about 3500/. The Quakers have
a meeting-houfe and two fchools in this parifh. Among the
benefaftions to the poor of Wandfworth is 500/. bequeathed
by Henry Smith, alderman of I,ondon, who was born here
about 1540, died in 1627, when he was buried in the
church. He alfo left large eftates, real and perfonal, to be
allotted to the poor of various parifhes, according to the
difcretion of his executors. In this diftribution the county
of Surrey has been principally regarded.

Garrett, a hamlet within this parifh, appears to have been
about two centuries ago a fingle houfe, called the Garvett.
It now contains about fiftyioufes, and is well-known as the
fcene of a mock eleftion on the meeting of every new par-
liament : when feveral noted characters m low hfe appear as
candidates, being furnilhed with clothes and equipages by
the publicans, who derive confiderable profits from the
crowds of people who alfemble on fuch occafions. — Lyfons's
Environs of London, vol. i. 1796.

WANFRIED, a town of Germany, in the principality
of HelTe Rhinfels, on the Werra ; 13 miles W. of MuDiau-
fen. N. lat. 51° 12'. E. long. 10° 14'.

WANG, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Frey-
fing ; 20 miles S. of Weilhaim. — Alfo, a town of Auflria ;
12 miles S. of Ips.

W Anc-Tooth, a term fometimes applied to the jaw-tooth
of an animal.

WANG A, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft

WAN

Gothland ; 1 1 miles N.N.E. of Linkioping.— Alfo, a town
of Weil Gothland ; 46 miles E. of Uddevalla.

WANGARA, or GuANGARA, a country of Africa,
watered by the Niger, which paffes through it from W. to
E. and is fuppofed foon after to lofe itfelf in a lake or the
fandy defert. This country is fubjeft to Bornou, to the S.
of which it lies. It was formerly, i. i\ about the i ith cen-
tury, fubjeft to the fovereign of Ghera, which was called
by the Arabians, according to the Arabian writers on the
eaftern part of the great central river, the Nile of the Ne-
groes. Wangara, denominated the land of gold, is repre-
fented as formed into a fpecies of ifland by branches of the
Nile, which furround it on all fides, and which overflowing
during the rainy feafons, laid wafte the whole country under
water. When the inundation fubfided, the inhabitants are
defcribed as rufhing with eagernefs, and digging up the earth,
in every part of which they found gold. Soon afterwards
the merchants arrived from every part of Africa, to ex-
change their commodities for this gold. The principal
cities of Wangara were Raghabid and Samagonda, fituated
on the fhore of large frefh-water lakes. In the time of Leo
Africanus, Ghera, mentioned under the name of Caro, no
longer held the fupremacy among the ilates of the Niger,
but had become fubjeft to the kmgdom of Tombuftoo,
founded A.D. 1 2 15. Wangara, or Guangara, had become
an independent kingdom, whofe fovereign maintained a con-
fiderable army ; and the gold, for which this region is fo
celebrated, is reprefented by Leo as found, not within itfelf,
but in mountains to the fouth. It appears that at a later
period the caravans traded to Wangara for gold.

WANGEN, a town of Switzerland, and capital of a
baiUwick, in the canton of Berne; 20 miles S. of Berne.
— Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Lower
Rhine ; 12 miles W. of Strafburg. — Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, on the Argen, lately imperial, till, in 1802, it was
given among the indemnities to the eleftor of Bavaria. Its
territory only included a few villages. The inhabitants are
Roman Catholics; 22 miles W. of Kempten. N. lat. 47°
43'. E. long. 10° 50'.

WANGENDORFF, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
8 miles S.W. of Gnaa.

WANGERIN, a town of Pomerania ; 20 miles N.E. of
Stargard. N. lat. 53° 38'. E. long. 15° 32'.

WANGEROEG, an ifland in the German Ocean ;
about 12 miles in circumference ; 4 miles from the coafl of
Frielland. N. lat. 53° 44'. E. long. 7° 45'.

WANGEROW, a town of Pomerania ; 12 miles S.E.
of New Stettin.

WANGWELL, a fmall ifland in the Pacific Ocean,
near the S. coafl of Waygoo. S. lat. 0° 23'. E. long.

'3'° 35'-

WANHOM, in the Materia Medlca, a name by which
Kxmpfer has called the plant, of which the great galangal
of the fhops is the root.

WANJEW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Bielf!<, near tlie conflux of the Narew and the
Wanjewka ; 24 miles N.N.W. of Bielfl-c.

WANJEWKA, a river of Poland, which runs into the
Narew, near Wanjew, in the palatinate of Bielfk.

WANKANER, a town of Hindooflan, in Guzerat ;
45 miles N. of Junagur.

WANKAREY, a town of Hindoofl;an, in the country
of Vifiapour ; 6 miles W. of Poonah.

WANLASS, in Hunting. See Wixdass.

WANNAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft
Bothnia; 22 miles N.W. of Um'^a.

WAN-NASH-REESE, a lofty rugged mount.iin of

Algiers,

WAN

Algiers, generally covered with fnow, fuppofed to have
been anciently called Zalacus ; 45 miles S. of Shcrfhell.

WANNOUGAH, a mountain of Algiers ; 100 miles
W. of Conllantina.

WANO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Tavaft-
land ; 4 miles S.E. of Tavallhus.

WANOOAETTEE, a fmall illand in the Pacific Ocean ;
10 miles W.N.W. of Wateehoo.

WANO R A, a fmaU ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 64° 32'. E. long. 21° 14'.

WANQUI, a country of Africa, on the Gold coaft.

WANSAWAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ;
2J miles N. of Junagur.

WANSBECK. See AVen-sbeck.

WANSEN, a town of Silefia, in the principahty of
Brieg ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Ohlau.

WANSINGAR, a fmall idand on the W. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 5'. E. long. 18*32'.

WANSLEBEN, John-Michael, in Biography, the (on
of a Lutheran miniftcr at Erfurt, in Thuringia, was born
in 1635 ; and having ftudied philofophy and theology at
Konigfljerg, he acquired a knowledge of the Ethiopic lan-
guage under the inftniftion of Ludolf, by whom he was
fent to London to publifh his Ethiopic dictionary in 1661 ;
and he was alfo employed by Caftell in compiling his " Lexi-
con Heptaglotton." Upon his return to Germany, Ernell,
duke of Saxe-Gothn, engaged him to vifit Abyffinia, for llie
purpofe of acquainting himfelf with the language and natu-
ral hiftory of that country ; but having reached Cairo in
1663, he was prevented from proceeding to AbyfTniia, as it
is thought, by his own mifcondiift, and embarking at Alex-
andria in 1665, he arrived in Italy ; and in the following
year abandoned Lulhcranifm, and entered into the Domini-
can order. Upon his being introduced to Colbert at Paris,
in 1670, he was engaged to make a vifit to Abyfiinia, and
to bring home all the manufcripts whicli he could purchafe.
During his refidence of twenty months in Egypt, he tranf-
mitted for the Royal Library at Paris 334 manufcripts,
Arabian, Perfian, and Turkifli. But not being able to
enter Abyflinia, he went to Conilantinople, and from thence
in 1676 he was recalled to France, on account of his irregu-
lar conduft. Being at length reduced to want, he gained a
mere fubfillence by ferving the village church of Bouron as
vicar, where he died at the age of fifty-eiglit, in the year
1693. His principal publications are, " The Liturgy of
Diofcorus, Patriarch of Alexandria," Lond. 1662 ; " An
Account of the prefcnt State of Egypt, in Italian," 1671 ;
" Nouvelle Relation en forme de Journal d'un Voyage fait
en Egypte au 1672 et 1673;" " Hilloire de I'Eglifed'Alex-
andria," if>77 ; whieli is faid to contain a more accurate ca-
talogue of the patriarchs of Alexandria than that of Ludolf
communicated to the Jefuits of Antwerp. Moreri.

WANSTA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Schoncn ; 25 miles E. of Lund.

WANSTEAD, a village and parifh in the hundred
of Becontree and county of Effex, England, is fituated
eight miles N.E. from St. Paul's cathedral, London. The
old parifli-church was repaired and enlarged in the early
part of tlie lalt century, principally at the cxpence of the
firll earlTylney ; but being flill found fmall and incommo-
dious, it was pulled down, and a new church ercfted on a
larger fcale, nearly adjoining to the old Icite. The firll
ftone of the prcfent ftruClure was laid July i3lh, 1787 : it
was finiflied in 1790, and confecratcd .Func 24th in that year.
It is built willi brick, and cafed with Portland Hone ; the
portico is of the Doric order : at the weft end is a cupola,

WAN

fupported by eight Ionic columns. The interior confiftg of
a nave, chancel, and two aides, feparated by columns of the
Corinthian order. In the chancel is a beautiful window of
ftained glafs, by Eginton of Birmingham, reprcfenting our
Saviour bearing the crofs, from the pitture at Magdalen col-
lege, Oxford : here is alfo a fuperb monument, with the effigy
of the deceafed in white marble, to the memory of fir Jofiah
Child, bart., who died in 1699. The population of the
parifh, as enumerated under the a>St of the year 181 1, was
210 ; the number of houfes 1 127.

Wanllead-lioufe was defigned by Colin Campbell, in the
year 1715, and executed under his direction fcjr fir Richard
Child, who was afterwards advanced to the peerage by the
title of earl Tylney. This edifice occupies the fcite of an
ancient manfion, which, with the annexed demefne, had pre-
vioufly been pofFelfed fucceliively by fir William Mildmay,
George, marquis of Buckingham, king James I., Charles
Blount,earlofDevonniire, Robert Rich.'earl of Leicefter.and
his father Robert, lord Rich. The latter built the old houfe,
which was called Naked-hall-houfc, and in which queen Eb'-
zabeth and her court were funiptuoufly entertained in May
1578 for feveral days. Sir Richard Child, iinding this houfe
inadequate to his domeftic elhblifliment, employed Mr.
Campbell to build the prefcnt fplendid manfion. It confifts
of a centre with two uniform flanks or wings, and extends
about 260 feet in front by nearly 80 feet in depth. The
middle portion has a noble pediment, fupported by fix co-
lumns of the Corinthian order, whicli rell on a bold pro-
jecting bafement. This forms the entrance, by a doubl*
flight of fleps, to the great hall and faloon, the former of
which meafurcs 51 feet by 36, and 36 feet in height; and
the latter forms a cube of 30 feet. Thefe communicate
with a double fuite of ftate apartments, which extend along
the whole of both fronts, and are connected at the fouth
end by a grand ball-room, which is 64 feet by 24. In ftrid
accordance with the principal front, and imitative of the
ftyle of Italian villas, the arcliiteft has railed a (lone para-
pet, with a feries of detached obelill<s, to form two fides of
the entrance court, the third being bounded by a ha-ha.
The whole of this area lias lately been laid out as a rich par-
terre or flower-garden ; and executed from the defigns of
Mr. Repton. Of a flyle and charafter with the exterior
arcbitedture is the interior finifhings and furniture of the
houfe. Thus formed and thus embcllifhed, Wanllead-houfe
may be faid to vie with many foreign palaces, and to rank
with thofe Englifh manfions which proclaim the riches and
fplendour of the country. At liie commencement of the
prefent century, this houfe was the refidence of the royal
family of France ; and here alfo was the firft fplendid enter-
tainment given to congratulate the naarquis, now duke of
Wellington, on his return from his victorious campaigns in
Spain and Portugal. Wanftead-houfe, with its conti^ruous
property, and extenfive eilates in EfTex, Hants, AVilts, York-
ftiire, and Dorfetlhire, came into the pofFelTion of AVilliam
Wellefley Pole, efq., by marriage, in March 1812, witli
Catherine Tylney Long, daughter and heirefs of fir Jame»
Tylney Long, bart. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v.
EfTex. By J. Brittonand E. W. Brayley, 1803. Lyfons'
Environs of London, vol. iv. 4to, 1796.

WANT, in Zoology, a name fometimes given to the
mole.

WANTAGE, anciently Wanatixc, in Geography, a
market-town of confidcrable antiquity in the hundred of
the fame name, in the county of Berks, England, is fituated
on the (kirts of the prolilic vale of White-horfe, at the dif-
tancc of 10 miles S.W. from Abingdon, i(^ miles N.W. by
W. from Reading, and 59 miles in llic fame bc.iring from

London.

W A N

London. A variety of concurring teftimonies render it pro-
bable that this place was once a Roman itation ; though the
numerous alterations which it his undergone almoR preclude
the poflibility of tracing thofe remains which would decide
the queftion. The vallum, faid to be part of a Roman ila-
tion, was plainly to be feen when Mr. Wife vihted it about
the year 1738, " inclofing a fpace called the H^h garden.
A hollow way into the town from Farringdon, Grove-ilreet,
a morafs, and a brook, form the fides of an oblong fquare,
containing about fix acres of ground. On this fpot' con-
tinues Mr.Wife, " ftood the Saxon palace where Alfred was
born " North of the brook is an inclofure where Roman
coins have been found ; and the remains of a building called
king Alfred's cellar, which was paved with brick, and ap-
pears to have been a bath. Wantage was probably of con-
fequence in the Saxon times, as it was undoubtedly a royal
villa, and appears, together with the furrounding country,
to have been the patrimony of the Weft Saxon kings : by
the will of Alfred, it was bequeathed to his coulm Alfnth.
It is a market-town by prefcription, having obtained that
privilege about the beginning of the 13th century, through
the intereft of Fulk Fitzwarine, on whom it was bellowed
by Roger Bigod, earl marlhal of England, as a reward for
miUtary ferviccs. The market-day is Saturday ; and here
are four annual fairs. The civil government is vefted in a
chief conllable. In the population return of the year 181 1,
the town is ftated to contain 510 houfes, occupied by 2386
perfons. The chief employment of the inhabitants is the
manufaaure of coarfe cloth and facking. The parilh
church is a fpacious cruciform ftruiiture, built either wholly,
or in part, by the Fitzwarine family, whofe arms and ef-
figies are to be feen in various parts of the edifice ; which
alfo contains fomc old pompous monuments, and a large an-
cient font conftrufted of porphyry-ftone. An ad of par-
liament paffed in the year 1598, for vefting the town lands
of Wantage given in the reigns of Henry VI. and Henry VII.
for charitable ufes, in twelve of the " better fort of inha-
bitants" to be deemed a body corporate. By this aft the
revenues of the faid lands are appropriated to the relief of
the poor, the repairs of the highways, and the fupport of
a grammar-fchool. An Englilh fchool has, from an early
period, been added to the other charitable objects provided
for out of the profits of thefe lands. The governors allow
30/. per annum to the mailer of the grammar-fchool, who
muft be a graduate in one of the univerfities ; and 15/. per
annum to the matter of the Englilh fchool. In 1680 an
alms-houfe for twelve poor perfons was founded and en-
dowed by Mr. Robert Styles. Dr. Jofeph Butler, a learned
divine, and bifhop of Durham in the laft century, was born
in this town : but its chief celebrity is its having been the
birth-place of king Alfred, peculiarly ftiled the Great. See
Alfred.— Lyfons' Magna Britannia, vol. i. Berklhire, 1806.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i. Berkfhire. By J.
Britton and E.W. Brayley, 1801.

Wantage, a town of New Jerfey, in the county of Suf-
fex, containing 2969 inhabitants ; 15 miles N. of Newtown.

WANTI. See Glove.

WANTING, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of
Lower Siam. N. lat. 7° 39'. E. long. 100" 55'.

WANTSUM, a name given to the river Stour, which
divides the ifle of Thanet from the reft of the county of
Kent, and runs into the Downs, below Sandwich.

WANTY, in Rural Economy, the name ufually given to
a broad girth of leather, by which the load is bound upon
the back of the horfe. It is very ufeful in hilly diftrifts for
Xecuring various kinds of loads.

WA'^NTZENAU, iu Geography, a town of France, in

WAP

the department of the Lower Rhine ; 6 miles N. of Straf-
burg.

WANTZLAU, a town of the Middle Mark of Bran-
denburg ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Brandenburg.

WANZCY, in Botany, a tree very common throughout
all Abyffinia. Every houfe in Gondar has two or three-
planted round it, fo that, when firft viewed frem the heights,
it appears like a wood, efpeciaUy through the whole feafon
of the rains, but very exaftly on the ift of September, for
three years together, in a night's time, it was covered with a
multitude of white flowers. Gondar, and all the towns about
it, then appeared as if covered with white linen, or with
new-fallen fnow. It grows to a confiderable magnitude,
being from eighteen to twenty feet high ; the trunk is gene-
rally about three feet and a half from the ground ; it then
divides into four or five thick branches, which have at leaft
60" inclination to the horizon, and not more. Thefe large
branches are generally bare, and half way up the bark is
rough and furrowed. They then put out a number of fmall
branches, circular at top, in figure like fome of our early
pear-trees. (See the defcription of it in the Appendix to
Bruce's Travels. ) This tree and the coffee-tree have divine
honours paid by each of the feven nations ; under this tree
their king is chofen ; here he holds his firft council ; his
fceptre is a bludgeon made of this tree, which, like a mace,
is carried before him wherever he goes ; it is produced in the
general meetings of the nation, and is called " Buco."

WANZLEBEN, in Geography, a town) of Weftphaba,
in the duchy of Magdeburg ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Magde-
burg.

Wapentake, or Weapentake, a dlvifion of cer-
tain northern countries, particularly thofe beyond the Trent,
anfwering to what in other places is called a hundred, or a
cantred.

Authors differ as to the origin of the word. Brompton
brings it from the Saxon luaepen, and taecan, to deliver, by
reafon the tenants anciently delivered their arms to every new
lord as a token of their homage.

Sir Thomas Smith gives a different account. Matters,
he obferves, were anciently taken of the armour and wea-
pons of the feveral inhabitants of every hundred ; and from
fuch as could not find fufEcient pledges for their good
abearing, their weapons were taken aiuay, and delivered to
others.

Others give a different account of its rife ; to'z. that when
firft the kingdom was divided into wapentakes, he who was
the chief of the divifion, and whom we now call hlgh-conflable,
as foon as he entered upon his office, appeared in the field,
on a certain day, on horfeback, with a pike in his hand ; and
all the chief men of the hundred met him with their lances,
who, ahghting, touched his pike with their lances, as a fig-
nal they were firmly united to each other, by the touching
of their weapons. Whence the denomination -wapentakes,
from the Saxon -waepen, and tac, touching.

WAPESSAGA, in Geography, a lake of Canada. N.
lat. 48" 10'. W. long. 71° 40'.

WAPITW^AGO Islands, a clufter of ifiands near
the fouth coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 4'. W. long.
60° 20'.

WAPLES, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-
laud ; 16 miles S.E. of Ofterrode.

WAPNO, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz ; 14 miles S.W. of Konigingratz.

WAPP, in a Ship, that rope with which the Hirowds are
fet taught with wale-knots ; one end is made faft to the
(hrowds, and to the other are brought the laniards.

WAPPE, a fpecies of cur. The name is derived from
II its

W A R

its note ; its only ufe was to alarm tlie family by barking,
if any perfon approached the houfe. See Dog.

WAPPER, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to the
fmaller fpecics of the river gudgeon.

WAPPING'S Creek, in Geography, a river of Nevy
York, which runs into the Hudfon, 7 miles S. of Pough-
keepfie.

WAPPO, a town of Africa, on the Grain coaft. N.
lat. 4° 59'. W. long. 8^20'.

WAPPOCOMO, a river of Virginia, which runs into
the Potomack, 9 miles E.S.E. of Fort Cumberland.

WAPSTENO, a town of Swedilh Lapland ; 1 15 miles
N.W. of Umea.

WAPUWAGAN Islands, a duller of illands near
the coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 2'. W. long. 60' 14'.

WAR, Bellum, a conteft or difference between princes,
ftates, or large bodies of people ; which, not being deter-
minable by the ordinary meafurcs of juftice and equity, is
referred to the decifion of the fword ; or, it is that ftate ia
which a nation profecutes its right by force.

Hobbes's great principle is, that the natural ftate of man
is a ftate of warfare ; but moft other pohticians hold war to
be a preternatural and extraordinary ftate.

War may be confidered, fays archdeacon Paley, with a
view to its caufes and to its conduit. The jujlifying caufes of
war are deliberate invafions of right, aad the ncceflity of
maintaining fuch a balance of power amongft neighbouring
nations, as that no fingle ftate, or confederacy of ftates, be
ftrong enough to overwhelm the reft. The objefts of juft
war »re precaution, defence, or reparation. In a larger
fenfe, every juft war is a defenfive war, inafmuch as every
juft war fuppofes an injury perpetrated, attempted, or
feared.

A defenftve war is oppofed to that which is offenftve ; and
as in the former cafe, the fovereign power of a nation takes
up arms to repel the attacks of an enemy, fo, in the latter,
arms are taken up in order to attack a nation that lived in
peace with the others. War is fo dreadful an evil, and fo
deftruftive in its progrefs and effefts, that it Ihould never be
undertaken without the ftrongeft rcafons. Humanity is
fliocked at a fovereign who, without imperious neceflity,
lavifttes the lives of his moft faithful fubjcfts, and who ex-
pofes his people to the havoc and mifcries of war, when
they might enjoy an honourable and falutary peace ; and if
this want of love for his people be accompanied with injuftice
towards thofe whom he attacks, what guilt does he incur,
or rather what a dreadful feries of crimes docs he commit ?
The flaughtcr of men, the pillage of cities, the dcvaftation
of provinces, are his crimes. He \i rcfponftble to God, and
accountable to man, for every perfon that is killed. The
violences, the crimes, the various difordcrs attendant on the
licentious tumult of arms, pollute his confcience, and
blacken his account, as he is the original author of them
all. — May this faint fltetch, fays the excellent Vattel, affeft
the hearts of the leaders of nations, and in military cnter-
prifes fuggeft to them a circumfpec\ion proportional to the
importance of the fubjcft ! Vattel ftates the following
triple end as the diftinguiftiingcharafteriftic of a lawful war :
I. To recover what belongs or is due to us. 2. To pro-
vide for our future fafety by puniftiing the aggrefFor or
offender. 3. To defend ourfelvcs from an injury by re-
pelling an unjuft violence. The two firft are the objefts of
an offenfive, the third that of a defenfive war. Camillus,
when he was going to attack the Gauls, concifely rcpre-
fonted to his foldiers all the caufes which can juftify a war:
" Omnia qux defendi, rcpetique et ulcifci fas eft." Liv.
1. ix. c. 49.

Vol. XXXVII.

WAR

The infuffident caufes, or unjuftifiable motives of war,
according to Paley, are the family alliances, the perfonal
friendlhips, or the perfonal quarrels of princes ; the mternal
difputes which are carried on in other nations ; the juftice
of other wars ; the extenfion of territory, or of trade ; the
misfortunes or accidental weaknefs of a neighbouring or
rival nation. There are tiuo leflbns of rational and fober
policy, fays this excellent writer, which, if it were poflible
to inculcate into the councils of princes, would exclude
many of the motives of war, and allay that reftlefs ambition
which is conftantly ftirring up one part of mankind againft
another. The firft of thefe lefTons admonifties princes to
" place their glory and their emulation, not in extent of ter-
ritory, but in raifing the greateft quantity of happinefs out
of a given territory." The enlargement of territory by
conqueft is not only not a juft objeft of war, but, in moft;
inftances in which it is attempted, not even defirable.
What commonly is gained to a nation, by the annexing of
new dependencies, or the fubjugation of other countries to
its dominion, but a wider frontier to defend, more inter-
fering claims to vindicate, more quarrels, more enemies,
more rebellions to encounter, a greater force to keep up by
land and fea, more fervices to provide for, and more efta-
blifhments to pay ? And in order to draw from thefe acqui-
fitions fomething that may make up for the charge of keep-
ing them, a revenue is to be extorted, or a monopoly to be
iuforced and watched, at an expcnce which cofts half their
produce. Thus the provinces are opprefled, in order to
pay for being ill governed ; and the original ftate is ex-
haufted in maintaining a feeble authority over difcontentcd
fubjefts. Do opulence and extent of dominion always con-
ftitute the happinefs of ftates ? Among the multitude of
inftances that prefent themfclves to notice, let us confine
ourfelves, fays Vattel, to the Romans. The Roman re-
public ruined itfelf by its triumphs, the excefs of its con-
quefts and power. Rome, the niiftrcfs of the world, when
enftaved by tyrants, and opprcft'ed by a military govern,
mcnt, had reafon to deplore the fuccefs of its arms, and to
look back with regret on thofe happy times when its power
did not reach beyond Italy, or even when its dominion was
almoft confined within the circuit of its walls. Dr. Paley
mentions two cafes in which the extenfion of territory may
be of real advantage, and to both parties. The firft is,
where an empire thereby reaches to the natural boundaries
which divide it from the reft of the world. Thus we ac-
count the Britifti Channel the natural boundary which fepa-
rates the nations of England and France: and if France
poftefl"ed any counties on this, or England any cities or pro-
vinces on that fide of the fea, the recovery of fuch towns
and diftrifts, to what may be called their natural fovereign,
though it might not be a juft reafon for commencing war,
would be a proper ufe to make of viftory. The other cafe
is, where neighbouring ftates, being feverally too fmall and
weak to defend themfelves againft the dangers that furround
them, can only be fafe by a ftrift and conftant junftion of
their ftrength : here conqueft will effeft the purpofes of
confederation and alliance ; and the union which it produces
is often more clofe and permanent, than that which refults
from voluntary aflociation.

Tlie fecond rule ot prudence, to which we have above re-
ferred, and which ought to be recommended to thofe who
conduft tlie aft'airs of nations, is, " never to purfne national
honour as diftinft from national iiiterejt." " The dignity of
his crown, the honour of his flag, the glory of his arms,"
in the mouth of a prince, are ftatcly and impofing terms;
but the ideas they infpire are infatiable. The purfuit of
honour, when fct loofe from the admonitions of prudence,
4 S becomes

WAR.

becomes in kings a wild and romantic paffion ; eager to en-
gage, and gathering fury in its progrefs, it is checked by
no difficulties, repelled by no dangers : it forgets or defpifes
thofe confiderations of fafety, eafe, wealth, and plenty,
which, in the eye of true public .vifdom, compofe the ob-
jefts, to which the renown of arms, the fame of viftory, are
only inftrumental and fubordinate. The purfuit of intereft,
on the other hand, is a fober principle ; computes cods and
confequence3 ; is cautious of entering into war ; flops in
time : when regulated by thofe univerfal maxims of relative
juftice which belong to the affairs of communities, as well as
of private perfons, it is the right principle for nations to
proceed by ; even when it trefpalTes upon thefe regulations,
it is much lefs dangerous, becaufe much more temperate
than the other.

Another objedl of confideration, in reference to this fub-
jeift, is the condud of war. If the caufe and end of war be
julliiiable, all the means that.appear neceffary to the end are
jufiifiable alfo. War is a conteft by force, between parties
who acknowledge no common fuperior ; and as it does not
include in its idea the fuppiTition of any convention which
fhould reftrift th- operations of force, it has naturally no
boundary, but that in which force terminates, the deftruc-
tion of the life againft which the force is direfted. Ncver-
thelefs, the licence of war authorifes no afts of hotlility but
what are neceffary or conducive to the end and objedl of the
war. Gratuitous barbarities borrow no excufe from this
plea. The flaughter of captives, the fubjefting of them to
indignities or torture, the violation of women, the profana-
tion of temples, the demolition of public buildings, libraries,
ftatues, and, in general, the deftruftion or defacing of works
that conduce nothing to annoyance or defence : — thefe enor-
mities are prohibited not only by the practice of civilized
nations, but by the law of nature itfelf ; as having no proper
tendency to accelerate the termination, or accomplifh the
objeft of the war ; and as containing that, which in peace
and war is equally unjuftifiable, ultimate and gratuitous
mifchief.

The laws of war, which are part of the law of nations,
impofe other reftriftions upon the condudl of war. To this
head we may refer the duty of refraining in war from
poifon, and from afiaffination. Such praftices are at pre-
fent excluded by the ufage and opinions of civilized nations ;
and the firfl recourfe to them would be followed by in-
ftant retahation. The licence of war then acknowledges
t<wo limitations : it authorizes no hoflilities which have not
an apparent tendency to effeftuate the objeft of the war ; it
refpefts thofe pofitive laws which the cuftom of nations hath
fanftified, and which, whilH they are mutually conformed
to, mitigate the calamities of war, without weakening its
operations, or diminifhing the power or fafety of belligerent
ftates.

Before a jufl war is undertaken, we owe, fays Vattel,
this further regard to humanity, and efpecially to the lives
and tranquillity of the fubjefts, to declare to the unjult na-
tion with which we are about to contend, that we are at
length recurring to the lafl remedy, and going to make ufe
of open force, for bringing it to reafon. This is called
" declaring war." All this is included in the Roman man-
ner of proceeding, regulated in their Fecial law. They
firfl fent the chief of the Feciales or heralds, called
" Pater Fatratus," to demand fatisfaftion of the people
which liad offended them ; and if within the fpace of thirty-
three days this people did not return a fatisfaftory anfwer,
the herald called the gods to be witneffes of the wrong, and
came away faying, that the Romans would confider what
they had to do. The king, and afterwards the conful, ufed

lO

to afk the fenate's opinion ; and the war being refolved on,
the herald was fent back to the frontier, where he declared
it. It is furprifing to find among the Romans fuch juftice,
fuch moderation, and wifdom, at a time too when appa-
rently nothing but courage and ferocity were to be expefted
from them. By this religious conduft, previous to its
war, Rome laid the moft folid foundation for its future
greatnefs.

A declaration of war being neceffary as a farther trial for
terminating the difference without the effufion of blood, by
making ufe of the principle fear, for bringing the enemy to
more equitable fentiments ; it is, at the fame time that it
declares the refolution taken of making war, to fet forth
the caufe of that refolution. This is at prefent the conftant
praftice among the powers of Europe.

If in confequence of fuch declaration, the enemy offers
equitable conditions of peace, the right of war ceafes.
Formerly the powers of Europe ufed to fend heralds or am-
baffadors to declare war ; at prefent this is only done in the
capital, the principal towns, or on the frontiers. Mani-
feftoes are iffued, and the communication, fo eafy and ex-
peditious from the eftablifhment of polls, foon fpreads the
intelligence. Befides, it is in fome cafes neceffary for a na-
tion to publifh the declaration of war for the inftruftion and
direftion of its own fubjedls, in order to fix the date of the
rights belonging to them from the moment of this declara-
tion, and relatively to certain effefts which the voluntary
law of nations attributes to a war in form. Without fuch a
public declaration of war, it would be difficult to fettle, in a
treaty of peace, thofe afts which are to be accounted tlie
effefts of the war, and thofe which each nation may con-
fider as wrongs, for obtaining reparation. He who is at-
tacked, and makes only a defenfive war, need not declare
it ; the flate of war being fufficiently determined by the de-
claration of the enemy, or his open hoflilities. Neverthe-
lefs, from dignity, or for the direftion of his fubjefts, a
fovereign, though attacked, feldom fails of declaring war
in his turn. By the law of nations, the declaration of war
need not be made till the enemy has reached the frontiers ;
but it muft always precede the commiffion of any hoflility.
Thus we provide for our own fafety, and equally procure
the end of the declaration of war, which is, that an unjuft
adverfary may flill ferioufly confider his meafures, and avoid
the horrors of war, by doing juftice. The fovereign,
having entered a country, and declared war, may proceed,
if equitable conditions are not offered him, to hoftile opera-
tions. The fovereign declaring war can neither detain thofe
fubjefts of the enemy, who are within his dominions at the
time of the declaration, nor their effeAs. He is to allow
them a reafonable time for withdrawing with their effefts ;
and if they ftay beyond the term prefcribed, he has a
right to treat them as enemies, though as enemies dif-
armed.

Becaufe the Chriftian fcriptures defcribe wars, as what
they are, fays Paley, as crimes or judgments, fome have
been led to believe that it is unlawful for a Chrillian to bear
arms. But it fhould be remembered, that it may be necef-
fary for individuals to unite their force, and, for this end,
to refign themfelves to the direftion of a common will ; and
yet it may be true, that that will is often aftuated by cri-
minal motives, and often determined to deftruftive purpofes.
Hence, although the origin of wars be afcribed in fcripture
to the operation of lawlefs and malignant paffions ; and
though war itfelf be enumerated amongft the foreft cala-
mities with which a land can be vifited, the profeffion of a
foldier is no where forbidden or condemned. See Luke,
iii. 14. Luke, vii. 9. Afts, x. i. On the fubjeft of this

article,

WAR

WAR

article, fee Paley's Phil. vol. ii. Vattel's Law of Nations,
book ill.

Thf fole prerogative of making war and peace belongs,
by the Englirti conftitution, to the king. But as a king of
England can neither raife money nor compel his fubjcdls to
take up arms, without the concurrence of parliament, his
right of making war is only a flender prerogative, iinlcfs the
parliament feconds him with fupplies. Levying war againft
the king in his realm is a fpecies of treafon.

War, Civil, or Intejline, is that between fubjefts of the
fame realm ; or between parties in the fame ftate.

In this fenfe we fay, the civil wars of the Romans de-
ftroyed the republic ; the civil wars of Granada ruined the
power of the Moors in Spain ; the civil wars in England
began in 1 64 1, and ended in the king's death, 1648.

When a party is formed in a ftate, which no longer obeys
the fovcreign, and is of ftrength fufficient to make head
againft him ; or when, in a republic, the nation is divided
into two oppofite factions, and both fides take arms ; this is
called a civil war. Some confine this term only to a juft
infurreftion of fubjefls againft an unjuft fovereign, to diltin-
guifti this lawful refiftance from rebellion, which is an open
and unjuft refiftance : but what appellation will they give to
a war in a republic torn by two faftions, or in a monarchy
between two competitors for the crown ? Ufe appropriates
the term of civil war to every war between the members of
one and the fame political fociety. If it be between part of
the citizens on one fide, and the fovereign with thofe who
continue in obedience to him on the other ; it is fufficient
that the malcontents have fome reafon for taking arms, to
give this difturbance the name of civil war, and not that of
rebellion. This laft term is applied only to fuch an infur-
reftion againft lawful authority, as is void of all appearance
of juftice. The fovereign indeed never fails to term rebels
all fubjefts openly refifting him ; but when thcfe become of
ftrength fufficient to oppofe him, fo that he finds himfelf
compelled to make war regularly on them, he niuft be con-
tented with the term of civil war.

If we confider the reafons why a civil war is warranted
or juftificd, we recur to a qucftion of very delicate inveftiga-
tion, and of very difficult folution. It involves the inquiry,
in what cafes a fubjeft may not only refufe to obey, but
even refift a fovereign, and by force repel force. (See
Sovereignty. ) But omitting the juftice of the caufe, we
fhall here advert to the maxims that ought to be obferved in
a civil war, and confider whether it be incumbent on the
fovereign to keep within the laws of common war. A civil
war breaks the bands of fociety and government, or at leaft
k fufpends their force and efteft ; it produces in the nation
two independent parties, confidering each other as enemies,
and acknowledging no common judge : therefore of necef-
fity thcfe two parties mult, at leaft for a time, be con-
fidered as forming two feparate bodies, two diftinft people,
though one of them may be in the wrong in breaking the
continuity of the ftate, to rife up againft lawful authority,
they are not the Icfs divided in fadt. Befides, who ftiall
judge them ? who (hall pronounce on which fide the right
or the wrong lies ? On earth they have no common fnpcrior.
Thus they are in the cafe of two nations, who having a dif-
pute which they cannot adjuft, are compelled to decide it
by force of arms.

In this ftate of the cafe, the common laws of war, or
maxims of humanity, moderation, and probity, lliould be
obferved on both fides in civil wars. The fame reafons on
which the obligation between ftate and ftate is founded,
render them even more neceffary in the unhappy circum-
iHance when two inccnfed parties are deftroying their com-

mon country. Should the fovereign conceive he has a right
to hang up his prifoners as rebels, the oppofite party will
make reprifals : if he does not religiftufly obferve the capi-
tulations, and all the conventions made with his enemies,
they will no longer rely on his word : ftiould he burn and
deftroy, they will follow his example ; the war will become
cruel and liorrid ; its calamities will increafe on the nation.
Whenever a numerous party thinks it has a right to refift:
the fovcreign, and finds itfelf able to declare that opinion
fword in hand, the war is to be carried on between them in
the fame manner as between two different nations ; and they
are to leave open the fame means for preventing enormous
violences, and reftoring peace.

A fovereign having conquered the oppofite party, and
reduced it to fubmit and fue for peace, he may except from
the amnefty the authors of the troubles, and the heads of
the party ; may bring them to a legal trial, and on con-,
viftion punifti them. He may cfpecially aft thus with re-
gard to difturbances, raifed not fo much on account of the
people's interefts as the private views of fome great men,
and which rather deferve the appellation of rebeUion than of
civil war.

When fubjefts take up arms, without ceafing to acknow-
ledge the fovereign, and only to procure a redrefs of
grievances, there are two reafons for obferving the common
laws of war towards them. i. Left a civil war becoming
more cruel and deftruftive by the reprifals, which, as we
have obferved, the infurgents will oppofe to the prince's
feverities. 2. The danger of committmg great injuftice,
by the haftily puniftiing thofe who are accounted rebels ;
the tumult of difcord, and the flame of a civil war, little
agree with the proceedings of pure and facred juftice : more
quiet times are to be waited for. It will be wife in the
prince to fecure his prifoners till, having reftored tranquil-
lity, he is in a condition of having them tried according to
tlie laws.

As to the conduct of foreign nations, they ought not to
intetfere in the conftitutional government •f an independent
ftate. It is not for them to judge between contending
citizens, nor between the prince and his fubjefts : to them
the two parties are equally foreigners, equally independent
of their autliority. They may, however, interpofe their
good offices for the reftoration of peace ; and this the law
of nature prcfcribes to thi-m. But if their mediation proves
fruitlefs, they who arc not tied by any treaty may, for their
own conduft, take the merit of the caufe into confideration,
and affill the party which they ftiall judge to have right on
its fide, in cafe this party (hall requeft their affiftance, or
accept the offer of it : they may, for the fame reafon that
they are at liberty to efpoufe the juft quarrel of a nation en-
tering into a war with another. As to the .lUies of a ftate
diftrafted by a civil war, they will find a rule for their con-
duft in the nature of their engagements, combined with the
circumftanccs of the war. Vattel's Law of Nations,
book iii.

War, Gladiators. Sec Gladiators.

Wak, Holy, is that anciently maintained by leagues and
croifades, for the recovery of the Holy Land.

War, King's, Helium Regis. At the time when parti-
cular hirds were allowed to make war with one another, to
revenge injuries, iuftcad of profecuting tlicm in the ordinary-
courts of juftice, the appellation Ung's war was given to
fuch war as the king declarcil againft any other prince, or
ftate : on which occafion, the lords were not allowed to
make private war againft each other; as being obliged to
fervr the king, with all their vaffals.

War, Religious, is a war maintained in a (late, on ae-
482 count

WAR

count of religion ; one of the parties refufing to tolerate the
other.

War, Social. See Social War.

War, jIiI of. See Military Art.

War, Council of. See Council.

War, Habiliments of See Habiliments.

WAR-Borfe. See HoRSE.

War, Man of. See Ship, Rate, &c.

War, Officers of. See Officers.

War, Place of, is a place fortified on purpofe to cover
and defend a country, and ftop the incurfion of an enemy's
army : or it is a place in which are difpofed the provifions
of war, for an army encamped in the neighbourhood ; or
whither an army retires into winter-quarters. See Place.

WAH-Cry, was formerly cuftomary in the armies of moft
nations, when juft going to engage. Sometimes they were
only tumultuous (houts, or horrid yells, uttered with an
intent to ilrike terror into their adverfaries ; fuch as is now
ufed by the Indians in America, called the luar-iuhoop.

WARA, in Geography, a city of Africa, capital of the
country of Bcrgoo ; 35 miles S.S.E. of Bornou. N. lat.
15° 30'. E. long. 25'-' 30'.

WARADIN. SeeWARDEiN.

WARADURA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Cuddapa ; 18 miles W.S.W. of Cuddapa.

WARANG, or Formosa, a fmall ifland near the coaft
of Guinea. N. lat. 11" 26'. W. long. 16^ 28'.

WARANGER, a town of Finmark ; 22 miles S.W.
of Wardhys.

WARANGOLE, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
45 miles N.N.E. of Hydrabad. N. lat. 17° 55'. E. long.

79° 15'-

WARASDIN. See Varasdin.

WARASDINS, a kind of Sclavonian foldiers, clothed
like the Turks, with a fugar-loaf bonnet inftead of a hat.
Their arms are a fuzee and piftols ; the butt-end of their
fuzee ferves for a fpade, when they have occafion to throw
up earth.

WARBEETLES, in animals, the name by which the
large maggots or worms, which are bred in the backs of
neat cattle and other animals, are fometimes provincially
called.

WARBERG, or Warburg, in Geography, a town of
Weftphalia, in the bilhopric of Paderborn. It contains
two churches, two convents, and two caftles. It was
formerly imperial, and one of the Hanfe towns. In the
year 1760, the French were defeated by the Britifh and
allien, under the hereditary prince of Brunfwick ; 16 miles
•fi.S.E. of Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 37'. E. long. 9° 1 1'.

Warberg, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the province
of Halland. It has a harbour on the North fea, which, at
prefent, has only depth enough for fmall veflels. Warberg
earries on a confiderable trade, and had ftood on three dif-
ferent fituations before the year 1666, when it was built
the fourth time on the fpot where it now ftands. A very
ancient fortified caflle ftands at the harbour's mouth, on a
rock, furrounded with water, but at prefent is of little fer-
Tice ; 32 miles N.N.W. of Halmftadt. N. lat. 57° 7'. E.
long. 1 2° 4'.

WARBLERS, in Ornithology, a name by which Mr.
Pennant diftinguifties an order of birds, comprehending the
nightingale, red-ftart, red-breaft, black-cap, petty-chaps,
hedge-fparrow, yellow, gold-crefted, and common wren,
the fedge-bird, or lefler reed-fparrow, the tit-lark, or
grafshopper-lark, the wheat-ear, whinchat, ftone-chatter,
and white-throat : their general chandlers are, that the bill
ie Dender and weak, the noftril fmall and funk, and the ex-

9

WAR

terior toe joined at the under part of the laft joint to the
middle toe. Some of thefe birds have tails of one colour,
and others have party-coloured tails. Brit. Zool. vol. i.

p. 363. See M^OTACILLA.

WARBLES, in animals, a term fometimes appHed to
the fmall hard tumours or fwellings on the fides or faddle
part of the horfe's back, that are occafioned by heat in
travelling, or the uneafinefs of its fituation ; and alfo to the
large worms or maggots in the backs of thefe animals, neat
cattle, and fome others. It is faid that a hot greafy cloth,
at firft frequently applied, will fometimes remove the firft
of thefe forts of tumours ; and camphorated fpirit of wine
is alw'ays very effeftual for difperfing them, more efpecially
if a little fpirit of fal ammoniac be mixed with it. If the
houfe ftiould be wanted for work, care (hould be taken to
have the faddle nicely chambered and -fitted. In thefe kinds
of tumours, efpecially where they are caufed by fandy or
gravelly matters infinuating themfelves between the Ikin of
the animal and the faddle, or its girths, much may often be
done in difperfing them, by applying to the parts fait dif-
folved in water, brandy, or warm vinegar, and in fome
cafes a mixture compofed of four parts of opodeldoc to one
of fpirits of turpentine.

In all cafes where horfes are returned to the ftables, after
long journeys, the faddles fiiould not be removed for fifteen
or twenty minutes, the girths being only loofened ; as, by
this fimple means, many of thefe fwellings may be prevented,
which would othcrwife take place. ^

In cafes where the fliin is rubbed off^ the parts, the tinc-
ture ufed for wounds, or friar's balfam, may be applied
three or four times a day, and the places defended by dia-
chylon plafters, with great benefit.

But in the cafe of real warbles, which are produced from
a fly, known by the name of ox or gad-fly, by the pundlur-
ing of fmall holes in the backs and fides of thefe different
forts of cattle ftock, and there depofiting its ova or eggs,
which are fpeedily hatched by the heat of the animal's
body, fmall tumours arifing in confequence, which contain
grubs, and which have fmall openings in their middle parts,
that anfwer as fpiracula, and for calling out the fuperfluous
matter, which, if confined, might foon produce confider-
able abfcefles, and deftroy the grubs ; other modes of cure
or removal are to be had rei:ourie to. With fome it is the
praftice to attempt to didodge them, by prelling ftrongly
the different fides of the lumps or tumours with the thumb
and fingers. But a more ready and certain way of eradi-
cating and deftroying fuch grubs is that of pulling off the
fcabs, that commonly cover the holes or openings on the
tops of the fwellings, and pouring a few drops of the oil of
linfeed, in mixture with the fpirits of turpentine and vitriolic
acid, into the openings on the parts, or by the ufe of the
turpentine alone.

WARBLING of the Wings, in Falconry, is when a
hawk, after having mantled herfelf, croffes her wings over
her back.

WARBURTON, William, in Biography, an Englifh
prelate, was the fon of an attorney at Newark-upon-Trent,
where he was born December 24, 1628, and deftined by
his father for his own profeilion. With this view, after he
had finilhed his ordinary grammar education, he was articled,
in 1714, to an attorney at Eaft Markham, in Nouingham-
iliire ; and when he had completed his clerkihip of five years,
he was admitted in one of the courts at Weilminfter ; and
returning to Newark, commenced the exerciie of his pro-
feffion. But it vras foon found, that his talents and dif-
pofition were more adapted to the church than to tlie law ;
and, therefore, in 1723, he took deacon's orders. To his

firft

WAR BURTON.

firft work, confiftinp; of " Mifcellaneous Tranflations in
Profe and Verfe," from Roman authors, was prefixed a
Latin dedication to fir George Sutton, %vho, in 1726, pre-
fented him to a fmall vicarage. Towards the clofe of this
year he vifited London, and became acquainted with fome
of the inferior literati of that period, and particularly with
Theobald, to whom he communicated fome notes on Shak-
fpeare. He joined with thcfe in their confederacy againft
the reputation of Pope, of whom Warburton faid, that,
whilft " Milton borrowed by affeftation, and Dryden by
idlenefs. Pope borrowed by ncceflity." In 1727 he evinced
his ability for original writing, by " A Critical and Philo-
fophical Inquiry into the Caufes of Prodigies and Miracles,
as related by Hillorians, with an EfTay towards reftoring a
Method and Puritj in Hiftory, in which the Charafters of
the moft celebrated Writers of every age, and of the feveral
Stages and Species of Hiltory, are occafionally criticifed
and explained." This work was dedicated, in very re-
fpeftful and complimentary language, to fir Robert Sutton,
his firlt patron ; by whofe interell he was placed in the lift
of king's mafters of arts, upon his majefty's vifit to Cam-
bridge in 1728 ; and by this academical degree he fupplied
tlie defefts of his education. He was alfo prefented by the
fame pau-on to the reftory of Broad Broughton, in Lincoln-
fhire, where he remained fome years in the afliduous profe-
cution of his ihidies. In 1736 he engaged the jniblic at-
tention as a writer by his well-known work, entitled " The
Alliance between Church and State; or, the Ncceflity and
Equity of an eftablifhed Religion and a Tcft-law, demon-
ftratcd from the Effcnce and End of Civil Society upon the
fundamental Principles of the Law of Nature and Nations."
The defign of this work, as it is ftated by a defender of it
againft an attack of lord Bolingbroke, was " to vindicate
our prcfei.t happy conftitution on a principle of right, by ad-
jufting the precife bounds of the two focieties, by fhewing
how they came to aft in conjunftion, and by explaining the
nature of their union ; and from thence, by natural and ne-
cefTary confequence, inducing, on the one hand, an e/lai/i/Ijrd
religion, with all its rights and privileges, fecured by a tefl-
laiv ; and on the other, a full and free iolerr.lion to all wlio
ditTented from the national worfhip." This was a popular
performance, and four editions of it appeared in the author's
life -time ; but it gave fatisfaftion neither to the high church
party, nor to the advocates for religious hbcrty. Our
author's grcateft work was publiftied in 1738, and entitled
" The Divine Legation of Mofes, demonftrated on the
Principles of a religious Deift, from the Omifllon of the
Doftrine of a future State of Rewards and Punifliments."
This adventurous and paradoxical performance found adver-
faries amongft perfons of all p.irties, who concurred in criti-
cifing and cenfuring tlie theory on which it is founded.
Undifmaycd by his opponents, he not only publidied a
" Vindication" of his opinion, but perfevered in the profe-
cutionof his work, abounding with learning and paradoxes,
and calculated to amufe rather than to convince its readers.
In a fecond correftcd and enlarged edition of the firft volume
of his " Divine Legation," he profefles to have omitted
" paflagcs, which were thought vain, infolent, and ill-
natured." In the year 1738 he piibiidied a fcrmon, entitled
" Faith working by Charity to Chriftian Edification," and
became chaplain to the prince of Wales. Wifhing probably
to regain the good opinion of Mr. Pope, he publlflied, in
the " Works of the Learned," a defence of his " EITay on
Man," againft the remarks of M. de Croufaz. Whatever
was his defign, Mr. Pope acknowledged Iiis obligations ;
and an intimacy commenced between them, which very much
contributed to the fubfequcnt advancement of the apologift.

The fecond volume of the " Divine Legation" was pub-
lifhed in 1 741, and the work became the general repofitory
of the author's hterary effufions, and of various controvcrfies
in which he was engaged. In the courfe of this year he was
introduced by Pope to Mr. Allen, at his houfe near Bath,
where he was afterwards a frequent vifilor. In return for
the poet's attention, he vindicated his writings by notes and
comments, and thus fo far confirmed and enhanced the
friendfhip that fubfifted between them, that when Pope
died, in 1744, he bequeathed to Warburton half his hbrary,
and the property of all his works already printed, and not
otherwife difpofed of, the value of which legacy is eftimated
by .Tohnfon at 4000/.

The controverfial antagonifts of Warburton and of his
" Divine Legation" were numerous, and comprehended fuch
names as thofe of Drs. Middleton, Pococke, Grey, Sykes,
and Stebbing ; agamft whom he defended himfelf, in 1744
and 1745, '" * publication, entitled " Remarks on feveral
occafional Refleftions, &c." with a degree of afpcrity, and
confcious fuperiority and felf-confidence, which difcnmi-
nated his ftyle of writing. The introduftion to Mr. Allen's
friendfhip terminated in a marriage with his favourite niece,
Mifs Gertrude Tucker, which took place in 1745, and
which ultimately put him in poifeffion of the fplendid feat of
Prior-Park. His Three Sermons, in defence of the Pro-
teftant eftablifhment and civil conllltutioii, preached on oc-
cafion of the rebellion, were held in high cllimation. In
the year 1746 he became preacher to the Society of Lin-
coln's Inn ; and in the following vcar he appeared as an
editor of Shakfpeare. Bold and original in his criticifms
and conjeftures, the abfurdity of feveral of which has been
expofed by Edwards, Johnfon, and others, he has ncver-
thelefs thrown light on fome obfcure pafi'ages, and drawn
forth into view latent beauties, fo that many of his notes
will find a place in the approved editions of this admirable
dramatift. Warburton's " .Julian, or a Difcourfe con-
cerning the Earthquake and fiery Eruption which defeated
that Emperor's Attempt to rebuild the Temple at Jeru-
falem," publifiicd In 1750, on occafion of Dr. Middleton's
" Inquiry concerning the miraculous Powers," is com-
mended for its candour, a quality for which the writer was
not remarkably diftinguifhed, and of wiiich few fpecimens
occurred in llie controverfy produced by Dr. Middleton's
publication. The notes annexed to his complete edition of
Pope's works, in 9 vols. 8vo., are faid by the moft com-
petent judges to have difguifed and perverted the author,
and to have aggravated the fatirical afperities of the poet by
the malignities of the annotator. Two volumes of War-
burton's fermons, preached at Lincoln's Inn, were pub-
liftied in 1753 and 1754 ; and in thefe, as well as in a feries
of litters addrelTed to a friend in the following year, lie ex-
hibits " A View of Lord Bolingbruke's Philofophy." He
was now rapidly advancing from one ilage of preferment to
.another; from that of prebend of Gloucefter, obtained in
1753, to that of king's chaplain in ordinary in 1754; and
in 1755 *" ''■''' °^ prebend of Durham, in exchange for that
of Gloucefter, to the hoiunirof a Lambeth degree of D.D.
conferred upon him by archbilhop Herring, to the deanery
of Briftol in 1757, and in 1759 to the fee of Gloucefter.
Being appointed on the following 301)1 of .lanuary to preach
before the houfe of lords, he clofed his fermon witli the
following fimimary of the charafti r of the martyr: " In a
word, his princely qualities were neither great enough nor
bad enough to fuccecd iu that moft difficult nf all attempts,
the enfiaviiig a free and jealous people." Of the Methodiftit
Dr. Warburton had Ipokcii with fome degree of afperity,
iu tlie fecond volume of his " Divine Legation," in 1742 ;

and

WAR

and in 1762 he more direftly and feverely attacks their
leading principles, in his work entitled " The Doftrine of
Grace, or the Office and Operation of the Holy Spirit
vindicated from the Infults of Infidelity and the Abufes of
Fanaticifm." In 1763 he was the mover in the houfe of
lords of a charge againft Mr. Wilkes, as the author of an
indecent " EfTay on Women ;" for which he was abufively
attacked by Churchill, and others of that party. In 1765,
a fourth edition of the fecond part of his " Divine Lega-
tion" appeared, as the third, fourth, and fifth volumes of
that work. In this edition he treated the father of the
learned Dr. Lowth in a manner fo illiberal, as to occafion an
acrimonious controverfy between thefe antagonifts. A
third volume of his " Sermons" was publifhed in 1767;
and in 1 768 he transferred 500/. to truftees, for defraying
the charge of a lefture at Lincoln's Inn, inftituted with a
view of proving the truth of Chriftianity from a completion
of the prophecies in the Old and New Teftament relating
to the Chriltian church. The decay of his faculties was
foon afterwards accelerated by the death of his only child,
who was carried off by a confumption in his 19th year ; and
his life tern\iiiated at Glouceiler, June 7th, 1779, in the
8ift year of his age. His works were coUefted and printed
by Dr. Hurd, bifhop of Worcefter, in 1788, comprehended
in 7 vols. 4to., to which the editor has prefixed an account of
his hfe, writings, and charafter. In 1809 appeared " Let-
ters from a late eminent Prelate to one of his Friends,"
( Warburton to Hurd,) containing refleftions on the htera-
ture of the times ; but " lamentably deformed," as a bio-
grapher before us juftly obferves, " by the arrogance and
imperative fpirit of one prelate, and the adulation of the
other." Dr. Johnfon, in his " Life of Pope," has juftly
delineated the literary charafter of bifhop Warburton, of
whom it is faid that he was kind in the domeftic relations of
life, and ardent in his friendihip, in the following paffage :
" He was a man of vigorous faculties, a mind fervid and
vehement, fupplied by inceffant and unlimited inquiry, with
wonderful extent and variety of knowledge, which yet had
not opprefled his imagination, nor clouded his perfpicuity.
To every work he brought a memory full fraught, together
with a fancy fertile of original combinations ; and at once
exerted the powers of the fcholar, the reafoner, and the wit.
But his knowledge was too multifarious to be always exaft,
and his purfuits were too eager to be always cautious. His
abilities gave him a haughty confequence, which he difdained
to correft or mollify ; and his impatience of oppofition
difpofed him to treat his adverfaries with fuch contemptuous
fuperiority, as made his readers commonly his enemies, and
excited againft the advocate the wifhes of fome who fa-
voured the caufe. He feems to have adopted the Roman
emperor's determination, " Oderint dum metuant." He
ufed no allurements of gentle language, but wiflied to
compel rather than perfuade. His ftyle is copious without
feleftion, and forcible without neatnefs : he took the words
that prefented themfelves ; his diftion is coarfe and impure,
and his fentences are unmeafured." Hurd. Nichols.
Johnfon. Gen. Biog.

WARD, Seth, D.D., in Biography, an eminent mathe-
matician, was born at Buntingford, in Herts, in 1617, and
completed his education at Sidney college, Cambridge, of
which he became a fellow. Mathematics were his favourite
iludy ; but his purfuits were interrupted by the civil war,
as he chofe to fliare the fate of his friend and patron. Dr.
Samuel Ward, the mafter of his college, to accompany him
in his imprifonment, and to attend him even on his death-
bed, in 1643. In confequence of refufing to take the
covenant, he was deprived of his fellowlhip in 1644, and of

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all means of fupport at the univerfity. Many opportunities
of private inftruftion in families of diftinftion prefented
themfelves ; but preferring refidence with Ralph Freeman
of Afpenden-hall, efq., whofe fons he taught, he continued
with him till the year 1649, when he was appointed chap-
lain to Thomas lord Wenman of Tame-park, in Oxford-
fhire. On the expulfion of Mr. Greaves, civihan profeflbr
of aftronomy at Oxford, he was chofen to fucceed him,
but with the condition of taking the oath called the engage-
ment. Having raifed the ailronomical lefture to reputation,
he, together with his friend Dr. Wallis, was made doftor
of divinity ; and they both concurred in attending thofe
meetings at Wadham college, which laid the foundation of
the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in 1661,
and tor feveral years fecond prefident. In 1659 he was
chofen prefident of Trinity college, but refigned it in favour
of the legal owner. After the Reftoration, he became
vicar of St. Lawrence-Jewry, in London, in 1660; foon
after dean of Exeter, and, by the intereft of Monk and
Clarendon, bilhop of that fee, which he improved in a va-
riety of refpefts by his munificence. At Salifbury, to
which he was translated in 1667, he conciliated univerfal
refpedt by his charity and hofpitality. To this fee he was
a diftinguiftied benefa£lor, obtaining for its bifhop the per-
petual honour of being chancellor of the order of the Garter,
which had been for more than a century alienated from it ;
and founding in the town the college of matrons in 1682,
for the maintenance of ten widows of orthodox minifters in
the tliocefe. Although he was not naturally of a perfe-
cuting difpofition, yet he was aftive in executing the orders
which he received from court for the fuppreflion of con-
venticles. In confequence of a fever, with which he was
attacked in 1660, his bodily ftrength declined, and his in-
telleftual faculties were impaired ; and at length he clofed a
melancholy life in 1689, in the 72d year of his age. Mr.
Oughtred gives him the character of a prudent, pious, and
ingenious perfon, (killed not only in mathematics, but in all
branches of polite literature. According to Burnet, he
was, in many refpefts, one of the greateft men of his age :
but he elfewhere fays, that his fincerity was much quef-
tioned ; being a profound ftatefman, but an indifferent
clergyman. His various works on mathematics and aftro-
nomy were valued at the time when they were written, but
they have been fuperfedcd by modern difcoveries and im-
provements. For an account of the hypothefis that bears
his name, fee the article Anomaly. He publifhed, befides
fermons, " A philofophical Effay towards the Eviction of
theBcingand Attributesof God,the Immortality of the Souls
of Men, and the Truth and Authority of Scripture," Oxford,
1652, 8vo. ; " Dc Cometis, ubi de Cometarum Natura
difleritur, nova Cometarum theoria ex noviffima Cometse
Hiftoria proponitur. Prasleftio Oxonii habita, et Inqui-
fitio in Ifmaelis Bulhaldi Aftronomi^ Philolaicx Funda-
menta," Oxon. 1653, 410. ; " Idea Trigonometria: de-
monftrata, in Ufum Juventutis," Oxon. 1654, 4to. ; " In
Thomx Hobbii Philofophiam Exercitatio Epiftohca, ad
D. J. Wilkinfium Guardianum Coll. Wadkami," ibid.
1656, 4to. ; " Aftronomia Geometrica : ubi Methodus pro-
ponitur qua primariarum Planetarum Aftronomia five El-
liptica five Circularis pofTit geometricc abfolvi," Lond.
1656, 8vo. Biog. Brit. Hutton's Dift.

Ward, John, LL.D., the fon of a nonconformift
minifter, was born in London in 1679, and for fome years,
after a competent education, occupied a place in the Navy.
office ; but devoted to literary purfuits, he quitted this fitua-
tion in 1 7 10, and became a fchool-mafter. As a member
of a focicty, eftablifhed for hterary improvement, he read,

in

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WAR

ill alternation with others, leftures on civil law, and the law
of nature and nations. His firll produftion as a writer was
a fmall Latin effay, containing rules for compoiition, pub-
liihed in 1712. In 1720 he was chofen profelTor of rhe-
toric in Grefliam college; and in 1723 a fellow of the
Royal Society, having in that year tranflated into Latin
Dr. Mead's treatife on the plague. To Vofliiis's " Ele-
menta Rhetorica," printed in 1724, he added a valuable
appendix, " De Ratione Interpungendi." He engaged in
the controverfy between Dr. Mead and Dr. Middleton con-
cerning the condition of phyficians in ancient Rome ; and
he annexed to Horfley's " Britannia Romana" an " Eflay
on Peutinger's Table fo far as it relates to Britain." In
1736 he became a member of the Society of Antiquaries, of
which he was afterwards fice-prefident. His " Lives of the
Grelham Profeflbrs" was publifhcd in 1740; and in 1751
he was honoured by the univerfity of Edinburgh with the
title of LL.D. When the Britirti Mufeum was eftabliflied
itt 1753, he was chofen one of the truftees, to which he
rendered confiderable fervice by his advice and co-operation
in forming the rules of that important and ufeful inftitution.
Notwithftanding the variety of his literary occupations, and
his ftudious habits, he prolonged his life to his 80th year,
and died in 1758. After his death, a valuable work, which
he had prepared for the prefs, was publiflied, entitled " A
Syftem of Oratory, delivered in a Courfe of Leisures pub-
licly read at Grefham College," in 2 vols. 8vo. The
Tranfadlions of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies con-
tain feveral of his papers, chiefly on fubjefts of antiquity.
In hi? religious profeflion he was a Proteftant diflentcr, dif-
tinguilhed by rational piety, and great moderation and
candour towards perfons of all perfuafions. To pcrfons
engaged in literary purfuits he was ready at all times to
communicate advice and afliftance ; and his modefly was
equal to his learning. Nichols' Lit. Anccd. Gen. Biog.

Unfortunately, before we perufed Dr. Ward's Lives, &c.,
fays a coadjutor, we had read Fontcnelle's Eloges of the mem-
bers of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris ; pane-
gyrics, which not only afford amufcment, but inflruftion to
readers ; as that elegant and ingenious writer fo defcribes
the fcience, learning, and peculiar charafter and abilities of
each individual whom he celebrates, that the reader of tafte,
if neither fcientific nor learned before he has feen thefe
Eulogies, becomes both in the courfe of perufal.

But Mr. Prof. Ward's work, fays Dr. Burney, neither
amufes us by the grace, dignity, or eloquence of ftyle,
nor inftrufts by its Icience. His materials are fcanty, nor
has he fufficicntly applied to ufeful purpofes thofe which
he had amaffed. The genealogy of the profeflbrs is all that
he has laboured, and that not very fucccfsfully. Our chief
inquiry of him was confined to the mufic-prolcfTors ; but we
obtained no information concerning any one of them, except
Dr. Bull ; and all he knew of that great mufician he had
from Dr. Pcpufch, the ftudious, learned, and worthy or-
ganift of the Cliarter-Houfe. Out of thirteen profcifors of
mufic, who had liad the honour of being placed in the chair,
after Bull, previous to the year 1740, when Ward's bio-
graphical work was piihlKlied, there appears no rcafon for
the eleftion of any one of them for their mufical fcience or
talents, except Dr. Bull. None of the reft had ever diftin-
guifhcd themfelves either in the theory or praflice of mufic,
or been authors of any work on the art or fcience, which
could qualify them for becoming candidates for the pro-
feflbrfhip.

The long and dry lift of Dr. Bull's fugitive pieces is
given in a language now utterly obfolctc, and unintelligible
to the generality of readers.

Waui), , an Enghfti madrigahft of the fecond clafs,

during the reign of James I. Ward was one of the firft
who transformed his madngals into fancies for lutes and
viols. No inftrument, except the organ, had been much
cultivated in England at this time ; fo that fonatas, folos,
or concertos, were wholly unknown to us ; and like our
betters, the ancient Greeks, our inftruraents had nothing
but vocal mufic to perform : in chorufes, douBling the
voice parts in unifons and oftaves, and playing noraes, and
other vocal airs, for their folos.

Ward, War da, CuJloJy, or Keeping. See Guard.

Ward is a word ufed in our Lazu Books, in divers figni-
fications. Thus, a ward, in London, is a part of the city,
committed to the fpecial charge of one of the aldermen of
the city. There are twenty-iix w.irds in London, which
are as hundreds, and the parifties thereof as towns.

A foreil is alfo divided into wards ; fo alfo are moft of
our hofpitals. See Hospital.

A prifon is fometimes alfo called a ward.

The heir of the king's tenant, who held by knights-
fervice, or in capite, was alfo called a ward, during
his non age. But this fort of wardfliip is taken away by
the ftatute 12 Car. II. cap. 24. See Guardian, ia
ClAvalry.

Ward, JVatch and. See Watch.

Ward, Cajlk. See Castle.

Vf xixu-Room, the apartment in a fliip in which the oiEcers
mefs, &c. next under the captain's cabin.

Ward, Warda, IVarJagium, is alfo ufed, in our Ancient
Writers, for the cuftody of a town or caftle, which the
tenants and inhabitants were bound to keep at their own
charge. See Wardship.

Ward'j Medicines, a denomination given to certain me-
dical nollrums, originally prepared and difperfed by Mr.
Ward, and which were fome years ago much celebrated for
their efficacy in a variety of diforders.

The metliods of compounding the principal of thefe me-
dicines was communicated to the pubhc about fifty years
ago by I. Page, efq., to whom Mr. Ward left his book of
receipts ; and in order to their being procured at a cheap
rate, his late majefty fettled a penfion on Meifrs. Wiiiteand
Ofterman, the two chemifts who had been employed by
Mr. Ward in preparing them, on condition that the profits
arifing from the fale of them fliould be applied to the fup-
port of the Afylum and Magdalen charities.

Thefe medicines are the red pill and emetic fack drop,
the white drop, fvvcating powders, liquid fweat, pafte for
piles and fillulas, dropfy purging powders, and effence for
the head-ache.

The mctliod of preparing the antimony for the pill and
drop is as follows : — The fineft and pureft crude antimony is
powdered, and ten or twelve ounces of it put into an earthen
unglazcd pan that holds three or four quarts, and fet on a
fire ; tlie mafs is ftirred with an iron fpatula, and the fire
raifcd till it fends forth fumes, and a flame like burning
brimllone ; and the fame degree of fire is continued, and
the mafs ftirred, till lui fumes cfcape from it, and it becomes
a grey or afli-colouied powder. If it ihould melt and run
into lumps, it muft be taken out of the p.iii, and pounded
again, and then put In and ftirred as before, till it be tho-
roughly caitinod. Then four ounces of the crude matter
muft be added ; and the proccfs repeated, till a fufficient
quantity has been thus prepared. The procefs muft be
performed in a chimney, left the fumes (liould injure tlic
operator. Into a clean crucible, liolding about a quart,
jMjt about two pounds of the calcined antimony ; fct it in a
melting furnace, and make a gradual fire under it ; put coaU

round

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round the crucible nearly to the top ; keep the mafs in a
ftate of moderate fufion, occafionally ftirring it witt an iron
rod. When the matter that adheres to the rod appears
bright and tranfparent, which, with a proper degree of fire,
will be in about half an hour after it is in fufion, pour the
vitrified matter on a fmooth marble, well dried, and heated
as hot as the hand can bear ; repeat the procefs, in order to
obtain more of the matter, if neceflary ; and thus will be
had a fair and pure glafs of antimony, of a. light red
colour.

In order to prepare the pill, take a quantity of this glafs
of antimony ; pound it in a clean iron mortar, and fift it
through a fine lawn fieve ; then grind, or levigate it, on a
fmooth marble, to an impalpable powder : take alfo dragon's
blood dried and powdered ; and put one ounce of this to
four ounces of the levigated glafs ; grind them well to-
gether ; and with good fack, or rich mountain wine, make
them into a mafs tor pills, of about one grain and a half
each4 which is a full dofe for a man or woman.

The drop is made by putting about half an ounce of the
levigated glafs of antimony into a quart of the richeft Malaga
mountain or fack ; (hake them well together, and let them
ftand two Qr three days to fettle, and grow clear ; then pour
it off gently, to be quite fine. The full dofe for a man or
woman is half an ounce ; but it is advifable to begin with
the half or two-thirds, according to the age, or ftrength of
conftitution. Thefe medicines, it is faid, cannot be fafely
adminiilered, if the vifcera are unfound. They have been
ufually given in dilorders occafioned by foul ftomachs and
indigeftion ; and the pill has been very fuccefsful in inve-
terate rheumatiims : both the pill and the drop frequently
operate upward and downward, but with lefs draining than
the emetics ufually given. The pill muft be bruifed, and
taken in a fpoonful of any fmall liquid, on an empty fto-
mach : if it works upwards or downwards, it will be proper
to drink a fmall quantity of balm or fage-tea, between each
motion ; and if it fweats, as it fometimes does, let the pa-
tient keep himfelf warm, and encourage it by drinking the
above fmall liquors ; when it is taken, milk, greens, and
fruit, muft be avoided. The potion, called the drop, re-
quires no vehicle : when the ficknefs comes on, let the pa-
tient drink about half a pint of warm water, or thin water
gruel, and continue to do fo every time it works.

The tvhite drop is prepared by bruifing fourteen pounds
of the cleaneft copperas into a rough powder ; then drying
it with a gentle heat, and fpreading it thin, till it becomes
a dry and fubtile powder, refembling quick-lime, but much
whiter. When this operation is finifhed, which requires
about fix or feven days, take an equal quantity of good and
clean rough nitre, or falt-petre, tolerably dry ; pound the
nitre and copperas together ; fift the powder through a fine
hair-fieve, put it into a large glafs retort, coated at bottom,
and fet it in a fand-furnace about an inch from the bottom
and fides of the fand-pan ; fix on with lute a large receiver,
leaving a fmall vent-hole in the joint to prevent the burfting
of the retort or receiver ; make a gentle fire for the firlt
three hours ; and gradually increafe it for three or four
hours longer, till the iron pan be red-hot at bottom ; con-
tinue the fire about thirty hours ; and then let it out, and
when it is cool, you obtain a very powerful aqua-fortis ; put
this into a bottle, ftop it clofe, and let it ftand fix or eight
days to digeft itfelf. Put this aqua-fortis into a glafs retort
about half or two-thirds full ; fet it in the fand-heat, and
fix on a receiver ; make a moderate fire, till the aqua-fortis
is come over into the receiver, leaving behind only a brown,
reddifh earth : by this procefs is obtained a very ftrong and
pure aqua-fortis. Put a quantity of this reftified aqua-fortis

WAR

into a large bolt-head, with a long neck, fo as to make it
about a quarter full ; then take of the pureft and fineft vola-
tile fal ammoniac, in which there is not the leaft acid fait,
or lime. To fixteen ounces of the aqua-fortis in the bolt-
head, add, by half an ounce at a time, feven ounces of the
volatile fal ammoniac, flopping the mouth of the bolt-head,
(a vent-hole excepted,) till the fermentation ends; let it
ftand two or three hours, till the fumes are fettled. Next
put it into a fmaller bolt-head, half full, and fet it in a mo-
derate fand-heat ; when it is warm, put four ounces of the
fineft quickfilver to each pound of fixteen ounces of the fo-
lution, and let it ftand in the heat till the quickfilver is dif-
folved ; increafe the fire, and add quickfilver ; and when it
will dilfolve no more, take it out of the bolt-head, and put
it into an open glafs velfel, or a white, large ftone bowl ; fet
it in a moderate fand-heat, and let it evaporate till a pellicle
or lliin comes over the top of it ; then put it in a cool place
to congeal. The heavy liquor, or oil, which remains con-
gealed, muft be poured off, and thoroughly drained, and
the remaining fait muft be put into a glafs body ; to each
pound adding three pounds of the fineft rofe-water, and
ftopping the mouth of the glafs with a piece of double
br«wn paper. Set it again in the fand-heat with a mode-
rate fire, till the fait is wholly difiolved, which is ufually
eifefted in twenty-four hours ; and thus is the white drop
prepared.

This medicine, it is faid, cannot be accounted dangerous ;
as there is not in two drops, ufually taken in twenty-four
hours, half a grain of mercury. It has been adminiftered
with fuccefs as an antifcorbutic in all ftages of the fcurvy,
and even when the difeafe has been hereditary. The dofe
of two drops is to be taken in a fmall quantity of water in
the morning, fafting, or at night, going to reft, for two or
three daj's together ; then after an interval of as many days,
proceeding as before. It generally produces its effeft with-
out any fenfible operation ; except that in fome conftitutions
it produces one or two motions.

Mr. Ward adminiftered two forts of fweating powders :
one fort is direfted to be made by rubbing together in a
mortar four ounces of refined nitre, and as much vitriolized
tartar, into a powder ; and putting into a red-hot crucible
half of this mafs, and ftirring it with an iron fpatula : when
the red fumes that arife from it ceafe, put in the remainder
of the matter, and ftir it till no more fumes arife ; then pour
it into an iron mortar ; and when cool, add opium, ipeca-
cuanha, and liquorice powder, of each an ounce : pound
and fift them through a lawn fieve, and mix all together.
When the powders are thus prepared, they ftiould be fpread
thin on white ftone difhes, and fet in a cool place for about
two days, mixing them well, and fpreading them tivice a
day ; then dry them before the fire, or with any other gentle
heat.

The other fort of fweating powder is prepared by fulmi-
nating together common tartar, and refined nitre, of each
one pound, in a crucibfe or iron pot, which will reduce
them to about fifteen ounces : to thefe add white hellebore,
and liquorice powder, of each fix ounces ; powder them to-
gether, and fift them through a fine lawn fieve. The dofe
is from twent)^-five to fifty grains.

Thefe fweating powders are faid to remove rheumatic and
other pains, occafioned by obftruftions ; though it is faid
that the red pill has been found to anfwer better in ftubborn
rheumatic cafes, and other fettled pains in the limbs. They
may be taken in any liquid, going to bed between the
blankets, and now and then drinking fome warm diluting
liquor, as white wine whey, baum tea, &c. They may be
repeated every other night at difcretion.

The

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The rfjiiid fiveat is prepared by putting a gallon of good
fpirits of wine, and half a gallon of good white wine, into
a ftrong bottle, and adding half a pound of faffron, four
ounces of cinnamon, two ounces of fait of tartar, and one
ounce of opium, cut into fmall pieces. Stop the bottle
clofe, and fet it near the fire for eigiit days, fliaking it three
or four times a day ; then filter the contents through a fil-
tering paper. The dofe is from thirty to fixty drops, in a
glafs of good white wine.

The pajle for the piles and fiftulas is prepared by pounding
feparately a pound of elecampane root, three pounds of
fennel-feeds, and one pound of black pepper, and fifting the
powders through a fine fieve ; then melt two pounds of
honey, and two pounds of powder fugar, over a gentle fire,
fcumming them, till they become bright as amber : when
they are cool, mix and knead your powder into them in the
form of a foft pafte. This pafte is faid to be a fpecific re-
medy for the filtula, piles, &c. The dofe is the quantity
of a nutmeg, morning, night, and noon, drinking after it a
glafs of water, or white wine.

The drnpfy purging pnivder, as made by Mr. Ward, was
formed by powdering feparately jalap, cream of tartar, and
Florentine iris, of each four ounces, and mixing them well;
as prepared by M. D'Ollerman for Mr. Ward, it confifts
of a pound of jalap in powder, a pound of cream of tartar,
and an ounce of bole armoniac, in fine powder, mixed well
together. The dofe is from thirty to forty grains, in broth,
or warm water, to be repeated two or three days fucceffively,
and longer, at proper intervals, if neceffary.

The cferice for the head-ache was formed by Mr. Ward
of four ounces of fpirits of wine, two ounces of camphor,
and two ounces of volatile fpirit of camphor, well mixed,
and applied with the hand. M. D'Ollerman prepared it
for Mr. Ward, by putting two pounds of true French fpirit
of wine into a large ftrong bottle, and adding two ounces
of roch alum in fine powder, four ounces of camphor cut
fmall, lialf an ounce of L-ffence of lemon, and four ounces of
the ftrongeft volatile fpirit of fal ammoniac. Stop the
bottle clofe, and fhake it three or four times a day for five
or fix days. The method of applying it is, to rub a little
of it gently upon the palm of the hand, and then holding it
to the part alfefted till it is dry. If the pain is not re-
lieved, it (hould be repeated two or three times.

For fome remarks on Mr. Ward's pill and drop, by Mr.
Glutton, fee True and candid Relation of their good and
bad Eifefts, and Med. Ell". Edinb. abr. vol. ii. p. 434. 470,
&c. and Ed. Med. EIT. and Obf. vol. vi. p. 423.

Ward, in Geography, a townlhip of Maffachufetts, con-
taining 540 inhabitants ; 6 miles S. of Worceller.

Ward, a river of Denmark, in North Jutland, which
runs into the North fca, i j miles N.N.W. of Ripen.

Ward Laiu, a mountain of Scotland, in the county of
Ayr ; 16 miles E. of Ayr.

Wahd';' Creek, a river of Virginia, which runs into
James river, N. lat. 37° 10'. W. long. 77° 11'. — Alfo, a
river of Maryland, which runs into the Chefapeak, N. lat.
38° ft'. W. long. 76° 52'.

WARD A EccLEsiAKUM denotes the guardianfhip of
churches ; which is in the king during vacancies by rcafon
of the refjalia, or temporalities. See Vacation.

WARDAGE, Wakdagium, is fometimcs ufed, in our
ancient law-writers, in the fame fenfe with wardpenny.
Sometimes it alfo feems to denote a being free from ward-
(hip.

WARD AN, or Ras IVardan, in Gcograbhy, a cape on
the codlt of Arabia, in the Red fea ; j miles S. of Maf-
tura.

Vol.. XXXVII.

W A R

Wardak. See Vaudek.

WARDE, or Varde, a town of Denmark, in North
Jutland, on the river Ward. It was formerly a confider-
able city ; but as the depth of its river, which abounds in
fifh, particularly falmon, is fo much decreafed, as to be no
longer navigable for fhips of burthen, it is fallen into decay.
It has two churches; 18 miles N. of Ripen. N. lat. 55"
35'. E. long. 8° 28'.

Warde Mauger, La, a town of France, hi the depart-
ment of the Somme ; 4 miles W.N.W. of Montdidier.

WARDECORNE, among our Ancient Writers, a duty
incumbent on the tenants, to guard the caftle, by founding
a horn upon the approach of an enemy ; called al'o
cornage.

WARDEIN, in Geography. See Peter Wardeis.
Wardein, Gros, a town of Hungary, on the river
Koros, furrounded by good fortifications ; the fee of a
bifliop. The town itfelf is not large, but has three fuburbs
of very confiderable extent. The adjoining fortrefs is a re-
gular pentagon, well fortified, befides a deep and broad
moat. Near the city is an excellent cold-bath ; 66 miles
N. of Temefvar. N. lat. 46 53'. E. long. 21^ 32'.

WARDEN, Guardian, one who has the charge or
keeping of any perfon, or thing, by office. See Guardian.

Such is the warden of the Fleet, who is the keeper of
the Fleet prifon, and has the charge of the prifoners there ;
efpecially fuch as are committed from the court of chancery
for contempt.

Such alfo are the warden of the fellowlhips, warden of
the marlhes, wardens of peace, warden of the weft marlhea,
warden of the foreft, warden of the alnage, warden of the
king's wardrobe, &c.

Warden, in an univerfity, is the head of a college;
anfwering to what in other colleges we call the majler
thereof.

Warden, or Lord IVarden of the Cinque Ports, is the
governor of thofe noted havens ; who has the authority of
an admiral, and fends out writs in his own name. See
CiaQVK-Ports, and Guardian.

Warden of the Mint, is an officer, whofe bufincfs is to
receive the gold and filver bullion brought in by the mer-
chants ; to pay them for it, and overfee the other officers.
He is alfo called keeper of the Exchange, and Mint.

Wardens, Church. See Church.

Warden, Renter. See Renter.

Warden Ledge, in Geography, a rocky fhoal on the weft
coaft of the Ifle of Wight. N. lat. 50° 41'. W. long.
1° 23'.

WARDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Oldenburg ; 6 miles N. of Oldenburg.

WARDER, Yeomen Warders of the Toiuer, are officers,
forty in number, who are accounted the king's domcftic
fervants, and are fworn by the lord chamberlain : their
duty is, to attend the prifoners of ft ate, and to wait at
the gates.

Ten of them are ufually upon the day's wait, to take an
account of all perfons who come into the Tower ; to
enter their names, and the names of the perfons they
go to, in a book, tc be perufed by the conllable or
lieutenant.

WARDFEOH, or Wardfegii, tlie value of a ward,
or heir under age ; or the money paid to the lord of the
fee for his redemption.

WARD-HOOK, in Gunnery, the fame with wad-hook,
or worm.

WARDHUS, or Wakdiiuys, or Fardhuys, in Geogra-
phy, a town of Norwcgi.in Lapland, and chief place of a

4T

govern-

W'A R

WAR

government, defended by a caftle, in which a governor re-
fides, but without baftions ; the town is chiefly inhabited
by fifhermen, and is fituated on an idand called Wardoe,
the largefl of three. N. lat. 70° 1 6'. E. long.
30° 28'.

WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called, which
is kept in every ward of the city ; anfwering to the eurtata
cnmitia in ancient Rome.

WARDO, in Geography., a fmall ifiand in the Baltic,
E. of Aland, with a town. N. lat. 60° 15'. E. long.
20° 12'.

WARDPENNY, Wardpsm, was formerly a cuftomary
due paid to the fheriff, or other officer, for maintaining
watch and ward.

It was payable at the feaft of St. Martin ; and is ftill
paid within the manor of Sutton-Colfield, in Warwick-
fliire ; and that with fome very fingular ceremonies.

WARDROBE, a clofet or little room adjoining
to a bed-chamber ; ferving to difpofe and keep a per-
fon's apparel in ; or for a fervant to lodge in, to be at
hand to wait, &c.

Wardrobe, in a prince's court, is an apartment in
which his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceffaries,
are preferved ; under the care and direftion of proper
officers.

His majefty has a great wardrobe, a removing wardrobe,
and divers (landing wardrobes, belonging to his bed-cham-
ber, in each of his palaces ; w'z. at Whitehall, Kenfington,
Windfor, Hampton Court, and the Tower ; each under its
refpeftive keeper.

The removing wardrobe always attends on the king's
perfon ; as alfo on ambaffadors, at chriftenings, mafques,
plays, &c. It is under the command of the lord chamber-
lain : the iinder-officers are, a yeoman, two grooms, and
tliree pages.

The great wardrobe is of great antiquity. Anciently it
was kept near Puddle-wharf, in a houfe purchafed for
that purpofe by king Edward III.; but, after the fire
of London, it was kept in York-buildings. The mafter
or keeper of which is an officer of great dignity : high
privileges were conferred on him by Henry VI. ; and
James I. enlarged the fame, and eredled the office into a
corporation.

The officers are, the mafter or keeper, his deputy, and
his clerk, befides feveral other officers ; and above fixty
tradefmen, all fworn fervants to the king.

This office is to provide for coronations, marriages, and
funerals, of the royal family ; to furnilh the court with
beds, hangings, carpets, &c. ; to furnifh houfes for am-
baffadors, at their firft arrival here ; prefents for foreign
princes and ambafladors ; furniture for the lord heute-
nant of Ireland, and our ambafTadors abroad ; robes for
the knights and officers of the garter, heralds, purfuivants,
minifters of ftate ; liveries for the officers of the bed-
chamber, and other fervants ; liveries for the lord-chief
juftices, and barons of the exchequer, and other officers
in thofe courts ; as alfo yeomen, warders, trumpets,
kettle -drun' 3, meiTengers, coachmen, grooms, &c. with
coaches, harneffes, faddles, &c. the watermen, game-
keepers ; linen and lace for the king's perfon ; tilts, &c.
for his barges, &c.

WARDS. See Court of Wards.

WARDSBOROUGH, North Diftria, in Geography, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Windham, containing
1 159 inhabitants.

Wardsbokough, South Difiria, a town of Vermont,
in the county of Windham, containing 894 inhabitants.

WARDSBRIDGE, a poft-town of New York ; 36
miles S. of Kingfton.

WARDSHIP, in Chivalry. See GuARDIAN, ir.
Chivalry, and Ward, fupra.

Wardship, in Copyholds, is incident only to thofe of
inheritance. It partakes both of that in chivalry, and that
in focage ; like that in chivalry, the lord is the legal
guardian, who ufually affigns fome relation of the infant
tenant to aft in his rtead; and he, like guardian in foc-
age, is accountable to his ward for the profits. See

Gl'ARDIAX.

Wardshii', in Socage. See GiARDiAN and Socage.

WARD-STAFF, the conftable's or watchman's ftaff. '

The manor of Lambourn, in Eflex, is held by fervice of
the ward-ftaff ; viz. by the carrying of a load of ftraw
in a cart with iix horfes, two ropes, and two men in har-
nefs to watch the faid ward-ilaff, when it is brought to the
town of Abridge, &c.

WARDWAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Guzerat ; 80 miles S.W. of Amedabad.

WARD-WITE, compounded of the Saxon -ward,
ivatch, and wite, mula, is defined by Fleta, as fignifying
a being exempted from the duty of watching. Others
rather take it for a duty paid towards the charge
of it.

WARE, .S'/V James, in Biography, a defcendant of an
ancient Englifh family in Yorkihire, was born at Dublin in
1594, and finilhed his education at Trinity college, DubUn.
His proficiency was fuch as to entitle him to the particular
notice of Dr. Ufher, then bi(hop of Meath, with whom he
contrafted an intimate friendthip. On his firft vifit to
England in 1626, he was introduced by Ulher to fir Robert
Cotton, from whofe library he derived much affiftance in
his refearches ; of which he again availed himfelf in a fecond
journey to England in 1628. In 1629 he wa9 knighted by
the lords juftices of Ireland, and in 1632 he fucceeded to
his father's eftates, and to his office of auditor-general. He
was greatly confided in and often confulted by the earl of
Strafford, and by him made a member of the privy council.
In 1 639 he reprefented the univerfity of Dubhn in parliament,
and was fteadily attached to the intereil of lord Strafford.
He was aftive in his endeavours for fuppreffing the Irifh re-
bellion which broke out in 1641, and he was held in fuch
eftimation by the marquis of Ormond, that he was one of
three perfons deputed by him to inform his majefty at
Oxford, in December 1644, of the ftate of affairs in Ireland.
On his return he was captured by a fliip of war belonging
to the parliament, and committed to the Tower, whence he
was relcafed by exchange. During the progrefs of the
civil war, he was invariably attached to the royal caufe, and
when Dublin furrendered to the parliament, he was one of
the hoftages for the fulfilment of the treaty. After his re-
turn to Ireland, he was fufpecled, and ordered to depart to
any place except England. He chofe France as the place
of his exile, and removed thither in 1649, ''"'^ ^^''^ ^^ ^^°'
ciated with men of learning. In 1 65 i he was allowed to
come to London, and from thence he returned to Ireland,
which was then in a tranquil tlate. During the embroiled
ftate of the country, fir James Ware employed his time in
the elucidation of hiftorical antiquities, and pubhfhed, at dif-
ferent periods, a variety of biographical and other works ;
and particularly his treatife " De Scriptoribus Hiberniae,"
lib. ii. commencing with the introduftion of Chriftianity into
Ireland, and continued to tlie clofe of the fixteenth cen-
tury ; and alfo his principal work, entitled " De Hibernis
et Antiquitatibus ejus," and firft publifhed in London in
1654, of which an enlarged edition appeared in i6j8, with

WAR

WAR

an appendix ; " Rerum Hibernicarum regnantc Hen-
rico VII. Annales." His next puhlication was " A Col-
leftion of the Works afcribed to St. Patrick," 1656; and
this was followed by " Two EpilUes of the Venerable
Bede," and fome otherecclefiaftical pieces. In 1662 appeared
at Dublin, fol. " Rerum Hibernicarum Annales, regnantibus
Henrico Vn., Henrico Vni., Edwardo VI., et Maria."
His lalt work, in i'i65, was his " Complete Hiftory of Iri(h
Bi(hops,"comprc)iending his former narratives of them, under
the title of"De Praefulibus Hiberniff Commentarius, a prima
Gentis Hibernica; ad Fidem Chriltianam convcrfione ad
Noftra ufque Tempora," Dub. fol.

Sir James Ware is denominated by Nico'fon the " Camden
of Ireland," and highly comnierd d bo'.ii for his induftry
and judgment. After the Reftoration he was reftorcd to his
office of auditor-general, and in i66j chofen reprefenta-
tive in parliament for the univerfity of Dublin ; lie was alfo
appointed to fome other pofts under govcrnnie nt, and he re-
fufed the dignities of baronet and vifcount, though he
manifefted his attachment to his country till his death in
1666. He left two fons and two daughters. After his
death his works were collefted by his fecond fon Robert,
and publifhed in one folio volume in 1705 ; and a more
complete edition was given by Walter Harris, efq. who
married one of his defcendants, in 3 vols. fol. ; printed at
Dublin in 1739, 1745, and 1746. Biog. Brit.

Ware, in Geography, an ancient and populous market-
tOMrn in the hundred of BraugluH, and county of Hertford,
England, is fituated on the well fide of the river Lea, at
the diftance of three miles E.N.E. from the county -town,
and twenty miles N. from London. At the time of the
Domefday furvey it was a fniall vill.nge, and was held by
Hugh de Grentcniaifnil, to whom it was given by the Con-
queror, and from whofe family it pafTed to Robert Blanch-
mains, earl of Leicefter. In the reign of king John, it dc-
fcended by marriage to Sayer, carl of Winchelter. "Before
his time," fays Salmon, " a great iron chain was put acrofs
the bridge, to prevent a road here to the difadvantage of
Hertford. The bailiff of Hertford had the keys in his
power ; and no carriage with horfcs or harnefs could go
over without paying a toll to him, which toll was efteemed
worth 10/. 13J. 4(/. yearly. But the carl broke the chain,
and laid the road open, which made this a great thorough-
fare, brought trade to the town, and occafioncd buildings in
it." The high road to the north, which before went
through Hertford, was now turned through tliis town.
At a tournament held at Ware, 25 Henry IlL, Gilbert Ic
Marcfchal, the potent earl of Pembroke, was killed by
falling from his horfc, and being trampled on ; Robert de
Say, one of his knights, was alfo (lain in the divcrfion, and
fevcral others were wounded. In 1408, the town was
greatly damaged by a flood : its low lituation rendering it
very liable to this inconvenience, feveral weirs and (luices
have been raifcd at different times to remedy it. There
were anciently two religious eflablifhments in this town :
one was a priory of liencdiftines, fubordinate to the abbey
of St. Ebrulph,at ITtica, in Normandy, to which Hugh de
Grentemaifnil granted the church of Ware : " Whereupon,"
fays Tanner, " it became a cell to that abbey ; and in pro-
cefs of time was fo well endowed, that, upon the fcizure of
the alien priories by Edward III. this was farmed at 200/.
per annum." Some remains of the priory buildings are yet
ftanding at a little diftance from the church near tiie b.inks
of the river: they chiefly confill of ancient walls fitted up
and accommodated to the purpofes of a modern dwelling :
a fmall obtufely-pointed arcli, within the north-cafl angle of
the building, is fupported by corbels difplaying the upper
parts of human figures ; one of which appears to be clad in

mail. The other eftablifhment, which flood in the nortli
part of the town, was for Grey or Francifcan friars ; but by
whom, or when founded, is uncertain. The town of Ware
at prefent confiils of one principal flreet, a mile in length,
interfered by feveral fmaller. In the return of the year
181 1, the population is flated to be 3369, occupying 687
houfes. Confiderable traffic is carried on in corn and malt,
which are conveyed to the London markets by the river
Lea and the new navigable canal : the barges load back
with coals and other articles. A weekly market, granted
in the reign of queen Ehzabeth, is held on Tuefdays ; and
two fairs annually. At an iun in this town was formerly a
remarkable bed, twelve feet fquare, called the Great Bed of
Ware ; it is faid to be of remote antiquity, but its origin is
not mentioned in hiilory. Ware church, a fpacious edifice,
confiils of a nave, chancel, and aides, with an embattled tower
at llic weft end. The inner roofs are of timber, and have
been ornamented with paintings and infcriptions, of which
there are ftill confiderable remains ; particuhu-ly in the fouth
chancel or chapel, where the roof is divided into fquares, in
each of which is fome figure or legendary fubjctt. The fe-
pulchral memorials are numerous, among which are various
ancient flabs, moft of which have been pillaged of their
braffes. The font is ornamented with various fculptures,
reprefenting St. George, and other fubjefts. At the weft
end of the church is a handfome gallery, erefled by the
governors of Chrift's hofpital, London, for the ufe of
the fchool that was formerly eftablifhcd here for the
younger children of that inftitution, but which has been
many years removed to Hertford. Among various bene-
faAions for charitable purpofes are fevcral well-endowed
alms-houfes, eflablifhed in different parts of the town. In a
piece of ground called the Bury-iicld, at the fouth-wefl
corner of Ware, in February and March, 1802, at about
the depth of three feet, were found four flonc coffins, each
of them formed of one mafs of floiie, hewn willi tolerable
fquarenefs : each lid was alfo of one piece. At a fpct,
called Lemonsfield, were dug up, in 1729, fevcral Roman
vefl'els of reddifh earth, &c. At Roadmill are the remains
of a Roman camp.

Ware-park, the feat of Thomas Hope Byde, efq. is
fituated on an eminence, commanding tlie rich meadows
wliicli extend between Ware and Hertford. The ancient
nianor-houfe, which had fieen the retirement of the Fan-
fliaws, and the occafional rclldence of their predeceffors in
the ])ollefiion of the manor, was pulled down by Thomas
Byde, efi|. ; and a new manlion eretted on the acclivity of
a lull. This is elegantly fitted up, and forms the prefent
relideiice of the family ; the park and grounds are well di-
verlified, and are rendered extremely pleafant by the con-
tiguity of the rivers Lea and Rib. Sir Richard Fanfhaw, a
dillinguifhed llatefniaii in the feventeeiith century, was born
ill the old manor-houfe in 1607, and wa* interred in Ware
churcii in 1666.

In the meadows oppofite to Ware-park, on the fouth-
eail, are the fprings of Chadwell, the proper finirce of the
New iiiver. Thefe are concentrated in a finall pool or
bafiii, furrouiided by a light railing, from wliicli the llream
flowly iflues in its courfe towards London, and is fwcUed at
a fmall dillance by a cut from the river Lea. Sec Nkw
River. — Beauties of England am! Wales, vol. vii., Hert-
fordfhirc ; by E. W. Brayley, 1808. Salmon's Hillory of
Hcrtfordfllire, fol. 1728.

Wakk, a town of MafTachufetts, in Hampfliiro
county, containing 996 inhabitants ; 15 miles N.E. of
Springfield.

Wars, a river of Maffachufetts, which runs into the

ConncAicut, at Springfield. — Alfo, a river of Virginia,

4T 2 wliiih

WAR

WAR

which runs into the Chefapeak, N. lat. 37^ 25'. W.
long. 76° 26'.

Ware, Earthen, Queen's, and Stone. See Potteky.
Ware-5'm. See SsA-lVare.

WA RECTUM, in indent IVritings, fignifies land that
has lain long neglefted, and untiiled.

In ancient records, we meet with tempus waredi, for
the time in which land lies faUow, or elfe the feafon of
fallowing.

WAREE, in Geography, a town of Africa : capital of
a country of the fame name ; 60 miles S. of Benin. N.
lat. 5^ 25'. E. long. 4° 48'. — Alfo, a country of Africa,
near the weft coaft, fouth of Benin. — x\lfo, a town of
Hindooltan, in Guzerat ; 50 miles W. of Radunpour.

WAREHAM, a borough and market-town in the
hundred of Wnifrith, Blandford fouth divifion of the
county of Dorfet, England, is fitnated on a peninfula,
formed by the rivers Frome and Piddle, near their con-
fluence -.vilh the waters of Poole harbour, at the diftance of
18 miles E.S.E. from E)orchefter, and no miles S.W. by
"W. from London. It appears to have been a Britifh town,
from its earthen vallum, and from the barrows in its vi-
cinity ; and that the Romans had a ftation here is evinced,
by a militarv way which proceeds immediately hence to
Dorchefter, and by Roman coins found in the neighbour-
hood. Mr. Baxter and other antiquaries confider it to have
been the Morinlo of Ravennas and Richard of Cirencefter.
Wareham was a place of fome confequence in the time of
the Saxons ; but was made a theatre of war by the Danes
for a century and a half ; in which period its principal no-
toriety arofe from its misfortunes and defolation. In the
reign of Athelftan it had recovered fo much import-
ance, that the king appointed it to have two mints and
mint-mafters ; a greater proportion than any town in the
county poffefled, except Shaftefbury. Here alfo Edward
the Martyr was privately buried, after his aiTalTmation at
Corfe caftle ; though within three years his body was re-
moved to Shaftelbury abbey. In the year 998, Wareham
was vifited by the Danes; and likewife in 1015, when
Canute entered the Frome, and ravaged the adjacent
country. It feems to have been the conllant practice of
thefe pillagers, when the invafion of the weftern counties was
their objeft, to make this town their head-quarters ; fo that
it was in a ilate cither of continual apprehenfion or of abfo-
lute warfare. In Domefday-book, it is defcribed as being
in a defolate ilate in the time of Edward tlie ConfeiTor :
after the conqueil, it gradually became of greater im-
portance ; but from the year 1 1 38 to 1 146, it was a fcene of
confufion and war, ariiing from the contentions between
king Stephen and the emprefs Maud, during which the
town and caille were burnt. From tliis period fcarcely any
thing important occurred in Wareham, till the civil war in
the reign of Charles I., when it was early fortified for the
parliament ; but in a (hort time it was pofTeflfed by the king :
it was afterwards again taken by the parliamentary forces,
who relinquifhed on the furrender of Corfe caille. On the
25th of July 1762, Wareham experienced a dreadful ca-
lamity, in a fire which broke out nearly in the centre of the
town, and fpread with fuch violence and rapidity, that in
three hours two-thirds of the town were reduced to a heap
of ruins: 133 dwelling-houfes, with the town-hall and
other buildings, were deltroyed ; and the lofs, exclufive of
infurance, was eftimated at 10,000/. The fubfcriptions for
the relief of the fufferers did honour, to the nation, and the
town rofe out of its afhes to greater advantage than before.
Wareham is built in a flat country, and forms a long fquare:
the buildings, which are chiefly conftruded of brick, are

dilpolVd in four fpacious ftreets, interfefting eacli otiier at
right angles. The area on which it ftands is computed at
an hundred acres, and is inclofed, except on the fouth iide
where the Frome runs, by a high rampart or bank of earth,
which was call up by the Danes in the ninth century, and
meafures 5360 feet. The fpace between the bank and the
town was anciently occupied by houfes, the foundations of
which ftill remain. At prefent it conlifts chiefly of exten-
five garden grounds, divided into regular quadrangles, the
fcites of ancient llreets ; the holders of thefe grounds are
entitled to vote for members for the borough. Thele gar-
dens produce vail fupplies of vegetables, confidcrable quan-
tities of which are fent by water to Poole and Portfmouth .
The foil is favourable for the cultivation of hops, which
grow wild and luxuriant in the hedges and fields This
town was anciently a borough by prefcription, and is fo
ftyled in Domefday-book. By a charter of queen Eliza-
beth, the government of the town was veiled in a mayor, fix
burgefTes, and other corporate officers ; but, from fome pe-
culiar circumftances, thefe privileges were neglefted, and
became obfolete. The mayor, by prefcriptive right, is
coroner of the town, and of the ifles of Purbeck and Brown-
fea : this right is ftill claimed and exercifed. By a charter
of the fecond year of queen Anne, the town is incorporated
by the ftyle of " the mayor, the capital, and aififtant bur-
gefies ;" and, among other privileges, is empowered to have
a gaol and houfe of corretlion ; and to hold three fairs, and
a court of pie-powder ; the profits of the fairs and courts to
be for the fole benefit of the mayor. A weekly market ig
held on Saturdays. Two members have been returned to-
parliament ever fince the 13th of Edward I. The right of
eleftion was anciently veiled in four burgeffes ; but in the
year 1 747 it vpas determined to be in the mayor and corpo-
ration, jointly, with fuch inhabitants as paid fcot and lot, to-
gether with fuch freeholders who hold lands in their own
occupation, or by defcent, marriage-iettlement, or promo-
tion in the church. Wareham had formerly eight churches,
of which only three remain. Trinity is reputed the mother-
church, but does not contain any thing remarkable. St.
Martin's is an ancient ilrudlure, neatly fitted up : St. Mary's-
is a lofty fabric, and with the exception of Sherborne and
Wimborne, the moll fpacious and ancient in the county ; in
the fouth aifle is a chapel, faid to be the burial-place of the
Saxon kings ; within it is a neat mural pyramidical monu-
ment, to the memory of the Rev. John Hutchins, reftor of
Wareham, and author of the Hiftory and Antiquities of Dor-
fetfhire. The building that was formerly St. Peter's church
is now ufcd as a tov/n-hall, fchool-houfe, and gaol. This
parifh is fingular for a houfe in the market-place, called
Homo cum cane, the owner of which is always a tithing-man,
and obliged to attend at the wool-court, twice a year, with a
one-eyed bitch. Here are two meeting-houfcs for Dif-
fenters, a free-fchool, a charity-fchool, and an alms-houfe :
the latter founded by John Streche, efq. of Exeter, and
rebuilt, in 1741, by Henry Drax, efq. and John Pitt, efq.
The priory, fituated on the river iide, near St. Mary's
church, is one of the moil ancient in the county : it is faid
to have been founded by Adhelm,bifliop of Sherborne, who
died in 709 ; and appears to have been a nunnery antecedent
to 876, when, together with the town, it was deftroyed by
the Danes. Robert Bellamont, earl of Leicefter, changed
it into a convent for monks, fnbjeCl to the Benedictine
abbey of Lira, in Normandy. At the diifolutiou of alien-
houfes, it was bellowed on the Carthufian monailery of
Shene, in Surrey ; and on the general dilfolution of monaf-
teries, it (hared the common wreck of thofe monuments of
religious fplendour. By various defcents, it is now tlie
property of lord Rivers. In a clofe, denominated Caftle

clofe,

W A 11

clofe, formerly Hood the caftle, of wliich no remains are now
vifiblc : it was famous for the imprifonmLiit and death of
Robert de Belefme, earl of Montgomery, who, for rebel-
ling in the year 1 1 14 againft Henry I., was doomed to the
mod rigid confinement in tliis cafUe, where he llarved him-
felf to death. The port of Wareliam was formerly con-
iiderable ; but, owing to the (hallownefs of tlie (hore, and the
retreat of the fea, it is nearly choaked up ; though at very
high tides tiie water flovs up to Holm bridge, nearly
five miles. It had anciently a court of admiralty belonging
to it : the quay lies on tlie fouth fide of the town, but tlie
trade is now very inconfiderable ; it chiefly coiifills in tlie
exportation ot pipe-clay, vail quantities of which are ob-
tained from llie clay-pits round the town ; and nearly
Io,oco tons are annually fhippcd for London, Hull, Liver-
pool, Glafgovv, &c. for the ufe of the potteries. This clay-
is particularly ufeful in the compofition of Staffordfhire
ware ; the digging it employs many hands. jVccording to
the population return of the year 181 1, the nihabitants of
Wareham were i 709, occupying 383 houfes. South Bridge,
which, crolTuig the Frome, conucfted this town with the
ifle ot Purbeck, was an ancient llruflure, probably coeval
with William Rufus ; but being ruinous was prclented at
the Eafter feflions for the county in 1775. A handfome
bridge of Purbeck (lone has been fince erefted, having live
arches, the expence of which amounted to 2932/. ics. The
falmon filhery on the I'rome anciently belonged jointly to
the abbey of Bindon : the hoop-net, or weir, for taking the
falmon, was fixed in the Wareham royalty for feveral cen-
turies ; and its antiquity appears from various grants. The
fifliery is now held by Thomas Weld, of LuUwortli, and

•John Calcraft, cfqrs Hutchins's Hillory of Dorfetfliire,

4 vols. fol. 1796. Beauties of England and Walts, vol. iv.
Dorfetlhire ; by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1803.

Wakeham, a town of the ftate of Maflachufetts, in the
county of Plymouth, on a river which runs into Buzzard's
Bay, containing 851 inhabitants; 35 miles S.S.E. of
Bollon.

WAREM. See Borchworm.

WAREN. See Warren.

Waren, in Geography, a fmall idand in the North fea,
near the coaft of Lapland, but the principal of a group.
N. lat. 66° 48'.

WARENDORFF, a town of Germany, in the bifhop-
ric of Munfter, on the Ems; 12 miles S.E. of Munller.
N. lat. 51" 52'. E. long. 8° 6'.

WARENDORP, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 6
miles W.S.W. of Cifmar.

WARESTAS, a fmall ifland on the eaR fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 43'. E. long. 21^4'.

WARGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 45
miles S. of Gogo.

WARGELA, a town of Africa, in Sahara ; 250 miles
N.W. of Agades. N. lat. 23° 35'. E. long. 9" 50'.

WARGEN, a town of Pruflia, in Samland ; 6 miles
W.N.W. of Konigfbcrg.

WARGENTIN, Peter William, in Biogniphy, an
eminent Swcdifl. aftronomer, was the fon of 3 clergyman,
and born in Yamtland in 1717. In his (.arlier ye;:rs he
made rapid proficiency in tlie learned languages and in ma-
thematics, and in thofe other branches of learning which
were adapted to his original defliii.itioii for the church. In
1733 he was admitted at the academy of Upfal, where he
enjoyed peculiar advantages under Klingenllierna and Cel-
fjus for purfuing his favourite fludies of mathematics and
aflronomy ; gaining, after the death of his father, the means
of fubfillcncc by the inllruttion of private pupils. The

6

VV A K

fubjea

jjefts of his difputations, preparatory to his degree of
Her of arts, which he obt:;ined in 1743, were the fatel-
lites of Jupiter, and the political fyftem of Machiavel. His
views were diredled in the courfe of his Itudies to the office
of leftiirer in mathematics in the gymnafium of Hcrncifand,
and this objeft he fucceeded in attaining. Having cal-
culated new tables of Jupiter's fatellites, which were in-
ferted in the tranfadions of the fociety of Upfal for 1 74 1,
he was chofen a member of that body. After the death of
Celflus, he commenced a correfpondence with fome of the
French allronomers, and in 1743 "'^^ nominated a member
of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In 1749 he wzs
chofen fuccelfor to Elvius, as fecretary to the Academy of
Sciences at Upfal, the duties of which ofTice he difcharged
for 34 years. Wargentin's tables for the fatellites of
Jupiter, piiblifhed in 1741, were much approved by all
foreign aflronomers ; and in 1742 he communicated, in the
tranfaftions of the fociety of Upfal for 1 742, more than
1000 obfervations made by various aflronomers, which he
compared with his tables, and the refult of the comparifon
was, that the difference feldom amounted to a minute, and
for the mofl part to lefs. In the fame tranfadions for
'743> f"^ inferted about 400 obfervations of the other fatel-
lites, which, compared with the tables, gave a difference
that feldom amounted to four minutes of time, but for the
moll part to lefs. From this time he dircAcd his attention
to the improvement of the theory of Jupiter and his moons,
and to the perfcftion of his tables. He was thus led to
revife them to the year 1753 ; and when his tables of the
four fatellites were completed, ho tranfmitted a copy of them
to M. de la Lande, by whom they were inferted, in 1759,
in a new edition of Halley's tables, publifhed at Paris. In
1769 he fent a copy of them, further improved, to Dr.
Maflcelyne, who publifhed thtni in the Nautical Almanack
for 1 77 1. They were again pubhfned, with improvements
by De la Lande, together with his own aftrcnorr.ical tables ;
and another edition of them, with fome variations from the
lad edition of Paris, appeared at Berlin in 1 776. The re-
fult of Wargentin's afTiduity in this department of aftror.omy
was communicated to the public in the " Connoilfanee du
Mouvements Celeiles" for 1766, the " Nautical .Mmanack"
for 1771 and 1779, and the " Aflronomiches Jahr-buch"
for 1777, 1779, 1 78 1, and 1782 : and the fruits of his lafl
labour in thefe tables appeared in the fourth volume of the
" Nova Ada Societatis Literariae Upfalienfis," which con-
tained 1250 obfervations of the third fatellite, with appro-
priate remarks. This indefatigable aftronomer contributed
to the tranfaAions of the Royal Academy of Sciences
papers on different fubjefts, amounting to the number of
fixty. All thefe papers, befides feveral others, and one
written in 1744, on the velocity of the rays of light, were
produced by him after he became fecretary to the academy.
Many of them " relate to the hiftory of the fcienees ; Inch .is
on thernumieters, and the bell forts of them ; on the attempt
made to determine the re.1l figure of the earth ; on the
parallax of the fixed flare, and the experiment made to dif-
coverit ; on logarithms ; on the (lux and reflux of the fea;
on comets ; on the ufe of ventilators on board Ihips ; and
on the northern lights." Some of them treat of climate
and its differences, in reference to which he obfervcs in
general, " that milder and colder winters, fummers more or
lefs warm, earlier or later fprings and aiitumiiB, depend not
only on the greater or lefs degree of latitude of tlie place,
but alfo on other circumllances, fuch as the vicinity of the
fea, lakes, niarlhes, large woods, uninhaliited deferls, &c.
from which he deduces this tonclulion, that the climate of
Swcdcu is much more temperate than many others lying

under

WAR

WAR

under the fame parallel." On parallaxes and tranfits he
alfo made a variety of obfervations, which were publiflied in
the tranfaftions of the different focieties to which he be-
longed. The phenomena of the magnet and of the northern
lights were alfo objedls of his attention ; and he fuggefted
that fome conneftion fubfifted between them, and that the
variations of the magnetic needle are violent in proportion to
the intenfity of the lights. He likewife furnifhed the
Academy of Sciences, and alfo our ingenious traveller, Mr.
Coxe, with tables and obfervations relating to births and
deaths, as well as to population in general, not only in
Stockholm, but in various other places.

In llietching his charaAer, one of his biographers fays, that
♦' he was a man of great integrity, modeft and friendly in his
difpofition ; zealous for the advancement of fcience, and ever
ready to make any facrifice which could tend to promote the
good of his country." His merit induced king Adolphus Fre-
derick to ereate him, in 1759, a knight of the Polar Star ;
and he was a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and
member of the Academies of Peterfburgh, Paris, Gottin-
gen, Copenhagen, and other learned inftitutions. Although
his genius was not brilliant, his judgment was found and dif-
criminating, and his labour, induftry, and perfeverance, were
indefatigable. Notwithftanding the intenfenefs of his ap-
plication, which allowed him few intervals of relaxation and
amufement, his habits were regular and temperate, and
ferved to prolong his life to an advanced period. Towards
the clofe of it, however, his fight and hearing decayed ; but
neither his ftrength nor fpirits feemed to decbne till the
fummer of 1783, when a diabetes, which baffled all medical
flcill, carried him off in the month of December in that year.
His papers on a variety of fubjefts occur in the following
volumes of the Philofophical Tranfaftions, viz. xlvii. lii. liii.
Ivi. Iviii. hx. Ixv. and Ixvii. Coxe's Travels in Sweden, &c.
vol. iv. Gen. Biog.

WARGO, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the gulf
of Bothnia, near the eaft coafl. N. lat. 63° o'. E. long.

20' 57' Alfo, a fmall ifland on the weft fide of the gulf of

Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 17'. E. long. 21° 47'.

WARGOCZ YN, a town of Poland ; 40 miles N.W. of
Lublin.

WARGRAVE, a town or populous village of England,
in Berklhire, on the right bank of the Thames ; 7 miles
N.E. of Reading.

WARI, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; 28 miles
E. of Bahbelgong.

WARIANAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 16 miles S. of Tiagar.

WARIBA, a river of Guiana, which runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 6° 54'. W. long. 59° 8'.

WARIGARl Bay, a bay on the ifland of St. Vincent,
fouth of Hungary Point.

■ WARIN, a town of Mecklenburg ; 10 miles S.E. of
Wifmar Alfo, a river of Brafil, which runs into the At-
lantic, S. lat. 4° 55'. W. long. 36° 58'.

WARING, Edward, M. D., in Biography, defcended
from an ancient family at Milton, in the county of Salop,
was born in 1734, and finiftied his education at Magdalen
college, Cambridge, where he was confidered, when he took
his firft degree in 1757, as 3 prodigy in thofe fcienccs which
form the fubjeft of the bachelor's examination. At the age
of 25 years, in 1759 he was eleAed Lucafian profeflbr of
mathematics, not without giving offence to fome of the
fenior members of the univerfity, who difapproved the ap-
pointment of fo young a man to occupy a chair which had
been dignified by a Newton, a Saunderfon, and a Barrow ;
and the firft chapter of his " Mifcellanca Analytica," which

was circulated in vindication of his fcientific charafter, was
the occafion of a controverfy of fome continuance. The
attack was commenced by Dr. Powell, mafter of St. John's,
and the young profeflbr was ably defended by Mr. Wilfon,
afterwards judge Wilfon, a gentleman held in high eftima-
tion. In 1760, Waring received the degree of mafter of
arts by royal mandate; and in 1762, his " Mifcellanea
Analytica" was publiflied, with a dedication to the duke of
Newcaftle. This work amply vindicated his early elevation
to the profeflbrfliip, and extended his fcientific fame through
Europe ; fo that he was eleiSted member of the focieties of
Bologna and Gottingen, and honoured by exprefllons of
liigh regard by the moft celebrated mathematicians, both at
home and abroad. Speaking of this mifcellany, comprehend-
ing moft fubjefts in pure mathematics, he himfelf fays, " In
my preface I have given a hiftory of the inventions of dif-
ferent writers, and afcribedthem to their refpeftive authors,
and likewife fome account of my own. To every one of
thefe fciences I have been able to make fome additions, and
in the whole, if I am not miftaken in enumerating them,
fomewhere between 3C0 and 400 new propofitions of one
kind or other, confiderably more than have been given by
any Englifli writer ; and in novelty and difficulty not infe-
rior ; I wifh I could fubjoin, in utility. Many more might
have been added, but I never could hear of any reader in
England out of Cambridge, who took the pains to read and
underftand what I have written. But I muft congratulate
myfelf that D'Alembert, Euler, and La Grange, three of
the greateft men in pure mathematics, of this or any other
age, have fince publiflied and demonftrated fome of the pro-
pofitions contained in my ' Meditationes Algebraicae,' or
' Mifcellanea Analytica,' the only book of mine they could
have feen at that time; and D'Alembert and La Grange
mention it as a book full of excellent and interefting difco-
veries in algebra. Some other mathematicians have inferted
fome of them in their pubhcations. The reader will excufe
my faying fo much, there being fome particular rcafons wliich
influenced me." Medicine alfo engaged our author's atten-
tion, and in 1 767 he took his degree of doftor ; but though
he took pains by attending leftures and hofpitals in London
to perfeft himfelf in the medical art, it does not appear that
he ever gained much praftice. His manner, it is faid, was
not very prepofleflTing ; but his want of fuccefs he had
the lefs reafon to regret, as he had a very liberal patrimony,
and as he was fufficiently amufed by his favourite fcience.
He refided for fome time at St. Ives, after taking his
doftor's degree, and in 1776 he married ; but as the air of
Cambridge, whither he removed, did not agree with Mrs.
Waring's conftitution, he went to live on his own cftate at
Plaifly, about eight miles from Shrewfljury, and profecuted
his mathematical inquiries. He alfo direfted his attention to
other fubjefts, and printed at Cambridge, in 1796, a work
entitled " An Eflay on the Principles of Human Know-
ledge," which was never publiflied. Attached to his
country retreat he feldom left it, except when he occafion-
ally attended the Board of Longitude in London, of which
he was a member. A violent cold terminated in his death,
which happened in Auguft 1798, in the 64th year of his age.
His integrity was inflexible, his modefty difguifed the
fuperiority of his underftanding, and his habits and manners
were fimple and plain.

In the extraft we have given from his own account of his
writings, fome may fuppofe that he incurs the charge of
vanity and felf-adulation ; but occafions may occur in which
the moft modeft men are called upon to do themfelves juftice,
which was the cafe with regard to Dr. Waring. To fay
nothing of the difpar^ging refleftions which his early ap-
pointment

W A R

WAR

pointment to the Lucafian profefforthip produced, he was
induced, for the honour of his country, to retort to tlie
charge of Lalande, the French allronomer, who, in his Ufc
of Condorcet, afTerts, that in 1766 there was no iirll-rate
analyft in England. In order to repel this accufation, he
takes occafion, in a letter to Dr. Mafltelyne, to mention with
refpeft the writings of feveral celebrated Britidi mathema-
ticians, two of whom were hving in 1764, and then to take
notice of his own difcoveries, many of which had been pub-
lifhed before that year ; it ftiould be remembered, that tliis
account was not publiihed by himielf. It is not without
reafon that he intimates the neglett with which his writings
were treated ; the faft is certain, and it was owing
partly to the abftrufenefs of the fubjeAs, but principally to
the perplexed ftyle and manner in which they are difcuffcd.
His principal works, befides thofe that have been mentioned,
are " Meditationes Algebraics," 1770 ; " Proprietates Al-
gebraicarum Curvarum," 1772 ; and " Meditationes Ana-
lytic*," 1773, 1774, I77S> 1776- His papers in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadlions may be found in vols. hii. liv. Iv.
Ixix. Ixxvi. Ixxvii. Ixxviii. Ixxix. Ixxxi. Ixxxiv. For thefe
communications he was honoured with fir Godfrey Copley's
medal. Nichols's Anecd. of the i8th century. Gen.

Waring, in Geography, a town of Virginia ; 15 miles
E.S.E. of Port Royal.

WARINGSTOWN, a town of the county of Down,
Ireland, about 3 miles from Lurgan, where the linen
manufafture is extenfively carried on ; 67 miles N. from
Dubhn.

W A RISE, a town of France, in the department of
the Mofellc ; 4 miles S. of Boulay.

WARKA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw. In 165(^1,
the Poles were defeated here by the Swedes ; 30 miles S. of
Warfaw.

WARKALLEN, a towni of PrufTian Lithuania; 4
miles N. of Gumbinnen.

WARKULLEN, a mountain of Sweden, in the
province of Well Gothland, from which may be feen 23
lakes, great and fmall.

WARKWORTH, a market-town in the eaft divifion
of Morpeth ward, and county of Northumberland, England,
is fituated on the banks of the river Coquet, dillant 7 miles
S.E. from Alnwick, and 305 miles N. by W. from London.
It confifts chiefly of one principal llreet ; and in the popu-
lation return of tlie year i8ii is ilated to contain 108
houfes, and 5(^)8 inhabitants ; the latter are moRly employed
in taking and curing falmon. A weekly market is held on
Thurfdays ; and three fairs annually. Warkworth is a
borough by ancient prefcription, and is governed by a mayor
chofen by tlie free burgelTes. In the centre of the town is
the market-place, having a (lone crofs inclofed in a fpacious
area. The church exhibits fome remains of ancient archi-
tecture, and has a fpire one hundred feet in heiglit. Adjoin-
ing to the church was formerly a cell for two Benedidtine
monks from Durham, for whofe maintenance here Nicholas
de Farniiam, bilhop of Durham, who died A.D. 1257, ap-
propriated the church of Braiikeilon, which was confirmed
by Walter de Kirkham, his fuccelTor. Over the Co(iuct is
a Hone bridge of three arches ; on the middle of it is a pillar,
and at its fouth end an ancient tower. At the fouth end of
the town is Warkworth cadle, the ancient refidence of the
earls of Northumberland : in Leland's time it was, he fays,
" Well mcnteyned ;" but in 1672 its timber and lead were
granted to one of their agents, and the principal parts of it
unroofed. It contains witliiu its moat above five acres.
The whole Hands on a rock, aud it3 walls were well guarded

with towerc. The keep is fquare, with the angles canted
off, .ind having at thc]middle ot each lide a projetting turret,
femi-hexagon at its bafe, and of the fame heigiit as the reft
of the ftruflure. It contains a chapel, and a variety of
fpacious apartments, aud is finiflied with a lofty watch-
tower, commanding an almoll unbounded profpedl. Half a
mile above tlie calllc is tlie Hermitage of Warkworth, cele-
brated in 1 77 1, by the late bifhop of Uromore, in his ballad
of the " Hermit of Warkworth." It was only for one
pried or hermit, but its origin and foundation are uncertain.
The earl of Northumberland, in his grant to the lall hermit
in 1572, calls it " miii armitage, belded in a rock of Hone,
in my parke, in Iionour of the Holy Trinity." The mod
perfeft and curious part of it conliHs of a chapel, facrilly,
and veftibule, hewn out of a fine freellone-rock, twenty feet
high, and ovorfhudowed witli (hrubs and llately forell trees.
The chapel is about eighteen feet long, and feven feet broad
and high ; and executed with 'great neatnefs, in columns,
groins, and arches, in the old llyle. Parallel with the
chapel, live feet wide, and ilretching five feet round its weft
end, is the facrilly, lighted from the chapel with a window,
and having the remains of an altar in it, and over its door a
fliield, with inllruments of the Pafhon. Its well end com-
municates with the vellibule, in wliich are two fquare niches,
and from which has been a way into an apartment of ma-
fonry, having remains of a chimney. A ilaircafe led from
the chapel door to the top of the clilf, where were the her-
mit's houfe and garden. — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xii., Northumberland ; by the Rev. J. Hodgfon, 1813.
Hiftoi-y and Antiquities of Northumberland ; by Nicholfon
and Burn, 2 vols. 4to.

WARLAX, a fmall ifland on the eatl fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 18'. K. long. 2 1^^ 29'.

WARLEY, a town(hip of the Weft Riding of York-
fhire ; 3 miles N.W. of Halifax.

WARMBRUNN, a town of Sllefia, in the principality
of Jauer, celebrated for its warm baths ; 3 miles S.S.W. of
Hirfchberg.

WARMELAND, a province of Sweden, bounded on
the north by Norway and the province of Dalecarlia ; on
the eatl by Wellmanland and Nericia ; on the fouth by the
Wenner Lake ; and on the well by Norway ; about 20O
miles in length from north to fouth, and 130 in breadth
from eaft to weft. This country is almoft every where
mountainous ; but the eaft and fouth parts are more level
and fertile than the weft and north parts. However, the
woods and mines of filver, lead, copper, and iron, with the
forges, founderies, &c. belonging to them, furni(h the in-
habitants of the latter with a great variety of employments.
In the year 172'), fome pure filver was found in an iron
mine not far from Philiplladt, and tiie memory of this ex-
traordinary circunillance has been preferved in fome medals
ftruck on the occafion. The chief occupation of the inha-
bitants is mining, fmelting, &c. together with filhing, and a
little agriculture. Their trade confifts moftly in maft.sj
planks, timbtr, the bark of birch-trees, &c. The chief
river in this provii.cc is the Clara, or Stor Elbe, in which
there is a very profitable falmon-filhery. The principal
lake, befides the Wenner, is the Fry-ken, which is eight
Swedifti miles in length, but narrow : it has commuiiicalioa
with the Wenner lake.

WARMENSTEINACH, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Culmbach ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Bayreuth.

WARMINSTER, a eonfidemble market-town, of an-
tiquity, in the hundred of the fame name, and the county > {
Wilts, England, is fituated near the wcftern confines of the
county, at the diftancc of 20 miles W.N.W. from Sahf-

bury.

WARMINSTER.

bury, and 98 miles W.t5.W. from London. At the time
of the Conqueft, Warminfter appears to have been exempted
from the payment of taxes, which circumftance, together
with the evident derivation of its name, feems to point it
out as the fcite of an ancient moiiaftery. At a later period
it was celebrated for its corn-market. Leland, in his Itine-
rary, fays, " Werminller, a principall market for corne, is
4 myles from Brookehaulle, a myle to Wellbury, and fo 3
myles forthe." At the prefent day, the market of this
town continues to be abundantly fupplied with wheat,
barley, oats, &c. and here are three annua! fairs. War-
minfter poffeffes no corporation within itfelf, and is tliere-
fore under the government of the neighbouring county ma-
giftrates, with the aid of conftables chofen every year, at the
court -leet of the marquis of Bath, who is lord of the manor.
The chief trade carried on here is that of malting, and a
confiderable manufafture of woollens : the latter has been
rapidly on the increafe within the laft century. Accord-
ing to the parliamentary returns of the year 181 1, the town
and parirti of Warminfter contained 1073 houfes, and a po-
pulation of 4866 perfons. The houfes in the town are
principally ranged in one very long ftreet, ftretching along
the fides of the turnpike-road. At the weftern extremity
ftands the parifli-chureh, which is a fpacious edifice of ftone,
■with a fquare toiver ; and near the centre of the town is a
chapel of eafe, eretted fome years ago for the convenience
of the pariftiioners. There are befides two places of worlhip
belonging to the Difienters ; alfo a good market-houle, an
aftembly-room, and a free grammar-fchool for the education
of twenty poor boys. This inftitution is endowed with a
falary of thirty pounds per annum, and is in the gift of the
marquis of Bath. The lordftiip of Warminfter in ancient
times formed part of the eftate of the family of Mauduit,
whence it pafled to the Hungerfords. Mary, an heirefs of
that family, conveyed it by marriage to Edward, lord
Haftings, who was beheaded by order of the duke of Glou-
cefter, afterwards Richard III. That monarch fubfc-
quently beftowed it on John Howard, whom he created
duke of Norfolk. It is now the property of the marquis
of Bath. Dr. Samuel Squire, a learned writer, and biftiop
of St. David's, was born at Warminfter in 1714, and died
in 1766.

Southley Wood, fo called from its lying to the fouth of
Warminfter, is diftinguiftied by a fmall intrenchment, deno-
minated Robin Hood's Bower, which is nearly of a fquare
form, and comprifes afcout three-quarters of an acre. Clofe
to the eaftern boundary of this wood is another fimilar
earthen-work ; and on its eaftern fide is a third intrench-
ment, refembling an amphitheatre in miniature. This laft
is a very curious work, and confifts of a ditch and two vallas.
The outer vallum is about eighteen feet in height, and is
very neatly formed ; the breadth of the ditch is feven feet ;
the height of the inner work from fifteen to fixteen feet ;
and the length of the area of the inner work on its longeft
fide (for it is of an oval ftiape) is one hundred and eleven
feet.

Clee or Clay Hills, in this vicinity, are two very fingular
knolls ; one of which is much larger than the other, and is
furrounded by a ditch and rampart, bearing the marks of
very high antiquity ; and on its fummit are placed two bar-
rows, and the pedeftal of a ftone crofs. Both thefe tumuli
were opened by fir Richard Hoare, who afcertained one of
them to be decidedly fepulchral ; but no remains of any in-
terment appearing in the other, it is fuppofed to be defigned
for 3 beacon.

At the diftance of a quarter of a mile N.E. from War-
minfter, is a conicaUftiaped eminence, called Cop-Head Hill,

which is crowned by a large barrow, encircled by a ditch and
vallum. This tumulus was opened in 1809 by fir Richard
Hoare, and found to contain the flceletons of feveral males,
one female, and a child ; befides an interment of burnt
bones.

About three-quarters of a mile further to the eaftward,
on the fummit of an irregular hill, is Battleftiury Camp : on
the weft and north-eaft fides ;t is nearly inacceftible, from
the fteep and difficult nature of the ground ; and on thofe
fides where it is more eafily approached, additional ramparts
have been conftrufted exterior to the double ditch and val-
lum which furround the whole. The circuit of the outer
vallum is feven furlongs and fixty-fix yards, and the greatelt
height of the ramparts is fixty feet : the area, within the in-
terior vallum, meafures twenty -three acres and a quarter,
and is wholly under tillage. At the fouth-weft angle of the
camp are three barrows : one of them fills the entire fpace
of the inner ditch ; and the other two are placed in the
line of the inner rampart. Thefe laft, on opening, proved to
be fepulchral ; but no interment could be difcovered in the
other.

Between this fortrefs and the village of Boreham, is one
of the largeft barrows in Wiltdiire, from which circumftance
it has been dignified with the appellation of King Barrow.
It extends two hundred and fix feet in length, fifty-fix in
breadth, and from fifteen to fixteen in height. When firft
opened in 1800 by Mr. Cunnington, the ftceleton of a horfe,
and three of human beings, were difcovered-, together with
fome pieces of ftags' horns, boars' tuflis, and rude pottery ;
alfo a fingle -edged iron fword, about eighteen inches in
length, and two m breadth, which lay on the thigh of one
of the fi<Lletons.

Weftward from Warminfter four miles and a half, on the
immediate confines of this county with Somerfetftiire, is
Longleat, the magnificent feat of the marquis of Bath.
The old houfe was originally part of a priory, founded by
fir John Vernory, lord of Horningftiam. On its furrender
to Henry VIII. the fcite and lands attached were granted
to fir John Horfey, and Edmund, earl of Hertford, from
whom the whole was afterwards purchafed bv fir John
Thynne, an ancellor of the prefent proprietor. Towards
the clofe of his life he laid the foundation of the fuperb
manfion, which ftill continues the proudeft architeftural or-
nament of this part of Wiltftiire ; but he only lived to finifti
the ftiell and a fmall portion of the interior. The remainder
was completed by his fon and by his grandfon ; the latter of
whom was created lord Weymouth by king Charles II.
This nobleman hkewife furniftied the houfe in a moft fplen-
did manner. His lordftiip died in 17 14; the third lord,
who was afterwards raifed to the dignity of marquis of
Bath, new-modelled the gardens and grounds by the advice
of the celebrated Brown, whofe plan his lordftiip unremit-
tingly purfued till his death, which happened in 1796.
The fituation of Longleat is peculiarly fine and pifturefque.
An extenfive park furrounds the manfion ; and both nature
and art have co-operated to render this place highly im-
portant and interefting. The whole domain, within the
plantations, is about fifteen miles in circumference. Long-
leat-houfe is built on a fcale of magnificence proportionate
to the extent and grandeur of the park in which it is feated.
The architefture is the mixed ftyle which prevailed at the
end of the fixteenth century ; but it partakes far more of
the Roman than of the pointed or Englifti charafter. The
form of the edifice is a parallelogram two hundred and
twenty feet in length, by one hundred and eighty feet in
depth ; it is built entirely of free-ftone, and is adorned with
pilafters of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, with

enriched

WAR

etiriclied capitals, friezes, fntabiaturea, parapdti, and cor-
nices. Ill the centre are two quadrangular courts ; and
externally it prefents four principal fronts, each divided into
three ftories in height, and into diflerent portions in width
by fquare projections. The interior of this princely man-
fion correfponds with its exterior in character and cfTeA ;
etery thing is vafl, and every part is grand. The priricipal
apartments, witii all the out-ofRces, have been recently
formed and arranged by JefFcry Wyatt, efq., architect ; who,
well acquainted with the ftyle of architecture in which the
houfe was originally erefted, has judicioufly adhered to the
fame ftyle in his additional works. Hence, when the whole
is completed, it may be fafcly afll-rted, tiiat for grandeur of
effeft, commodioufnefs of arrangement, and adaptation for a
fplendid cftablifhment, it will equal any maafion in Great
Britain. The libraries and other apartments are enriched
with numerous piftures, among which are portraits of many
perfonages of dillinguiihed celebrity in the three laft centu-
ries.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv., Wiltfhire ;
by J. Britton, F.S.A. Hoare's "Ancient Wiltfhire,"
fol. 1812. A fine view of this houfe, with a particular de-
fcription of the feat, are publifhed in Havell's Views of
Seats, fol. 1817.

Warminster, a poft-town of Virginia, on James river ;
90 miles W. of Richmond. — Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of Bucks, containing 564 inhabitants.

WARMSDORF, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Anhalt Cothen ; 8 miles W. of Bernberg.

WARMSPRING Mountains, or Jackfon'i ' Moun-
tains, mountains of Virginia. N. lat. 54° 30'. W. long.

79° 4°'-

WARMSTADT, or Wormit, a town of Pruffia, in
the province of Ermeland ; 42 miles S.S.W. of Konigf-
berg. N. lat. 54° 3'. E. long. 20° 7'.

WARMTH. See Heat.

Warmth, in Painting, denotes that fiery cfFeft which a
fraall addition of yellow gives to a true red ; and that glow-
ing appearance which red imparts to either yellow or blue.
By warmth, in red, is to be under Hood a fmall inclination
towards orange ; by the fame term, applied to yellow, a like
tendency by the admixture of red ; and by the fame again,
in the cafe of blue, mull be underftood its (lightly verging on
the purple. Coolnefs is oppofed to warmth ; but it is fel-
dom ufed except in fpeaking of yellow and blue ; and then
it means either the negation of that which caufes warmth,
or a tendency to green, in either colour, by a flight admixture
of the other. The fenfe of the term warmth, wlien appfied to
colouring, or the combined appearance of various teiiits, mnfl
not be confounded with that which it bears when we are
fpeaking of particular colours. For then it relates to the
procuring of a flrongeffed, by the difpofition or contraft of
the colours, or the groffnefs of tlie teints ; and rot the qua-
lities peculiar to, or inherent in the colours themfelves.

WARN, in Law, to fummon a perfon to appear in a
court of juftice.

WARNA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft
Gothland ; 14 miles E.S.E. of Linkioping.

WARNAMMA, or Werinama, a town on the fouth
coaft of the ifland of Ceram. S. lat. 3° 45'. E. long.
129° 34'.

WARNA S, a name by which fome of the chemical
wnriters exprefs what otliers of them call the acctum phtlofo-
phorum, or vinegar of tlie philofophers.

WARNE, or Waknow, in Geography, a river of
Mecklenburg, which pafTes by Roftock, and runs into
the Baltic, at Warnemundc.

Warne, a river of England, in the eounty of Norlhum-
Voj,. XXXVII.

WAR

berlar.d, which rum into the Irifli fea, 4 miles S. of Holy
iiland.

WARNEMUNDE, a town of the duchy of Mecklen-
burg, at the mouth of the Warne, wliere veffels bound to
Roftock pay a toll, which formerly amounted to 8o,oco
rix-dollars a year ; at prefent to not more than 600c ;
9 miles N. of Roftock.

WARNENAS, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 1 i miles S.S.W. of Calmar.

WARNER, a town of New Hampfliire, in the county
of Hillfborough, containing 1838 inhabitants ; 20 miles W.
of Concord.

Warner'/ Patent, a town of New Hampfhire, in the
county of Coo/, containing 35 inhabitants.

WARNERIA, in Botany, was fo called by Miller, in
honour of Richard Warner, efq. of Woodford-row, Effex,
author of the Planta Woodfordimfcs, publiftied in 1771.
This gentleman, rather a patron of the fcience than a deep
botanirt, is mentioned by Dr. Pulteney, as a fuccefsful cul-
tivator of exotic plants, and a lover of indigenous botany.
On his death, April 1 1, 1775, he left his valuable library to
Wadham college, Oxford, where he received his education ;
this bequcft was accompanied by a ftipend for a botanical
lefture, of which we have never heard the refult. He is
alfo celebrated for liis critical knowledge of Shakfpeare, of
whofe plays he had long meditated an edition ; but refigned
his pretentions to Mr. Steevens. The genus dedicated to
Mr. Warner, has not however been allowed to retain his
name. It is the Hydrastis of Linnaius ; fee that
article.

A fmall pamphlet of twelve pages, entitled " Additions
to Warner's Plantae Woodfordienfes," was printed in 1784,
by Thomas Farleigh Forfter, efq. F.L.S. a diftinguifticd
Britifli botanift.

WARNESS, in Geography, a cape on the fouth coaft of
the ifland of Eday. N. lat. 59'. W. long. 2" 42'.

WARNETON, a town of France, in the department
of the Lys. This town was ceded to the Dutch in
1715, as a barrier town, and before the revolution, with
its territories, belonged to the prince of Orange ; 2 pofts
N.W. of Lille.

WARNING-PwiT, in the Military Art. See Evening
Gun.

WAnmiso- Wheel, in a clock, is the third or fourth,
according to its diftance from the firft wheel. Sec
Clock.

WARNITZ.in Geography, atown of European Turkey,
in Beffarabia, remarkable for being the place where, in the
year 1709, Charles XII. of Sweden broke up his camp,
and continued till the year 1713, when the Turks were
obliged to make ufe of force to get rid of iiim : near
Bender.

WARNOTH, in our Old Writers, an ancient cuftom,
by which if a tenant, holding of the caille of Dover, failed
in paying his rent at the day, he was to forfeit double ; and
for the fecond failure, treble ; and tlie lands fo licld were
called terris cullis, and terris de warnolh.

WARO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Halland ; 13 miles S. of Kcinigfberg.

WAROEA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
66 miles E. of Uiidevalla.

WARP, in ylgriculture, a fliniy fort of fubllance or ma-
terial whieli id depofited or let fall upon land by the fea-
tidcB in fome particular lituatioiiB, and by which a new,
rich, and fertile fort of alluvial foil is formed. The term ii
alfo fomctimcs applied to the ooze or (limy matter thrown
up by the fea in ordinary cafe*. It is in both inftanccs a

4 U very

WAR

WAR

very produftive material when employed as manure in com-
pofition with otlier matters, or ufcd alone.

Warps are applied to flat, wide beds or ridges of
ploughed land in fome diftrifts. It is often a bad mode of
laying land when in the ttate of tillage.

Warp in Cows, in Rural Economy, a term made ufe of
in fome places to fignify to mifcarry or flip their calves.
Where cows are hable to warp or flip their calves, and it has
taken place in different cafes, it is confidered dangerous to
permit them to continue in the yards with the whole of the
fame fort of ftock, from the fear of the fame eff'edt being
produced on the others. For though fome cows may pro-
bably, by conftitutional weaknefs, or fome bodily imperfec-
tion, be more Uable to warp than others ; fuch accidental
circumllances as produce fuddcn fright are very often the
caufe. Putrid difajjreeable fmells, and the expofure of
putrid animal fubftances, have frequently too the fame effeft.
It is ilated, that in an inclofure in the parifh of Arhngham,
in the county of Gloucefter, near to which was a dog-
kennel, eight heifers out of twenty warped, in confequence,
as it was fuppofed by the farmer, of the frequent expofure
of the flefli, and the fliinning of the dead horfes before them :
the remainder being removed to a diftant pallure, it is faid,
did well. Many other cafes of this fort have likewife been
noticed.

Warp, in the Manufadures, is the threads, whether of
filk, wool, hnen, hemp, cotton, or the like, that are
extended lengthwife on the weaver's loom, and acrofs
which the workman, by means of his fliuttle, pafles the
threads of the woof, to form a cloth, ribband, fiiltian, or
other matter.

For a woollen ftufi", &c. to have the neceflary quahtics,
it is required, that the thread of the warp be of the fame
kind of wool, and of the fame finenefs throughout ; that
they be fized with Flanders or parchment-iize, well pre-
pared ; and th.-!! they be in fufiicient number, with regard
to the breadth of the ftuff to be wrought. See Woof,
Cloth, &c.

Warp, in a Ship, is a fmall rope employed occafionally to
remove a (hip from one place to another, in a port, road, or
river. Hence,

To Warp, in Sea Language, is to change the fituation of
a fliip, by puUing her from one part of a harbour, &c. to
fome other, by means of warps, which are attached to
buoys, to anchors funk in the bottom, or to certain ftations
upon the fliore, as polls, rings, trees, &c. The fliip is ac-
cordingly drawn forwards to thofe ftations, either by pull-
ing on the warps by hand, or by the application of fome
purchafe, as a tackle, windlafs, or capilern, upon her deck.
When this operation is performed by the fliip's leifer an-
chors, thefe machines, together with their warps, are carried
out in the boats alternately towards the place where the fliip
is endeavouring to arrive ; fo that when flie is drawn up
clofe to one anchor, the other is carried out to a competent
diftance before her, and being funk, ferves to fix the other
warp, by which flie is farther advanced.

Warping is generally ufed when the fails are unbent, or
when they cannot be fuccefsfuUy employed, which may
arife from the unfavourable ftate of the wind, the op-
pofition of the tide, or the narrow limits of the channel.
Falconer.

Warp alfo denotes a towing-line, by which boats are
hauled in^a canal, &c.

Warp of Shrouds, the firft given length, taken from the
bolfter at the maft-head to the foremofl; dead-eye.

WARPED into Junks, in Rofe-Making, 13 yam warped
iato fhort lengths for fpun-yarn.

WARPEN, in Geography, a lake of Sweden, hi
Dalecarha.

WARPENI. See Wardpenny.

WARPING of Land, in Jgriculture, the praftice of
forming, fertihzing, and improving lands of the tillage kind,
which is employed in fome particular fituations on the
borders of large rivers and channels into which the fea-tidlb
flow, and where the level of the ground is fuch as to admit
of their being overflowed with much facility. This prac-
tice has hitherto been chiefly confined to the extenfive fea-
diftrifts of Lincolnfliire and Yorkfliire, but is little known
to moft others. It has been remarked by the writer of a
late calendar of hulbandry, that the waters of the tides that
come up the Trent, Oufe, Dun, and other rivers of the
former of the above counties, which empty themfelves into
the great eftuary of the Humber, arc muddy to an excefs ;
infomuch that in the fummer feafon, if a cyhndrical glafs,
twelve or fifteen inches long, be filled with the water, it will
prefently depofit an inch, and fometimes more, of this muddy
matter, or what is there called warp. Where it comes from
is, it is faid, a difputed point : the Humber, at its mouth,
is clear water ; and no floods in the countries waihed by the
warp rivers bring it, but, on the contrary, do much mifchief
by fpoiliug the warp. In the very drieft feafons and longeft
droughts, it is found the beft and moft plentiful.

The improvement in land, which is made by this means,
is, it is faid, perfetlly fimple and eafy, confifting in nothing
more than merely letting in the tide at high water to depofit
the warp, or muddy material, and permitting it to run off
again as the water falls. But in order to render it fully ef-
ficacious, the water muft be at command, i'o that it may be
kept out and let in at pleafure, confequently there muft be
not only a cut or canal made to join the river, but a fluice at
the mouth of it formed fo as to open or fliut, as wanted ;
and that the water may be of a proper depth on the land
to be warped, and alfo prevented flowing over contigVious
lands, whether cultivated or not, banks are neceflary to be
raifed around the fields to be warped, of from three or four
to fix or feven feet high, according as the circumttances of
the cafes may be. Thus, if the tract 'be large, the canal
which takes the water, and which, as in the praftice of irri-
gation, might, it is faid, be called the grand carrier, may be
made feveral miles long : it has been tried, it is faid, as far
as four, fo as to warp the lands on each fide the whole way,
and lateral cuts made in any fuitable direftion for the fame
purpofe ; it is, however, to be obferved, that the effeft
leflens as the river is receded from ; that is, it demands
longer time for the water to depofit warp enough for pro-
ducing the benefit.

It is to be noticed in this cafe, however, it is faid, that
the effeft is very different from that of irrigation or water-
ing ; as it is not the water that works the eff^ft or im-
provement, but the mud or material which is depofited, fo
that in time of floods the bufinefs ceafes, as alfo in winter ;
and that it is not in this cale to manure the foil, but to
create and form it. What the land is, it is fuppofed, which
is intended to be warped, is not of the fmalleil confequence :
a bog, clay, fand, peat, or even a barn floor, all one and the
fame ; as the warp raifes it in' one fummer from fix to fixteen
Inches thick, and in the hollows or low places, two, three,
or four feet, fo as to leave the whole piece or field level.
Thus, a foil of any depth that may be required is formed,
which confills of mud, or a material of that fort,' of vaft
fertility, though not containing much befides fandj'btUa
fand unique, it is fuppofed.

It is ilated in addition, too, by the fame writer, that Ml*.
Dalton, of Knaith, on Trent, in die fame county, feut fome

of

WARPING OF LAND.

of this material to aa eminent chemift, whofe report of it
was, that it contained mucilage, and a very minute portion
of fa'ine matter ; a confiderable one of calcareous earth : the
refidue ii mica and fand ; the latter in far the largelt quan-
tity, both in very fine particles. Here, it is faid, there is
no mention of any thing arfrillaceous ; but from examining
in the fields much warped, the writer is clear that there mull
be clay in fome, from its caking in fmall clods, as well as
from its cleanling cloth of grcafe, almoll like fuller's earth.
He was told too, by a confiderable warp farmer, that the
ftifFell warp was the belt ; but in general it has the appear-
ance, it is faid, of fand, and all of it glitters with the mica-
ceous particles.

It is evident therefore that the foil or bed which is formed
in the cafes of warping is fomewhat of the alluvial kind, and
of courfe well conftituted for the growth of mod forts of
tillage crops.

Warping is a praftice which begins in the month of July,
and which proceeds during the fummer feafon ; and as it can
only be performed at that particular period, every occafion
of having it executed fhould conftantly be embraced, by
having tiie works in ptrfeft repair and readinefs, that every
tide may be made to produce its full effeft. In regard
to the utility and advantage of doing this fort of work
in the fummer months, it may be noticed, that at thefe
times the lands not only become the fooneft dry, a circum-
ftance which muft always fully take place before the procefs
of cultivation can be carried on, but the tides are lefs mixed
with fredi water, in which fituation they are conftantly found
the mod effeftual in the bufinefs.

In refpoft to the method of performing the work, it is
defcribed by lord Hawke, in one of the Reports on the
Agriculture of Yorkfliire, in the manner which is given
below*

The land to be warped muft, it is faid, be banked round
againll the river ; the banks for which are made of the
earth taken on the fpot from the land : they muft be formed
fo as to flope fix feet ; that is, three feet on each fide of the
top or crown of the bank, for every foot perpendicular of
rife : their top or crown part being made broader or nar-
rower, according to the impetuofity of the tide, and the
weight and quantity of water : and they extend from two
feet to twelve : their height is regulated by the height to
which the fpring-tides flow, fo as to exclude or let tlicm in
at pleafurc. In thefe banks, there are to be more or fewer
openings formed, according to the fize of the field or ground
to be warped, and the choice of the occupier or proprie-
tor; but in general they have only two fluices, it is faid ;
one called the flood-gate, to admit, the other termed the
clough, to let oft the water in a gentle manner ; thefe are
fufficient, it is obferved, for ten or fifteen acres : when
the fpring-tide begins to ebb, the flood-gate is opened to
admit the tide, the clough having been previoufly fluit by
the weight of the water brought up the river by the flow of
the tide. As the tide ebbs down the river, the weight or
prefliire of the water being taken from the outfide of the
clough next the river, the tide-water that has been previoufly
admitted by the flood-gate opens the clough again, and dif-
charges itfelf flowly but completely through it. In form-
ing the doughs, they are walled on each fide, and fo con-
i ' ftrufted, as to let the water run off" between the ebb of the
tide admitted, and the flow of the next ; and to this point
particular attention is, it is faid, paid by the workmen. The
flood-gates are placed fo high in thefe intentions as only to
let in the fpring-tides when opened. They arc, of courfe,
placed above the level of the common tides.

Willews are aUb, it is faid, occafionally planted oa the

fronts of the banks, to break the force of the tides, and
defend the banks, by raifing the fronts of them with warp
thus colledled, accumulated, and detained : but thefe wil-
lows muft ncTer, it is remarked, be planted on the banks
themfelves, as they would in that way deftroy them, by giv-
ing the winds power to fliake and dillurb them.

In regard to the expence, it is ftated that the firft coft 6f
a fluice for warping, which is five feet in height, and feven
feet in width, may be eilimated at from four to five hundred
pounds. And that fuch a fluice will in general be adequate
to the warping of fifty acres annually ; and where the foil
or land is contiguous to the river, for feventy or more.

In thefe cafes, the nature of the culture which is proper,
the crops, and various other circumftances that require at-
tention, are well fliewn and pointed out in the obfervations
that are given below, which were taken by the firft of the
above writers on the farm of Mr. Webfter, at Bankfide,
in the county of Lincoln, who has made fo great an im-
provement by warping, that it merits, it is faid, particular
notice and regard. His farm of two hundred and twelve
acres, it is faid, is all warped ; and that to (hew the immenfe
importance of the improvement, it would be neceflary only
to mention that he gave eleven pounds an acre for the
land, and would not now take feventy pounds an acre for
it ; he confiders it worth eighty pounds, and fome of it
even one hundred pounds the acre : not that it would fell
fo high at prefent however ; yet the whole expence of his
fluices, cuts, banks, and other things, did not, it is faid,
exceed two thoufand five hundred pounds, or twelve pounds
the acre ; from which, however, to continue the account,
one thoufand five hundred pounds may, it is faid, be de-
dufted, as a neighbour below him ofl^ers five pounds an acre
for the ufe of his fluice and main cut, to warp three hun-
dred acres by, which will, it is faid, reduce Mr. Webfter's
expence to one thoufand pounds, or about five poimds au
acre. Take it, however, it is faid, at the higheft, twelve
pounds, and add eleven pounds, the purchafe, together
twenty-three pounds an acre ; if he can fell at feventy
pounds, it is forty-feven the acre profit. This, it is
thought, is prodigious, and fuflicient to prove that warp-
ing exceeds all other impruvLinents. Mr. Webfter hat,
it is obferved, warped to various depths, to eighteen
inches, two feet, two and a half feet, &c. He has fome,
it is faid, that, before warping, was moorland, worth
only one fliilling and iixpence the acre, now as good
as the beft. Some of it would let at five pounds the
acre for flax or potatoes ; and the whole at fifty fliillings.
He has twenty acres that he warped three feet deep, be-
tween the beginning of June and the end of September,
and eighteen acres, part of which is three feet and a half
deep. He has applied it, too, on ftnbblcs in autumn by
way of manuring, it is faid ; for it fliould be noted, the
Writer fays, as a vaft advantage in this fpecics of improve-
ment, that it is renewable at any time : were it poflible to
wear out by cropping or ill-management, a few tides will,
it is aflerted, at any time reftore it. As to the crops he
has had, they have, it is faid, been very great indeed ; of
potatoes from eighty to one hundred and thirty tubs of
thirty-fix gallons each, felling the round forts at from three
fliillings, to three .fliillings and fixpencc a tub ; and kidneys
at from five fliillings to eight (hilling'; the tub. Twenty
acres warped in 1794, could not, it is laid, be ploughed for
oats in 1795; '"■> therefore, lowed the oats on the frelh
warp, and fcuffled in the feed by men drawing a fcuffler,
eight to draw, and one to hold : the whole crop was very
great ; but on three acres of it, meafured fep.irately, they
amounted, it is faid, to fourteen quarters one Mack tl«e
4 U 2 acre.

WARPING OF LAND.

jcff. The writer here obfervcs, that he little thought of
finding exaAly the hufbandry of the Nile in England. He
bad, however, before heard of clover-feed being fown in
this manner on frefti warp, and fucceeding greatly.

It is dated in addition, that Mr. Webfter warped twelve
acres of wheat-ftubble, and fowed oats in April, which pro-
duced twelve quarters an acre ; then wheat, thirty -fix bufh>^ls
an acre : that his wheat is never lefs than thirty buftels ;
and that fix acres of beans produced thirty loads the acre,
or ninety bufhels ; that one acre, meafured to decide a
wager, yielded ninety-nine bufhels ; that he has had one
hundred and forty-four pods from one bean, on four ftalks ;
and Tartarian oats feven feet high ; that one piece, warped
in I79j, produced oats in 1794, fix quarters an acre.
White clover and hay-feeds were fown with them, and
mown twice the firft year: the firft cutting yielded three
tons of hay on the acre ; the fecond, one ton ; and after
that, an immenfe eddifh. Warp, it is obferved by Mr.
Webfter, brings weeds never feen there before, particularly
muftard, crefles, and wild celery, with plenty of docks and
thiftles ; alfo flax, from forty to fifty ftones the acre.

It is remarked too, in the fame agricultural work, that
Mr. Nicolfon, at RawclifFe, when this praftice is intended,
takes the levels firft, then builds a fluice ; that if a quarter
of a niiie or half a mile in length, fixty acres may be done
the firft year ; the drier the feafon the better, as fuggefted
above. The clough or fiuice, when eight feet wide, and
five or fix feet high, will be 400/. ; and a drain made four-
teen feet at the bottom, and as much more at top, from
thirty to forty {hillings an acre of twenty-eight yards ;
banks made from four to eight feet high, and the expence
ftxjm feven to twenty (hillings the acre of twenty-eight
yards : that he begins the bufinefs at from Lady-day till
Martinmas, but all depends on feafon ; the depth will de-
pend on and be regulated by circumftances. If a landlord
irarp, it (hould be deep, it is faid, at once ; if a tenant,
(hallow and repeated ; for as good corn will grow at fix
inches as fix feet ; at three inches, great crops ; the ftiffer
the warp the better, as alreadv noticed. Some feafons,
corn is fown the year after. Warp is cold, and, if deep,
takes time ; a dry year beft ; great feed crops. The crops
ought to be beans, twenty loads ; oats, ten quarters ; wheat,
ten or twelve loads ; never barley. After fix years, pota-
toes, and good flax : he makes it worth from forty to fifty
pound* an acre, it is faid. And Mr. Wilfon's idea of
warping is confidered by the writer as very juft ; which is
to exhauft the low lands in favour of the hills ; then to warp
fix inches deep, to exhauft that to make the hills ; then to
vraip again : and by thus domg, to keep the warp-land in
the higheft order, and at the fame time to work a great im-
provement to all the higher grounds.

The fubitance of the obfervations of a commiffioner much
employed in warping is, that warp leaves one-eighth of an
inch every tide on an average ; and that thefe layers do not
mix in an uniform mafs, but remain in leaves or layers dif-
tinft. That if there be only one fluice, then only every
other tide can be ufed ; as the water muft run perfeftly off,
in order that the furface may incruft ; and that if the canal
be not empty, the tide has not the effeft. At Altliorp,
Mr. Bower has warped, it is obferved, to the depth of
eighteen inches in a fummer.

Ten quarters of oats an acre is common, on raking in the
feed on warp ; the more fait there is in the warp, the better ;
but one fallow, in that cafe, is, it is faid, neceffary to leflen
the effeft, or it hurts vegetation.

It is remarked, that as a fort of new foil is created by
this mode of pradtice, it is of but little confcquencc what the

10

original nature or quality of the land may be, alnK>il all kind*
being improved by it, as feen already ; but that, at the famt
time, it may be the moft beneficial in fi.ch light foiled lands
as are very open and porous, and fuch ftiff ones as are de-
feftive in calcareous matter, and which require fubftances o*.
this kind to render them lefs tenacious : and that land, wheu
once well warped, will continue for a vaft length of time iu
a good ftate of fertility. But ftill it is fuggefted, by feme
experienced warpers, as a better practice, in this mode of
tillage improvement, to apply a fmall portion of warp
whenever the land is in the ftate of fallow, which will be
about every five or fix years ; as, by this means, the farmer
will be more fecure of having good crops. The depth to
which the lands are covered by the tides muft, it is faid, be
regulated according to their levels, and the height to which
the tides rife in the rivers from which they proceed.

It is ftated in the Agricultural Report of the Weft
Riding of the County of York, that where it can be done,
the water may be admitted to the height of three, four, or
more feet ; and that the depofit of the muddy fediment or
material is in fome meafure proportionate to the height of
the tide-water ; but that the fame effefts may be gained
from much fmaller quantities of water, by continuing the
procefs or practice a great number of tides : alfo, that fuch
lands as have been fubjefted to this method of improvement,
(hould conftantly be kept in the ftate of tillage for forae
length of time afterwards, in order that they may be brought
to a proper condition for the produftion of graf'i.

In refpeft to the expence of this mode of improving
lands, it muft neceflarily differ much, it is faid, in dif-
ferent cafes, according as the circumftances of fituatioB,
diftance, &c. may vary ; but it can feldom exceed twelve or
fifteen pounds the acre, according to fome, as the firft of
the above writers; and in moft inftances it muft, it i«
thought, be greatly below fuch eftimates. It is, however,
properly remarked by Mr. Day, another experienced writer
on the fubjeft, that no eftimate can be made, without view-
ing the fituation of the lands to be warped, and the courfe
and diftance it will be neceffary to carry the warp to fuch
lands : as, I ft, the fituation of the lands muft be fully con-
fidered ; 2dly, the quantity of land the fame drains and
doughs will be fuflBcienl to warp ; and jdly, the expence
of building the doughs, cutting the drains, embanking the'
lands, &c. An eftimate of which expence being made,
then it will be neceflary to know the number of acres fucW
doughs and drains will warp, before any eftimate ptr acre
can be made ; confeqnently it will be eafy to conceive, that
the greater quantity of land the fame doughs and drains will
warp, the eafier the expence will be per acre. It is hie
opinion, that there are great quantities of land in the above
county, and others, which might be warped at fo fmall an
expence as from four to eight pounds the acre, which is
nothing, it is thought, in comparifon to the advantages
which would arife from it.

The writer has known land which haabeen raifed in value
by warping, from five to upwards of forty and even fifty
pounds the acre ; therefore it is eafy to conceive, it is faid,
that the greateft advantages arife upon the worft land, and
the more open and porous the foil the better, as has been
noticed, as the wet filters through readily, and it foon be-
comes fit for ufe. The advantages of warping are, it is
thought, very great ; as, after lands have been properly
warped, they are fo enriched thereby, that they will bring
very large crops for feveral years afterwards, without any
manure 5 and, when it is neceffary, the lands may be warped
again, by opening the old drains, which may be done at a
very trifling espencc, and will- bring crops in fucceffioin /or

tDUJ

WARPING OF LAND.

many yMre, with very little or no tillage at all, if the lands
be kept free from quick grafs, and other weeds, which muft
be the cafe in all lands where they are properly mai.aged ;
befides, the drains which are made for tie purpofe of warp-
ing, are the bell drains, it is (aid, that can be conllruCted for
draining the lands at the time they are not ufed for warping,
which 18 another very great advantage, it is thought, in low
lands in this fort of bulinefs.

As to the difadvantagfS in warping, it is conceived there
can be very few, if any, as the land may be warped in the
year in which it fhould be a fummer tallow. Indeed all
lands that are warped, it it faid, (hould be prepared in the
(pring as fallow lands, fo that they may be ready to let in
the warp by the month of June, as the three fucceeding
months are the mod proper ones in the whole year for
warping ; but they might be continued in warping longer
when ncceflary, therefore the rent is, it is thought, out of
the queftion. The only inconveniences that can arife are,
in the writer's opinion, from the blowing up of the doughs,
or the breaking of the banks, which is feldom the cafe, ex-
cept where there is fome negleft in the works, and thereby
overflowing the adjoining lands, and very probably dellroy-
ing the crops ; it, however, very much enriches the land
that is overflown : fuch accidents and circumftances (hould
notwithftanding be guarded againfl by every cautious con-
triver of fuch works.

It is noticed that warped land feldom fail* of carrying
good crops of moft forts ; but that oats are moll to be de-
pended on the firft feafon. It is thought that warped land
is better calculated for the growth of oats, wheat, and beans,
than barley, as the foil by that means becomes fo very rich,
that barley in general grows too coarfe. It never fails
growing artificial feeds of all kinds, and is the bell of all
land foi" pafture.

V\ hen once well warped, land lafts a confiderable length
of time, and is generally the moft conveniently and beft done
in a gradual manner, as fuggefted above, as by fuch means
the farmer will feldom fail of having great crops. In fhort
no fort of field management is known that is fo cheap as
warping, when properly applied. Land of all qualities is
warped ; but in general it is not warped more than one year
in feven ; one year's warping will do for that length of time
in moft cafes. The land is various as to the preference of
the grain or crops to be fown upon it, as in other cafes.

In fome cafes, land has been raifed coiifiderably by warp-
ing; in one inllance of bad corn land, almoft good for
nothing, it was railed in three years fourteen inches : it lay
idle for that time, that it might be raifed by this means ; it
was then fuwn with beans, and promifed a crop of eight
quarters.

The warp confifts of mud and falts depofitcd by the cb-
bing-tide, as fuppofed above : near Howden, one tide will,
it is faid, depofit an inch of mud, and this depofit is more
or Icfs in proportion to the diftance from the Humber, at
which the place is.

Cherry-cob fands were gained, it is afferted, by warping
ft-om the Humbir ; and tliey are fuppofed to be at lead four
yards thick of warp : fome of thcfe were ploughed for
twelve, fourteen, or fixtcen years, it- is faid, before they
would grow grafs-fecds : the greater part is now in feeding
land, and makes very fine pallure.

The land muft always be in tilhige for fome confiderable
time after warping, as pointed out above ; and if laid down
for grafs, and continued in that date, it is not warped ; for
the falts in the mud would, it is faid, infallibly kill the grafs-
iTceds.

When it is pfopofed to fow the land again with corn, then

it is warped : when the farmers fuid the grats decline, ihty
then warp and plough it out : as the land varies in quahly,
fo does the time during which it will produce good grafs.
It is never in the date of fallow, but in the year when it is
warped, as fuggefted already.

In regard to the praClice of warping in the low part of
the Weft Riding of the above diftndl, it is conceived, that it
originated from the tides overflowing the banks of the rivers,
and thereby leaving a fcdiment, which was found to be ex-
cellent manure, and that the land brought very large crops
affr being covered or flooded in that manner. Indeed, it
ii believed that the firft trial of warping was made by a fmall
farmer, who had fome low land adjoining a certain river
called the Dutch river, which was a very poor foil, the low-
eft part of which was levelled with the liighed, bv the over-
flowing of fome very high tides, which convinced the farmer
that he could, by banking the land round, and laying a tiin-
iiel through the bank of the river, raife the fame, and make
it of coiifiderably more value. He confequently applied to the
commiflioners of fewcrs for the level of Hatfield chafe, as
being appointed for draining that part of the diftrift, &c.
to grant him an order, giving him leave to lay a tunnel, a few
inches fquare, through the bank of the faid river, for the
purpofe of warping his land, which was granted him with
a great deal of reluftance, for fear of overflowing the coun-
try thereabouts with water, on his giving a proper fecurity
for indemnifying the county againft any injury which might
happen thereby, which anfwered his purpofe, it is faid, very
well. But now, it is obferved, there are doughs laid of fix
or eight feet wide, and drains made of proper dimenfions, to
carry the water as circumftances may be. The writer is
not certain how long it is fiuce warpuig came much into
pradlice, but it is not, however, many years ; it is be-
lieved not more then (1799) than twenty or twenty-five
years, or thereabouts.

It is ftated, however, that Mr. Richard Jennings, of Ar-
min, near Howden, was the firft perfon who tried the expe-
riment of warping, about fifty years fince nt the above pe-
riod. It was next attempted, then about forty years ago,

by a Mr. Farham, fteward to Twifleton, efquire, of

Rawcliffe, as well as by a Mr. Mould, of Potter Grange ; and
it has been tried, it is faid, by a great variety of perfons fince
that time, to their great advantage.

It is obferved in the work firll noticed, that a very great
objedl in the hufbandry of warping, is the application and
extenfion of it in other diftritls. They have much warp, it
is faid, on all the coad from Wifbcach to Bofton, and other
places in that vicinity, and which through a long fuccelCon
of ages has formed a large trail of warp country, called
there the Silt didrift, yet no attempts that have been heard
of have been made there to warp artificially. It is there-
fore fiiggedcd to the proprietors and farmers living near a
muddy river, that they (hould coniider the pofition of their
grounds well, and try the amount of the fubfidence of the
mud in the water, in a cylindrical glafs jar, as a trea-
fure may be near them without their knowing any thing
of it. See the Correifled Agricultural Reports of Lincoln-
(hire and the Weft Riding of Yorklhire.

W AuviKO-Biinh, the mounds of earth that are raifed
up round the fields or grounds to be warped againft the
rivers. See Wauping of Land.

Wari'ing Cuts, Drains, or Cutltrs, the open paffages
which are formed for taking away the water in warping cj
ItiiiL Sec the article.

WyiBriNC Clough, Hatch, or Sluice, the ftroncly framed
wood-work which is placed in the inlet cut io the bank of
the warping river, which cut is walled on each fide with a

Arong

W A R

WAR

ftrong wall, and this frame or gate for the flood-tide firmly
fixed in the middle part, in order to let in and out the water.
They are fometimes conftrufted nearly on the fame princi-
ple aa thofe which are ufed at water-mills, and commonly
like the gates and fluices in canals for raifing the water to
afiill the pafTage of boats on tliem ; in fome cafes, too, fuch
gates are placed above the clough in a perpendicular man-
ner. The fizes and dimenfions of them are different ac-
cording to the differences in the circumilances of the cafes,
as well as the colt; of them. Some notion of each of which
has been given in fpeaking of the praftice of warping. See
Warping of Land.

Warping, in Rope-Making, is running the yarn off the
winches into hauls to be tarred.

WAV.pisG-Hook, for hanging the yarn on when warping
into hauls for tarring, is a large iron hook hung occafionally
to the warping-pofts.

Warping-Po/?, a poll fourteen or fixteen inches diame-
ter, fixed in the middle of a rope-ground, for warping the
yarns into hauls.

WAR RAN, in Geography. See Oran.

WARRANAROU, a fmall illand near the eaft coaft of

theifland of St. Vincent. N. lat. 13° 22'. W. long. 61" 11'.

WARRANT, an aft, inftrument, or obligation, by

which a perfon authorizes another to do fomething, which

he had not otherwife a right to do.

Warrant, in Latv, is a precept under the hand and
feal of fome officer, to bring any offender before the perfon
granting it.

A warrant may be granted in extraordinary cafes by the
privy -council, or fecretaries of ftate ; but ordinarily by juf-
tices of the peace. This they may do in any cafes where
they have a jurifdiftion over the offence, in order to compel
the perfon accufed to appear before them. And this un-
doubtedly extends to all treafons, felonies, and breaches of
the peace ; and alfo to all fuch offences as they have power
to punifh by llatute.

Sir Edward Coke lays it down, that a juftice of the peace
cannot iffue a warrant to apprehend a felon upon mere fuf-
picion, nor even till an indiftment be actually found ; but
this opinion has been combated by fir Matthew Hale, who
maintains that a juftice of peace hath power to iflue a war-
rant to apprehend a perfon accufed of felony, though not
yet indifted ; and that he may alfo iffue a warrant to appre-
hend a perfon fufpefted of felony, though the original fufpi-
cion be not in himfelf, but in the party that prays his war-
rant. But in both cafes it is proper to examine upon oath
the party requiring a wai-rant, as well to afcertain that there
is a felony or other crime aftually committed, without
which no warrant (hould be granted ; as alfo to prove the
caufe and probability of fufpefting the party, againlf whom
the warrant is prayed. This warrant ought to be under the
fiand and feal of the juftice ; fliould fet forth the time and
place of making, and the caufe for which it is made ; and
(hould be directed to the conftable, or other peace officer,
or it may be to any private perfon by name, requiring
him to bring the party either generally before any juftice
of the peace for the county, or only before the juftice who
granted it : the warranc in the latter cafe being called a
fpecial warrant.

A general warrant to apprehend all perfons fufpefted,
without naming particularly, or defcribing any perfon in
fpecial, is illegal and void for its uncertainty ; for it is the
duty of the inagiftrate, and ought not to be left to the offi-
cer, to judge of the ground of fufpicion ; and a warrant to
apprehend all perfons guilty of a crime therein fpecified, is
no legal warrant ; becaufe the point, upon which its autho-

6

rity refts, \i a faft to be decided upon in a fubfeqnent trial ;
namely, whether the perfon apprehended upon it be really
guilty or not. It is, therefore, in faft, no warrant at all ;
for it will not juftify the officer who afts under it ; whereas
a warrant, properly penned (even though the magiflrate who
iffues it fhould exceed his jurifdiftion) will, by ftatute
24 Geo. II. cap. 44. at all events indemnify the officer, who
executes the fame minifterially. A praftice, indeed, had
obtained in the fecretaries' office, ever fince the Reftoration,
grounded on fome claufes in the afts for regulating th^
prefs, of ifTuing general warrants to take up (without
naming any perfon in particular) the authors, printers, and
publi'hers, of fucli obfcene or feditious libels as were parti-
cularly fpecified iu the warrant. When thofe afts expired
in 1694. the fame praftice was inadvertently continued in
every reign, and under every adminiftration, except the four
lall years of queen Anne, down to the year 1763; whea
fuch a warrant being iffued, its validity was difputed ; ^nd
the warrant was adjudged, by the whole court of king's
bench, to be void. After which, the iifuing of fuch gene-
ral warrants was declared illegal by a vote of the houfe of
commons. Com. Journ. 22 April, 1766.

When a warrant is received by the officer, he is bound to
execute it, fo far as the jurifdiftion of the magiftrate and of
himfelf extends. A warrant from the chief or other juf-
tice of the court of king's bench, extends all over the king-
dom ; and is tefted or dated England, and not any particu-
lar county. But the warrant of a juftice of peace in one
county mull be backed, that is, figned by a juftice of the
peace in another, before it can be executed there. For-
merly, regularly fpeaking, there ought to have been a frefh
warrant in every frefh county ; but the praftice of backing
warrants had lon^^ prevailed without law, and was at lall
authorized by ftatutcs 23 Geo. II. cap. 26. and 24 Geo. II.
cap. 55. And now, by ftatute 13 Geo. III. cap. 31. any
warrant for apprehending an Englifh offender, who may have
efcaped into Scotland, and vice verfa, may be indorfcd and
executed by the local magiftrates, and the offender be con-
veyed back to that part of the united kingdoms in which
fuch offence was committed. Blackil. Comm. book iv.

Warrant 0/' Attumey, is that by which a man appoints
another to do fomething in his name, and warrants his
aftion.

It feems to differ from a letter of attorney, which paffes
under hand and ieal of him that makes it, before credible
witneffes ; whereas warrant of attorney, in perfonal, mixed,
and fome real aftions, is put in courfe by the attorneys for
the plaintiffs or defendants. Tliough a warrant of attor-
ney, to fuffer a common recovery by the tenant, or vouchee,
is to be acknowledged before fuch perfons as the commiffiop
for the doing of it direfts.

It is ufual, in order to ftrengthen a bond creditor's fecu-
rity, for the debtor to execute a warrant of attorney to
any one, empowering him to confefs a judgment by nihil
(licit, cognsvit actionem, or non fum Informatus, in an aftion of
debt to be brought by the creditor for the fpecific fum due ;
which judgment, when confeffed, is abfolutely complete and
binding.

In the court of common pleas, there is a clerk of the ivar-
rants, who enters all warrants of attorney for plaintiff and
defendant.

Warrant, Search. See Search.

Warrant Officers. See Orf-icERS.

Warrant, in the Manege. A jockey that fells a horfe
is, by cuftom, in fome countries, ol)liged to warrant him,
that is, to refund the money that was given for him, and
re-dcliver the horfe in nine dayS after the lirft deli»ery, in

Cafe

W A K

<Sife he fold him when under (uch inlirmititi as n\ay efcape
the view of the buyer, and as are not obvioufly difcovered.
Thefe infirmities are purlivenefs, the glanders, and un-
foundnefs, hot and cold : but he does not warrant him
clear of fuch infirmities as may be difcerned. Not only

i'ockeys or horfe-merchants, but alio perfons of what qua-
ity or condition foever, are obhged to take iiack the horfe,
and repay the money, if he is atfefted with tlie faid difor-
ders. But the rule of the law of England is, cwueat emptor,
unlefs the feller exprefsly warrants. See Warranty.
Warrants, Dividend. See Dividend.
Warrants /or imprejin^ Chorijlirs. See Tusser.
WARRANTIA CuAUTiE, a writ that lies for a per-
fon who is infeofled in lands and tenements, with claufe
of warranty ; and is impleaded in an affize, or writ of en-
try, in which he cannot vouch, or call to warranty. See
Voucher.

Warkantia Diti, a writ wliich lies in a cafe where a
man, having a day ailigned perlonally to appear in court to
an a6lion in which he is fued, is, in the mean time, by com-
mandment, employed in the king's fcrvice ; fo that he can-
not come at the day afGgneJ. It is dirtfted to the juilices,
ordering them not to iiud or record him in default.

WARRANTIZANDUM. See Sum.mons ad War-
rantizandum.

WARRANTO, ^ec Qvo Warranto.
WARRANTY, Warrantia, in Law, a promife or
covenant, by deed, made by the bargainer for himfelfand his
heirs, to warrant and fecure the bargainee, and his heirs,
againft all men, for enjoying the thing agreed on or granted
between them.

Such warranty pafTes from the feller to the buyer ; from
the feoffcr to the feolfce ; from him that rcleales to him
that is relcafed from an aftion real. The form of it is thus :
" Et ego vero pnefiitus A. ct haredes mei, pra^diftas quin-
que'acras terra cum pertinentiid fuis pra;fato B. hseredibus
ct alfignatis fuis, contra omncs gentes warrantixabimus in
perpetuum, per prxfentes."

Note, under haredes, heirs, are comprifed aU fuch as the
firft warranter's lands come to, whether by defcent, pur-
chafe, or the like.

Warranty is either real, or perfonid. Real, when it is
annexed to lands and tenements granted in fee, or for life,
&c. which, again, is either in deed, or in law.

Pcrfonal either refpefts the property of the thing fold,
or the quality of it.

By the civil law, an implied warranty was annexed to
every fale, in refpeft to the title of the vendor : and fo
too, in our law, a purchafer of goods and chattels may have
a fatisfaflion from the feller, if he fells them as his own, and
the title proves deficient, without any e.^prefs warranty for
that purpofe. But, with regard to the goodncfs of the
wares fo purchafcd, the vender is not bound to anfwer ; un-
lefs he exprefsly warr.-uits them to be found and good, or im-
lefs he knew tlicm to be othcrwife, and hath ulcd any art to
difguife them, or unlefs they turn out to be different from
what he rcprtfentcd to the buyer. And if Ik-, who felleth
any thing, doth upon the fale warrant it to be good, the
law annexes a tacit contradl to tliis w.irranly, that if it he
not fo, lie fhall make compenfalion to the buyer ; alfo, it is
an injury in good faith, for which an aftion oji tlte cafe will
lie to recover damages. The warranty mull be upon the
fale ; for if it be made after, and not at the time of the fale,
it is a void warranty. Alfo the warranty can only reach to
things in being at the time of tlie Warranty made, and not
to things infutiiro: as, that a horfe is found at the lime of
buying hiin, not that he will be fuuud two yearj liciicc.

W A 11

Any artifice to difguife goods fhall be equivalent to an
exprefs warranty, and the vendor is anfwerable for their
goodnefs.

A general warranty will not extend to guard againft de-
feats that are plainly and obvioufly the objeft of one's
fenfcs, as if a horfe- be warranted perfect, and wants either
a tail or an ear, unlcfs the buyer in this cafe be bhnd. Alfo,
if a horfe is w.irranted found, and he wants the fight of an
eye, though this ieems to be the objeft of one's fenfcs, yet as
the difcernment of ftich defcds is frequently matter of lltill,
it hath been held that an aftion on the cafe lieth, to recover
damages for this impofition. Blackft. Com. book iii.

Real warranty, again, in refpeft of the ellate, is either
lineal, collateral, or commencing by dijfeifm.

Lineal warranty was where the heir derived, or might
by poffibility have derived, his title to the land warranted,
eitlier from or through the anceflor who made the warranty ;
as, where a father, or an elder fon in the life of the father,
releafed to the diffeifor of either themfelves or the grand-
father, with warranty, this was lineal to the younger fon.

Collateral warranty was where the heir's title to the land
neither was, nor cotdd have been, derived from the war-
ranting ai.ceftor ; as, where a younger brother releafed to
his father's diffeifor, with warranty, this was collateral to
the elder brother.

But where the very conveyance, to which the warranty
was annexed, immediately followed a diffeifiii, or operated
itielf as fuch, (as, where a father tenant for years, with re-
mainder to his fon in fee, aliened in fee-fimple with war-
ranty,) this, being in its original manifeflly founded on the
tort or wrong of the warrantor himfelf, was called a war-
ranty cummcncing by dijpifui ; and being too palpably in-
jurious to be fupportcd, was not binding upon any heir of
luch tortious warraritor. BlackfL Com. bookii.

WARRAWARROW, in Gcr^raphy, a bay of the
ifland of St. Vincent ; i mile S. of Kinglton bay.

WARRELL, a river of Hindoollan, one of the arms of
the Indus.

WARREN, Warknva, a franchife, or place pri.
vileged, either by piefcription, or grant from the king, to
keep hearts and fowl of warren in ; as rabbits, hares, par-
tridges, pheafants, &c.

A man that has the franchife of warren is in reality no
more than a royal game-keeper : but no man, not even a
lord of a manor, could by common law juflify fporting on
another's foil, or even in his own, unlefs he had the liberty
of free-warren. This franchife is almoft fallen into difre-
gard, fince the new ftatntcs for preferving the game. There
are, indeed, many inlUnces of eager fportfmen in ancient
times, who have fold their ertates, and referved the free-
warren, or right of kilhng game, to themfelves ; by which
means it comes to pafs that a man and lii,; lieirs have fonie-
tinies free-warren over another's ground.

By a flatute, 21 Edw. III., a warren may lie open, and
there is no need of clofing it in ; as there is of a park.

If any perion be found an offender in any Inch free-war-
ren, he is puniOiable for the fame at common law. See
Bi.A( K ylcl, and Game.

The word warren is now generally applied to a piece of
ground fet apart for the breeding and preferving of rabbits.

In the fetting dp of a warren, great caution is to be ufed
for the fixing upon a proper place, and a right fituation.
It flionld always be upon a fmall afcent, and cxpofed to
the eart or the fouth. The foil that is moll fuitablo, is that
which is fandy ; for when the foil is clayey or to»gh, the
rabbits find much more dilficulty in making their burrows,
and never do it fo well ; aud if llic foil be boggy or moori/h,

there

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tSer; woulJ be very littfe advantage from the warren, for
wet is very deftruAive of thefe animals.

All the due precautions mull be taken, that the warren be
fo contrived, that the rabbits may habituate themfelves to
it with eafe. Many would have it that warrens fhould be
enclofed with walls ; but this is a very expenfive method,
and fcems not necefTary nor advifeable ; for we find but
yery few that are fo, and thofe do not fucceed at all the
better for it.

Mr. Chomel's opinion is, that it ought to be furrounded
with a ditch. This indeed is no fence to prevent the
rabbits from going out, unlefs there be water in it ; but
it marks the intended bounds of the warren, and the rabbits
generally confine themfelves within its circumference, though
HOt necefiarily compelled to do fo. The fpace proper for a
warren has no limits but the owner's pleafure ; but, in gene-
ral, the larger it is, the more profitable it alfo proves ; and
tlie rabbits, when once accuftomed to the place, will keep
within their bounds, though they are hemmed in neither
with walls nor ditches, nor any other fence whatever.

Some have prefcribed the making of deep ditches, and
eonftantly keeping them fupplied with water in the fummer
as well as winter feafon, that they may ferve as fences to
the rabbits ; but as it is not found neceifary to fence them
in at all, it is extremely injudicious to do it, by means of a
thing known to be fo very prejudicial to thefe creatures as
water is. If the perfon who has fet up a warren has but
fiew rabbits to (lock it with, the more patience he muft have
as to the profit of it ; but the bed method of getting quickly
into the fcheme of profit in it, is the buying at firft a large
number of doe-rabbits all big with young. Thefe being
«nwieldy and heavy, will naturally ftay in the place, and the
young ones will be habituated to it, as their native place,
and will never run from it. Thefe young ones will foon
breed again, and the warren will begin quickly to be (locked
with inhabitants, almoft all natives of the place. They
fiiould not be hunted at all the two firft years, and but very
moderately the third. After this they will increafe fo fad,
that fcarce any body can conceive the numbers that may
be taken, and the profit that may be annually made without
hurting it.

The warren is the next franchife in degree to the park,
and when fpoken of in taw, the terms ufed are, the liberty
and franchife of a free-warren.

A forell, which is in dignity the highefi; and greateft
franchife, comprehends in it a chafe, a park, and a free-
warren ; for which reafon the beads of the park, and the
beads and fowls of the free-warren, are as much privileged
within the fored, as the beads of the foreft itfelf are.

Warren is alfo applied to a contrivance for preferving
£ih in the midft of a river, to be taken at pleafure.

Warren, in Geography, a poft-townfliip of New York, in
the S.E. corner of Herkimer county ; lo miles S. of Herki-
mer, and 70 W. of Albany. The fituation is elevated at the
head of the lakes that form the Sufquehaiina, and the furface
plcafantly undulated by arable hills and fertile valleys ; and
it has many cedar fivamps that fupply fencing-timber. The
rocks are calcareous, and much of the foil of the fame qua-
lity. There are large fprings, but the waters of ttie town
?re fmall ; it has five grain-mills, nine faw-miiL, a carding-
inachine, a forge, and trip-hammer. It has one m^eting-
iioufe belonging to united Lutherans, Calvinifts, and Preft)y-
lerians, and a coinpetent number of Ichool-houfes. Irou-
ore is found, and a pigment from which is prepared a durable
brown paint. The principal lettlem-nts in this town
have been made within the lad twenty-five years. In 18 10
Warren contained 664 families, 444 fenatorial eleftors, and a

total population of 3974 perfons. — Alfo, a county of Weft

Tenneffee, containing 5725 inhabitants, of whom 476 are
(laves. — Alfo, a town of the MilfilTippi territory, containing
1114 inhabitants, including 473 flaves. — Alfo, a town of the
date of Rhode ifiand, in Briftol county, containing 1775 inha-
bitants ; 4 miles N. of Bridol — Alfo, a pod-town of the dif-
trift of Maine, in the county of Lincoln, near the coad, con-
taining 1443 inhabitants ; 55 miles N.E. of Portland Alfo,

a town of New Hampdiire, in Grafton county, containing

506 inhabitasits ; 16 miles N- of Hanover Alfo, a town-

(hip of New York ; 55 miles W. of Albany Alfo, a town

of Connefticut, in the county of Lichfield, containing 1096
inhabitants ; 5 miles W. of Lichfield. — Alfo, a county of
Georgia, with 8725 inhabitants, of whom 3048 are flaves.
— Alfo, a county of the date of Ohio, containing five town-
(hips, viz. Deerfield, Franklin, Turtle-creek, Hamilton,

and Wayne, and 9925 inhabitants Alfo, a county of Penn-

fylvania, bordering on the wed partof New York. It contains
two townfhips, "v'n. Conewango and Broken-draw, and 827
inhabitants. — Alfo, a county of Kentucky, bordering on the
Ohio, containing 1 1,783 inhabitants, of whom 1 447 are flaves ;
and its town Bohn Green 1 54 inhabitants, including 51 flaves.
— Alfo, a town of the date of Vermont, in the county of Addi-
fon, containing 229 inhabitants ; 30 miles N. of Rutland. —
Alfo, apod-town of Virginia; 178 miles W.S.W. of Wa(h-
ington. — Alfo, a town of the date of Ohio, with a gaol, in
the county of Belmont, containing 734 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
town(hip, in the date of Ohio, and county of Je{ferfon, con-
taining 2122 inhabitants — Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the
county of Trumbull, containing 875 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
town(hip of Ohio, in Wa(hington county, containing 260 in-
habitants.— Alfo, a county of North Carolina, with 1 1,044
inhabitants, of whom 6282 are flaves. — Alfo, a town of
New Jerfey, in the county of Somerfet, containing 1354
inhabitants.

Warren, or I'/arenlown, a pod-town of North Carolina,
and capital of the county of Warren ; 16 miles N.E. of
Hilllborough.

Warren, Fort, in Governor's ifland, is fituated in Suf-
folk county, and date of Maffachufetts, within the jurifdic-
tion of Bodon, and contains 64 inhabitants.

Warren'j Ijland, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, at the
entrance of the Duke of Clarence's draits, near the wed coad
of the Prince of Wales's archipelago, fo called by captain
Vancouver, in compliment to fir John Borlafe Warren. N.
lat. 55° 56'. E. long. 226° 22'.

Warren'.; Point, or Waring^ s Point, a pod-town of tl»e
county of Down, Ireland, fituate upon the bay of Carling-
ford ; 5^ miles from Newry, and 555 N. from Dubhn.

WARRENTON, a pod-town of Georgia, in the county
of Warren ; 68 miles S. of Wa(hington.

WARRI, a town of Hindoodan, in the Carnatic : 10
miles S. of Golconda.

WARRINGTON, a large, populous manufafturing
town in the hundred of Wed Derby, and county palatine
of Lancader, England, is feated on the northern bank of the
river Merfey, about midway between Manchefter and Liver-
pool, at the diftance of 51 miles S. by E. from the county-
town, and 187 miles N.W. by N. from London. Some au-
thors have contended that a Roman ftation was edablilhed
here, as a guard to the ford ; but no particular difcoveries
have been made to judify this opinion. Leland defcribcs
Warrington as " a paved town of pretty bignefs, with a
chirche at the taile end of al the tounne : it is a better mar-
ket than Manchedre." The town of Warrington conlids
of four principal dreets, which are long, narrow, ill built,
crowded with carts and paffenger?, and unpleafant to the

inhabitants ;

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W A ft

inhabitants ; but, a few modern buildings being interfpcrfed,
afford a ftriking mixture of mean and handfome houfes.
According to the population return of the year i8ii, the
town contained 2639 houfes and 11,728 inhabitants. A
charter for a market and two fairs was obtained in the reign
of Edward I. by fir Thomas Boteler, of Bewfey, where a
moated manfion ftill remains. The market-day is Wednefday.
The principal trade of the place confifts in the mauufafture
and fale of fail-cloth, or poledavy ; but fome coarfe linens and
checks are made in the town and in its vicinity. The former
is chiefly compofed of hemp and flax mixed, and fome forts
are manufaftured with flax alone : the raw materials are
mollly brought from Ruflla, and imported into Liverpool,
whence to Warrington is a cheap and expeditious water car-
riage by the Merley. Among other manufaftures of this
place, may be fpecified pin-making, glafs-making, and iron-
founding. Warrington may, in fome meafure, be confidered
as a port-town, the Merfey admitting, by the help of the
tide, veffels of feventy or eighty tons burthen to Bank Quay,
a little below the town, where warehoufes, cranes, and other
conveniences for landing goods, are erefted. The fpring-
tides rife to the height of nine feet. Upwards, the river
communication extends to Manchefter. The parifli-church
of Warrington is an ancient ftruAure, and contains many
old handfome monuments : here is alfo a chapel of eafe,
erefted in 1760 : likewife places of worfliip for Catholics,
Prefbyterians, Anabaptifts, Methodifts, and Quakers. A
well-endowed free-fchool is ellablifhed here ; and a charity-
fchool for educating and maintaining poor children of both
fexes. About the middle of tlie lad century, a feminary for
educating youth on a liberal academical plan was inllituted,
and fupported by fubfcriptions, chiefly among the Diflenters :
it was denominated the Warrington Academy, and flouriflied
a confiderable period under the care of tutors of eminence ;
but at length funk, through want of adequate fupport, and
the difficulties in maintaining proper difciphne. A ftone
bridge crofTes the Merfey from Warrington, built by the earl
of Derby in the reign of Henry VII. As there is no other
bridge over the MerCey between this place and Liverpool,
nor for many miles eall of it towards Manchefter, the pafs
here has been a poll of confequence in the civil commotions
of this kingdom. Tlie moft memorable event of this kind
occurred in 1648, when a large body of the fugitive Scotch
army, under the duke of Hamilton, was purfued from Rib-
bleton-moor ; and though they made an obltinate refiftance
for fome hours at this bridge, yet above looo men were killed,
and 2000 taken prifoners. Again, in i6ji, general Lam-
bert, who commanded on the former occafion, fixed on this
fpot to oppofe the Scotch army under the young king, who
was here repulfed. In the year 1745 alfo, the middle arches
of the bridge were broken down, to check the progrcfs of
the rebels, and reftored again on the termination of the infur-
reftion. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix. Lanca-
fhire. By J. Britton, F.S.A. 1807. Aikin's Defcriplion
of the Country round Manchefter, 4to. 1795.

Warrinoton', a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county

of York, containing i 105 inhabitants Alfo, a townfhip of

Pennfylv.inia, in Bucks county, containing 429 inhabitants ;
20 miles N.N.E. of Philadelphia.

WARRIOR, Mark, a townftiip of Pennfylvania, in
Huntingdon county, containing 672 inhabitants.

WARRIORE, a town of Ilindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
32 miles N.N.E. of Tanjore. N. lat. 11° 16'. E. long.

79° ^5'-

WARRIORS' Branch. S*e Rkd Rivvr.

WARSAW, a city of Saxony, and capital of a duchy,
late a city of Poland, and capital of the p.datinatc of Ma-

V©L. XXXVII.

fovia, fituated on the Viftula, almoft in the centre of the
kingdom. It is furrounded with a moat and double wall,
and confifts of Old and New Town, and two fuburbs, Kraka
and Praga. The general diets of Poland were ufually held
here, as well as the provincial affembly, and court of judica-
ture. Here are feveral elegant ftone buildings and palaces,
a great number of beautiful churches and convents, a hofpital,
and an arfenal. King Sigifmund III. was the firft who made
this city the royal refidence, and his fucceffors refided here
ever after. In the year 1569, in order to gratify the Li-
thuanians, the diet was removed to Warfaw. The Poles
laid fiege to it in the year 1656, and after a moft vigorous
defence, obliged the town to furrender. By the articles of
capitulation, the Swedes were permitted to leave the place ;
but the beft part of the plunder they had amafled together
fell into the hands of the Poles. However, Charles Guf-
tavus approaching with an army to the relief of the town,
kuig John Cafimir marched againft him, and a battle was
fought near the fuburb of Praga, which lafted three days.
At laft the Poles were obliged co retreat, leaving behind them
their baggage and artillery, upon which the Swedes placed
a fmall garrifon in the town, and deftroyed the fortifications.
In the year 1702, Charles XII. of Sweden made himfelf
mailer of Warfaw, which happened to be then without a
garrifon, and fixed his head-quarters at Praga. In the
month of June 1794, the king of PrufTia laid fiege to War-
faw ; but on a rumour of difturbances in his own dominions,
his forces were, after a fruitlefs attempt for three months,
withdrawn. The Ruffians afterwards fummoned Warfaw
to furrender, and on being refufcd, after the junftion of the
different corps under Ferfen, Dernfeld, Deiiifow, andJSn-
warrow, they proceeded, on the 4th of November, to attack
the fuburbs of Praga. In the mean time, the generals Ma-
dalindci and Dambrowflii threw themfelves into Warfaw, and
prepared for refiftance. The fuburb of Praga was defended
by more than a hundred pieces of cannon, difpufed upon
thirty-three batteries. Little intimidated by fo formidable a
force, the ferocious Suwarrow commanded his foldiers to
mount to the aflault in the fame manner they had done at
Ifmail, by climbing over the dead and wounded bodies of
their comrades, as well as of their enemies. His farther
commands were, that they fliould fight only with the fabre
and bayonet. The Ruflians fprung to the charge with al-
moft inconceivable impctuofity ; they eagerly began to climb
the works, and the fix Ruffian columns, by Angular good
fortune, prefented themfelves at the fame moment before the
lines of Praga. Thus furrounded, the Polifti generals foimd
themfelves unable to oppofe with 10,000 foldiers, which was
the whole of their force, the united attack of yo,ooo men :
and to add to their diftrcfs, the fire which they immediately
commenced, from the darknefs of the night, was fo ill di-
rcftcd, as to pafs over the heads of the afl^ailar.ts. The cry
r.iifed by the fucccfsful columns penetrated to the intronch-
ments on the other fide of the Viftula, and added to the con-
fternation of the Poles engaged with the other part of the
Ruffian force ; and they endeavoured to find fafety by
retiring into Warfaw, over a bridge. In their retreat they
were met by another body of Ruffians, and .1 dreadful car-
nage enfued, in whicli a great part of the garrifon of Praga
was miferably flaughtered. After a fevere conflict of eigEt
hours, the refiftance ou the part of the Poles ceafed ; but
the malfacre lafted for two hours longer, and the pillage
lafted till noon on the following day. Five thonfand Poles
were computed to have been flain in tiie aflault, the remaio-
der were cither imprifoned or difperfed. The citizens were
compelled to lay down their arms, and their houfes wer*
plundered by the mcrcilefs Ruffians j who, after the battle
4 X liad

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had ceafed nearly ten hours, about nine o'clock at night fet
fire to the town, and began to maffacre the inhabitants ;
9000 perfons, unarmed men, defencelefs women, and harm-
lefs infants, perifhed either in flames or by the fword, and
nearly the whole of the fuburb was reduced to alhcs. In
the whole of this fiege, it is computed that not lefs than
30,000 of the Poles were inhumanly put to death. It was
foon after given up to Prudia, and with the reft of Mafovia
continued fubjeft to that power, until by the peace of Til-
fit, this part of Poland, wliich had been feized by PrnfTia
fince the year 1772, was given to Saxony, and formed into
a principality under the title of the duchy of Warfaw ;
150 miles S. of Kbnigfterg. N. lat.,52° 12'. E. long.
21° 9'.

Warsaw, a duchy annexed to Saxony, formed out of
that part of Poland which had been feized by Pruflia after
the year 1772. It was united to the empire of Rufiia by the
Vienna congrefs in 1815: that part called the grand duchy
of Pofen is to be poflelTed in full fovereignty and property of
the king of Prufiia.

Warsaw, a poft-townfhip of New York, in Geneflee
county; 260 miles from Albany. It is a good traft of land,
and comprifes three townlhips. In 1810 there were 201
fenatorial cleftors, and the whole population is ftated at
13 1 7 perfons.

Warsaw. See Wassaw.

WARSIMOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Brzefc ; 32 miles W. of Brzefc.

WAR'SOWKA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 48
miles N.E. of Zytoniirz.

WARSTEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Weftphalia ; 3 miles S.W. of Rhuden.

WART, in Latin verruca, denotes, in Surgery, a kind of
excrefcence from the cutis, or true ll<in, covered with a pro-
duction of cuticle, which is ftrong and hard, or more delicate,
according to the natural quality of the cuticle which is fpread
oyer the furrounding integuments. In the arrangement of
Drs. Willan and Bateman, warts conftitutc a genus of the
order lubercula. Some warts are connefted with the n<in
by pedicles ; while others have a broad bafe. They are moft
frequently moveable ; but fometimes they are firmly fixed
to the fubjacent parts. Their general fize does not exceed
that of a pea. Much larger ones, however, often form
about the anus, perineum, and pudenda. Sometimes the
excrefcence is fingle ; fometimes it prefents itfelf in large
numbers, occupying different fituations in the body, though
moft frequently occurring on the hands and face. The com-
plaint, as every body knows, is much more common in chil-
dren and young perfons, than in people more advanced in
life. As Mr. Hunter obferves, warts are radiated from
their bafis to their circumference. The furface of the radii
appears to be pointed, or granulated, like the furface of
healthy granulations, with the exception of being harder,
and rifing higher. The furface on which a wart is formed,
appears to be capable of producing only one fuch tumour ;
for the furrounding and connefting furface does not throw
out a fimilar fubftance. Thus, when a wart has once begun
to grow, it rifes higher and higher, without becoming larger
at its bafis. Such excrefcences feem to have within them-
felves the power of growing larger; for, after they have
rifen above the furface of the fliin, on which their bafis can-
not grow larger, they fwell out into a round thick fub-
flance, which becomes rougher and rougher. In confe-
quence of having this ftrufture, warts are very hable to be
hurt by bodies rubbing againft them, by which means they
are fometimes made to bleed very profufely, and to become
fore and painful.

Almoft all writers on furgery confider warts as depending
upon caufes which are fometimes quite local, and, in other
inftances, general, or con/litutional. The opinion, that many
of thefe excrefcences arife from conftitutional caufes, is fup-
portcd chiefly by the following fafts : firft. Many warts,
growing about the pudenda, anus, &c. reputed to be ve-
nereal, and certainly very often yielding to mercury, feem
to favour the doftrine, that fuch excrefcences are a confe-
quence of fyphilis, and true venereal complaints. Secondly,
The circumllance of warts growing in large numbers, and
often recurring in a very fliort time after their removal, has
ftrengthened this mode of thinking. Thirdly, The unquef-
tionable greater propenfity to warts obfervable in young
fubjefts than in elderly perfons, is another faft which af-
fords a ftrong argument in fupport of the opinion. Indeed,
we believe that, in particular habits, a difpofition to the
formation of warts muft be admitted as a pofitive truth, and
of courfe we cannot rejeft the doftrine, that thefe excre-
fcences frequently arife from certain ftates of the conftitution.
With refpeft to venereal warts, we have always doubted the
reality of their exiftence ; becaufe, although we know that
many fuch tumours may be cured by a courfe of mercury,
we have never met with any which could not be difperfed or
deftroyed by efcharotics, the ligature, or the knife.

Warts are generally quite free from all riflt of any ferious
confequences ; but, on account of their fize and fituation,
they frequently give trouble, and occafion deformity ; and
fometimes, when they are irritated, they are attended with
confiderable inflammation, and even obftinate ulcerations.

In the treatment of warts one thing is to be recoUefted ;
viz. that they are adventitious fubftances not conftituting
any original part of the body, and therefore pofleffing only
an inferior degree of vitality. Hence, when ftimulated, they
generally diminifh or feparate in floughs. Another cir-
cumftanee feems alfo particularly deferving of the furgeon's
recoUeftion ; namely, that warts will always grow again, if
any part of them be left behind unextirpated.

When warts are dependent upon conftitutional caufes,
writers on furgery agree in recommending the internal exhi-
bition of alterative medicines. In particular, they enjoin a
change of diet, with the ufc of refolvent or mercurial reme-
dies ; or fuch other means as ieem bell calculated to obTiate
the caufe of the complaint. When the ftate of the confti-
tution has been reftificd, the warts frequently difappear of
themfelvcs. The tendency to warts obfervable in young
perfons, fpontaneoufly ceafes as they grow older ; and, in
them, after the adult age, how common is it to find warts
difappearing of themfelves, though they had previoufly re-
filled every ordinary means of cure !

When warts are altogether dependent upon a local caufe,
they can be moft effeftually treated by external applications.
Should the wart have a narrow neck, or pedicle, it may be
made to fall off^ by conftrifting the part near its root with a
fine filk ligature, or a piece of horfe-hair, which is to be
rendered gradually tighter. However, although this plan
anfwers very well, and fometimes does not give fo much
alarm as the ufe of a cutting inftrument, the fame fort of
warts may alfo be ftill more expeditioudy removed with a
knife, or a pair of fciflars. When a wart is large and has a
very broad bafe, if an attempt is to be made to dellroy it
with a ligature, the furgeon muft pais a double ligature
througii the centre of its root, or pedicle, and then tie each
half of the filk feparately over the two portions of the ex-
crefcence. Were an endeavour made to extirpate a wart
with a large bafe by a fingle ligature, the procefs woidd
be tedious, painful, and often ineffeftual.

Warts with a broad attachment, however, aje unfavour-
able

WAR

WAR

able for the ligature ; and it is generally bell in fuch cafes,
either to have recoiirfe to llimulating applications, efcha-
rotics, or cutting inllrviments.

Rubbing warts with foapy liniments, or lotions contain-
ing the muriate of ammonia, vinegar, the muriate of foda,
the liquor ammonia, &c. frequently brings about their gra-
dual removal by abforption. The iUmulating properties of
the juice of a variety, of herbs alfo have the fame effeft, as
well as the fchool-boy's praftice of fmearing them continu-
ally with ink.

A more certain method, however, is to attack warts
with efcharotic and caullic applications, fuch as the tinfture
of cantharides, the plafter of cantharides, the pulv. cantha-
ridum et zruginis seris, the nitrate of filver, muriate of an-
timony, fulphate of copper, concentrated mineral acids,
lie. In the ufe of the itronger canities, it is necefTary to
proteft the furrounding llvin from their aftion by covering
it with adhelive plaller. The furgeon muft alfo be cau-
tious in their ufe, left; he excite very painful and trouble-
fome fores.

When warts are very large, we conceive it beft to cut
them away, and apply the lunar cauftic to the furface from
which they grew. In doing this operation, let the furgeon
always remember, that removing only a part of the wart
is worfe than doing nothing ; fince the portion left behind
will afterwards grow with increafed rapidity. Hence, when
warts have been removed either with ligatures, or cutting
inilruments, it is generally prudent to touch the fituation of
their roots with fome atlive caullic.

Warts, in Animah, the horny excrefcences which are
formed in the (l<in of different parts of them, and which are
caufed by any thing that hardens it in a local manner. In
horfes, they are faid to be of the fame nature as thofe ex-
crefcences that take place on their legs and pafterns, and
to be more or lefs hurtful, as they may be fituated nearer
to, or at a greater diftance from, the larger (inews of the
parts. See ^a/-TML.s, Scratches, &c.

In regard to the removal of them, they are capable of
being deftroyed by touching them occahonally with any
powerful caullic fubftance, by the ufe of ligatures, and by
being cut off, in fome cafes, when fuperficially fituated. In
the firft of thefe intentions, three ounces of the powder of
copperas are direfted to be put into a crucible, and placed on
a charcoal fire, keeping the powder ftirred from time to time,
but being careful to avoid the Ream ; continuing a pretty
llrong heat until the powder grows fomewliat reddilli ; wlien
it is to be taken off the fire, and after it is cooled broken,
the parts being beaten and reduced into a very fine powder ;
fome of which is then to be incorporated with fome foft unc-
tuous material, and an ointment formed ; wliich is to be ap-
plied cold to the warts, anointing them lightly witli it every
day, when they will foon, it is faid, fall off in the manner of
the kernels of nuts, without caufing any fort of fwelling or
uneafinefs. Care is, however, to be taken not to touch any
thing but the warts. And if the animal be a horfc, he flioiild
not be wrought or rode during tlie application of the oint-
ment or caullic.

The other modes of cure are equally eafy and effciflual in
many cafes of warts in animals.

Wart, in the Maneg:, is an excrcfcence, or fuperfluity
of fpongy flefli, that riles in the hinder pallerns of coach-
horfes, almoll as big as a walnut. It fuppuratcs, and voids
red ftinking matter, and does not heal but for a time, for it
returns again. See the preceding article.

WAHT-lVort, in Botany, a name fometimcs given to two
very different plants. See Nii'vlk- IVorl and Si'UR(;e. .

Waut -IVoii, in Gardening, the common name of a thick-

leaved plant, which is ftudded with hard warty knobs or
knots. See Eui'horhia.

WART A, in Geography, a town of the duchy of War-
faw, on a river of the fame name, which runs into the Oder ;

10 miles N.N.E. of Siradia Alfo, a town of SileCa, in the

principality of Neiffe ; 5 miles E. of Neiffe Alfo, a river

which rifes near Cracow, and runs into the Oder at Cuf-
trin.

AVARTAU, a town of Switzerland, in the county of
Sargans ; 20 miles N. of Sargans.

WARTBERG, a town of Auftria ; 7 miles N.E. of
Steyregg.

WARTBURG, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Soleure ; 16 miles N.E. of Soleure.

Wartburg, or IVartenburg, a caftle of Saxony, in which
Martin Luther was imprifoned eleven months, near Eife-
nach.

WARTENBERG, a town of Bavaria, on the Strong ;
4 miles S.E. of Mofi)urg. — Alfo, a town of Silefia,and capital
of a lordlhip of the fame name, containing fcarcely above
100 houfes. It was formerly much larger ; but in the year
1444, 580 houfes Vvere deftroyed by fire. The circle was
afterwards contrafted, and the town furrounded with a ram-
part, wall, and moat. The Roman Catholics, the Lutherans,
and tlie Calvinifts, have each a place of worfliip ; 14 miles

N.E. of Oels. N. lat. 51° 18'. E. long. 17^45' Alfo, a

town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ; 4 miles N.E.
of Nime.s. — Alfo, a lordftiip of Silefia, furrounded by the
principality of Ocls, to which it once belonged, but was
erefted into a particular lordffiip in the year 1490 ; it has
frequently changed proprietors, and lately belonged to the
duke of Courland.

WARTENBURG, a town of Auftria; i mile N.W.
of Voglabruck. — Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 63 miles S. of Koniglherg. N. lat. 53° 43'.
E. long. 20° 40'. — Alfo, a town of Vermont, in the county
of Chittenden, containing 866 inhabitants. — Alfo, a caftle
of France, in the department of Mont Toniierre, late in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, which gave name to a county,
the lands of which were not united togetlier, but lay in de-
tached parts. It was made an imperial county in the year
1707. The caftle is fituated 6 miles N.E. of Lantern.

WA RTH, in our Old IVrilen, feems to be the fame with
ward-penny, being a cuftomary payment for fome caftle-
guard.

W A RTH A, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Munftcrberg, on the Neiffe ; 6 miles N.E. of
Glatz. N. lat. 50° 20'. E. long. 16° 35'.

WARTHEBERG, a town of Auftria ; 13 miles S.W.
of Steyr.

WARTHENBERG, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Glogau ; 18 miles N.W. of Gros Glogau. N. lat.
51^52'. E. long. 15-^45'.

WARTHENBURG, a town of Saxony ; 6 miles S.E.
of Wittenberg.

WARTON, Joseph, D.D., in Biography, fon of the
poetry -profcffor of the fame name at Oxford, and vicar of
Bafinglioke, was born in 1722, and entered at the age of
fourteen years on the foundation at Winchefter-fchool, and
in 1740 at Oriel college, Oxford. After having taken the
degree of B.D. he became curate to his father, and in
1744 excrcited the fame office at Chelfea. In this year he
pubhfhcd a fmall volume of" Odes," and in 1748 he w.is
prefented by tlie duke of Bolton to the reftory of Winllidc,
and foon after married. In 1 75 1 he accompanied his patron
on a tour to the foulh of France, and in 1753 completed his
4X2 edition

WARTON.

edition of Virgil in Latin and Englilh ; the ^neid being in
Pitt's tranflation, and the Eclogues and Georgies in his own ;
adding notes and three eflays^on paftoral, didaftic, and epic
jjoetry. His tranflations are charafterized as fuperior in
accuracy to Dryden's, and in poetry to Trapp's, but not
diftinguifhed by fpirit or briUiancy. To the " Adventurer"
be became a contributor, by the recommendation of Dr. John-
fon, of twenty-four papers, which were of an humorous caft,
and moftly eflays on critical topics. In 1754 he was pre-
fented to the reftory of Tamworth, and in the following
year became fecond mafter of Winchefter-fchool. In 1756
he pubhfhed, without his name, an " EfTay on the Writings
and Genius of Pope," in which he intermijfes praife with re-
fleftions that tend to degrade this poet to the clafs of thofe
who have been votaries of reafon rather than of imagination.
Failing to convince the public that his eilimate of his talents
was juft, he deferred the publication of his fecond volume
for twenty-fix years. In 1766 he was advanced to the fta-
tion of head-mafter of Winchefter-fchool, which he long
occupied with diftinguifhed reputation, and in which he
formed many fcholars, who afterwards rofe to literary emi-
nence, and retained a grateful fenfe of his tuition. On this
promotion he vifited Oxford, and was honoured with the
degrees of bachelor and doftor of divinity. His fubfequent
preferments were numerous but fmall, and he obtained them
late in life : in 1782, the friendfhip of bilhop Lowth pro-
cured for him a prebend of St. Paul's, and the living of
Thorley in Hertfordftiire ; and in 1788 he was advanced to
a prebend of Winchefter and the reftory of Eafton. In 1793
he refigned his mafterftiip of Winchefter-fchool, and retired
to the reftory of Wickham, which he enjoyed in exchange
for another. As he was fond of hterary employment, he
was engaged by the bookfellers to fuperintend an edition of
Pope's Works, which appeared in 9 vols. 8vo. in 1797,
with notes critical and biographical, partly felefted from his
former effay, and a life of th& poet. When this work was
fimfhed, he undertook an edition of Dryden, and had pre-
pared two volumes at the time of his death, which happened
in February 1800, in his 78lh year. He was twice mar-
ried, and left one fon and three daughters. In his private
charafter, fays his biographer, he was amiable, and in focial
life no lefs eftimable than in his literary conneftions. The
Wickhamites, gentlemen who had been educated at Win-
chefter-fchool, teftified their refpeft for his memory by ereft-
ing a monument over his tomb in Winchefter cathedral.
His " Ode to Fancy," firft printed in Dodfley's CoUeftion,
is thought to have been moll; admired, and to afford the fair-
eft fpecimen of his talents. Gen. Biog.

Warton, Thomas, brother of the preceding, was born
at Bafingftoke in 1728, and manifefted, by his tranflation
of an epigram of Martial in his ninth year, an early tafte for
verfification. In 1743 he was admitted a commoner of Tri-
nity college, Oxford, where he diftinguiftied himfelf, in his
twenty-firft year, by his " Triumph of Ifis," in vindication of
the univerfity againft the refleftionsofMafon's elegy of " Ifis."
This poem, however, he afterwards excluded from his volume
ofcoUefted pieces. His " Progrefs of Difcontent," faid to
have been written as a coUege-exercife in 1746, gained him
reputation. Having taken his degree of M. A. in 1750, he
became in the following year a fellow of his college ; and
feems to have formed his purpofe of univerfity-reTidence, and
of devoting himfelf to poetry and elegant literature. Be-
fides his " Newmarket," a fpirited fatire againft the ruinous
paffion for the turf ; his ode for Mufic ; Verfes on the death
of the prince of Wales ; and his editorfhip, in 1 753, of a col-
leftion of poems, entitled the " Union," and containing
ieveral of his own pieces, feverally contributed to his re-

9

putation ; but his obfervations on Spenfer's Fairy Queen,
pubhfhed in 1754, firft in one volume and afterwards in two
volumes, were of more effential fervice in making him known
as a critic, and as converfant with poetical antiquities ; and
prepared the way for his eleftion, in 1757, to the office of
profeffor of poetry to the univerfity, which he occupied for
ten years, with an erudition and tafte that rendered his
leftures inftruftive and amufing. Oiy limits will not al-
low us to enumerate his various publications, but we ftiall
proceed to other details of greater importance. Having
taken the degree of B.D. in 1761, he was inftituted to the
fmallHving of Kiddington, in Oxfordfhire, in 1771. His
edition of Theocritus, in 2 vols. 4to., was pubhfhed in 1770,
and very much contributed to his literary celebrity both at
home and on the continent. It was probably about this
time that he formed a defign of writing a " Hiftory of Po-
etry," which had been contemplated by Pope, Gray, and
Mafon. However, the firft volume in quarto was pubhfhed
in 1774, the fecond appeared in 1778, and a third was pre-
fented to the public in 1 781. His plan was much more ex-
tenfive, and intended to terminate only with the commence-
ment of the eighteenth century ; but he became tired of the
tallc, and wifhed for relaxation, fo that he prepared only a
few fheets of a fourth volume. This Opus Magnum, as it
may be well denominated, exhibits an extent of refearch and
reading, and a correftnefs of tafte and critical judgment,
which do him great honour ; and we may juftly regret
that he did not finifh it, and that no one, equal to the un-
dertaking, has had refolution to profecute and complete it.
In fuch a comprehenfive and multifarious work, fome inac-
curacies are unavoidable ; but the moft faftidious critic
muft acknowledge, that it abounds with curious and inte-
refting information. In 1781 he projefted a county hiftory
of Oxfordfhire, and in 1782 he pubhfhed a fpecimen of his
undertaking in a topographical account of his parifh of Kid-
dington ; but he was probably difcouraged by the magni-
tude and labour of fuch a work. In this year he took part
in the controverfy concerning Rowley's poems, which he
decidedly pronounced to be the fabrication of their pre-
tended editor. His views with regard to promotion were
reftrifted ; however, his income was at this time increafed by
a donative in Somerfetfhire, and in 1785 by the office of
Camden-profefTor of hiftory at Oxford ; and foon after by
the king's offer of the poft of poet-laureat, which he accepted
with a defign of rendering it refpeftable. As the indolence
of age and of a collegiate life was advancing upon him, he no
longer indulged extenfive views and projefted great undertak-
ings, but he contented himfelf with accomplifhing a tafk which
to him muft have been very eafy, and that was an edition of
Milton's juvenile poems, with notes for illuftrating their
beauties and explaining their obfolete and peculiar phrafeo-
logy. The firft edition appeared in 1785, and the fecond in
1791, a little while before his death. In his 62d year he
was attacked with a paroxyfm of the gout, and this was fuc-
ceeded in May 1 790 by a paralytic feizure, which terminated
his life at his lodgings in Oxford. His remains were inter-
red, with every academical honour, at the chapel of Trinity
college. Although his charafter was marked by fome pecu-
liarities, he is faid to have been fubftantially good-humoured,
friendly, and placid. Several editions of his poems appeared
in his life-time ; and fince his death an edition of his works
has been given by Mr. Mant, in 2 vols. 8vo. 1802, to which
is prefixed a biographical account of the author. Nichols's
Liter. Anecd. Gen. Biog.

Mufical hiftorians have confiderable obhgations to this
poetical antiquary : as in his long, extenfive, and diligent
refearches, he has furnifhed them with anecdotes and narra-
tives

W A

WAR

tives concerning tlie harpers and miiiftrels of our country,
and the liigh elUmation in which the former ftood with our
princes and the latter with the nobihty, till they became fo
numerous and licentious, that they loft, the favour of the
great, and reverence of the vulgar. Till about the end
of queen Elizabeth's reign, there was no great pcrfonage
who had not a band of muCcians attached to his houfehold,
and a choir to his chapel, in England; in Ireland and Wales
a domeftic harper, and in Scotland a bagpiper domiciliated.
The late lord Marihal, who had a very good talle in Italian
vocal and German inftrumental mufic, had a Scots bagpiper
in his fervice at Potzdam and elfewhere, till the time of his
deceafe. The laureat and Oxford poetry- profelTor was fond
of mufic, and loved to be talking and writing on the fub-
jeft ; and in his hiftory of poetry has kept back nothing
which he accidentally found in the courfe of his other in-
quiries. As Milton's minora perhaps delight the generality
of his readers more than his fublime epics, fo the ballads and
fmaller pieces of T. Warton were in more general favour
than thofe of length, upon graver fubjefts, which had coft
him more meditation and midnight oil.

Warton, or Wharton, in Geography, a townlhip of
Pennfylvania, in the county of Fayette, containing 922
inhabitants.

WARWICK, the county-town of Warwickfliire, Eng-
land, is fituated in the Warwick divifion of the hundred of
Kington, on a rocky eminence on the banks of the Avon,
near the centre of the county, at the diitance of 10 miles
S.S.W. from Coventry, and 90 miles N.W. from London.
It is a neat pleafant town, enriched with a caftle of ilupendous
grandeur, and fevcral public buildings pofrcfling great at-
traftions. Dugdale, and more early writers, conjedturcd
this to be a Roman ftation, but no veftiges have been found,
or other circumftances fhcwn, to ftrengthen the fuppofition,
and its origin has been aHigned to the Saxon era. Dugdale
fliews, from feveral authorities, that this town was highly
favoured by the patronage of Ethelfleda, daughter of king
Alfred, who in the year 915 conftrufted a fortified building
(termed the Dungeon) on the artificial mount, which itill
remains on the weft fideof the cattle; and that the town, under
fuch proteftion, advanced rapidly in population and repute.
In Domefday-book it is called a borough, and is there ftatcd
to contain 261 houfes. The fame record ftates, that in the
lime of Edward the ConfefTor, a caftle was erefted here,
which belonged to the crown ; that it was " a fpecial ftrong
hold for the midland part of the kingdom," and that Tur-
kill was appointed governor. When William the Con-
queror obtained the crown, he ordered Turkill, who was
vicecomes of Warwick, to fortify and enlarge the caftle,
which at that time confiftcd of little more than the keep or
dungeon. The king afterwards gave the caftle to his adhe-
rent, Henry de Nowburgh, whom he created earl of War-
wick ; and under the patronage of this nobleman, and a long
line of defcendants, the town advanced in importance and
profperity, and obtained many privileges an.i immunities.
The paving of the town, and the building of the walls, com-
menced in the latter part of Edward I.'s reign, and the ex-
pence was defrayed by feveral tolls granted in this and the
two following reigns ; but thefe proving very prejudicial to
the markets and trade, were aboliihed in the thirty-fecond
year of Edward III. The appearance of the town in the
reign of Henry VIII. is thus defcribed by Leland : " The
toun of Warwick hath been right ftrongly defended and
walled, having a compafs of a good mile within the wall.
The dike is nioft manifeftly perceived from the caftle to the
weft, gate, and there is a great creft of earth that the wall
ftood on. Within the preciiicis of the toun is but one pa-
roche church, dedicated to St. Mary, ftanding in the middle

of the toun, fair and large. The toun ftands on a main
rokky hill, rifing from eaft to weft. The beauty and glory
of it is in two ftreets, whereof the High-ftreet goes from eatt
to weft, having a riglit goodly crofs in the middle of it ; and
the other croffith the middle of it, makelh a quadrivium,
and goeth from north to fouth." A charter of incorpora-
tion was granted to the burgefles in the firft year of Philip
and Mary ; and in the year 1572 the town received a vifit
from queen Ehzabeth, an account of which is preferved in a
curious manufcript, called the Black Book, which is in
the pofTeflion of the corporation. The adive part taken by
lord Brooke in the civil wars of the fcventeenth century, pro-
duced here, as might be expefted, great confufion and dif-
may. The caftle was placed in a regular ftate of garrifon ;
at one period it fuftained a fiege, and feveral (Idrmifties took
place in the neighbourhood. In the year 1 694, the greater
part of the town, including the High-ftreet, and nearly the
whole of St. Mary's church, was confumcd by fire ; and
1 20,000/. were colleAed by briefs, a royal grant, and private
fubfcriptions. The town was rebuilt by aft of parhament
in a more commodious form, partly of free-ftone, from the
rock on which it ftands. It now confifts principally of two
ftreets : the High-ftreet, which is fpacious and handfome, is
formed in a dired line from eaft to weft, with an ancient
gateway at each extremity ; that at the weft end is fur-
mounted by a chapel. The two churches which now orna-
ment the town are thofe of St. Mary and St. Nicholas. A
church, having a fimilar dedication to the former, occupied
the fame fpot before the Conqueft. Henry de Newburgh,
the firft earl of Warwick of the Norman line, formed the
defign of making it collegiate, which was carried into exe-
cution by his foil, earl Roger, in the year 1 123. The latter
beftowed on the aflbciated canons tithes and other property
of confiderable value, and his fuccelFors, the earls of War-
wick, and other benefaftors, continued to proteft and fof-
ter them during feveral ages. Through the munificence of
the earls of Warwick, St. Mary's church was rebuilt in the
fourteenth century. The choir was commenced by the firft
Thomas de Beauchamp, the earl fo much diftinguifhed in the
French and Scottifti wars of Edward HI., and tl>e whole
ftrufture was completed by his fon, of the fame name, in the
year 1394. At the difl"olution, tliis church was granted by
letters patent to the inhabitants of Warwick and their fuc-
ceflbrs. The great fire of 1694, as before obfcrved, con-
fumed the greater portion of this church. In the middle of the
choir is an altar-tomb to Thomas Beauchamp, earl of War-
wick, who died Nov. 13, I370,andhis wife, Catherine, daugh-
terof Roger Mortimer, firft earl of March. This monument is
pronounced by Mr. Gough to be oneof themoft beautiful of
its kind in the kingdom. On the fouth fide of this church
is St. Mary's chapel, ufually termed the Beauchamp chapel,
which was ercfted according to tiie direftions of the will of
Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick : it was begun iu
1443, and was finiOied in the year 1464. The total expence
of the ftrufture, including the tomb of the founder, was
2481/. 4/. 7</., equal at prcfent to more than twenty
times that fum ; wheat being then only 3^. ^J. per quarter.
The architecture and decorations of this cliapel are at once
very beautiful and interefting. It couiifts of one oblong
apartment, having one large window at the eaft end, three
others on the fouth and north fides, a door of entrance from
the weft, a richly ornamented altar-fcreen at the eaft end,
fome carved feats, and three oratories, or inclofed fe.its, on
tlie north fide. Nearly in the centre of the chapel is a large
and elegant altar-tomb, for the founder, whofe eftigy in
brafs, very finely executed, is laid on the top. Of this cu-
rious tomb and chapel fome interefting documents are pre-
ferved aud publilhcd in the " Architcdural Antiquities of

Great

WARWICK.

Great Britain," which contains a plan, feftions, and views
of the building.

St. Nicholas church is a recent ftrufture, though a reli-
gious edifice flood on the fame fpot at an early period.
The old tower was taken down in 1748, and the prefent,
crowned with a fpire, erefted on its fcite. In 1779 the
body of the church was taken down, being in a ftate of de-
cay, and the prefent tditice raifed in its ftead. Befides thefe
places of worlhip on the cllabHihment, here are meeting-
houfes for the various claffes of Diffentcrs ; Prelbyterians,
Independents, Baptifts, Methodills, and Quakers. The
public buildings are numerous : the court-houfe, or town-
hall, is a refpedable ftone building on the fouth fide of the
High-ftreet, eretted about 1 7 30, at the expence of the cor-
poration. The county-hall is a fpacious and magnificent
edifice, erefted about 1 776, by Mr. Hiorne, a native of War-
wick. A plain but large ftone building, adjoining the hall,
has lately been eretled by Mr. Hakewill, for the accommo-
dation of the judges at the aflizes. The county gaol ad-
joins the great hall, and is a large, fubftantial, and well-
defigned modern fabric, furrounded by a ftrong wall, twenty -
three feet high, which inclofes nearly an acre of ground.
The county bridewell is alfo a fpacious modern ftrufture,
of a very judicious character. The market-houfe is a fub-
ftantial ftone building : the lower and open part is appro-
priated to the ufe of thofe who attend the markets. Lei-
celler Hofpital is an ancient edifice, fituated at the weftern
extremity of the High-ftreet, and was originally the hall
belonging to two guilds which were founded in the time of
Richard II., but were afterwards united. After the diffo-
lution of this fraternity by Henry VIII., the building be-
came the property of Robert Dudley, earl of Leicefter, who,
in the twenty-eighth of Elizabeth, converted it into an hofpi-
tal for twelve poor men, and one mafter, a profeffor of di-
vinity. The land with which it was endowed was at that
time valued at 200/. per annum; but in 181 1 the clear an-
nual value amounted to nearly 2000/., owing to the augmen-
tation of the rents of land ; and each of the penfioners re-
ceived about 130/. from tlie furplus. In 1813 important
changes were introduced by aft of parhament, by which the
number of penfioners was to be incrcafcd to twenty-two,
with an allowance of Sol. pi-r annum to each, and the falary of
the mafter was to be progreffively advanced to 400/. per an-
num. The appointment of the mafter and brethren is in tlie
heir-general of the founder, who is, at this time, John Shelly
Sidney, efq. of Penftiurft-place, in the county of Kent. The
buildings of the hofpital confift of lodgings and a public
kitchen for the brethren, ranged in a quadrangular form, a
chapel, and a fpacious hall, in which the guild is fuppofed
to have held their meetings, but which is now converted into
apartments for the ten additional brethren. Various charity-
fchools and alms-houfes have been erefted and endowed ;
and a new inftitution is now eftabhftied for providing a re-
fuge for juvenile delinquents, who are brought to the bar
of juftice at the feveral gaol-deliveries for the county ; and
for bringing them up ( after the term of their imprifonment )
in habits of induftry and virtue. The eftates and monies ap-
propriated to charitable and public ufes for the benefit of
the town are alfo very confiderable. In 181 1 a fubfcription
was commenced for paving the ftreets, and was fupported
with great fpirit and liberality. All tlie principal ftreets
have by this means been haudfomely flagged ; and the work
has been completed (at the expence of about 6500/.) to the
j*erfeft fatisfaftion of the fubfcribers and the public in ge-
neral. Warwick has a weekly market on Saturdays, which
was formerly inconfiderable, but it is now large, well fup-
phed, and numeroufly attended. Here are alfo twelve an-
nual fairs ; and horfe-races take place twice in the year.

Manufaftures are eftablifhed here to feme extent, partfcnlarlr
thofe for worfted and cotton ; and one of lace has been re-
cently eftabliftied from Nottingham. The civil government
of the town is veftcd ( under a charter granted by William
and Mary, in 1694) in a mayor, a recorder, 12 aldermen,
and 12 principal burgeffes, with a town-clerk. It appears,
from the rolls of parliament, that Warwick was reprefented
as early as any of the boroughs. It returns two members,
chofen by the inhabitants paying fcot and lot, the mayor
being the returning officer. But for many years paft, one
of the members has, by tacit agreement, been returned by
what is called the independent intereft, and the other by the
Warwick family. According to the enumeration under
the aft of 181 1, the population of Warwick was 6497 ; the
number of houfes 1283.

On the fouth-eaft of the town is Warwick eajlle, built OB
a rock, to which it feems united rather by the hand of na-
ture than by human art. It is not known, with precifion,
at what period a caftle was firft built on this fpot, but the
foundation is fuppofed to have taken place by Ethelfleda,
daughter of king Alfred, in the year 915 : nothing, how-
ever, is thought to remain of this ereftion, except the mound
of earth on which the keep, or dungeon, is fuppofed to have
ftood. From the period when William the Conqueror gave
this fortrefs to his adherent Henry de Newburgh, whom
he created earl of Warwick, it became of confequence in
Englifti hiftory, and fo continued during the union of its
fortunes with thofe of the fucceeding earls, through the lines
of Beauchamp, Neville, Plantagenet, and Dudley. The
latter family being extinft, James I. granted the caftle with
all its dependencies to fir Fulk Greville, afterwards lord
Brooke. At his time it was in a ruinous condition, and
the ftrongeft part was ufed as the county gaol. This pro-
prietor reftored it, and, it is faid, expended in repairs and
embellifhments the fum of 20,000/. ; and in his family it has
continued, without interruption, to the prefent time. During
the civil wars of Charles I. it was converted (as before no-
ticed ) into a garrifon for the parliament. In confequence
it was befieged in 1 642 by lord Northampton, who alfo fur-
prifed the artillery difpatched from London for its defence.
Notwithftanding this misfortune, fir Edward Pete had the
gallantry to defend it with a fingle piece of ordnance, until
it was relieved by lord Brooke. In the time of Charles II.
Robert lord Brooke greatly embelhftied the ftate apartments.
Francis, his fucceflbr, was created earl Brooke of Warwick
caftle in 1746, and earl of Warwick in 1759. The whole
caftle confifts of a connefting feries of walls, towers, and
other buildings, furrounding a large irregular court. At
the fouth-eaft angle is Csfar's Tower, the moft ancient part
of the whole. Of its exaft date no trace however remains,
but it is ftill in the moft perfcft ftate of ftrength and repair.
Guy's Tower, at the north-eaft angle, is named after the
legendary champion, and was erefted in the reign of Ri-
chard II.: it is 128 feet in height. In the centre of the
eaft front is the great arched gateway, leading into the
inner court, flanked with towers, and fucceeded by a fecond
arched gateway, with other towers and battlements above it.
Before this whole front is a moat, over which an arch is
thrown, where the drawbridge formerly was. Paffing the
entrance tower, the difplay is truly magnificent. Tlie area
is clothed with verdure ; but the mighty remains of an-
cient fortifications are fpread around. The habitable
part of this immenfe ftrufture lies to the left of the great
court ; and in the progrellive ameliorations of feature ef-
fefted in latter ages, every deCrable attention has been
paid to confiftency of charafter. The interior furpafl"es
the expeftation raifed by the external view ; for with the
ponderous towers, and ramparts of ftone, we aflbciate only

ideas

W A R

W A R

ideas of cLivalric hardihood, and unpolidied baronial pride.
The grand fuite of apartments extends in a right line 333
feet, and are furiiidied in a chafte but magnificent manner.
They contain many fine and intcrefting pidlnres, and in a
gallery is fome curious armour, painted glafs, and other an-
cient relics. The park attached to the caille is very ex-
tenfive, and finely ornamented with wood and water. The
gardens and pleafure-grounds are arranged with great taile ;
and a broad gravel-walii conducts to a green -houfe, a fpa-
cious building, ercCted purpofely for the reception of a
large antique vafe, which is confidered as one of the nobleft:
fpecimens of ancient art now in England. It is of white
marble, and is of a circular form, fufficiently capacious to
hold 163 gallons^ it is placed on a fquare pedellal, and is
made to move round by means of a mortife and tenon.
This exquifite antique was fjuni (as a Latin infcription
ftates) at the bottom of a laice, not far from Adrian's villa,
near Tivoli, about twelve or fourteen miles from Rome : it
wa3 firft purchafed by the late fir William Hamilton, of
whom it was bought by the late earl of Warwick, and con-
veyed to England at his expence. In Britton's " Archi-
teftural Antiquities," are two views of the caille, with a
particular hillory and defcription of the edifice.

In the vicinity of Warwick, on the north, Hood the
Priory of St. Sepulchre, founded by Henry de Newburgh,
earl of Warwick, in the reign of Henry I. It was de-
figned for a foeiety of regular canons, inltituted in imitation
of one of the fame order, eftablilhed at the holy fepulchre
in Jerufalem. In the 38th of Henry VIII., the building
and adjacent lands were granted to Thomas Hawkins, the
fon of a perfon who fold filh at the market-crofs in War-
wick. The ancient edifice was then pulled down, and the
prefent ehgible refidence was ercfted.

About a mile and half from Warwick, on the north-eaft,
is Guy's Cliff, an ancient hermitage, and traditionally faid
to be the retirement of the celebrated champion Guy of
Warwick. It is now the leat of Bertie Greathcad, efq.
diftinguilhed by his mental and moral qualities, to whom a
tribute of refpeft is due by all wlio have the bono ar of his
acquaintance. The capacious ilables, cellars, and out-
houfes, are formed by excavations in the folid rock.

About half a mile from Guy's Chff is Blacklow Hill,
rendered memorable by the fummary execution of Piers
Gavellon, earl of Cornwall, the favourite of Edward II.
in 131 2, on this fpot.

Myton, a fliort dillance from Warwick, was formerly a
confiderablc village, but in the time of Dugdale, " there
was no more left than a grove of elms, in the place where
the village flood." It has now one houfe, a modern ftruc-
ture, called Myton Houfe.

At a fmall dillance alfo from Warwick, on the Stratford
road, is Longbndge Houfe, tlie feat of William Staunton,
efq. — Dugdale'a Hiltory and Antiquities of Warwickihire.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv. Warwickdiire. By
J. N. Brewer, 1814.

Wakwic.k, a town of the ftate of Rhode ifland, in the
county of Kent, containing 3757 inhabitants ; 7 miles S. of

Providence Alfo, a county of Virgniia, containing 1S35

inhabitants. — .\lfo, a to.vn of Virginia ; 6 miles S. ot Rich-
mond Alfo, a lowu of Virginia, and capital of a county,

eflablifhcd in 1628 ; 65 miles E.S.E. of Richmond. N. lat.
37° 8'. W. long. 76 30'. — Alio, a town of MalT.ichuletls,
in the county of Hamplhire, containing i 227 uihabiLiiits ; 80

miles W. of Bollon Alio, a pofl-townlhip of New York, in

Orange county; 120 miles S. of Albany, and 10 miles E. of
Golhen : its form is triangular ; its area may be 110 fquare
miles : the S. part is broken by ranges of lulls, in which are

feveral large ponds that run 8. to the PufTaic of New Jerfey :
the N. part, which is lefs broken, is w.itered by the Walkill
and other llreams that run N. to the Hudfon, in Orange and
Ulller counties. Few towns have a greater quantity of
fruit, and the apple-orchards are very Heic. Here are five
places of worfhip and fixteen fchool-houles ; nine grain-
mills, ten faw-mills, fix carding-machines, and fixteen dif-
tilleries of fruit-fpirits. Here are a furnace, feveral forget,
an anchor-fhop, being the oldell in America, tliat of Rhode
ifland excepted, and a lleel-furnace. The village of War-
wick, in which is the poll -office, 1 1 miles E. of Golhen,
has two houfes of worlhip, and about thirty dwellings.
Florida village is fitnatei 4^ miles N. of Warwick : it
has a church, an academy, and about thirty dwelhugs ; and
Amity in the W. has alio a church. The whole population
in 1810 was 3978, when there were 323 electors. — Alfo, a
townfhip of Peiinlylvania, in the county of Bucks, contain-
ing 1287 inhabitants. — Alio, a townlhip of Pe.i.ifylvania,

in Lancaller cou:ity, containing 3439 inhabitants .\\[o, a

poll -town of Maryland, on the eall ihore of Cuciz^ak. bay;
14 miles S. of Elkton.

Warwick'j, Earl of, Powder. See Scammony PoWDER.

WARWICKSHIRE, an inland county of England,
is fituated near the centre of the kingdom. In form it ap-
proaches to an oval ; and is bounded on the S.E. by the
counties of Oxford and Northampton ; 011 the N.E. by the
great Roman road termed Watling-llreet, which feparates
It fiom L'-icellerfliire ; on the N.W. it is limited by Staf-
fordfhire j the county of Worceller lies on the W. ; and
part of Gloucellerlhire on the S.W. The greatell length,
from N. to S., is 51 miles; and the greatell breadth, from
E. to W., is 36 miles ; the circumft-rence being about 150
miles. It forms an area of 9S4 fquare miles, or 639,760
acres; of which about 154,530 acres are in a conllaot
courfe of tillage; 190,000 acres are arable, and 300,000 in
pallurage.

Civil and Ecclefiajlkal Divifions : Population. — When
Domelday-book was compiled, this county contained ten
hundreds ; a circumllance which feems to prove the con-
fequence and great population of the dillrift at that period.
Thefe hundreds did not exill long under the names men-
tioned in that roll ; btit though they fluftuated in title, the
number for fome time remained nearly the lame. There
are now only four hundreds ; Barlichway, Hemlingford,
Kineton, and Kniglitlow, which are fubdivided for conve-
nience into eighteen parts. The citv and countv of Coven-
try, though forming a dillncl politically dillinCt from War-
wickihire, is ufually coiifidertd as a filth hundred. War-
wickihire, thus conllituted, contains a half city, Coventry ;
one borough, Warwick ; and eleven other market-towns,
viz. Alcelier, Atherllow, Birmingham, Colelhill, HeiJey,
Kineton, Nuneaton, Rugby, Southam, Str.itford-on-Avon,
and Sutton-Colfield ; togetlier with part of the town of
Tamworlli. The whole county comprehends 193 parilhes.
According to the population return of the year 1811, the
number of houfes was 46,157, of inhabitants 228,735 ;
wz. 109,539 males, """^ 119,196 females: 15,131 families
were Hated to be employed m agriculture, and 29,775 in
trade and manufaClures. Six members are returned to the
imp rial parliament; two for the Ihire, two lor Coventry,
a. id two for the town of Warwick. This county is com-
piifed III the province of Canterbury, and 111 the diocefcs of
Lichfield and Coventry, and of Worceller ; it is included in
the Midland circuit.

/Inticnt Stale: Hijtorical Events. — Warwickihire was one

of the (\\c counties which, at the time of the Roman inva-

fioii, were poflelTed by the Coniavii or Carnahii. Mr.

J I Whitakcr,

WARWICKSHIRE.

Whitaker, in his " Hiftory of Manchefter," obferves, that
thefe and the Britons of Cornwall in the fouth-weftem re-
gions of the ifland, and thofe of Caithnefs in the north-
eaftern, are all equally termed Carnabii by Richard of Ci-
rencefter, who cxprefsly declares that thefe people were ori-
ginally fituated in the neighbourhood of the Dee, and ex-
tended their pofTeffions acrofs the whole of Warwickftiire,
to Bennons, or Cleychefter, on the flcirts of the adjoining
county of Leicefter. Of the hiftory of this diftrift while
under the Romans, but little can now be fatisfaftorily afcer-
tained. In the year 50, Oftorius firft vifited the Arden of
Warwick(hire. He led his troops from the banks of the
fouthern Oufe, taking in his northward progrefs the courfe
of the Watling-ftreet, and probably fixing his encampments
on the fcites of Britifh ftations. In order to increafe his
fecurity, and to extend the line of military communication,
he conftrufted forts and entrenched camps along the banks
of the rivers Avon and Severn. As the woodland recefles
of the diftrift emphatically termed Arden, then comprifed
the greater part of Warwickfhire, and were chiefly inhabited
by the Ceangi, or herdfmen, Oftorius probably did not deem
it expedient to fix any military ftation in the interior of the
county on the north of the Avon. His great Ardsnian
ftation was affuredly Tripont'tum (Lilburn, Northampton-
(hire, on the border of this county). At High-Crofs was
a fecond fettlcment, now included in the county of Lei-
cefter. Further north, on the Watling-ftreet, was Mandu-
tjfedum (Manchefter). The chain of camps on the Avon
communicated with thefe places, and at Warwick, nearly
in the centre of the line, fome writers have placed the Prje-
fidium of the Romans ; but this ftill remains a fubjeft of
difpute among antiquaries. With greater certainty the ho-
nour of a Roman ftation may be afcribed to Akejler, on the
Ickneild-ftreet, in the fouth-weft divifion of the county.
The fecond journey of Antoninus pafles through this part
of England, from north to fouth ; but as he adhered ftriftly
to the track of the great ftreet, when on the confines of
Warwickftiire, he only gives in his Itinerary the name of
one ftation — Manduefledum. Cogidunus, who had been
originally king of the Dobuni, was not only permitted by
the Romans to retain nominal authority, or, in other words,
to become an imperial legate, but had various extents of
country added to his dominions. Among thefe was a part
of Warwickftiire ; and he retained his titular fupremacy to
the days of Trajan. When Severus, in the beginning of
the third century, divided the Roman territories in Britain
into two provinces, the greater part of this county was com-
prehended in Britannia Secunda. During the period be-
tween the feceflion of the Romans and the conqueft of the
midland diftriA of England by the Saxons, the filence of
hiftorians refpefting this traft, induces us to fuppofe, that
the inhabitants wifely avoided civil contention. Credda
was the firft Saxon commander who obtruded on this peace-
ful difpofition of the natives. On the formation of the
heptarchy, Warwickftiire was conftituted a part of the
powerful kingdom of Mercia ; and with this new political
arrangement recommence thofe mihtary details which form
the grounds of ordinary hiftory. The kings of Mercia
often maintained the rude pomp of their court in this
county. Tamworth was a favourite feat with feveral fove-
reigns, until that town was deftroyed by the Danes. A
charter of Burthwulf, king ef Mercia, in the Textus Rof-
fenfis, is dated from Warwick : Kinftiury was alfo a regal
abode. Among the numerous conflifts produced by the
ambition of thofe frefti invaders, to which the country was
now fubjeft, the battle of Seckington is efpecially memo-
rable. Here Ethelbald, the tenth king of Mercia, fought

Cuthred, king of the Weft-Saxons, and was flain by Bur-
gred, his own officer. The Danes committed great ra-
vages in Warwickftiire ; and in the courfe of their feveral
irruptions, burned and deftroyed the principal towns. The
war between the houfes of York and Lancafter forms the next
great hiftorical era. During this calamitous period, the people
of this county, in common with other dift rifts, was much
divided in fentiment, and loft fome of its beft blood in the
field, though it was not the immediate fcene of any impor-
tant aftion. As the chief members of the houfe of Neville,
of which the earl of Warwick was a diftinguiftied branch,
fupported the pretenfions of the duke of York, it will be
fuppofed that his intereft was ftrong in the county. But in
thofe infuriate days, when even families were divided in motive,
no citizen could depend on the integrity of a neighbour.
The town of Warwick was fwayed by its earl ; but the city
of Coventry had equally ftrong reafons for attachment to
the houfe of Lancafter. Henry and Margaret had won
the efteem of the inhabitants by frequent vifits, and had
conferred on them a particular favour, in conftituting their
city, and fome adjacent parifties, a feparate county. The
citizens were firm in affeftion and gratitude. In 1460,
when a ftrong power, under the earl of Warwick and the
earl of March (afterwards Edward IV.), proceeded from
London in fearch of the royal forces, the Lancaftrians were
quartered in Coventry. They ftiortly, however, quitted
that city, and the battle of Northampton enfued. In 1470
the earl of Warwick, then a partifan of the Lanc^aftrians,
poftefled himfelf of Coventry, and the citizens refufed ad-
miftion to Edward IV., who met with a more friendly re-
ception in the town of Warwick. When Richard III.
took arms to oppofe the earl of Richmond, the ftieriff^ of
this county levied men for the king. But it is probable
that they were not engaged in the decifive aftion, as it ap-
pears, from an inquifition then taken, that the ftierifF { Ri-
chard Boughton) was flain two days before the battle of
Bofworth ; whence it is fuppofed, that marching to the aid
of the king, he was encountered and overpowered by fome
of the earl's troops. In the 17th century, when the nation
was again plunged into the miferies of civil conteft, the in-
habitants of Warwickftiire evinced a greater unanimity of
fentiment. Some were found ready to adventure life and
fortune in fupport of their king ; but thefe were few in
number. The influence of lord Brooke, one of the earlieft
and moft ftrenuous advocates of the popular faftion, did
much in kindling the zeal of the natives ; and his local re-
fources were of diftinguiftied fervice to his party. The
caftle of Warwick, fituated near the centre of the kingdom,
and ftrong by nature and art, was a moft convenient place
of arms ; and the poffeftion of fuch a garrifon gave confi-
dence to the firft hoftile movements of the parliament. The
flame of oppofition fpread through every town ; and no
county exhibited a more decided inclination to take an
aftive part in the fanguinary bufinefs. In June and July
1642, lord Brooke arrayed the militia of the county, in
attention to a commiffion received from the parliament ;
and, in Oftober following, was fought the firft great battle
between the oppofed parties at Edgehill, on the fouth-eaft
border of this county. On this eventful day, lord Brooke's
own regiment, compofed of prime Warwickftiire men,
fought in the right wing, and entirely broke the left of the
king's army. At different periods of this war, the caftle
of Warwick fuftained a fiege, the town of Birmingham was
fired by the troops under prince Rupert, and many inferior
ftiirmifties took place. Though only a comparatively fmall
part of the population of England was aftively engaged in
thefe degrading hoftilities, yet Warwickftiire furniftied it«

full

WARWICKSHIRE.

full quota to the parliamentary forces. During thefe
fcenes of violence, fome religious ftrudtures, and numerous
manfions of the gentry, fufFcred much dilapidation. After
that complete deilruftion of the hopes of the Royahfts,
which foUowed the battle of Nafeby, Warwickdiire, among
other midland counties, remained under the quiet controul
of the parliament, until the entire reftoration of national
good order.

General AfpeS, Soil, Produce. — Warwickfhire is defcribed
by early writers as naturally divided into two parts, the
Feldon (or Champaign) and the Woodland. The river
Avon formed the line that feparated thefe trafts ; and the
fylvan diltrift was emphatically denominated Arden, which
term is well known to have been common among the Celtx
in general for a foreft however fituatcd. The Arden of
this county is afferted to have been the largeft of the Britifh
forefts, as it extended from the banks of the Avon to the
Trent on the north, and to the Severn on the weft ; on the
eaft the traft was bounded by an imaginary line drawn from
High Crofs to Burton. When England was divided into
ftiires, the counties of Worcefter and Stafford took their re-
fpeftive portions of this wild, and bcftowed on the forefts fo
claimed the names by which they are ftill diftinguiftied ; the
part remaining within Warwickfhire alone retained the title by
which the whole was originally defignated. But this large
divifion has been long cleared of thofe thick-matted woods
which formerly encumbered, rather than ornamented its foil.
A colouring, however, of its priftine charaftcr remains ; and
an occafional air of wildnefs is found to denote the com-
plexion of the country when occupied by the Ceangi or the
Cornavii, and their numerous herds. In general afpeft
Warwickftiire prefents a face of country agreeably diver-
fified by fuch an alternation of hill and valley as is equally
gratifying to the eye of the piftorial traveller, and beneficial
to the more important views of the agriculturift. The in-
fulated fituation of the county, and its freedom from any
great inequalities of furface, render the climate mild, and
vegetation early. The moft general winds are from the
fouth-weft, and ufnally accompanied with rain. Warwick-
fhire, upon the whole, however, is not to be confidered as
fubjeft to any particular excefs of damp or froft. The
foil, as is ufual in the midland diftrift, poflVftes great variety.
Nearly every fpecies is to be feen, except tliat incorporated
with chalk and flint ; and often many of thefe varieties occur
within one field or inclofure. The greater part of the foil
is, however, of a defcription highly favourable to the pur-
pofes of agriculture ; and it may fafely be aft'erted that few
counties poiTels lefs bad or ileril land, in proportion to tliat
which correfponds readily and abundantly willi the h\i(band-
man's toil. The crops ufually cultivated are wheat, barley,
oats, peas, beans, vetches, and turnips. The crops partially
raifed, but which are not admitted into the ordinary rotation
of farms, are rye, potatoes, and flax. The live ftock reared
by the grazing farmers is of various defcriptions ; but the
long-horned cow is the fort chiefly bred in the county.
The Warwickfhire fhecp of the large polled kind have been
judicioufly crofted with the Leiccfter ; and a very fervice-
able breed has refulted. The farms of Warwickftiire arc in
general far from large ; but the fyftem of confolidation ap-
pears to be rapidly growing into favour with the great
landholders. At prefent about 150 acres are the average
fize of farms throughout the county. Few leafes arc
granted ; but the rent of land, with the exception of fucli
diftrifts as border on great commercial towns, is very mode-
rate. The principal woodlands of this county arc ftill to
be found in the neighbourhood of its former great foreft, in
the middle, weftern, and northern diftrids; but nearly every

Vol. XXXVII.

divifion is interfperfed with v.nluable and ornamental timber.
Oak, matured and grand, conveying the ftory of former
ages, yet hkely to flourifh in the days of fucceeding genera-
tions, is attached to almoft every refidence of hereditary con-
fequence. Elm, in the moft flouriftiing condition, is alfo
abundant. Nor does the county entirely depend for its
wealth in woodland reccffes on the liberal providence of paft
ages ; the recent plantations are numerous and carefully
attended. There are alfo many coppices, confifting of oak,
afh, hazel, alder, birch, and beech. Concerning the manage-
ment of thefe nothing pecuhar occurs. They are cut in
regular allotments, fo as to admit of a fall in every year.
As coals abound in this county, the wood is fcldom con-
fumed as fuel, but is ufed chiefly for hurdles, hoops,
rails, &c.

Rivers, Springs, Canals. — Warwickftiire is watered by
numerous ftreams, which impart richnefs to large trafts of
pafture, and add much to the piftorial charms of the county,
though (with the exception of the Avon) they are of a
charafter too trivial to beftow important facilities on com-
mercial interchange. The principal are, the Avon, the
Tame, the Learn, the Rea, the Stour, the Alne, the Arrow,
the Anker, the Blythe, the Swift, the Cole, and the Dove.
The Avon, ( termed the Upper, or Warwickftiire Avon, ) the
only one which claims particular notice, derives its fource
from a fpring in the village of Nafeby, Northamptonftiire,
and enters the county of Warwick at Bensford bridge ;
whence proceeding in a fouth-weft direftion, but with
devious windings, it reaches the town of Warwick, through
valleys which confpicuoufly incrcafe in beauty. Pafling
clofe to Warwick caftle, whofe lofty towers fo finely deco-
rate its courfe, it expands in fome places to the breadth of
two hundred feet, as it purfues its track through the
grounds attached to this princely rcfidcncc. It now draws
near to the neighbourhood which imparts claftic immortality
to its name. It paffes Fulbroke, and taking a large fweep
towards the north, wafhes the border of the celebrated town
of Stratford. Hence it proceeds, with no deviation of in-
tereft, to Bidford, fuppofed to have been Shakfpeare's retreat
for convivial relaxation. At the diftance of a mile from
Bidford, near the village of Clevc, the river, though broad,
is only four feet in depth. It ftiortly after leaves the county,
having, in its progrels through it, received the aid of feveral
minor ftreams. The Avon was made navigable for veftels
of forty tons burthen, from Stratford to its conflux with
the Severn at Tewkefbury, in the year 1 637 ; but the
numerous canals which have lince been formed have much
diminifhed its traffic. The chief medicinal fprings are thofe
of Leamington and Newnham-Regis. The former are
found fo efficacious in many chronic diforders, in difeafes of
the fltin, and vifceral obftruflions, tliat the village in which
they rife is rapidly augmenting in buildings of a coftly and
ornamental charafter. The latter is a weak chalybeate, and
a bath formed from its waters was once in great repute for
the cure of fcorbutic complaints ; but it is now retorted to
only by a few. The canals of tlie county are the grc.it
objedts of confideralion while treating of artifici.il water.
Warwickftiire is c(nifpicuous for commercial enteri)rife, and
for the fpirit with which manufaftures are cultivated. It
will naturally be fuppofed that a people fo induftrioiis and
intelligent have been aftive in profiting by the great medium
of canal conveyance. No county, indeed, can boall of more
numerous facilities of this defcription ; and fome diverfions
from original channels are yet projeded, which a more pro-
pitious era may bring to perfeAion. The canals in this
county are, the Birmingham Old Canal, the Birmingh.im
and Fazely, the Warwick and Birmingham, the Worccf-

4y ter

WAR

WAS

ter and Birmingham, the Coventry, the Warwick and
Napton, the Stratford, and the Afliby-de-la-Zouch CanaL
(See their refjjeftive names under the article Canal.)
While fo much liberahty has been evinced in the extenfion
and improvement of water conveyance, the chief roads of
the county have been far from experiencing negleifl. The
materials principally ufed are lime-llone and gravel ; and
with thefe the high turnpike ways are kept in good repair.
This is a circum'ftance of public accommodation peremp-
torily required by the manufafturing intereft ; but where
the agriculturifts are left to their own exertions, we return
to fuch rough and homely channels as were tedioufly
trodden by the unambitious tenantry of paft centuries.
The crofs-country roads are treated with too little attention
in nearly every part of the county.

The minerals and foffds of Warwickfhire are, coal, lime-
ftone, free-ftone, iron-flone, blue flag-ftone, marie and blue
clay. The befl coal in the county is that found at Bed-
worth. The feam at this place is from three to four feet in
thicknefs. It fells at the pit for 12s. per ton. Lime-ftone
abounds in many parts, and the lime fold at the kiln from
2s. 6d. to 3/. per quarter, or from 43^. to 45J. per waggon
load. Free-ftone rock is found in moft divifions where the
foil is a light fand ; and confidcrable quantities of blue flag-
ftone are wrought in the vicinity of Bidford and Wilnecote.
The weft part of the county is prolific of good marie ; and
blue clay abounds in the eaftern diftrifts.

Manufaftures of various defcriptions are carried on to a
confiderable extent. The manufaftory of hardware goods
at Birmingham has obtained for that town the appellation of
♦' the toyfhop of Europe," and is a juft fubjeft of national
pride. Not lefs than 1 6,000 people, in the city of Coventr)-,
and neighbouring towns and villages, are employed in the
manufafture of ribbons. Watch-making is likewife carried
on by numerous workmen in all its branches. Horn combs
of all defcriptions are made at Kenilworth. At Warwick
are manufadlories of worfted for hofiery ; of calicoes, and
other cotton goods, from yarn fpiin at Manchefter and its
vicinities ; and a mill for the fpinning of cotton yarn. At
Alcefter about fix hundred perfons are employed in the
making of needles ; and in other parts of the county are con-
fiderable flax manufaftories, and much linen yarn fpun.

Antiquities. — The ftate of the county, while occupied by
the Britons, and during the invafion and fettlement of the
Romans, and their Saxon fucceflfors, we have already no-
ticed. It remains to mention the relics of thofe eras, the
tangible memorials of days long paft. Although Mr. Shaw,
in his hiftory of Staffbrdftiire, conjeftures that the chief feat
of the Arch-Druid of Britain was fituated in the vicinity of
Sutton-Colfield, yet we find few veftiges that can be fafely
afcribed to the Britons. The Romans, warlike, fuccefsful,
and vaft in undertaking, worked for pofterity ; and their
conneftion with Warvvickfliire would be obvious, if every
other record had funk amidll the wrecks of time. The
roae/s, which at once facilitated conqueft, and aided the
progrefs of civilization, form the moft interefting relics of
this great people. The WatUng-Jlreet, that moft ilupendous
of their works in Britain, divides this county from Lei-
cefterfliire on the north-eart. From Weedon to Lilburn it
is only a private road, though diftinftly marked, and well
known. It then forms the public way between Daventry
and Lutterworth, when it again becomes private, and fo
continues till it reaches High-Crofs. Here the turnpike-
road from Lutterworth to Atherftone paffes over it. Be-
yond Atherftoiie it is in good repair, and fhortly becomes
the bafis of the great Chefter road. The Fofs-iL<ay inter-
feds the Watling.ftreet at High-Crofs. Faffing near

Monk's Kirby and Stretton, it goes through Brinklow,
Bretford on the river Avon, and Stretton-upon-Dunfmoor ;
then croffing the river Leam, near Stretton-on-Fofs, it
enters Gloucefterfhire. This road, which is fuppofed to
have been conftrufted in the third confulfhip of Hadrian,
nearly 1700 years back, is ftill firm through many parts of
its progrefs, and likely to mock the aflaults of time for
centuries. A third Roman way, conneftcd with Warvvick-
fliire, is the Ichmeld (or, as termed by fome modern writers,
Ryknild] Jlreet. It enters on the fouth, and is clearly dif-
tinguifliable in the neighbourhood of Bidford. Between
Wixford and Alcefter few traces remain ; but to the north
of the latter place, it again rifes to notice, and is known by
the name of the Haden-iuay. After paffing Studley, it
enters a rccefs of Worcefterfliire, and returns in the vicinity
of Birmingham. Touching the margin of StafFordftiire, it
proceeds to Sutton-Park, where it is to be diftindlly traced.
A minor road, termed the Ridgcu/ay, likewife borders
Warwickftiire on the eaft ; and feveral branches appear to
have diverged from each of the great trafts. The principal
ftations of the Romans in this county have been already
mentioned. The remains of various camps conftrufted by
that people are found in diff'erent ftates of prefervation.
The chief of thefe are feen on the Fofs-way, where places
of accommodation were formed for the troops on their
marches ; and on the banks of the Avon, where Oftorius
arranged a chain of minor fortifications to keep the natives
in awe. Many tumuli are found in the vicinity of the roads
and camps, and coins and other veftiges of the Romans
have been difcovered in almoft every diilrift. Here are few
military remains of the Saxons, or of the Danes ; and the relics
of Saxon architefture are far from numerous, and are by no
means confpicuous for the rude but commanding grandeur
of eff^eft fometimes produced by that people. This county
contains many inftances of fine caftellated and ancient do-
meftic architecture ; and manfions of more recent ereftion
are frequent, and in a highly creditable tafte. Few reli-
gious edifices will be found remarkably confpicuous either
for magnitude or beauty, with the exception of thofe of
Coventry, St. Mary's, Warwick, with its attached chapel,
and the church of Stratford. — Dngdale's Hiftory and An-
tiquities of Warwickftiire. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. XV. Warwickftiire, by J. N. Brewer, 18 14.

WARY. See Carlsbad.

WASA, or Vasa, a fea-port of Sweden, and capital of
a government to which it gives name, built by Charles IX.
This government comprehends all the fouthern part of Eaft
Bothnia ; 50 miles N. of Abo. N. lat. 63° 5'. E. long.
21° 29'.

WASANGO, a town of Africa, in Whidah ; 5 miles
E. of Sabi.

WASASHE, or OsAGES (which fee), a people of
Louifiana, who are divided, according to Mr. Bracken-
ridge (Views of Louifiana, 8vo. 1814), into three bands :
the Great Ofage, the Little Ofage, and the band of Big
Track, from a chief who left tlie nation fome years ago,
and is now fettled on the Arkanfas. Their language may
be confidered as the primitive of feveral others, which are
fpoken by neighbouring nations, without any great dif-
ference ; as the Arkanfas, Kanfas, and Mahas. They
trade principally in deer-fliins, bear-flvins, beaver, otter,
muflv-rat, and the buff"alo. Thefe people are noted for
their uncommon ftature, which has fometimes been exag-
gerated. They are reputed warlike, though not poffening
any uncommon degree of bravery. When compared with
the Shawanofe, and the nations weft of the Miffiffippi, they
might with greater propriety be regarded as a treacherous
12 and

WAS

and cowardly race. The Ofagcs have their villages on the
Miflburi. The Kanfas were, a few years ago, the molt
abandoned tribe of the MifTouri, robbing traders and all
trading whites ; but of late, in confequence of a fevere de-
feat from the Panis, in which their greatell warriors fell,
they have been humbled. They are brave, and are efteemed
great warriors. They have their villages on the Kanfas
river. Their country abounds with the beaver, but they do
not hunt much. They fpeak the Ofage language with fome
difference of dialeft. The Mahas, or Oo-ma-ha, refide on
the Maha creek, about 80 leagues above the latter, in fome
villages, and raifc corn. They are a friendly and induftrious
people, and have a confiderable trade. Their language is
that of the Ofages. All the Sioux bands, except the
Yankfons, make war upon them. Their numbers have been
lately much reduced.

WASEN. See Wesen.

Wasen, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles S.S.W. of St.
Polten.

WASERHITEN, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
2 miles N.W. of EberndorfF.

WASH, the difliller's name for the fermentable hquor,
made by diflblving the proper fubjeft for fermentation and
diflillation in common water.

The wafh of the malt-diililler is made by mixing the
water hot with the malt ground into meal. If the water be
too hot, the mixture will become gluey ; and if too cool, a
part of the virtue of the malt will be loll. Under the right
application of the water is to be confidered the proper man-
ner of agitating the mafs, fo that all the parts of the aqueous
fluid may come fully and freely in contaft with the foluble
particles of the fubjeft. When once the water is well fatu-
ratcd by (landing on the malt a proper time, it may be drawn
off, and frefli poured on, till at length the whole virtue, or
all the fugary fweetnefs of the malt is extrafted, and nothing
but a fixed huHcy matter remains behind, incapable of being
farther difToIved by the afticjn of hot or boiling water, or of
being advantageoufly waflied or rinfed out by the bare affu-
fion of cold. This artificial and external agitation, or llir-
ring about of the mafs, is neceffary not only in the common
way of brewing for the malt-diftillery, but alfo in that more
expeditious way, now in ufe with fome, of reducing the
operations of brewing and fermenting to one, and grinding
the malt to a fine meal, which is to be kept in the wafli
during the whole time, and even put into the ftill with it,
and worked together. The ftirring may be repeated to
great advantage more than once in each operation, as at the
affufion of every parcel of frefh water, in the common way,
and at any (Tiortly diilant times in the (hort way, in which
it is of greater fervice.

The difference of feafons is found to require fome alter-
ation in the direftion and management of the bufinefs of
brewing for the malt-diftillery. Tlie water mull always be
ufed colder in funimcr than in winter, and tlie tinfture muft
be cooled fuddenly in clofo fultry weather, to prevent it
from becoming eager or four. The fummer feafon alfo
gives malt an over-forward difpofition to ferment, and this
impairs the quantity of fpirit, and is to be checked by the
addition of a quantity of unmalted meal, which, being lefs
difpofcd to ferment than the malted meal, will rellrain and
moderate its impetuofity. Tlie adlion of fermentation works
fuch a change in the body of the tintture or lolution, called
the wadi, as to render it feparablc by the ai'lion of fire, into
parcels of matter that arc ipecificaliy different, and of a
nature entirely foreign to what the fame liquor would have
j"!elfied witliput the fermentation. With rcfpedl to the

WAS

proper workings of this liquor, great regard is to be had
to the containing veffel. Its purity, and the provifion for
its occafional clofenefs, are the things to be principally con-
fidered. Though it is neceffary that the veffel be perfeftly
clean, yet in the cleanfing of it great care mull be taken
that no foap, or other unAuous body, be ufed, for this
would check the fermentation in it ; and for the fame
reafon, all flrong alkaline lixiviums are to be avoided.
Lime-water, or even the turbid folution of quick-lime,
however, may be fafely ufed for this purpofe ; and this
is, indeed, particularly proper to deflroy a prevailing acid,
which is very apt to be generated about the fides and
bottoms of thofe veffels, if the warm air has accefs to them,
and thus prevents the order of the fermentation.

It is a very prejudicial miftake, in the bufinefs of fer-
menting the walb, to fuppofe that the free concourfe or
admifTion of the external air is neceffary to tiie operation.
The contrary is the truth, and a great advantage wilt be
found in praftifing upon this fuppofition. A conftant in-
flux of the open air, if it does not carry off fome part of
the already-formed fpirit ; yet certainly catches up and
difTipates the fine fnbtle oleaginous and faline particles, of
which the fpirit is formed, and thus confiderably leffens the
quantity to be procured. This inconvenience is wholly
avoided by the way of clofe fermentation, by which all air,
except that which is contained in the veffel, is kept out.

This method of clofe fermentation is practicable to good
advantage in the fmall way of bufinefs ; but it requires
fuch a confiderable time, that it will never be liked by the
large dealers, who are in a manner forced to admit the
free air, and thus fultain a very confiderable lofs in the
fpirit, only to get the operation over in a proper time.
Excepting for the neceflity of expedition of this kind
among the lar^e dealers, it is certain that this flow and
imperceptible vinous fermentation is greatly preferable, on
all accounts, to the other.

The operation is known to be over in this clofe way of
fermentation, as foon as the hiffing iioife ceafes, and can no
longer be heard on applying the ear to the veffel ; and
when, on opening it, the liquor is found to be clear, and of
a vinous pungent tafte ; when it is arrived at this ftate, it
fhould be fet by for a time in a cooler place than that in
which it was fermented ; in this manner it will thoroughly
purge itfelf of its lees, and will become perfectly clear,
vinous, and pungent ; in tiiis ftate it lliould be drawn clear
off from the lees, and immediately committed to the ftUl ;
and by this method a perfectly pure vinous fpirit will be
procured, much better than that which can be obtained by
the common way, which thofe who work large quantities
fall into for the fake of expedition.

The particular intention of the operator may render va-
rious other additions neceft'ary ; thus fome, to difpofe the
wafh to yield more fpirit, or to give the fpirit a greater
degree of pungency and a better flavour, add to it the
ftrong and pungent aromatics ; the clieapeft chofen for this
purpofe, and the moft ufed, are the cortex Winteranus,
ginger, and grains of paradife.

In the common way, thefe additions, however, do very
little, though, by a proper artifice in the management,
they may be made of confiderable ufe. Upon this foun-
dation ilands a very inftruftive method, uled abroad, of
making geneva ab online, by mixing llie bruifcd juniper-
berries among the malt, and lirewing tlie whole together;
by this means a compound tincture, or wafli, is prepared,
wliich, by fermentation and dillillalion, affords a fpirit much
more intimately and liomogcncoufly impregnated with the
4 Y I cfTcncc

WAS

WAS

effence of the berry than that prepared by our dillillers,
in the common way of adding the berry to the malt-fpirit,
and diftiUing it from them again.

Wafh, being of a mucilaginous or fomewhat ghitinous
nature, requires management to prevent its fcorching, and
make it work kindly in the llill : if it ftiould happen to be
burnt in the operation, the fpirit will have a moft difagree-
able flavour, and fuch as can never be got off again, with-
out very great labour, and a particular treatment not known
to every body. To prevent this ill efFeft, there muft be
three things obferved ; the hquor, or warti, muft be made
dilute, the fire mull; be well regulated, and the whole kept
in a conftant agitation. The manner of making the warti
dilute has been long known among the more judicious dif-
tillers in this branch, and they have always found their
fpirit the purer for it. The fire is eafily kept regular, by
a conftant attendance, and avoiding hafty ftirring it, or
throwing on new fuel ; and the ftirring of the liquor in
the ftill is to be effefted by means of a paddle, or bar kept
in the liquor, till it juft begins to boil, which is the time for
luting on the head ; and after which there is no great dan-
ger, but from the improper management of the fire : this
IS the common way, but it is hard to hit the exaft time when
to lute down the head ; and the doing it either too foon, or
too late, is attended with great inconvenience, fo that many
have found out the other methods, of either putting fome
moveable folid bodies into the ftill with the wafti, or placing
fome proper matter at the bottom and fides of the ftill,
which are the places where the fire atts ftrongeft.

There is another inconvenience attending the diftiUing of
malt-fpirit, which is, when all the bottoms, or grofs mealy
feculence, are put into the ftill along with the liquor, the
thinner part of the wafti going off in form of fpirit, the
mealy mafs grows by degrees more and more ftiff, fo as to
fcorch towards the latter part of the operation. The
method ufed to remedy this, is to have a pipe with a ftop-
cock, leading from the upper part of the worm-tub into
the ftill ; fo that, upon a half or quarter turn, it may con-
tinually fupply a little ftream of hot-water in the fame pro-
portion as the fpirit runs off, by which means the fear of
fcorching is taken away, and the operation at the fame
time not at all retarded. In Holland, the malt-diftillers
work all their wafti thick, with the whole body of the
meal among it ; yet they are fo careful in the keeping of
their ftills clean, and fo regular and nice in the management
of their fires, that, though they ufe no artifice at all on this
head, only to charge the ftill while it is hot and moift, they
very rarely have the misfortune to fcorch, except now and
then in the depth of winter. When fuch an accident has
once happened in a ftill, they are extremely folicitous and
careful to fcrape, fcrub, and fcour off the remains of the
burnt matter, otherwife they find the fame accident very
liable to happen again in the fame place. But beyond all
the other methods in ufe on this occafion, would be the
working the ftills not by a dry heat, but in a balneum
Marix, which might poffibly be fo contrived by the bafon
being large, and capable of working a great many ftills at
once, as to be extremely worth the proprietor's while in all
refpefts. Shaw's Effay on Diftillery. See Fermentation,
and MALr-Di/lUkry.

Wash is alfo ufed for the ftiallow part of a river, or arm
of the fea, as the waflies in Lincolnftiire.

Wash, the blade of an oar, or the thin broad part that
is preffed againft the water in rowing. See Oar.

WASH-BoarJ, in a Ship, a broad thin plank, fixed occa-
fionally on the top of a boat's fide, fo as to extend the

height thereof, and be removed at pleafure. It is ufed
to prevent the fea from breaking into the veffel, particularly
when the furface is rough, as in tempeftuous weather.
Falconer.

Wash, in Painting. See Washing.

W ASH-Lime, for ioardingf walls, Is'c, in Rural Economy,
that uftd for covering and preferving fuch works. An
excellent wa(h for this ufe is faid to be prepared by put-
ting into a tub of fix or eight gallons fize a quantity of
water fufficient to half fill the fame ; and then adding
thereto of clean (harp fand, and of Mmefrejh burnt, in about
equal quantities, as much as will make, when well-ftirred
up and mixed, a wafh of moderate confiftence. By means
of this wafti, as foon as it is made, the boarding and walls,
&c. of any barns or buildings, are to be paffed or laid over,
keeping the fand conftantly well ftirred up, fo that the
brufh may take it up as well as the lime. As the quantity
of the vva(h in the tub decrcafes, more fand and more lime
are, by degrees, to be added in fmall proportions, being
careful to make up no more walh at one time than will be
immediately made ufe of bv the workman. The quicker
or the more frefti the lime the better, which, if good and
proper for the purpofe, will make the wafti hot ; and if it
be required to make the wafti pai-ticularly hard and durable,
it will be the beft and moft certainly effefted by making
ufe of boiling water inftead of fuch as is cold, taking care
to make it only in fuch quantity that it can be laid on the
boards while hot.

This wafh is cheap, and of admirable ufe, it is fa:d»
in many cafes of boarding, faving the heavy charge of
painting with oil paint.

Wash, in /Agriculture, the refufe liquid which is formed and
left in many ways and cafes ; and alfo that which remains
after the diftillation of grain for fpirit. The former, as
well as the latter forts, are much ufed as the food of fwine,
whence they are frequently called hog-wafti. The wafti of
the diftilleries has likewife been lately found very beneficial
and advantageous in the fattening of neat cattle. See Hog,
St Ahl.- Feeding, and SwiNE.

Any of thefe liquid matters, when thickened a little with
fome fort of mealy fubftance, form good fattening food for
young hogs. See Hay, Tea, and Soup.

Hard, dry, cut fodder, of fome kind or other, ftiould
conftantly too be ufed with the laft fort of wafti.

WAsnybr rough-cajl Stone and Wall-Buildings, in Rural
Economy, that which is ufed for preferving and rendering
them more durable and handfome. It is faid that a highly
protefttng and ornamental wafti for thefe purpofes is formed
and prepared by mixing well together four parts of powdered
lime, three of good ftiarp fand, two of powdered wood-
afties, and one of the droffy refufe matter left in the making
of iron ; making them into a fufficiently fluid ftate, fo that
they may be applied by means of a proper brufti. The
appearance which is thus afforded to fuch buildings, when
they become dry, is that of new Portland ftone, and
they render the penetrating effefts of wet and moifture of
little or no difadvantage from whatever quarter they may
come.

It may be noticed, too, that great benefit in the way of
durability and ornament may be produced in fuch cafes by
the cornices, window-foles, door-frames, and other fuch
parts being fanded. The method of doing which is, by
firft painting them with thickifti white paint, and then im-
mediately daftiing them with ftiarp white fea or other fand,
by means of a fort of dredging-box : the effeft is, it is faid,
that of an exceedingly good imitation of Jlone. In thisi

way

W A S

way they lull nearly double the length of time lliey do in
ordinary cafes where fand is not employed.

Wash-O^ To, a technical cxprefTion ufed in Calico
Printing, which denotes the foaking and rinfing of printed
pieces in water, in order to diffolve and remove any gum or
paite that had been employed with the colours in printing
them. For "N'ant of this operation, the printed pieces will
neither endure the rays of the fun nor moifture. The firfl
fhower of rain to which they may be expofed will not fail
to wafh out the pattern, and reduce them to a worfe ftate
than that of plain white calicoes. Parkes's EIT. vol. ii.

WASH-A-CUM-MOW, or Clearwatek River, in
Geography, a river of North America, which runs into the
Athapefcow lake, N. lat. 56'^ 36'. W. long. 110° 40'.

WASHBROOK, a river of England, which runs into
the Wharf, near Otley in Yorklhire.

WASHEDEMOIAC, a river of New Brunfwick,
which runs into the St. John, N. lat. 45° 47'. W. long.
66° 6'.

WASHER, in Rural Economy, the name of a thin, flat,
circular ring, or piece of iron, which is put upon the end
of the axle-tree of a cart, waggon, or carriage of any kind,
between the linch-pin and the fmall end of the nave of the
wheel, in order to diminilli the friction againft the nave,
to keep the wheel from having too much play, and to pre-
vent the nave from rubbing againil the linch-pin, fo as to
wear away too much. It is a term which is alfo applied to
the thin rings and fmall pieces of iron that are ufed for
many other purpofes, as in the hanging of gates and many
other fuch operations.

WASHES, The, in Geography, lands on the coaft of
England, between the counties of Norfolk and Lincoln,
which are paffable at low water, but overflowed by every
tide, called by Ptolemy, MJluarium Melaris. They are
dangerous to ftrangers, who are unacquainted with the
quick-fands. The parts which run into the land have par-
ticular names ; below Spalding it is called Fofdike Wa(h ;
below Wifbeach, at the mouth of the Nen, the immediate
boundary between the two counties, it is called Crofs-
Keys Wa(h.

WASHILABO, a river of the idand of St. Vincent's
which runs into Cumberland bay.

WASHING. See Ai!LUTio\, Lotiok, &c.

Wafliing the feet was a common piece of civility among
the Jews, praftifed in regard to ilrangers, vifitors, Sec. at
their arrival.

Wafliing the feet of twelve poor people, is an anniverfary
ceremony to be performed both by the kings of England
and France ; in commemoration of our Saviour's waihing
the feet of his apoftles. See Maundy.

Arnobius, Adv. Gentes, lib. vii., mentions a feaft in ufe
among the ancients, called lavalio malris Dium. See
Lavation.

Washing uf Ores. See Drejfing o/'Ores.

Washing of a Ship, in Sea Language, is when all tlie
guns are brought to one fide ; and the men getting upon
the yards, wafli her other fide, and fcrape her as far as they
can reach.

Washing, in Painting, is when a defign drawn with a
pen or crayon has fome one colour laid over it with a
pencil ; as Indian ink, bidre, or the like ; to make it ap-
pear the more natural, by adding the (hadows of promi-
nences, apertures, &c. and by imitating the particular
matters of which the thing is fuppofcd to confift.

Th^s they walh with a pale red, to imitate brick and
tile ; with a pale Indian blue, to imitate water and flate ;
with green, for trees and meadows ; with fafFron or French

WAS

bellies for gold and brafs ; and with feveral colours, for
marbles.

Thefe wafhtfs are ufually given in equal teints, or degrees,
throughout ; which are afterwards brought down, and
foftened over the lights with fair water, and ftrengthened
with deeper colours for the fliadows.

The colours which require only to be diffolved in water
are, for red, red ink ; for blue, litmus ; for green, fap-
green and verdigrife in vinegar ; for yellow, gamboge, the
yellow berry walh and turmeric wafli ; for purple, the log-
wood wafli and archil ; for brown, Spanilh hquorice ; and
for black, Indian ink.

The yellow-berry wafli, which is a folution of the gum
of the French berries in water, may be prepared by putting
a pound of the French berries in a gallon of water, with
half an ounce of alum ; boiling them an hour in a pewter
vefl"el, and then filtering off the fluid through flannel or
paper. Put them again into the boiler, and evaporate the
fluid till the colour appear of the fl;rength defired ; or part
may be taken out wliile lefs ftrong, and the reft evapo-
rated to a proper body. The turmeric wafli is the gum of
the turmeric root diffolved in water ; it has much the fame
qualities with the former, except that it is a brighter and
cooler yellow ; but in order to procure a bright tinfture, it
mull be diifolved in fpirit of wine inftead of water. For
this purpofe add 2 oz. of proof fpirit to i oz. of water, and
having put them into a proper phial, add 2 drachms of tur-
meric root in powder. Shake them well together, and let
them ftand three or four days, repeating the (baking as foon
as convenient, and thus a itrong tinfture will be obtained
Tinfture of faffron is ufed as a yellow wafli with water-co-
lours. This is made by pouring hot water on the heft Eng-
lifti faffron in a proper phial or other veffel, which fliould be
placed for fome time in a heat next to that which would make
the water boil, and the tinfture fliould then be filtered
tlirough a piece of linen cloth. This tinfture is a fine warm
yellow ; and when very ftrong, makes a very proper fliade
for the gamboge or other light yellows that are bright, and
it will ftand equally well any of the vegetable tinftures.

The zedoary wafli may be prepared by boiling one ounce
of zedoary root in a quart of water, till the water appears fuf-
ficiently tinged to make a ftain on paper, of a full yellow
colour ; and then tlie fluid mutt be llrained through linen, to
free it from the dregs. This wafli will be a ftronger colour
than can be made of turmeric without fpirit of wine, and
it is a cooler yellow than faffron, tiiough full as bright. It
is valuable for many purpofes in painting with water-colours,
as flowers, yellow draperies, &c. It may be dried in fliells,
and will afterwards diflolve and fpread kindly, witli the ad-
dition of water.

The colouring of maps, or other prints, is performed,
either by fpreading opaque colours fo thinly on tlie fubjeft,
that the full efleft of the printing may appear under them ;
or by ufingtranfparcnt colours, which ftain the ground, and
dry away, without leaving any opaque body, which lall
method is called luajhing. In employing tlie opaque or
femi-tranfparent colours, care fliould be taken that no parts
be fo ftrongiy covered with them as to prevent the diftinft
appearance of the fliades of the printed defign ; as tliey are
to fliew themfclves tlirough the colours, and form the fliades
of tlie pifture made by the colouring.

M. Cochin, in order to produce waflied prints much more
beautiful than the common, propofes to print upon the co-
lours, inftead of applying the colours upon the imprcflion,
in the following manner :

Having a plate already engraved, with a figure, in which
it is required to introduce two or three colours, as the hat

grey,

WAS

grey, the hair brownifh, the cloak red, the coat anJ the
ftockings of different colours ; let another plate of well po-
liilied copper be procured, and fitted to the fize of the
firft : when this ungraved plate is varnilhed with white var-
iiifh, let a proof frefli drawn from the engraved plate be laid
upon it, exaftly in the place where the engraved plate has
made the impreffion, and then fpread two blankets upon the
table of the prefs, and lay the varnifhed plate upon them,
with the proof lying upon it ; and having covered them with
two or three other blankets, pafs them under the roller of
the prefs. When the blankets and proof are taken off the
plate, the white varnilli will have the fame impreffion with
that of the proof, in the manner of a counter-proof ; and
the outlines of the hat, hair, cloak, &c. mufl be traced with
a very fine needle, and the plate then gently corroded.
After this, the varnifh (honld be taken off the plate ; and
fome proofs fliould be taken from it on ftrong paper allumed,
or upon cartoon, very thin and well beaten ; which (hould
be previoufly moiftencd, by lying in a damp cellar for a
night, or two, or by putting it among the paper moiftened
sn order to be printed. The proofs being made, and the
cartoons or paper on which they were prmted being dry, the
part enclofed in the outline of the cloak fhould be co-
loured with a red ground ; that within thofe of the head
with a brown ground of biftre, and, the fame of the reft.
The (heet thus coloured muft then be put into the cellar, in
order to moiften it ; and having fpread fome of the blankets
on the table of the prefs, the coloured (heet muft be laid
upon them, with the blank fide downwards. After having
inked all the firft plate, that has the entire engraving upon
it, in the manner for printing at other times, it muff be put
upon this leaf with the engraved fide downwards, fo that
the parts of which the outline is marked on the fheet, may
exaftly coincide with thofe correfponding to them in the
plate ; and then two or three blankets being laid over them,
the whole muft be paifed through the rollers. After which,
the flieet being uncovered, will be found printed upon the
colours, in a manner that renders the effeA much more beau-
tiful than that of thofe printed and coloured upon the
printing, as in the common way. Handmaid to the Arts,
vol. ii. p. 212, &c.

Washing Colours, a denomination given to fuch colours
as are tranfparent in water ; in contradiftinftion from thofe
called glazing colours, which are pigments poffeffing the pro-
perty of becoming tranfparent in oil.

Washing over of Colours. The waffling orcleanfing of
fome colours maybe thus performed : — Take the colours to
be wafhed, and put them, after having been well levigated
or pounded, into a veffel of fair water ; ftir it about till the
water be all coloured with it, and if any filth fwim on the
top of the water, fcum it clean off, and when you think the
groffeft part of the colour is fettled at the bottom, then
pour off that water into another earthen veffel, that may
contain the firft veffel full of water four or five times ; then
pour more water into the firft veffel, and ftir the remaining
colour till the water be thick, and after it is a little fettled,
pour that water alfo into the fecond veffel. Let this be re-
peated till all the fineft of the colour is drawn off, and no-
thing but coarfe gritty ftuff remains behind. Then letting
the water in the fecond veffel ftand to fettle, till it is perfectly
clear, pour it off, and referve the waftied colour in the bot-
tom of the veffel for ufe.

The colours to be thus waflied are red-lead, blue and
green bice, verditer, blue and green fmalt, Spanifti brown,
yellow ochre, &c.

Washings, or IVaJhes, among Goldfmiths, Coiners, &c.
.are the lotions by which they recover the particles of gold

WAS

and filver out of the fweep, i. e. afties, earths, fweepingi,
&c.

This is either performed by fimply wa(hing them again
and again, or by putting them in the waftiing-mill.

To make one of thefe wafties, they not only gather to-
gether the a(hes of the furnaces, and fweepings of the
work-houfes ; but they alfo break and pound the old earthen
crucibles, and the very bricks of which the furnaces are
built ; little particles of gold, &c. being found to ftick to
them, by the flying off natural to thofe metals, when in
their laft degree of heat.

Thefe matters being well ground, and mixed together,
are put in large wooden bafons, where they are waffled fe-
veral times, and in feveral waters, which run off, by inch-
nation, into troughs underneath ; carrying with them the
earth, and the infenfible particles of the metals, and only
leaving behind them the larger and more confiderable ones,
which are vifible to the eye, and are finally taken out with
the hand without more trouble.

To get out the finer parts, gone off with the earth, they
ufe quickfilver, and a waftiing-miU. This mill confiits of a
large wooden trough, at bottom of which are two metalline
parts, ferving as mill-ftones ; the lower being convex, and
the upper, which is in form of a crofs, concave.

At the top is a winch, placed horizontally, which turns
the upper piece round ; and at bottom is a bung, to let out
the water and earth, when fufEciently ground.

To have a wafti, then, the trough is filled with common
water ; into which they caft thirty or forty pounds of quick-
filver, and two or three gallons of the matter remaining
from the firft lotion. Then turning the winch, they give mo-
tion to the upper mill-ftone ; which grinding the matter and
the quickfilver violently together, the particles of gold and
filver become the more eafily amalgated with it ; this work
they continue for two hours : when opening the bung, the
water and earth runs out, and a freffi quantity is put in.

The earths are ufually thus paffed through the mill three
times ; and the fame quantity of mercury ufually ferves all
the three times. When there is nothing left in the mill but
the mercury, united with the gold and filver which it has
amalgated, they take it out, and waftiing it in divers waters,
they put it in a ticken bag, and lay it in a prefs, to fqueeze
out the water, and the loofe quickfilver : the remaining
quickfilver they evaporate by fire, in a retort, or an alem-
bic. And the metal which remains they refine with lead, or
part it with aqua fortis.

Washing Fruit-Trees and Plants, in Gardening, the prac-
tice of cleaning and removing infetls and difeafes from them
by fuch means. It is well known that thefe forts of trees
and plants are very liable to be infefted and injured in thefe
ways by many different kinds of infefts, and the difeafes
which are produced by them, as well as in other ways. It
has been found greatly ufeful in deftroying and removing the
blue infeft, the coccus, and the pine-bug, as well as in
curing and clearing the trees of the mildew, hoiieydew, and
fome other fuch affeAions. The tlue infeft that breeds on
the bark of different forts of wall-trees has been beneficially
treated in fome cafes by fimply waffling the trees with ftale
chamber ley, by means of a garden-engine, they being un-
nailed for the purpofe. This has been done in fo fevere a
froft, it is faid, that the liquid was foon converted into ice
upon the branches, with much feeming advantage. It does
not appear, however, that the applying of the liquor in the
time of liard froft is abfolutely neceffary to the fuccefs of
the method ; as trees waftied in frefti weather are equally
cleaned and cleared by the ufe of it. When on apple-trees,
die bruftiing and waffling with a mixture formed by foft-

foapj

WAS

WAS

foap, fulphur, and the juice of tobacco, in the quantity of
about one pound each to eight pints of foft water, has been
ufed alfo with benefit. They are to be well mixed together,
and (haken well when made life of, being applied all over the
trees. The infefts will be Hill more completely removed, it
is faid, if the earth about the roots of the trees be opened,
and fome of the liquid poured in, the earth being clofed
after a little time, as they are found to lodge much about
the roots of fuch trees. It is fuppofed that fummer is the
inoft proper time for this operation, as the juices of the trees
are then in motion, and appear to be much m.ore eafily afted
upon, than when they are in a dormant ftate. If trees
fhould chance to be got which are fufpicious, it would, it is
thought, be worth while to wafh them all over, and foak
their roots fome length of time in the above mixture, before
planting of them in the places where they are intended to
Hand and grow.

In the removal of the coccus, and fome other infefts,
from old peach-trees, great advantage has occafionally been
found from walhing them well, after being brufhed and
cleaned with ilrong foap-fuds, by means of a fponge dipped
in them ; and then applying the following compofition in a
liquid ftate, or in that of a fort of paint : two pounds of
the flowers of fulphur, and the fame quantity of foft -foap,
well mixed together with as much boiling water as is fufficient
to make the whole of the confidence of a paint. The trees
are to be payed over with this liquid fubftance, fo as not to
mifs any part of them, whether old wood or new. And it
{hould be fuffered to remain on the trees as long as pofTible,
that it may aft the more fully, and in the moll perfeft man-
ner. It may be applied on the trees at any feafon of the
year, but they are probably the moll: conveniently dreffed
in this way in the winter months. It is fometimes necefTary
to repeat the drefling for feveral feafons.

The wounds in peach, and other kinds of ftone fruit-trees,
are likewife faid to be effeftually prevented from cankering,
by being laid over with the fame compofition, and then
coated over with tar.

Brufhing over peach and ncftarine trees alone, is faid in
fome cafes too, to be effeftual in removing infefts from
them.

The black infeft that attacks the young top-fhoots of
cherry-trees is faid to be effcftually deftroyed by burning
the compofition dircfted below, in fmall pieces, the fize of
common eggs, under the trees with damp draw, the fmoke
being made to pafs as much as poflible where the infefts are
the mofl numerous : and foon afterwards wafliing the trees,
where the ftate of the fruit will admit of it, well by means
of the garden -engine, fo as to clear away fuch vermin, and
prevent others fpreading themfclves on the trees : pitch any
quantity with a fixtceiith part of powdered orpiment, and
the fame proportion of fulphur, difiolvid over a flow fire in
an earthen pipkin, until they be well incorporated and mixed
together.

In the deftruftion and prevention of the pine-bvig, the
method of waftiing and foaking that is given below has been
found very efl"eftual. A fmall brulh is firll prepared with
bafs-mat, tied on a fmall ftock, which is that at the otlier
end, in order to go down to the under end of the leaves
where the bugs harbour moft. Then with the brnfti and
water they are to he walhed and cleaned very well, after
which one pound of the flowers of fnlphur is to be put
into a common garden-pan full of water ; but if a little
more, there is no danger of hurting the plants : the pine-
plants are to be put into this liquid, and let remain for
twenty-four hours ; taking care tiiat they arc all covered,

which may be done beft by putting a piece of board orer
them, with a fmall weight upon it : when they have been
immerfed the above length of time, they are to be taken
out, and fet on end with their tops downwards, in which
way they are to ftand until quite dry ; when they are to be
potted in the ufual manner, and put feparate.

It is not ncceflary that as much fulphur-liquid fttould be
made up at once as may be fufficient to drefs and cure the
whole ftock of plants ; but that as one quantity of plants
are finilhed and come out, it may be prepared, and another
put in. It has not, however, been found to lofe the effeft
from ftanding. If made up and ufed as the plants become
ready at different times, no defcft will be found in the cure
of the plants. But when made ufe of in the winter feafon,
it will be advifable to take the chill off the water, and to
keep it in a ftove ; when convenient to be done in the fum-
mer time, the plants will, however, take growth fooner and
better. It is not thought advifable to apply the cure to
fruiting plants ; as by (baking off' the earth from their roots,
and otherwife going through the operation, the fruiting
would be injured too much.

The mildew on peach-trees may be kept under, though
perhaps not wholly cured, by wafhing fuch as are affcfted
with a mixture of fulphur and lime-water. The mode of
applying it is by the garden-engine, with a little foap, or
any other matter that may tend to feparate it from the
trees : this mode cleans them at the time, but it does not
prevent the recurrence of the difeafe. The difeafe has been
fuccefsfully prevented, too, it is faid, by picking off' the
difeafed leaves as they appeared ; and the points of any
fhoots affefted being dipped in water in which black foap
was diffolved, they being afterwards well dredged by means
of a bellows-pluff, filled with fulphur, and occafionally
mixed with Scotch fnuff. This work is to be performed in
the evening, and the matters waftied off with the engine or
fquirt and water in the enfuing evening, if the ftate of the
trees, in refpeft to flowering or ripe fruit, do not forbid it.
But the difeafe is to be ftriftly watched and checked in its
firft appearance.

The green and blue flies that appear, efpecially on plum-
trees, a few days after the honeydew comes on, may often
be got rid of by wafliing and watering the trees two or three
times a week, in a perfcft and ph-ntiful manner, when the
weather is dry ; and while this dew continues upon the trees,
adding a little common fait, and a quantity of the decoftion
of common broom to the water. This mixture, it is faid>
effeftually kills the flies, without iiijwing the trees, provided
that too great a quantity of fait be not added. It is benefi-
cial, too, in preventing the breeding of fuch infefts.

There are many other cafes, in which wafliing with fuck
mixtures may be ufeful. See the Scotch Horticultural
Memoirs.

Wasiiinc; SeeJ-H^heal, in ylgrinilliire, a term often ap-
plied to the praftice oF rendering it clean for fale, and fow-
ing by the ufe of pure water, or fuch as is impregnated
with difl'erent fubllances of various kinds. See S ieepinc;-
Seed, Swimming, &c.

Washin(; Shifp, in jIgricuUure and RurnI Economy, the
praftice of having the wool of thefo animals cleaned by
wafliing them in clear running water before tluy aix- clipped
in the fummer feafon. It is obferved by the author of a
late work on " Agricultural Chemillry," that in wafliing
flieep the ufe of water containing carbonate of lime fliould
be avoided ; as this fubltance decompofes the yolk ot tlie
wool, which is an animal foap, the natural defence ot tlie
wool ; and that wool often waflied in calcareous water be-
comes

WAS

comes rough, and more brittle. The wool in fome breeds
of fheep, as thofe of the finer kind, have it in larger quan-
tity than others. See Sheep and Yolk.

Washing Machine. See Laukdrv.

WASHINGTON, Georce, in Biography, firll prefi-
dent of the United States, the defcendant of a refpeftable
family in the north of England, was born in February 1732,
on an ellate in Weftmoreland county, Virginia, on which
his great-grandfather, John Walhington, fettled, after his
emigration from England, about the year 1657. Having
loft, his father when he vs'as about ten years of age, his ad-
vantages of education were inconfiderable ; but he acquired
a fufficient knowledge of mathematics to qualify him for a
land-furveyor. In his youth he was grave and thoughtful,
regular and dihgent in the management of the bufinefs
affigned him, dignified in his deportment, and exemplary and
honourable in his whole conduft. Ardent in his temper, he
manifefted, at the age of fifteen, an inchnation to enter into
the Britiih navy, and the place of a midfhipman was pro-
cured for him ; but his mother diverted him from his pur-
pofe. In his nineteenth year he was nominated one of the
adjutants-general of Virginia, with the rank of major; and
in 1753 he was entrufted with a commiflion which required
prudence and refolution. At this time the French were pro-
jedling a communication between Canada and Louifiana by
a chain of forts, which would have confined the Enghfh to
the eaft fide of the Alleghany mountains. Wafhington was
the bearer of a letter of remonftrance to the French from
Mr. Dinwiddie, the governor of Virginia. He executed the
bufinefs committed to him, and returned in feventy-eight
days. As the French perfifted in their plans, the aifembly
of Virginia raifed a body of three hundred men for the pro-
teftion of their frontiers, and appointed Wafhington lieu-
tenant-colonel. HoftiUties commenced, though war was
not declared between Great Britain and France ; and Wafh-
ington, with a detachment of his regiment, falhng in with
a party of French, furprifed and made them all prifoners,
after their commander was killed. With an augmentation of
force, he proceeded for the purpofe of diflodging the French
from fort Duquefne ; but receiving mtelligence that a large
force was approacliing, he fell back into a ftockaded fort,
which he had previoufly erefted at a place called Great
Meadows, where he was attacked by the enemy. However
he defended his poft, incompletely fortified, for a whole day,
and capitulated with the French commander upon honour-
able terms.

In 1755 war aftually took place, and general Braddock
was fent to command in America. Waihington, now a co-
lonel, offered to accompany him as a volunteer ; and not-
withftanding a fevere illnefs, made hafte to join the army.
Tlie carnage of the day was dreadful, and proved fatal to
the general and many of his officers and men ; but Wafhing-
ton maintained the mofl perfeft felf-pofleffion, notwithftand-
ing the fcene he witneffed, and the perfonal danger to which
he was expofed. He brought back the (battered remnant of
the army ; and his countrymen generally thought, that if
he had had the command, inftead of a man who was unac-
quainted with the Indian mode of fighting, the difafter
would have been prevented. The afTcmbly of Virginia de-
termined, after the withdraument of all the regular troops,
to raife fixteen companies for the defence of tlitir frontiers,
and they entrufted the command with Wafhington ; fuch
was the degree of reputation which he had acquired at his
early age ! His fituation was trying and perilous, an exten-
fiye frontier being open to the incurfions of a favage enemy ;
he recommended more vigorous meafures, and at length,

WAS

when fort Duquefne was evacuated by the French, in 1758,
in confequence of the fuccefles of the Britifh troops in the
northern colonies, the back-fettlements of the fouthern were
fecured. When this fervice was accomphfhed, Wafhing-
ton retired from the military fervice with the cordial efteem
of his countrymen, and with tokens of refpecl from the
officers of the Britifh army. Soon afterwards he married
Mrs. Cuftis, an amiable and opulent widow ; and by the
death of an elder brother he obtained an eftate on the Po-
tomack, called Mount Vernon, whither he removed, and
commenced the fife of a country -gentleman ; feduloufly im-
proving his property by his agricultural fl<ill, exercifing the
office of judge of the court in the county where he refided,
and attending as a reprefentative in the houfe of burgefTes
of Virginia. This was the honourable and ufeful life he
led for fifteen years. But after the peace of 1763, con-
tells commenced between the American colonies and the
Britifh legiflature ; and Wafhington determined in the affem-
bly of Virginia to oppofe the claim of the parent-ftate to a
right of taxing its colonies. Accordingly he was elefted a
member of the firft congrefs, which [affembled at Philadel-
phia in 1774. ^'^ ^^^ ^ member of all the committees ap-
pointed for arranging meafures of defence ; and when it
was determined to raife a general army, the arduous office
of commander-in-chief was unanimoufly conferred upon him
by the deputies of the twelve united colonies, to which
Georgia afterwards acceded. He with becoming modefty
and diffidence accepted the office, but declined all pecur
niary compenfation, defiring only the payment of his ex«
pences.

On his firft alFuming the command, the American army con.
fifted of about 14,500 men, entrenched at different pofts near
Boflon, and oppofed to the Britiih army on Bunker's-hill,
An army like that of the Americans, confifting of raw re-
cruits, enlifted for a hmited time, and furnifhed by differ,
ent colonial governments, and very indifferently provided
with arms, ammunition, aB<Hlores, afforded a difcouraging
profpeft to its commander, and required the exercife of An-
gular talents. Wafhington feemed to poffefs fuch talents.
Accordingly, notwithllanding all difadvantages, he was en-
abled, in March 1 776, to commence aftive operations againfl
the Britifh army at Boflon, by fortifying the heights of Dor.
chefter, which commanded both the lines and harbour.
The Britifh were foon reduced to the neceffity of quitting
Bofton and removing to Hahfax ; and the American gene-
ral was welcomed at the former place as a deliverer. When
general Howe, with a ftrong force, took poffeffion of Staten
ifland, the Americans were polled on Long ifiand, under ge-
neral Sullivan ; but in Augull they were attacked and de-
feated with great flaughter. Wafhington was in the city of
New York, endeavouring to preferve and rally the troops
that had efcaped in a difpirited flate from this confliA. But
being unequal to a fuccefsful refiftance to the viftorious
army, he withdrew from New York to the mterior of the
country, and having retreated through the Jerfeys, found
himfelf at the head of no more than 70C0 men. However,
he maintained his felf-poffeffion and firmnefs, and determined
to retaliate. The firft objeft of his attack was a body of
Heffians, ftationed at Trenton. Croffing the Delaware, and
hallening towards the town, he took them by furprife, and
about nine hundred of them laid down their arm?, befides
others that were killed and wounded. This fuccefs was pe-
culiarly fortunate, as the Americans dreaded the ferocity of
the Heffians, and their fpirits were thus roufed to new exer-
tions. Wafhington gained alio an advantage over the Bri-
tifh at Prince-town, and by thefe bold movements they were
2 obhged

WASHINGTON.

obliged to abandon all their pofts except two, whicli they
retained to the fouthward of New York. Sir William
Howe commenced the campaign of 1777 with attempts to
bring the American army to attion ; but Walhington, ap-
prized of his defign, evaded it by his manoeuvres. Phila-
delphia was the next objeft to which the views of the Britilh
were direfted : the American commander polled himfelf on
Brandy-wine creek, in order to difpute their palFsge ; and
finding it neceffary to rill< a battle, he fuffered a defeat, and
was under a necelTity of leaving the paflage to Philadelphia
open to the enemy. Having been reinforced, he made an
attack upon the Britifh troops at German-town, but was re-
pulfed with lofs, and took up his winter-quarters at Valley-
forge, about 25 miles from Philadelphia. The events of
this year had proved difailrous, and Wafhington experienced
many difficulties in providing food and clothing for his
army ; and the people became difcontented, alleging, in a
tone of loud complaint, the fuccefs of general Gates, and
the furrender of Burgoyne, as a contrail againft his want of
fuccefs. His patience and forbearance were invincible ; he
juftified his conduft, and evinced his patriotifm, by not yield-
ing to a fadlion at fuch a critical period. The public voice,
however, was in his favour, and thus fupported, he deter-
mined to perfevere. Witli the commencement of the year
1778, Wafhington concerted meafures with Congrefs for
amehorating the whole military fyftem. Walhuigton has
been called the American Fabius ; but enterprifing as his own
fpirit was, he was obliged by circuniilances to aflume this
charafter. The alliance with France very much improved
the fituation of the Americans ; this obliged the Britifh
army to evacuate Philadelphia, and their retreat was ha-
rafTed, as much as poffible, by the vigilance and adlivity of
Wafhington. By a partial aftion at Monmouth court -houfe,
they loft fome men, and then purfued their march to Sandy-
Hook. Wall\ington received the thanks «f Congrefs for
his aftivity in this combat, whilll general Lee incurred cen-
fure, and was fufpended from his command for a year by
the fentence of a court-martial. Wafhington retired to
New Jerfey ; and by his conciliatory manners and addrefs
compromifed the differences that fublifled between the Ame-
ricans and tiieir French auxiliaries.

During the campaigns of 1779 and 1780, no great oc-
cafion prL-fentcd itfelf for the difplay of Wafliington's mi-
htary talents. The Americans had derived confidence in
their cxpot'talion of ultimate fuccefs from the alliance and
co-opcratinn of France. The year 178 i commenced with
a mutiny in the Pennfylvanian line of the army, which was
occalioned by the in.ittention of Congrefs to the redrefs of
their grievances. Wafhington on this occalion afted with
great wifdom, and left the matter in litigation to be fettled
by the civil authorities, which granted their principal de-
mands. But when the fame mutinous fpirit was extended
to the Jerfey brigade, he thought it right to interpofe ; and
by a punifhment of the ringleaders, the others were rellored
to their duty. He took this occalion of urging the different
ftates to make exertions for removing the caufcs of difcon-
tent among the troops. This was a year that called for
extraordinary attivity. The Britifh were pufliing forward
their fuccefics with uncommon ardour in tlie fouthcrn pro-
vinces, and Virginia was experiencing the calamities of
war. Wafhington was urged to defend his native province ;
but he knew no private intereft in this general conteil ; and
regarding America, rather than any particular dillriS, as
his country, he would not be induced to abandon his central
poll. It was now determined to combine the operations of
the American and French forces, and the tirll objctt in con-
templation was the (lege of New York. But this mcnfure

Vol. XXXVH.

was afterwards changed for that of an attempt againft the
army of lord Cornwallis, ported at York-town. Whilft
Wafhington and Rochambeau kept up the deception of a
defign againft New York, by paffing Clinton's army with-
out moleftation, and marching by Philadelphia to Williamf-
burgh, the land and naval forces made an united attack upon
the Britifli troops at York-town. Their gallant commander
was compelled to furrender his whole force on Oftober ig,
which event, in faft, terminated the war on the American
continent. Its importance was fuch in the opinion of Wafh-
ington, that he ilTued an order on the following day, that all
under arreft fhould be pardoned and fet at liberty, and that
a thankfgiving fervice fhould be performed with due fenouf-
nefs in the different brigades and divifions. He then re-
turned, with the greatefl part of the army, to the vicinity
of New York. The Britilh parbament, at an early period
of the year 1782, declared its fenfe of the impolicy of the
war by a vote againft further offenfive meafures. Wafh-
ington, however, with his cuftomary precaution, urged
the neccffity of remaining fully prepared for another cam-
paign ; but in the courle of the year tile preliminaries were
figned, and the independence of America fully recog-
nized. Difcontents prevailed in tlie army, under an appre-
henfion that its claims for pall fervices would be neglefted ;
and, as an cxpreffion of fuch exifting difcontents, inflamma-
tory addreffes w ere circulated among the troops. Wafhing-
ton on this occafion exercifed his conciliatory powers with
wonderful efteft. He cautioned the officers, individually,
to avoid intemperate meafures ; and then, at a general meet-
ing convoked by himfelf, he delivered to them an addrefs,
which produced an unanimous determination to trull their
caufe to the juftice of Congrefs and their country. On the
other fide, Wafhington thought it his duty to urge Con-
grefs to make an adequate compenfation to thofe who had
fo well ferved their country-, and his advice was duly regard-
ed. When the army was dilbanded, in November 1783,
their commander-in-chief took his leave of them by a moft
affeftionate and admonitory addrefs. He alfo, in the fam«
month, made a public entry into New York, and foon after
took a folenin leave of all his officers. The fccne is de-
fcribed as equally tender and dignified. " The manly demea-
nour of the chief, foftened by fenfibihty, filled every eye with
tears. After grafping the hand of each in filcnce, he pro-
ceeded to the place of embarkation, followed by the officers
in mute proceffion, with dejefted countenances. On enter-
ing the b.arge he turned to his companions in arms, and
waved his hat as a laft adieu. Many anfwered with their
te.ars ; and all kept their eyes upon him till he was nolongv
diftinguifhable. On his way to Annapolis, then the leal
of Congrefs, he delivered to the comptroller at Philadelphia
an exaft account, in his own hand-writing, of all tlie pub-
lic money he had received, the whole amount of which, in
eight years, was only between 14 and 15,000/. Nothing
was charged for perfonal fervices. He then proceeded to
the Congrefs, which received him as the greatefl and bell
citizen of the United States. After a fuitable addrefs, he
refigned his commiffion into the iiands of the prefident, who
in energetic terms expreffed the national fenfe of his high
merits. Such were the feelings of public gratitude towards
him, that he could have aflced nothing which would not rea-
dily have been granted ; but making no requell for himfelf,
his family, or relations, he limited himfelf to an indirect re-
commendation to Congrefs of fome young gentlemen with-
out fortune, who had ferved him as aides-de-camp. He
then haftcned to mount Vernon, where he inllantly laid afide
the ftatefman and general for the country gentleman."
Not fatislied with attending merely to his own intereft, ho
4 Z took

WAS

WAS

took pleafiire in fuggefting and accompllrtiing any fcheme
that tended to the improvement of the country. Accord-
ingly, he zealoufly promoted a plin of inland navigation ;
and in gratitude for his ferviccs, the legillatiirt of Virginia
palVed an aft in order to veil in him 150 Iharea in the naviga-
tion of the rivers James and Potowmac. But this grant he
would not accept, a^ he had refolved to decline all perfonal
recompence for his fervices ; but he confented to the aft on
condition of appropriating the proceeds to the maintenance
of a feminary of learning in the vicinity of each river ;
which appropriation he confirmed by his laft will.

When a general convention was agreed upon for revifing
the federal fyftem of government, this convention affembled
at Philadelphia in 1787, and unanimoufly chofe Wafhing-
ton as prehdent ; and when the new form of government
was fettled, the late commander-in-chief was unanimoufly
elefted the fivll Prelident of the United States, the honour
of which eleftion was announced to him at mount Vernon
on the 14th of April, 1789. Independently of his re-
luftance to embark again in the toils of public life, he fore-
faw peculiar difliculties that would embarrafs the meafures
of government in the firft fettlcment of the American dates.
Neverthelefs, having for many years devoted his time and
fervices to the public caufe, he itill confulted the welfare of
his country, in preference to all confiderations of perfonal
tranquillity and retired enjoyment. With thefe views lie ac-
cepted the arduous office that had been fo honourably
afligned to him, and immediately commenced, as he faith-
fully continued, the difcharge of its important duties.
" After having (leered the vei^A of the ftate," fays one of
his biographers, " during an unq-uiet period of eight years,
being now in the fixty-iixth year of his age, he thought
proper to dechne a new eleftion to his high oiBce. He an-
nounced this intention in a long and minute addrefs to the
people of the United States, replete with the moll excellent
advice for their future conduft, and the foundeft views of
■ their political ilate. It was a legacy of wildom, which fet
the feal to all his paft iervices." — " It was in the beginning
of 1797 that Wafhington refigned his authority to liis fuc-
celTor, Mr. Adams ; on which occafion, whatever might be
the feelings of a few party-zealots, he received abundant
proofs of the g^-neral efteem and atfeclion. He returned
•with pleafure to the comforts of domeftic life, and refumed
his agricultural and literary purfuits. From this ftate of
privacy, however, he was called in the following year by
the aggravated injuries of the French rulers, which pro-
duced a determination in Congrefs to arm by fea and land
for a dcfenfive war; and in confequence Wafliington was
once more nominated to the chief command of the armies of
the United States. The countenance, however, thus
aflumed, and the fubfequent depofition of the Direftory by
Buonaparte, brought on an accommodation, and all mili-
tary preparations were at an end."

When the fervices of this truly " great man," unparal-
leled perhaps in the hiftory of the world, terminated, his
life was haftening to a clofe. Having expofed himfelf to
the rain, December 13, 1799, in attending to fome improve-
ments at mount Vernon, he was feized with an inflamma-
tory affeftion of the wind-pipe, attended with fever, which
baffled tlie efforts of his phyficians, and terminated his life
within thirty-five hours after his firft feizure, without a
ftruggle, and in the full pofleflion of his reafon, in the fixty-
eightii year of his age. H^ left a widow, but no children.
We fhall c' )fe this article with the following delineation of his
charafttr by one of his biographers. " His moral and in-
telleftual quaUties were fo happily blended, that he might
leem exprefsly formed for the part afligned to him on the

theatre of the world. His firm mind, equally inacccflible to
the flatteries of hope and the fuggeftions of defpondence,
was kept fteady by the grand principles of love to his coun-
try, and a religious attachment to moral duty. In him even
fame, glory, and reputation, were fubordinate to the per-
formance of the tadc impofed upon him ; and no one ever
pafted through the ordeal of power more free from the re-
moteft fufpicion of felfiih or ambitious defigns. Capable
of ftrong and decilive meafures when neceflary, they were
tempered with the lenity which flows from true benevolence.
In perfon he was tall and well proportioned. His form was
dignified, and his port majeftic. His paffions were naturally
ftrong, but he had obtained a full command over them. In
the charafter of his intelleft, judgment predominated ; to
fancy and vivacity he had no pretenfion ; but good fenfe dif-
played itfelf in all that he faid or wrote. It was a proof
of ftrong powers of acquifition, that, fcanty as his literary
education had been, by a careful ftudy of the EngliiTi lan-
guage in its beft models, he became mafter of a ftyle at
once pure, elegant, and energetic ; and few better fpeci-
mens of public addrefles can be (hewn than in the produfts
of his pen. Many more brilliant charafters appear in the
pages of hiftory and biography ; fcarcely any fo thoroughly
eftimable." Ramfay's and Marftiall's Lives of Waftiing-
ton. Gen. Biog.

Washington, in Geography, a county of the United
States, in the diftritl of Maine, bounded on the N. by
Lower Canada, on the E. by New Brunfwick, and on the
S. by the Atlantic. The chief town is Machias, which
conttins 1570 inhabitants. The population of the whole
county confifts of 7870 perfons. — Alfo, a town of Mafla-
chufetts, in the county of Berkfliire, containing 942 inhai-
bitants.

Washington, Mount, a town of Maftachufctts, in the
county of Berkfhire, containing 474 inhabitants.

Washington, a town of New Hampftiire, in the county

of Chefhire, containing 820 inhabitants Alfo, a town of

Vermont, in the county ot Orange, containing 1040 inha-
bitants.— Alfo, a town of Connefticut, in the county of

Litchfield, containing 1575 inhabitants Alfo, a county of

New York, which received its prefent name in 1784, in ho-
nour of George Wafhington, having been before called
Charlotte county, when it alfo included a part of the prefent
ftate of Vermont. It was organized in 1788 and 1,^01.
It is bounded N. by Efl^ex county, E. by the ftate of Ver-
mont, S. by Renftelaer and Saratoga counties, and W. by
Saratoga and Montgomery. Its form is irregular, being
ih its greateft length, N. and S. 59 miles, and greatefl
breadth, 45. The area is about 161 2 fquare miles, or
1,031,680 acres, including the waters. It is fituated be-
tween 42° 55' and 43° 48' N. lat,, and 45' E. and 12' W.
long, from New York. It includes 2 1 towns, of which
the capitals are Kingftjury and Salem. In 18 10 its popula-
tion confifted of 44,289 perfons, and its fenatorial eleftors
were 4079. The country round lake George is hilly, and,
efpecially in the northern part, prefents fummits of 6, 8,
900 to 1 100 feet altitude ; but the hills are interfperfed with
valleys, that afford a tolerable good foil for farming. But
the fouthern part contains a large proportion of arable land,
with a warm light foil. The agriculture of the fouthern
part of Wafliington county is very refpeftable and produc-
tive. In the northern part the pine foreils fupply large
quantities of lumber, in logs, fquare timber, boards,
ftiingles, &c., that defcend the Hudfon in rafts. Few
counties produce more of clothing from houfehold induf-
try. The mineralogy of this county includes flate, lime-
ftone, marble, bog iroa-orc, lead-ore, and fome mineral

fprings.

WAS

fprings. Wafhington fends five members to the houfe of
aflembly.

Washington, a poft-townfliip of New York, in Du-
cliefs county ; 80 miles S. of Albany ; about 7 miles fquare,
and watered by Wappinger's creek. The foil is good for
farming, a:;d affords excellent wheat, being under good
cultivation. The inhabitants are principally farmers ; and
there are 80 looms in families, which in 18 10 produced
20,750 yards of cloth for common clothing. Near the

Vv' A S

ingtoii, and 5030 in Adams county being flaves. — Alfo,
a townfhip of Harrifon county, in Indiana territory, con-
taining 1257 inhabitants, 6 being (laves Alfo, a city of

Columbia, containing 82C9 inhabitants, of whom 1437 are
flaves. George-town includes 4943 inhabitants, of wiiom
1162 are flaves. This city is fitnatcd on the river Poto-
mack, and intended to be the capital of the United States,
and the ieat of the Congrefs. According to the plan, the city
is to be divided into fquares or grand divifions, by ilreets in-

centre of the townlliip is the handfome village of Mechanic, tcrfeding each other from the cardinal points, with diagonal

containing about 20 dwellings, a quaker-nieeting, and a
fchool. About 2 miles N.W. from Mechanic is another
village, including about 20 houfes, a woollen manufactory,
and feveral mills, and called Hartfville. In i8io the whole
population comprifed 2854 perfons, and i8oele6tors.

Washington, a town of New Jerfey, in Burlington
coanty, containing 1273 inhabitants. — Alfo, a town of
New Jerfey, in Morris county, containing 1793 inha-
bitants. — Alfo, a county of Peunfylvania, containing
36,289 inhabitants, of whom 36 are flaves. — Alfo, a town-
iliip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Northumberland,
containing 438 inhabitants Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of York, contauiing 941 inhabitants

Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Frank-

flreets from fome of the principal parts, as from the prefi-
dent's houfe to the capitol, and fome other points. All
houfes to be built of brick or ftone, with the walls parallel
to the flreets ; and the walls in ftreets mcafuring 160 feet
in breadth, to be at lead 30 feet in height. The area of
the capitol, or houfe for the Icgiflative bodies, is to be
fituated on an eminence about a mile from the Potomack,
and nearly the fame dillance from the eaflern branch. The
houfe for the prefident to be near the Potomack, within
view of the capitol. In different parts of the city, where
the principal ftreets crofs each other, are areas in a variety
of regular forms ; of thefe fifteen are appropriated to the
different ilates of United America, for the ercftion of mo-
numents, obelif]<;s, or ftatues ; and on a fmall eminence.

lin, containing 2709 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Penn- weft from the capitol, is to be eredled an equeilrian ilatue

fylvania, in the county of Indiana, containing 755 inhabit- of general Wafhington ; at the junction of the rivers, a

ants. — Alfo, a town of Pennfylvania, in the county of Wafh- fort is to be creAed, with an arfcnal and magazines. Moll

ington, containing 1301 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townflup of of the ftreets have been marked out, and the fquares divided

Pennfylvania, in the county of Weftmoreland, including into lots in the year 1792, fince which time fome thoufand

1695 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfliip of Peimfylvania, in the
county of Lycoming, having 675 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
county of Maryland, on the W. coaft of the Chefapeak,
containing 18,730 inhabitants, of v.hom 2656 are flaves. —
Alfo, a county of Virginia, bordering on North Carohna,
containing 12,136 inhabitants. — Alfo, a fea-port town of
North Carolina, formerly called Bath, fituated on the north
fide of Pamlico river, with a good harbour ; 20 miles
N.N.E. of Newbern. N. lat. 35° 31'. W. long. 77°.—
Alfo, a county of Ohio, bordering on lake Erie, con-
taining 5991 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in
the county of Clermont, containing 1527 inhabitants. —
Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Franklin county, including

280 inhabitants Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county

of Miami, containing 787 iniiabitants. — Alfo, a townfhip
of Ohio, in the county of Montgomery, including 1584 in-
habitants Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Pickaway county,

containing 974 inhabitants. — Alfo, a townfliip of Ohio, in
Prebble county, containing 440 inhabitants. — Alfo, a
county of Kentucky, including 12,999 inhabitants, of whom
2185 are flaves. Its town of ^ipringfielJ contains 249
inhabitants, 60 being flaves. — Alfo, a town of Kentucky, in
Mafon county. The county contains 11,071 inhabitants,
2065 being flaves; and tlie town iricludes 81 ; inhabitants,
25'l being flaves. — Alfo, a county of North Carolina, con-
taining 3464 inhabitants. — Alfo, a county of Eafl Tennef-
fee, containing 7740 inhabitants, 850 being flaves. — Alfo,
a county of Georgia, containing 9940 inhabitants, 3513 being
flaves. — Alio, a town of Georgia, near which is a medicinal
fpring ; I 3 miles S. W. of Peterfbnrg. N. lat. 33° 47'. W.
long. 82° 16'. — Alfo, a town of Georgia, in Wilkes county ;
the county and town containing 14,887 inhabitants, of whom
7666 in the county, and 218 in the town, are flaves. t— Alfo,
a county of the Miffiffippi territory, containing 2920 in-
habitants, of whom 900 are flaves.

Wa.siiinoton, Tonvn oj, in the territory of Miflifllppi,

workmen have been conftantly employed ; 140 miles S.W.

of Philadelphia. N. lat. 38=57'. W. long. 77° 8' Alfo,

a county of Columbia, which, exclufive of the city and
George-town, contains 23 15 inhabitants, 955 being flaves.

Washington'^ IJlands, iflands near the weft coaft of
North America. Captain Dickfon difcovered thefe iflands
in 1787, and called them Queen Charlotte^ s IJlands. Captain
Gray, of the United States, difcovered them in 1789, and
called them W afiington' s IJlands.

WASHITA, or Ouacjhtta, or Ouachitau, called alfo
Black River, a river of Louifiana, which is the principal
tributary ftream of Red river ; the latter commencing in
the low fandy hills, or Caous mountains, near Santa Fc.
Black is now ufed to defignate the united waters of Oua-
chitau, ( properly fo called, ) Ocatahoolu, and Tenfaw rivers ;
but Ouachitau having gained a more dcferved attention
than the other brandies, the name of that is ufed, without
impropriety, to defignate the valley between the Miinflippi,
Arkanfaw, and Red rivers. This valley i> upwards of
3 90 miles in length, and its broadell part from the Qucpa
village on Arkanfaw, to the heads of Derbenc river, 150
wide. It is nearly elliptic in its form, and averages from
70 to 80 miles wide, extending over more than 25,000 fquare
miles of furfaee, and upwards of 16,000,000 American
acres, which contain large tracts of fine arable foil, many
places that indicate mineral wealth, and an excellent climate.
The principal brancli of the Ouachitta takes its fonrce from
the mountainous prairies between Red and Arkanfaw rivers,
about 34*^ N. lat., and W. long. 95° -50'. The mountains
from which it flows arc compofed of fecondary materials :
marine cxuvia are found every where mixed with the
fchiftus, argillaceous earth, and other matters that compofe
the face and interior of thefe rugged mountains. No gra-
nitic mafs is found ; but the whole face of the country indi-
cates marine fubnierfion at fome remote period. The
Fmirche au Cado, Little Miffouri, and Saline branches of

containing, together with the city of Natchez and Adams Ouachitta, rife in the fame ridge with the principal ftream.
county, 10,002 inhabitants, 459 in Natchez, 182 in Wafh- The foil round the head of Ouachitta rcfenibles that of the

4Z 2 filt

W A S

fait plains of Texas in fterility ; but it improves in quality
below the nucleus of the mountains. Indications of metal
become more rare, and timber, particularly pine, upland
black oak, a(h, linden, and logwood, is abundant. The
foil is adapted to the culture of fmall grain, legumes, the
potatoe, and almoft every plant and herb fuitable to the
climate. Cotton fucceeds on all the arable lands of Oua-
chitta. Here are alfo fome fait fprings of good quality.
About N. lat. 35° lo', Ouachitta is joined by the Sahne,
and alfo the Derbeiie, which rife in N. lat. 32° 50', and
W. long. 92'^ 10'. About three miles below the Derbenc
the river Barthelemy falls into it. The lall and largeft
branch of Ouachitta is the Riviere aux Boeufs, or Ox river,
which rifes in the angle formed between the Mill'ouri and
the Arkanfaw. Below the mouth of the Boeuf river, all
the waters which form the Ouachitta being united, the
river, though apparently not longer than 200 miles above,
becomes much deeper, and may be navigated at all leafons.
In this fituation, on the fame fide with Bceuf, Sicily ifland
rifes from the bank of Ouachitta. The hiU of Sicily is
very fruitful, its furface being a black loana. On this
illand are feveral fettlements. Fourteen miles below the
Bocuf, the Ouachitta lofes its name by its union with the
rivers Tenfaw and Ocatahoolu. The united llream is
hence called Black river, which, after a (hort and very
veinding courfe of thirty miles, unites with Red river. Its
banks are very fertile, its width about 2CO yards, the cur-
rent gentle, and the water throughout the year deep enough
for large boats. Thirty miles below the mouth of
Black river, the Red river joins the MifPiffippi. Red river
rifes about thirty or forty miles eaft of Santa Fe, about N.
lit. 37°, and W. long. 105° ; and having purfued a courie
S.E. by E. 450 miles, receives the Falfe Ouachitta from
the N- This latter river rifes in the Caous mountains, N.
of Red river, and is a beautiful llream nearly as large.
Thefe two rivers form a jundlicn at a fmall diftance below
the Panis, or Towiache towns, and about 70 miles lower
down receives the Blue river from the N. This latter
iffues from the Caous mountains, and runs in a courfe nearly
parallel to the Falfe Ouachitta. The united waters of
thefe rivers form Red river, now a large ftream, turbid and
brackifh from the waters of Red river, properly fo called,
and Blue river. The immenfe column of water brought
down by the various ftreams that form Red river, caufes it
to overflow its banks during the fpring floods. ^ About N.
lat. 33", a chain of lakes commences on each fide, near to
or farther from the river ; and thefe lakes are the natural
depofit of the water, which would otherwife overflow the
■whole country. The beds of thefe lakes are much lower
than that of the channel of the river. When the waters
have been drained by the deprcflion of the river in the fall
months, the beds of mod of thefe lakes become dry, and
exhibit a meadow of fucculent herbage, with channels for
the water that continues meandering through them. The
Red river enters the Miiliflippi in N. lat. 31° i', and W.
long. 91° 45' ; and if the Atchafalaya be confidered as
the continuation of the Red river, it leaves the Miffiffippi
three miles below. See Darby's Defcription of Louifiana ;
Philadelphia, 1 816.

WASHMINSKER Islands, a clufter of iflands near
the fouth coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50°. W. long. 60°.
WASIGNY, a town of France, m the department of
the Ardennes ; 9 miles N. of Rethel.

WASILAX, a town of Sweden, in North Finland ;
55 miles S.E. of Biorneborg.

WASILISKI, a town of Lithuania; 16 miles S.W.
of Lida.

WAS

WASILKOW, a town of Lithuania ; 30 miles S.W,
of Grodno.

WASKEMASHIN, an ifland in the gulf of St. Lau-
rence, near the coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 3'. W»
long. 59= 56'.

WASKLOT, a fmall ifland on the eaft; fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63" 6'. E. long. 21° 20'.

WASKUACHAOUIPIOU, a river of Canada, which
runs into the Saguenay, N. lat. 48° 20'. W. long. 70° 18'.
WASMA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land ; 7 miles S.S.W. of Calmar.

WASMUT, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-
land ; 14 miles S. of Maricnwerder.

WASP, in Natural Hijlory. See Vespa.
Wafps are not unfrequently dangerous and hurtful to
many forts of animals by their lling, in confequence
of the pain and irritation that are thereby produced.
The bell remedies in thefe cafes are probably the full ufe
of ammoniated vinegar, or faturnine waflies, aS cold as
poflible to the parts, keeping them couftantly wet with
them by means of cloths wrung out of them. Such infetls
are, however, capable of being deilroyed in many difi^erent
ways, as bv finding their works and retreats, and fmoking
them well with any combuftible material, but efpecially
fulphur : by putting cyder, verjuice, wine, or any other four
or fweet liquid, into fhort-necked phials, many of them may
be readily taken and deilroyed ; and by laying treacle, fweet
apples, or any fuch fubllances, in earthen dilhcs, mixed with
a little water, or of any liquid of which they are fond,
great numbers of them may be exterminated without difficulty.
When pieces of lighted brimlloned rags are thruft into the
iiells and holes formed by wafps, they Ihould be immediately
covered by the foot, or with earth, when they will be
fpeedily deilroyed without any efcapiug.

In the garden-culture of various kinds of fruit, as well as
ill the hot-houfe, vinery, and other fuch houfes, wafps are
often particularly troublefome, dellruftive, and rapacious ;
it is of courfe neceflary to deftroy them, and to prevent
the means of their depredations in many cafes. The bell
and moll effeftual means of getting quit of them is that of
dellroying their nells, which is effected fimply by noticing the
courfe of their flight from the garden or place in a quiet
funny day, and purfuing them as far as they can be feen
flying, then waiting until others pafs, and doing the fame
until they reach their habitations. The place being thus
found and marked, in the evening when they are all in, a
lantern and candle, with a match of damped gunpowder,
made into a roll on the end of a fmall piece of wood, is to
be provided ; it is hghted when at the nell, and burns like
a fquib, when it is introduced into the hole leading to the
nell, the foot being put on it for a few minutes. The
ground is then dug until the works are feen, when the
whole is wrought together like mortar by means of water.
In cafe the nell happens to be on a bufli or tree, the match
is put below it, when the wafps foon fall llupified to the
ground, and are deilroyed without difficulty.

In this way, wafps' nells, in one feafon, have, it is faid,
been deilroyed to the amount of more than fifty, within the
difl;ance of three hundred yards of a garden, and without
getting a fingle lling, or pafling a fingle wafp. They thus
diminilh every year in number, and if the fame method were
generally ufed, there is not the fmallefl; doubt, that much
fine fruit would be preferved, and at the fame time many
honey bees faved, which are now much deilroyed by wafps.
By the common mode of hanging up phials ag.iinll trees
and other objedls, many wafps may be taken and d.'llroyed
too, but the hive is itill breeding more : large wliite glafs
12 vefTels

WAS

W A S

veilels of this fort are, however, very ufeful for deftroying
the large black flies, which are alfo fo deftruftive of peaches.
Putting a little jam or jelly into them is found to have a
good efTedl in enticing them to enter fuch bottles.

Cherries, ftrawberries, rafpberries, goofeberries, plums, and
many other forts of fruit,' are frequently almoll inllantly de-
ilroyed, as they become ripe and ready for ufe, by the vora-
city of wafps.

The prevention of wafps from entering hot-houfes, vine-
ries, and other houfes, where fine fruit is raifed, and com-
mitting their voracious depredations, has been attempted in
different ways, as lately by covering them with a kind of
cloth, which is called y?Wmc, that is found by experience in
repeated trials to anfwer the purpofe extremely well. The
cloth is made in the form of a Ihect or fail to fuit the Ji-
menfions of the houfes, and is bound round the outlides
with a fort of tape. Barking it, as in fi(h-nets, would be
ferviceable, but it will do without it. The cloth is about
a yard in width, and colls eight-pence or nine-pence the
yard. Another kind, a little different, is higher priced.

As foon as the grapes are beginning to ripen, or the
■wafps make their appearance, it is time to put on the cloth,
which is done with fmall tacks, and only in fuch a manner
as will let the fadies go up and down freely ; the cloth will
not need to come any farther down than the bottoms of
the top fafhes. The cloth is fo very thin, that it will per-
mit plenty of air to pafs, without the wafps attemptingr to
go through. It does not exclude much fun, nor will it
hurt the grapes in the fmalleft degree.

When the hot-houfe or vinery Hands by itfelf, or in the
middle of a range, the manner of preventing the wafps from
getting in when the door is opened, or when any perfon is
paffing from one houfe to another, is this. The cover being
faftened at the top of the door with fmall tacks, as upon the
outlide roof, and the fides of it upon fmall hooked wires,
is thus capable of being taken off at one fide in fuch cafes ;
and if the door be wanted to fland open for tlie fake of air
at any time, the fame purpofe will be anfwered.

In cafe the houfe has fafhes in front, the cloth may be
nailed upon the outfide or inlide, according as the fafhes
fhift by the hand, or are drawn up and down by a rope,
flill giving plenty of air as wanted. A fingle wafp has
never been feen, it is faid, to attempt to get in by the lops
of the glafs.

Various ways are attempted and praftifcd of kccpmg
wafps from grapes. The bunches of grapes are fomctimes
put in paper-bags ; but the exclufion of air canfes them to
damp oil. Gau/e bags are alfo occafionuUy put upon
them, whicti are llill more expcnfive, and give a good deal
of trouble. Tiie above method, however, affords free air
and free acccfs at all times, and preferves the grapes in
good order : befides, it is plcafant for the owner or others
to go into the vinery and pull the grapes without being
molefled by wafps, rather than having it to refemble a hive
of bees with the buzzing that is produced by them.

As foon as tlie fruit is all cut or pulled, the cloth flionld
be taken off, well wafhed, and then kept in- a dry place
until wanted again.

Another method of cffcfting the fame purpofe, which
is perhaps better and more ready in fomc cafes, is that of
wire-grates or frames. Where the glafs in vineries is crofs-
puttied, frames or grates are made three feet fquare for the
top and bottom of every third fafh, the fafhis being all
moveable : tlicfe frames or grates are formed lo as exaftly
to lit in between the rafters, and are placed (o as that tlie
faflics can move uti and down over them, and tliat there

may not be fo much vacuity between them and the frames
as to admit a wafp, a groove is cut on the under lide of the
upper bar of each fafh, to admit the rope by which the
fafhes are hung. When it comes in contaft with the under
part of the wire-grate or frame next to the waU-plate, there
is an aperture to admit the pulley ; the end of which in-
clines downward from the run of the fafti, in order to give
room for the rope and pulley to work with freedom in
opening and Ihutting.

The frame is made of fir-wood well feafoned to prevent
its warping, and is an inch and a quarter thick ; the fides
and lower end are two inches, and the upper end, where the
pulley is inferted, is (w inches in breadth. The open fpace
is covered with wire of the fi/.e number feventeen, worked
about one-eighth of an inch afunder, and inferted into the
wood at both ends. There are crofs wires of the fize num-
ber five, placed at fix inches dillance from eacli other, to
which the longitudinal wires are warped, in order to keep
them firm. In each of the frames, holes are made with
fmall wire turned down, fimilar, in fome meafure, to thofe
in the entrance into wire moufe-traps. At thefe, large
phials half filled with four beer are placed. The wafps are
eager to get into the grapes by every poffible means of
entry, and are next enticed by the beer to get into the
phials, where they perifh in numbers.

The frames or grates are conilrufted in this open manner
in order to admit the air freely, as it is of great importance,
efpecially in the ripening of fruit.

Thefe frames are capable of being made at a very trifling
cxpence ; and as they are in ufe but a very fhort time in a
feafon, the coll of making new ones will but feldom recur.

WASf-F/y, a fpecies of fly having very much the ex-
ternal figure of a wafp, but harmlefs, without a lling, and
with only two wings.

It is black and yellow on the body, and marked exatlly
as the wafp, and is produced from a fpecies of the rat -tailed
fly-worms. See DnoNE-/?y.

Birt befide thefe there is another fmall fly produced of
the puceron-eaters, which has extremely the appearance
of a fmall wafp ; but is perfetlly harmlefs, and has only
two wings. Reaumur, Hill. Inf. vol. iv. p. 486.

W Asv-Tipiilti, the name of an infeft defcribcd by M.
Reaumur, and being properly a tipula, or long-legs, though
greatly refembling a wafp.

This is produced of a worm found in the earth, lodgcc^
in the cavities of old trees ; the worm has no legs, but
has a regularly figured fcaly head. The fly produced from
it has the long legs and the mouth of the tipula, with the
remarkable double beard which covers it, and which makes
the reat character of this clafs of infcAs ; but then the
body is Hiort and tliick, whereas the bodies of the cammoa
kinds are very bony and thin. This, as alio the breall, is
variegated with llreaks of bhick and yrllow, in the manner
of the wafp ; and its antenna; are very beaimtiil!y feathered,
and bearded like thofe of the males of many of the gnat-
kind. The head is black, and the legs arc yellowifh.
The wings have a yellowifh call, and near their end have
e.-K^h a large fpot of brown. The body of the female of
this fpecies is always much thicker than that of the male f
and the fexec are eafily dillinguilhed by this. Reaumur,
Hid. of Inf. vol. ix. p. 19.

WASS Island, in Gen^^raphy, an ii'land of the Atlantic,
near the coall of America. N. hit. 44" 28'. W. long.

W ASSAB, or Wahsjiabs, a country of Africa, on the
Gold Coafl ; tiie foil is barren, but abcuinds in gold.

WASSAIL,

WAS

W A S

WASSAIL, or Was-heal, the falutation of our an-
cellors on occallon of drinking to eav;h other, fignifying
" health be to you."

The term ii purely Saxon ; and though it is now ufed
in a very limited fenle, and only at the time of Chriftmas, it
anciently i'lgnified mirth and fL-lHvity in general ; and in this
fenfe it occurs in Shakfpeare's Hamlet and Macn-^th. Dr.
Percy alfo ufes it in a general f^nfe ; and Ben Jonfon per-
foniSes Waffel, as " a Songller," &c. In the " Ordinances
for the Royal Houlhold," pubhlhed by the Society of
Antiquaries, there is a curious account of the ceremony
of vvafrellnig at court on twelfth night in the reign of
Henry VII. " When the fteward cometh in at the doore
with the waffel, he mull crie three times, ' waffel, waffel,
waffel,' and then the chaplain was to anfwere with a good
fonge."

In the ill vol. of the Antiquarian Repertory is an account
and engraying of an oaken chimney-piece in a very old
houfe at Bexley in Kent, on which is carved a waffel-bowl,
felling on the branches of an apple-tree. On one fide is
the word Cffllafsfjcil, and on the other Scincbeil:. This is at
lead as old as the 14th century.

Grofe, in his Provincial Glolfary, fays, that the cuftom
of throwing toad, and pouring out libations to apple-trees
for proving a fruitful year, which feems to be a relic of the
heathen facrifice to Pomona, was called "Waffel:" the
term is ftill applied to the drinking-fongs fung in the cyder-
counties on the eve of Epiphany, when that ceremony is
performed.

In Holderneffe, and other parts of Yorkfhire, and pro-
bably in other counties, it is the cuffom to carry about
with the vvaffel-cup an image of our Saviour, together with
a quantity of roafted apples. The image feems to have
been conntfled with waffelling originally, and to have
become an appendage to the vvaffcl-cup. Hence this ancient
cuflom has been reffrided to the convivial feafon of Chrift-
mas. But the apples feem to have been connefted with it
at a much earlier period. The cuftom alfo of roalUng
apples on Chriftmas eve ftill continues in fome diftridls.
The origin of the term waffel is traced to the ftory of Vor-
tigern and Rowena, the daughter of Hengift. On their
firft interview, ffie kneeled before him, and prefenting a
cup of wine, faid, Hlaford Kyning, IVaes-heil, i. e. Lord
king, health be to you ! The king being unacquainted
with the Saxon language, a&ed the meaning of the terms,
and being told that they wiflied his health, and that he
fnould aniwer by faying drinc heil ; he did fo, and commanded
her to drink : then taking the cup, he kiffed the damfel
and pledged her. From this time the cuftom long remained
in Britain, that whoever drank to another at a feaft faid
Wacht he'll, and he that received the cup anfwered drinc hell.
The ivaffsl-fongs were lung during the feftivities of Chrift-
mas, and in earlier times by the itinerant minftrels ; of
whom, with the praftice, fome remains may be traced in our
prefent ivaits and carols. One of them is preferved in the
Britifti Mufeum. ( Bib. Reg. 16. 1. viii.) It is an Anglo-
Roman drinking-fong, probably older than the 13th cen-
tury, and compofed when the Norman language was fami-
liar in this country. See Archasolog. vol. xi. p. 411.

WASSAiL-i^oW. See Grace-Ci'/.

WASSANAH, in Geography, a city of Africa, within
fight of the river Zolibib (^the Joliba of Park), whither the
king of TombuCtoo fent a caravan, accompanied by Sidi
Hamct ; and where they were welcomed by the king, and
lodged in a fquare inclofure, remaining there two moons,
and exchanging their goods for Haves, gold, elephants'

2

teeth, Sec. The river, as Sidi Hamet informs us, which
paffes by Waffanah, is called Zadi ; it flows nearly fouth,
and is fo broad, that a man can fcarcely be feen on the
oppofite bank. On each fide is a ridge of mountains, but
feparated by an interval on both fides from the river. The
city appeared to contain twice as many inhabitants as Tom-
budloo ; it was furrounded by a very large wall, built of
great ffones loofely piled up ; and a whole day was required
to walk round it. The country around it is highly culti-
vated. The houfes are conftrucfed of ftones without ce-
ment, and roofed with reed and palm-leaves. The king of
Waffanah is called Oleekov ; he is tall and young ; his
palace is very large, fquare, aud high, built of ftone, with a
fpecies of cement. He was faid to have 150 wives, and
10,000 flaves ; he has alfo a large army, which fight with
guns, fpears, bows, and arrows. When he goes out he
rides on a huge beaft called il femeni (elephant), and is
attended by 200 guards. The people are not Muffulmans,
but addided to various Pagan fuperftitions ; for vvhicL
reafons, though they are honeft, hofpitable, and kind-hearted,
Sidi Hamet allows the pious wifn " that they may foon be
driven out of the goodly land." The inhabitants catch
many fifti ; they have boats made of large trees, hollowed
out, and capable of holding ten, fifteen, or twenty negroes ;
and the king told Sidi Hamet that he was foon to take
fixty boats and 500 flaves to the great water, where he
ftiould fell them to a pale people in large boats, with
mufquets, powder, tobacco, blue clolh, knives, &c. He
faid it was a long way, and would take him three moons
to get there, and that he (liould be gone twenty moons
before he could return, but that he ffiould then be very
rich. Some perfons wh.o had feen thefe pale people, and ufed
to deal with them for flaves and teeth, faid, that they lived
in great boats, and had guns as big as their bodies, that
made a noife like thunder, and would kill all the people in
100 negro boats, if they went too near them. Sidi Hamet
ftaid in this place during the months of March and April ;
and it rained inceffantly. Sidi Hamet's narrative, if au-
thentic, is important, in a variety of refpefts. The de-
Icription of Tombuftoo 'which lee) correfponds to that of
Adams. We may fay the fame of the name Zolibib, anfwer-
ing to the Joliba of Park, Gallu, or Julbi, of Horneman.
Horneman alfo ftates, that this river on the eaftern part of
Its courfe is called Zad, and it there turns rapidly north-
wards. On the whole, the prcfumption feems to be in
favour of the narration, and it certainly opens very interefting
views of the interior of Africa. See Riley's Narrative of
his Capture and Adventures in 1815, in Murray's Hif-
torical Account of Difcoveries and Travels in Africa, vol. i.
8vo. 18 1 7.

WASSAW Island, Great, an ifland in t!ie Atlantic,
near the coaft of Georgia, 16 miles in circumference. N.
lat. 32° 52'. W. long. 81° 8'.

Wassaw IJland, Little, an ifland in the Atlantic, near
the coaft of Georgia, to the fouth-weft of Great Waffaw.

Wassaw Sound, a bay on the coaft of Georgia, between
Great Waffaw ifland and Tybee ifland.

WASSELA, a country of Africa, bounded on the
north and weft by Mandinga and Bambarra, on the eaft by
Kong, and on the fouth by Guinea. N. lat. 10'^ 50' to
12" to'. W. long. 4° 50' to 5^ 45'.

WASSEMBERG, a town of France, in the department
of the Roer, on the Roer ; 9 miles E.S.E. of Ruremond.
N. lat. 51° 4'. E. long. 6° 6'.

WASSEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Uri ; 13 miles S. of Altorff.

Wassex'/

WAS

Wassen'j Bay, a bay on the eall coaft of Cochin-
china. N.lat. I2°5'. E. long. 109° 6'.

Wassen'j Point, a cape on the eall coalt of Cochinchina,
and fouth boundary of WalTen's bay. N. lat. 12° 3'.

WASSERBILLICH, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Forefts, at the union of the Sour and Mofelle ;
ic miles N.E. of Luxemburg.

WASSERBURG, a town and lordfhip of Germany,
belongnur to the family of Fugger, fuuated on a pro^ft'^'i
point of land m the lake of Conftance ; I mile N. oi
Buchorn—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, with ^^aftle and four
churches ; the chief trade is in fait ; 38 miles W.N.W. of
Salzburg. N. lut. 48° 3'. E. long. 12 • 13'.

WASSERLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Wernit^erode ; 4 miles N.W. of Wernig-rode.

WASSER-MUNGENAU, a town of the marggravate

of Anfpach ; 4 miles S.E. of Windfbach.

WASSERNDORF.or Wechseldorf, a town ot Ger-
many, in the lordOiip of Seinfheim ; 3 miles S.E. of Mark

WASSERTRUDINGEN, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Anfpach, on the Wernitz ; 13 miles S. of
Ar.fpach. N. lat. 49° 2'. E. long. 10° 35'.

WASSIGNY, a town of France, m the department ot
the Aifne ; 16 miles N. of Vervins. , , • ,

WASSIHOO, a fmaU town of Africa, in the kmgdoni
of Ludamar, in N. lat. 14° 49'. "'here the cultivation ot
corn is carried on to fuch an extent, that hunger is never
known ; men and women labouring m concert ; 75 miles
E.S.E. of Benowm. 0 r /- 1 t m

WASSILT, a town on the eall coait ot UilOiO. JN.
lat. 1° 17'. E. long. 128^ 6'.

WASSLONNE, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Rhine ; 12 miles W. of Strafburg.

WAST, a town of France, in the department of the
Straits of Calais ; 9 miles E. of Boulogne.

WASTARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bednore ; 15
miles W.S.W. of Sacrapatam.

WASTCHEID, a town of France, in the department
of the Meurte ; 6 miles S.E. of Sarrcbourg.

WASTE, or Wast, Fq/lum, in Larw, has divers figni-

''"lt°rufed for a fpoil, made either in houfes, woods,
lands, &c. by the tenants for life, or for years, to the pre-
iudice of the heir, or of him in reverlion, or remainder.

Wafte is either voluntary, as b^ pulling down a hnuie ;
or permiffive, as by differing it to fall for want of necefl^ary
reparations. Whatever does a laftmg damage to the freehold
01 inhcntance is walk : therefore the removing of wainfcot
floors, or other things, once fixed to the freehold ot a
iioufe, is wafte. , ^

Wafte may alfo be committed in ponds, dovc-houles,
warrens, and'the hke ; by f»/^ducmg the number o
erections therein, that there will not be fufficient for tie
reverfioner when he comes to the inheritance. io cut
down trees that are deemed timber, as oak, alli, and elm,
and other trees generally ufed in building, or to lop them,
or do any other ad by which the timber may decay is
%vafte. The converf.on of land from one fpec.es to ai.ocher
is wafte ; and alfo to convert one fpecies of edifice into
another, even though it is improved in its value. Fo open
the land to fearch for mines of metal, coal, &c. is u Jltc ,
and, in general, whatever tends to the dcftruA.on or depn.-
ciatingthe value, of the inhcntance, is conftitutcd by the
law as wafte.

WAS

In confequcnce of the ftatute of Marlbridge, 52 Hen. III.
cap. 23. and that of Gloucefter, 6 Edw. I. cap.5. all tenants
for life, or for any lefs eftate, are punifhable or liable to be
impeached for wafte, both voluntary and permiffive ; unlefs
their leafes be made, as fometimes they are, without im-
peachment of wafte, akfque impethione I'lijli ; that is, with a
provifion or protcftion that no man fliall im/f/fn; or fue them
for wafte committed.

The puniftiment for wafte committed was, by common
law and the ftatute of Marlbridge, only fingle damages,
except in the cafe ot a guardian in chivalry, who alfo for-
feited his wardfhip by the provifions of the great charter,
o Hen. III. cap. 4. But the ftatute of Glouceft-r direfts,
that tenants in dower, by courtefy, for hfe, and for years,
ihall lofe an '. forfc-it the place in which the wafte is com-
mitted, and alfo treble damages, to him that hath the inhe-
ritance. For this purpofe a writ of wafte is brought by
him who hath the immediate eftate of inheritance in rever-
fion or remainder, calling upon the tenant to appear and
ftiew caule why he hath committed wafte ; and if the de«
fendant makes default, or doth not appear at the day
affigned him, then the (heriff, with a jury of twelve men, is
to go to the place alleged to be wafted, and there inquire
of the wafte done, and the damages ; and make a return
or report to the court, upon which report the judgment is
founded. But if the defendant appears, and afterwards
fullers judgment to go againft him by default, or upon a
nihil dicit, this amounts to a confelTion of the wafte ; and
the ftieiift" ftiall then only make inquiry of the quantum of
damages. When the wafte and damages are thus alcertained,
by coiifeffion, verdid, or inquiry of the (herirt', judgment is
given, in purfuance of the ftatute of Gloucefter, cap. 5, that
the plaintitr ftiall recover the pLce wafted, fur which lie
has immediately a writ of feifin, and alfo that he fttaU
recover treble the damages alTefi"ed by the jury.

The redrefs of this injury of wafte is alfo preventive, by
writ of eftrepcment : and, befides, the courts of equity,
upon bill exhibited therein, complaining of wafte and de-
ftruaion, will grant an injunaion to ftay wafte, ""t" ^he
defendant ftiall have put in his anfwer, and the court (hall
thereupon make farther order : which is now become the
moft ulual way of preventing wafte. Blackft. Com. book 11.

book lii. &c.

Waste is alfo taken for thofe lands which are not in any
man's occupation, but lie common.

They fcem to be fo called, becaufe the lord cannot make
fuch profit of them as of his other lands ; by reafon of the
ufe others have thereof, for paffing to and fro. Upon this
none may build, cut down trees, dig, &c. without the
lord's licence. , ,,

Much land of this kind is met with m almolt every
diftrid of the kingdom, which is very capable of being
converted to a ftate of profitable cultivation without any
very ereat expcnce, after it has been incloled. 1 He
whole extent of the land yet in the ftate of wafte is very
confiderable, and ftated by diff'erent writers, as dravvn trom
the beft authorities, .it upwards of fix milhons vi acres,
four of which at leaft are fuppofed capable of being
brought into cultivation for the growth ot crops of the
moft nfefu! kinds. ,,

It has been fuggefted by the wnter ot an excellent paper
on the " produftion and confumption of "rn, &c in the
fifth volu'ne of Commumcat.ons to the Board of Agricul-
ture, that ,f this addition of land were cultivated, it would
very mucii extend the productive territory of the country,
and that as it mull be cultivated cluclly for t.Uagc, wouM

WASTE.

be a timely and defirable addition to the corn land of the

kingdom. n ,

It is, of courfe, a queftion of much general mtereft and
importance, whether a confiderable portion of the capital em-
ployed in the enclofure and improvement of walle land, may
not often be more beneficially applied in the amelioration of
land already in a ftate of partial cultivation.

The fcarcity of corn, which prevailed throughout the
kingdom a few years iince, afted, however, it is faid, as a
powerful llimulus to the enclofure and improvement of wafte
land in this country, and that the fpirit which was then ex-
cited has not yet by any means fubfided. And it is now
perhaps flill more neceflary, as affording a means of provid-
ing a large increafe of productive labour for a portion of the
working clafs of fociety. As there is now a great deallefs
than a fufficiency of labour for the demand of the country,
it would probably be poUtic in the ftate to convert a part of
fuch unrequired portion of it to the m,eans of extending the
culture and fertihty of the territory of the nation. It has
been properly fuggefted, tliat new land ought not to be im-
proved at the expence, or by the negleft of the old, but in
addition to it, and from new refources.

In a fubjeft of this kind, particular eircumftances muft
be regarded. In fome wafte lands, from their fituations and
the quality of their foils, they are capable of being brought
into a ftate of high cultivation and improvement, with com-
paratively but httle labour and expence ; while, in others,
the eircumftances are fuch as to render any attempts at the
amelioration of them productive of great expence, and pro-
bably of but little profit. Indeed the fame quantity of
labour and expence which would be neceffary to divide and
cultivate them, would in all probabiUty raife a much larger
proportion of produce, if applied to lands already enclofed,
but in an imperfeAly cultivated ilate.

It is remarked, by the able writer of an agricultural re-
port of a northern diftridl, in fupport of improving wafte
land, that as there is reafon to believe that many landlords,
or proprietors of ground, do not advert to the gain of im-
proving fuch waftes, it may be proper to ftate it, and to
ftiew that in no other way can money be laid out to fuch ad-
vantage. Whenever it is laid out with judgment, as it al-
ways may and ought, the rilk is lefs and the gain greater, it
is faid, than in manufaftures or in commerce. The improver
of land is, in the firft place, free of all hazard ; and in the
next place, may be fuppofed, in general, to gain at leaft
twelve or twenty per cent, upon his outlays. The average
expence of removing the wetnefs or improving wafte ground
is commonly eftimated, it is faid, to be under three pounds
the acre. Now if by thefe three pounds, land worth only
from one ftiilling to three ftiiUings is raifed to fifteen or
twenty ftiillings, the improver has at the loweft rate twelve
per cent, for his money ; or, in other words, by laying out
three pounds, he adds fifteen pounds to his ftock, as every
ftiilling per annum which the acre is improved, is worth at
leaft twenty -five years' purchafe. Inclofing and manuring
are not reckoned, as lands already in tillage need thefe ame-
liorations as well as thofe that are yet uncultivated. The
only expence peculiar to the improvement of wafte lands is,
it is faid, that of draining and reducing the furface to an
arable ftate ; and this, it is believed, was ftated fully high,
as the value of the improvement is probably ftated too low.
At leaft this is generally eftiiwated higher, it is faid, where-
ever it has taken place, as might be ftiewn in numberlefs in-
ftances throughout the kingdom.

In fpeaking of the fame dillriO;, the writer farther ob-
ferves, that it ia often faid that the foil and climate are more

adapted for producing grafs than corn, but the truth is, that
the foil and climate of the greater part of it are well fuited
for either ; and that wherever toil and (Ivill are exerted in
raifing either, they are fure of being well rewarded. But
fuppofing grafs fliould be the great objed, ought we not,
it is aiked, to put more of the land there in a capacity for
raifing it ? The meadows there are bad, but we may, fays
the writer, mend them ; they are few, but we may add to
them, and almoft to any degree we pleafe, and create both
pafture for the fummer and provender for the winter. By
fuch improvement of our wafte lands, the writer fays, and
by the introduction of green crops, it is poflible enough
that in half a century fome parts of this diftrift might be
made to rear more than double the black cattle or fheep that
are reared at prefent. It is impoflible to fay what the quan-
tity of wafte land in this diftrift, it is faid, if improved,
might one day be made to produce. It is certain that much
of it would be found to be more produftive than a great
part of what is in tillage at prefent.

Profitable, however, as this bufinefs would entirely turn
out, both to the individual and to the public, it is to be re-
gretted, the writer thinks, that they who are able are not
often difpofed to attempt it. Inftead of this, they choofe,
it is faid, to buy more, and to enlarge their quantity of wil-
dernefs, rather than to improve what they already have. If
they would duly weigh thefe two diff^crent plans, they would
probably, it is thought, make a different choice. For it is
indeed a common obfervation in this diftrift, it is faid, that
proprietors feldom make much of farming or improving land.
A ftatement in the report on the agriculture of the
county of Montgomery in North Wales, however, ftiews
that the advantages of improving wafte lands is much greater
than is fuggefted in the above detail, confiderable as it may
appear. It is there faid, that Mr. Corbet now draws fifty
per cent, per annum for the money laid out in improving his
peaty or turbary lands ; which is the fame as buying an
eftate at two years' purchafe. And that were it not for
fome particular expences attending the inclofing and defend-
ing of it, as thofe of embanking, the profit inftead of this
w'ould be above one hundred pounds per cent, per annum.

In the account of the agriculture of the northern coun-
ties, it is ilated too, that a Ipirited farmer there, who many
years ago took in leafe a traft of fourteen hundred acres
of wafte land, finds fome of the worft of them now very
cheap at forty (hillings each even in pafture ; that one hun-
dred of them are worth more than the whole farm when he
took it ; and that, though formerly covered with heath, and
in a high unftieltered fituation, the parts improved were
brought, in one or two years, at a moderate expence, to
produce as abundant paftures as any near the banks of the
Clyde.

It is therefore conceived, by the writer of the report no-
ticed above, that in every view the improvement of wafte
lands is a gainful bufinefs to the owner or undertaker of it.
That it is found to be fo even in this part of the county,
though often fo charged, as that the improvement upon an
acre of land has from five to ten ftiillings a year of tithes
and poor rates. This, it is faid, of itfelf, would be no
fniall gain in fome cafes, but which is had there, the writer
fays, over and above that in the cafe of their neighbours.
It is evident, therefore, it is fuppofed, that he who is able
fhould lofe no time in improving his wafte land ; and that he
who cannot do it otherwife, would find it his intereft rather
to fell the one half in order to improve the other, than that
the work ftiould be left undone. When a proprietor is not
difpofed, it is faid, to improve his wafte grounds himfelf, he

ought

WASTE.

ought to give the mod hberal encouragement to tenants and
the labouring poor to do it for him. The foundation of the
encouragement, however, it is thought, fhould there be cer-
tainly a long leafe to poor, honeft, and indullrious labourers;
with a fmall allowance to build a houfe, and to help them to
live until they can raife food to fupport themfelves ; after
which they fhould pay intereft for the money, and a fmaU
rent for the ground. Proprietors, &c. fliould indeed, it is
thought, give any encouragement fhort of their own lofs,
rather than allow fucli lands to lie any longer as they are.
It may be noticed here too, that in improving thefe forts of
land, the open drains or ditches may often be made to ferve
as fences ; fo that the expence of inclofmg may be faved,
which will contribute greatly to the advantage of this fort
of improvement.

It is evident, from what has been advanced, that there
are different forts of wafte land, which muft of nccefBty re-
quire different methods of practical management and work-
ing to bring them into a proper (late of cultivation, and
confequently demand more or lefs expence in making the
improvement which is neceffary.

Such lands may, however, for the moll part, be arranged
and confidered under the three general heads flated below.

1. Elevated barren lands, covered with different forts of
coarfe plants.

2. Low lands of the fwampy, boggy, moraffy, and other
fuch watery kinds, infefled with various defcriptions of
coarfe vegetable produftions.

3. Peaty, moffy, turfy, and other fuch lands, of which
there are many different kinds.

Under each of thefe heads a great many varieties will ob-
vioufly be met with in the praftice of improving them,
which are to be conflantly kept in view and fully regarded,
in order to effedl the bufinefs in the moll eafy, cheap, and
effeftual manner.

Flrjl Dlvtfion nf Wafle Land. — This comprehends all the
varieties and denominations of moory, heathy, mountain,
down, and other fuch lands, however diverlilied and changed
by the particular circumftances of quality, fituation, coarfe
herbage, and other fnch matters.

In regard to the nature of the foil, and the means of im-
proving it where the ground is covered with fern, iieath,
furze, and other fimilar plants, the remarks of Mr. Phillips,
a writer on the improvement of wafte lands in North Wales,
are highly interefting and ufeful. In fpeakiiig of the im-
proving of them there when of the barren mountain kind,
and covered with furze and fern, it is faid that the thin
layer of foil or mould upon thefe lands feems to have been
created and formed by the annual decay and decompofition
of portions of the gorfe, which is a plant admirably calcu-
lated to produce, and afterwards to det;iiii, in fpite of rains
and florms, the vegetable earth, afforded by fuch means,
upon thefe lleep dechvities. Around each bufh of the
gorfe is always found, it is faid, a heap, more or lefs high,
of excellent mould or foil ; and fo completely do the
prickles of this plant defend the grafles tliat grow among it
from the attacks of flieep, that the earth produced by the
fucceffive decay of vegetable matter conllantly accninulales,
and renders land, that a few centuries ago would probably
have been unproductive, proper for the growth of corn, it
is impoffible, it is faid, to traverfe the mountains there, with-
out obferving how wifely thefe tilings are contrived by Him
who provides fur us all. The highefl mountains of North
Wales, where the rock does not every where appear, are
clothed with heath. As ages roll by, the foil or earth, pro-
duced by the annual decay of portions of the heath, becomes
fit to produce gorfe. If the water hawc a ready fall, and
Vol. XXXVII.

the land be dry, this plant appears in abundance on the moft
expofed fides of fuch mountains. Where foil or earth has
accumulated in fufficient quantities, the next proteftor and
fertihzer of the mountain is fern. Wherever this plant flou-
rillies, flill richer quantities of vegetable earth or mould are,
it is faid, every year added to the furface foil ; and the
ground is rapidly prepared for the plough.

The nature, fituation, circumftances, and fome other
points, in refpeft to the ground, muft, in thefe cafes, con-
flantly regulate the modes of clearing the furface, dividing,
incloling, and laying out the lands, as well as the buildings
that may be neceffary, and dirc<ft tlie kind and extent of the
different operations which are afterwards the beft and mofl
proper and advantageous to be eftablifhed and carried on in
the improvement of it. Where the land is thin, too much
ploughing is moflly, however, to be avoided, though in
other circumftances it may, for the moft part, be ufed freely,
efpecially where any fort of fuitable ameliorating fubftances
are at hand ready to be applied.

It is flated that a great deal of moorifti land, which is
covered fometimes with heath, and fometimes with bent
grafs and Jpruts, is met with in the diftrift of Argyle, in
Scotland, and probably prevails in oilier northern counties ;
and that as this fort of land there has commonly a good
defcent, and refts upon gravel at no great diftance from the
furface, which is generally a black earth of the peat kind, it
may be cultivated with the plough at no great expence. In
which cafe, it is direfted that it fhould firft be ploughed in
fuinmer, in narrow ridges ; and foon after either crofs-
ploughed, or well broken down in fome other manner, as by
fpades, where it can be done. It fhould tiien be covered
with bine, or fome other proper manure, receive a gentle
harrowing, and lie in that flate until it get the feed-furrow
in the fpring. It is found that lime is peculiarly fuited to
heathy and new land, as, by its caullic quality, it converts
thefe and other vegetable matters into fine mould. The
efFeA of lime upon new land is niucli greater than upon old.
The fummcr's heat, the winter's frotl, and tlie fermentation
caufed by the manure, will, in moft cafes, make it mellow
and manageable enough by that time. If, in any cafe, it
fhould not, it is beft, it is faid, to let it have another fum-
mer ploughing, and to let it lie until the next year, when the
crop will be fo much the better as to pay for the delay.
After the ground is feeded and harrowed, the plough fhould
be run lightly through all the ridge furrows, in order to
carry oft fuperfluous moifture, and keep the ridges dry.
With the fecond crop, it fliould nioftly be laid down with
grafs-feeds for pallure, and tlie furrows be well cleaned. If
the ground be of a good Ihiple, three crops may, however,
be taken, provided the middle one be turnips, with dung.
It is faid in the twelfth volmiie of the " Statillical Account
of Scotland," that in this way Mr. Barclay, of Ury, has im-
proved three hundred acres of barren land of this fort. This,
after the lime given to the firll crop, will leave the land in
better heart, it is thought, than if only two white crops
were taken fimply with the lime.

In the above dillnit, the improvement of walle lands of
tliii defcription is fo clieap a purciiafe, it is l;iid, that even
tenants upon a nineteen years' leafe, having accefs to lime,
might purlue it to great advantage. A tew of iheni do fo,
and more, it is expedled, w-ill follow their example. Some
in the parifli of South-end, who belong to the duke of Ar-
gyle, have done much of late years in this way, by which
their firms and their prolits are enlarged, and the face of the
ditlrid beautified. But the greatell imiirovement of this
kind that has yet taken place there, is th.it by the late
flierift" Campbell, of Stonelleld, who refcued moftly from
J A the

WASTE.

the ftate df barren heath a large farm of many hundred
acres, which now of itfelf would be no fmall eftate. And
j'et it may be faid, the writer oblerves, that this vaft im-
provement coft him nothing ; for he ufed to fay that the
work always defrayed its own expence. It was befides the
means and afforded the pleafure of giving employment to a
great number of labouring poor, and of doing much good
to all around in different ways, but efpecially by furnidving
feed-corn, which is found to do the beft when taken from
new lands, a confideration tliat fhould more powerfully re-
commend the improvement of thefe forts of land.

In the improvement of this fort of wafte land, where the
heath and other coarfe plants on the furface are confiderable,
it is the practice with fome to apply lime in large propor-
tions fome time before the ground is to be broken up, as it
;is found to have great power and effeft ia deftroying fuch
.coarfe matters, and in preparing the fuperficial parts of the
foil and ground for the operation of the plough and the aftion
of other tools, and of bringing it into the neceffary cultivation.
It is a mode which is thought to fucceed well, and to be
highly ufeful and advantageous in many fuch cafes.

A large part of an extenfive traft of barren heath of no
:great value near Cardiff, in South Wales, has not long ago
been improved to vaft benefit at a moderate expence, by
breaft-ploughing, or paring and burning the furface, carefully
fpreading and turning in the afhes in a light manner, mixing
them well with the foil by dragging and harrowing, and
then applying lime in not too large a quantity, cropping
with wheat, turnips, or fome other more fuitable crops. In
fome inflances, the lime was mixed with the afhes to better
advantage. This, it is afferted, is the cheapeft and mofl
effeftual method of bringing fuch fort of wafte land into a
ftate of cultivation and improvement.

' Though objeftions have been made to the cultivating of
wheat in the firft inftance, in fuch cafes, it would appear, it
is faid, to be the nioft profitable mode of proceeding. This
crop fhould be followed by turnips, or by oats with ray-
grafs and red clover, but the former fs to be greatly pre-
ferred in general, efpecially if the neceffary quantity of
fuitable manure can be procured in a ready manner ; when
barley with feeds may be tried in fucceffion to the turnips,
particularly where they fucceed in fuch a manner as to
keep fheep a fufficient length of time on the field. The
courfe of the crops will then run thus : wheat, the ftubble
carefully turned down in the autumn, then turnips, and
thefe followed by barley or oats, with ray-grafs and red
clover. The firft crop of thefe graffes grazed by flieep, or
other forts of live-ftock, as moft convenient. Land thus
managed, when broken up a fecond time, will foon become,
without doubt, it is fuppofed, nearly equal to moft other
land in the vicinity of it.

It may be neceffary in many cafes, and on many accounts,
to vary the firft crop. In fome it may be moft ufeful and
proper to begin with turnips ; in others witli oats and feeds,
or with the former only. In lands wliere mucilage appeared
deficient, buck-wheat, turned in, has been tried with great
fuccefs, efpecially when afterwards mixed with lime and
dung. But the above method of beginning with wheat was
found the befl in all cafes where circundlances would permit
it. Wheat, when the ground is properly prepared, will al-
ways, it is thought, beft repay the expence of fuch pre-
paration ; and green leguminous crops, eaten off by fheep or
cattle, will afterwards improve the land confiderably, even
without other means, which fhould, however, never be ne-
glefted where the expence of providing them is moderate.
See a trail on the cultivation of wafte land in the above
(liftria of Wales, by Col. Capper.

Heath land, where the ftaple is very thin before fmall
ftones and gravel are reached, may be improved in fome-
what the fame way ni fome cafes ; and after the furface
materials have been reduced and fpread out, by nine-fhare
ploughing it, and fowing it with grafs-feeds well har-
rowed in. By this fimple method, the fward foon becomes
fweet, good, and pro.iudive, the heath that originally co-
vered tlie ground foon difappearing. Waftes that are natu-
rally poor, thin, and barren, fhould never, or but in few
cafes, have corn attempted to be raifed upon them in the
firft inftance. Heath lands of this fort intended for fheep-
walks may be improved by breaft-ploughing,- burning, and
fpreading out the afhes upon a certain proportion of them
every year ; half of fuch portion being direftly prepared
for early turnips ; the other half for the fame crop in the
fpring. The turnips on the ilrft part, when fed off on the
land by fheep, fliould have the ground they occupied fown
after being prepared early in the fpring with tares, in the
quantity of three bufhels to the acre, with a few oats ;
thefe to be fed off with fheep alfo, then fowing turnips
again for the fpring, which being fed off as before, the
land is to be fown with oats and wliite clover feeds, eight
pounds to the acre, with a bufhel of good hay-feeds. The
clover not to be in any way ftocked, after the oats are cut,
until the fpring. This land, by being hurdled off, where
practicable, and fed with fneep for two or three years, will.
It is faid, become an excellent fward, and form a great im-
provement, affording the improver vaft profit in the increafe
of the fheep it can fupport.

There are other modes of bringing wafte lands of thefe
different kinds into cultivation, as by planting potatoes in
the ridge and other methods, which is well iuited to the
means of improving fmall portions by the labouring poor,
in many inftances, as they often produce good abundant
crops, and render the lands foon fit for other purpofes, with-
out fcarcely any expence being incurred.

The fowing of the feeds of leguminous plants among
thofe of the grafs kind, too, has been found not only to in-
creafe the herbage much, but to greatly ameliorate the
earth of the land in different cafes. See Heath, Moor,
Would, &c. Alfo Paring and Burning.

Planting thefe forts of waftes with proper kinds of trees
may alto anfwer well in many cafes, and afford great advan-
tage to the owner;. See Planting.

Second Divifwn of M^a/k Lam!. — This comprifes all the
forts and varieties of foft, boggy, and watery land that are
formed by the depofition of different rich earthy or other
fuch matters ; and is, in many cafes, a colleftion of the rich
mud and fediment wliich is wafhed down from the higher
grounds, io mixed with the recrements of different decayed
vegetables of its own growth) and fo over-charged with
ftagnant water, that no fort of animal can fcarcely pafs
upon it. It is a fort of wafte land that is, for the moft
part, more difficult of impi-ovement than heathy moor, or
any of the kinds included in the firft divifion, but which will
nioftly pay better for the expence wlien it has been accom-
plifhed than any of them. It is indeed a fort of land that,
when well freed of its wetnefs, is the richeft and moft pro-
duAive of any ; nor is the clearing of it of its water in
many cafes fo difficult as may at firft be fuppofed. Some-
tmies the water which produces tlie mifchief comes from
higher grounds, fo that it may be eafily intercepted, and
afterwards be made to ferve it, in the way of manure, by
being thrown over the furface of it. In other cafes, the
water is afforded by internal fprings, which are eafily dif-
covered, when the land has got an outlet on the lower fide
of it, to which the water thus produced can be condufted

by

WASTE.

by open cuts as the mud-earthy material futifides. It may
then be drawn off in the ufual way, and the land converted
to valuable palture or corn crops, as may be the moft fuit-
able and proper.

In this manner, and by the application of proper fub-
ftances of different kinds on the furfacc when neccffary,
many conlidorable trafts of fuch forts of wafte 'and in dif-
ferent parts of the kingdom have, within thcfe late years,
been brought into an excellent ffate of cultivation for the
produftioM of corn as well as grafs. And befides fuch ad-
vantages, the removal of the ftagnant wetnefs in the lands,
in many inftances, is of much benefit in promoting the
healthinefs of the neighbourhoods, by removing the cold
and putrid exhalations that proceed from them.

The writer of the traft already alluded to remarks, that
the improvement of boggy grou id of this fort, in his trials,
required more attentio.^, and likewife morecxpence, to bring
it into cultivation, than that of the firll divifion. That in
five or fix fields, under the management then pointed out
and pradtifcd, there were fmall fpots of this kind of land,
arifing from internal wetnefs on the breads of the oppofite
hills, which had been long choal ed up, and made fwamps
of a temporary nature fome dillance around them ; but
which have been removed by tapping and forming furface
cuts from them, to conduft the fuperfluous internal and the
top water, by the fide ditches, to tlie main cuts, and in fome
particular inftances by ftrong covered or open deep cuts to
the fame channels or paffages. Since this method has been
had recourfe to, thefe fields have, it is faid, been fown with
wheat, and have borne very excellent crops. At the bottom
of the hills on the different fides runs a fmall brook, it is
obferved, which has been converted into one of the main
paffages for taking away the wetnefs of the whole of the
wafte : on each fide of the brook, the earth has been gra-
dually walhed down from the adjacent hills, and a quantity
of black mould depofited from it, to the depth of about
two feet and a half, and in fome places three feet : under-
neath this foil or mould is in general a fine white fand upon
a gravel, but in fome places the mouldy material only covers
a common peat earthy matter. Various trials, it is faid,
have been made in bringing thefe different foils or lands into
cultivation : with a mixture of lime, a tolerable crop of
wheat has been obtained, even from the peat earth part ; and
on the other, by the fame means, abundant crops of oats
have been had. It is intended to try if cabbages, by the
lielp of lime and dung in mixture, will thrive in thefe bot-
toms. By fuch means, it is not doubted, but that in the
courfe of a few years thefe bottom parts will throw up
abundant crops of excellent grafs, which, in many places,
indeed already begins, it is faid, to appear. One half ot thofo
boggy bottoms was capable of being ploughed the firll year
after they had been fned from wetnefs ; the other part was
either fown with oats after being dug over, or planted with
proper aquatic trees, fuch as withys and others.

But for waftcs of this nature, where there is much coarfe,
rufliy htrbaj;e on the furface, and they are confiderribly dry,
the method advifed below is fuggetted as very beneficial and
proper, -t is, in the months of April and May to pare
and burn th" furface ; and after the matters thus produced
arc fpread equally over it, the ground to be turned over
with a very ebb furrow, and at the proper feafon to be fown
with tun.ips in the broadcaft manner. From the almoll en-
tire abfence of root-weeds, in confequence of the burning,
the crop will require little care in dreffmg by the hoe. The
turnips ar« to he coiifumed upon the ground, by folding
(heep upon it by means of flakes or hurdles. As foon as
the land is cleared of the turnips, it is to be ploughed with

a good furrow, and to remain in that ftate until the feafon
for fowing the fame crop again arrives. If well worked, and
laid into ridges or ftitches of the ufual breadth of two feet
and a half, the dung produced by the ftieep that confumed
the firft turnip crop will render the land capable of giving
a fuperior crop of the fame kind the fecond feafon. This
fecond crop, lik^ the firft, is to be contumed by folding
(heep on the land in the fame manner ; which being finiftied,
the land is to be ploughed and laid into ridges for a corn
crop, which is to be either barley or oats, as the nature of
the foil and fituation of the lands may be. If rich and well
ftieltered, they fhould be cropped with barley ; if otherwife,
with oats ; in either cafe to be iown off with grafs-feeds for
patture. It is thought that under this procefs of ma-
nagement the fmalleft poffible expence is incurred, and that
the lands, at the end of three feafons only, are thrown into
pafturc in high condition, while in the courfe of the procefs
one valuable corn crop, and one good crop of turnips, have
been afforded, together with a lefs valuable one of the fame
fort ; which laft, however, may be fufficient to defray all
the expence of tillage attending it, over and above that of
reducing the coarfe furface. The expence of preparing for
the fecond turnip crop, and for the corn crop, will amount
to no more than the price of ordinary light tillage ; and the
lands, from being brought into the ftate of grafs in high con-
dition, will not only affurd abundant profitable pafture, but
at the fame time be ready, when broken up at a futUrc
period, to yield full crops of corn.

In low wet bottoms, another experienced improver of
wafte lands ftates too, that the moft beneficial mode that
has been attempted is, to pare and burn for the fame crop
to be eaten off by ffieep ; then to fow oats, and afterwards
to lay on five chaldrons of lime to the acre as a preparative
for another crop of turnips to be eaten by ftieep as before ;
after which to fow oats, with feeds in the quantity of fixteen
pounds of white clover, five pounds of rib-grats, and a
quarter of good hay -feeds to the acre. Land fo managed,
it is faid, will carry coiifiderably more ftock than it did in
its original ftate. If the water has been completely removed,
thefe feeds may be broken up at the end of two years, or as
foon as they appear to decline in produAivenefs, for wheat,
and be put into the four-ftiift hufbandry, namely, turnips
after wheat, to be fucceeded by barley, clover, turnips, and
wlieat again. Until the land becomes tired of red clover,
there cannot, it is fuppofed, be a more judicious method
adopted for fuch waile lands than this. When it becomes
tired with the red clover, which it will moftly be after two
fncceffive rounds, either beans, peas, or feeds, may be fub-
ftitiited. The two furnier are ameliorating crops, and will
be found beneficial where fuch waftes are of a flrong quality
of foil, particularly tlie former, where the Innd is ftrong
enough for beans. The heft fubftitute for red clover, in
fuch cafes, is fmall feeds for two years, which throws it
from the four into the five-lhift fyftem.

There are fome other methods of improving and bringing
thefe forts of waftes into cultivation, but which will be fecn
under their proper heads. See Bog,'SwamV, Morass, &c.
Alfo Si'rtiN<i-M lining, and SALT-JtLir/i.

Planting with willows and oziers may often be highly pro-
fitable in fiich lanrls.

ThinI Divifion of Wajl: Land. — This includes all forts of
peaty or moffy lands, from thofe of the fmalleft depths to
thcfe of the greateft, however different they may be in
their qualities, textures, aud other circumftancea. ,\s they
vary very greatly in all tfiefe refpefts, as well as in fome
others, and in the quantities of moifture or wetnefs which
they contain, it is obvious tli.u there muft be great diverfity
5 A I ia

WASTE.

in the means and methods of cultivating and bringing them
into a ftate of improvement. As there is almoft always a
degree of wetnefs in them, which is unfriendly to the culture
and growth of all or moft forts of plants which are objefts
of the farmer's attention, it is moftly neceffary, but efpe-
cially in thofc of the deeper kinds, to free them as much as
poffible from the excefs of moiftnefs which is prefent, as a
lirft Hep towards their improvement. This is effeftcd in
different ways by different improvers of waftes of this na-
ture, as will be feen below. After which the furface is to
be attended to and rendered as even as may be by fome pro-
per means, as the nature of it may direft. It is then to be
confolidated and rendered more compact by the application
of different forts of weighty fubftances of the earthy and
other kinds, and by all other means by which it can be pro-
moted. This is particularly necelTary where fuch waftes are
of a fungous open quality, and may be effetted by any fort
of materials of the above kinds which are in quantity and at
hand. In different cafes, fand, clay, marie, and other fuch
matters, may be met with under fuch wafte lands, and anfwer
the purpofe very effeftually at but little expence.

There are improvers of wafles of this fort too, efpecially
■where they are of the lefs deep kind, who pare and burn
the furface after the land has been well freed from fuper-
fluous water, and bv means of the afhes often procure to-
lerable crops of the corn kind, fpeedily reducing the furface
into good order.

It has been obferved, that the great point in reducing
waftes of this kind to corn lands is, in the firll place, to lay
them to dry fo as to favour vegetation, but not fo dry as to
deprive the plants as crops of the neceffary moiflure. This
fort of medium is, therefore, to be carefully attended to ;
as the value of fuch lands is not unfrequently diminifhed by
the lafl as well as the firft of thefe caufes.

This fort of wafte is of fuch a porous and open quality,
that if deprived entirely of its natural moifture, it will, it
is faid, admit the drought too greatly for the dews to
reach.

Wafte land of this kind, feveral feet deep, is faid to be
made capable of carrying natural clover, and other fine
graftcs, in fome cafes, by no other means than removing the
wetnefs, fmoothing tlie furface, and giving a good covering
of ditch fcourings, and tlie mud fcrapings of tlie fides of
the roads.

In fome cafes of waftes of this kind refting upon fine
clayey or ftrong loamy bottoms, they are floated away, in
cafe a ftream fufficiently ftrong can be procured for the pur-
pofe, in the view of the rich foil underneath being reached
and brought into cultivation. This procefs and praftice
were probably firft fuggefted and had recourfe to by the late
ingenious and intelligent lord Kaimes, and moft fuccefsfuUy
and extenfively followed out by his fon and fucceffor, in the
improving of a very large tradi of low wafte of this fort in
the northern part of the kingdom ; which is now made to
fupport numerous families, from being wholly barren and
unproduftive before.

In other cafes of a fimilar nature, the moffy material is
not, it is faid, floated down by a ftream of water, but only
improved upon the furface ; which is done by cutting a
large canal or patfage on that fide the wafte next the fall,
which is intended to convey the water from the field or land.
Smaller ditches are then caft, which form the field or land
into ridges, which are made of more or lefs breadth, as the
wafte may happen to be more or lefs fohd, but all terminat-
ing in the great cut or paffage. The land of the field is
next turned over by digging it, and where potatoes are to
be the firft crop, they are planted in the lazy bed mode-

acrofs the ridges ; but in cafe the firft crop is to be grain,'
the earth or foil of the ridges is turned over the length-
ways of them, or in the direAion of the fmaller cuts or
openings.

It is thought by the writer of the correfted Report of
the Agriculture of the County of Invernefs, in Scotland,
that of all the different methods praftifed for overcoming
this fort of wafte, and for procuring a firft crop, none ap-
pears to be fo fuccefsful as potatoes. The mould or foil
expands fo eafily, it is faid, that the root gets room to fwell
and attain its full fize. The ftem and leaves of the plant
retain the dew better than any culmiferous plant ; by which
means more nouriftiment is procured, in cafe the foil and
fcafon be dry, and the decompofition of the cloddy earth is
promoted : while on the other hand, if the field or land be
rather too much overcharged with water, the alleys or open-
ings along the fides of the beds help to draw away what
might prove injurious; and laflly, the planting and cover-
ing, with the hoeing and digging up of the crop, work the
ground more perfectly into the mouldy ftate.

It is noticed, that whatever may have been the original
colour and texture of this fort of land, it, by being wrought
for a few vears, acquires the appearance and fome of the
qualities of loam. It, however, takes a long time, if ever
It can poffcfs the ftrength of it, fo as to bear a frequent re-
turn to wliite crops ; but by fuitable judicious changes of
turnips, potatoes, and grafs, raifed alternately with white
crops, it may, it is thought, be made to continue any length
of time in a produftive ftate.

Some fuppofe this kind of wafte land is befl adapted to
the raifing of grafs ; and that, for that purpofe, more than
of growing corn, it fliould moifly be improved and brought
into cultivation. Clover will grow in it, if it be fufficicntly
dry, it is faid ; and rye-grafs flill better, as it is lefs dehcate.
But that the fort of grafs that fuits it beft, is the meadow
foft-grafs or Yorkfliire white. This grows clofe and quickly,
keeps the ground well, and is equally fit for pafture and for
hay.

In Lancafhire, where extenfivc improvements of this fort
of wafles have lately been effedled, and where vaft trafts
ftill remain to be improved, the methods of praftice in
bringing them into fuch Hates are in fome meafure thefe.
In the fouthern part of the diftrict they are firft divided into
fuitable fields or portions by large open ditches, fo cut and
formed as to be prevented from being forced in by the pref-
fure of the water that is contained in the land, by which
they are freed of a confiderable part of it. They have then
fmaller covered drains formed in tiiem in proper dircftions
for taking off more of tfie fuperfluous wetnefs that may be
prefent, tlie diftances of which are regulated by the nature
of the wafte, and the quantity of moifture that may be in it.
After this the furface is levelled and brought into order by
taking off the coarfe, hilly, uneven parts, and putting them
into large heaps to be confumed in a flow fmothering man-
ner, fpreading the reduced materials evenly out over the
whole, adding a good full covering of clay, marie, or fine
lime-ftone gravel, fome of which are moftly found under the
lands.

When they have remained for fome time in this fituation,
they are broken up by a proper plough contrived and pre-
pared for the purpofe, by having the irons in a perfeftly
fharp condition, and by the coulter being fo fixed as to ope-
rate without refiftance. The liorfes employed as the team
in the firft breaking up, and fometimes afterwards, are under
the necefTity of having pattens put upon their hind feet, as
this faves the labour of men, except in particular inftances
of very foft lands of this fort. The cropping is fuch as has
' been

WAS

W A 8

been already feeii, but the great objefts as firft crops are
oats, turnips, potatoes, and a few others. By thcfe means,
this kind of walle is there frequently foon got into a pro-
fitable ftate.

The trafts of wade of this defcription in the middle part
of this diftridl are chiefly, efpecially where in the wild ftate,
brought into the improved condition, by paring and burn-
ing the furface, the application of marie or lime, and the
breaking up for oats. The marie is moftly laid on before the
other operations take place. Some think this practice an-
fwers well, but much remains to be done, and better modes
are to be ufed for the purpofe.

In the northern part of the fame diftrift, where great im-
provements of this nature have been well accompliihed in
deep unfavourable cafes, the moll improved practice is now,
after a proper quantity of large open cuts have been made
for taking away the ilagnant water, and for promoting the
drynefs and folidity of the land, to begin with eifeftual cut-
ting of drains in the land at nine feet diftance from each
other, made to the width of two feet and the depth of three,
below which a deep opening is formed by a long pointed
fpade, which is left open, but the whole fpace above it
covered and filled in. When the furface is levelled where
neceflary, and the land wholly ploughed over by beginning
on the fides of the drains, and laying the f urrow-fl ices well
over them, it is well harrowed lengthways of the ridges.
Then in winter, in time of froft, if it can be done, fand or
clay is applied in the quantity of three or four thoufand
fingle-horfe cart-loads to the cullomary acre, and fpread out
evenly over the furface, in which ftate it and the land remain
until the beginning of the fpring. It is then harrowed well
in, and the land ploughed and fown with oats. In the next
fpring the land is fet with potatoes in drills four feet apart,
ufing a little littery dung, and they are kept repeatedly well
earthed up. As foon as the potatoes are taken off, wheat
and rye are put in upon one ploughing, and good crops
afforded.

In the winter afterwards thefe ftubblcs arc ploughed
down, and in the enfuing fpring a conipoft of fome kind of
heavy material with lime laid on, and the land fown with
barley, which affords good crops.

After the barley, turnips are often had with a flight ma-
nuring ; and the land then laid down with oats, or wheat and
feeds.

Lefs red clover than formerly is now fown, but the quan-
tities of trefoil, white clover, and rib-grafs, are increaied.

This method of improving fuch land is found the bell,
and by far the cheapeft, after great experience, by a very
intelligent improver of this kind of wafte land in that part
of the county.

The large open ditches and water-courfes fird made in
thefe lands are now found bell formed there with long flopes
on one fide, fo as to have the appearance of a fort of funk
fences, by which means the whole flopes are rendered ca-
pable of being covered with fome heavy earthy fubftance,
and of being then fown with grafs-fceds, fo as to aflord a
fward to the very water's edge ; and thereby to admit (lock
to lie more fheltered and warm, as well as to aflord more
paflurage.

The praftice of paring and burning is here now never had
recourfe to in bringing this fort of wafte land into a ftate of
improvement. The bringing of it into fuch a ftate is, it is
thought, a proccfs or bufinefs that fliould proceed in a very
gradual and regular manner, as there is much lols and incon-
venience in pufhing it on too rapidly. In all fuch attempts,
as froft is confidered by many as h.iving great power and
effeft in reducing the particles of fuch foils into a mouldy

mellow conditio^, they fhould be expofed as greatly as
poflible to its aftion and influence at the time when it takes
place, by being laid up for the purpofe. See the Correifted
Report on the Agriculture of the County of Lancalter.

In different diftrifts of the more northern parts of the
kingdom, immenfe tratls of waftes of this kind are almoft
every where to be met with. In that of tlie county of Ar-
gyle, according to the writer of the account of the ftate of
its agriculture, they are to be found in every pariffi ; and
though capable of cultivation and improvement are wholly
ufelefs, and of little or no value. They have different depths,
as from two or three to eight or ten feet, and differ in fize,
fo that fome of them are to be eftimated not by the number
of acres, but of fquare miles. They have in fome cafes
every advantage of fituation for manure and markets, vaft
quantities of lime-ftone being near on one fide, and vaft
maffes of fand and fea-ware on the other ; beiides many
other facilities and conveniences of improvement. There
can therefore be no great difficulty in bringing them into
fuch a flate, when once it is fet about, the means of doing
which have been well and ably pointed out, as applicable in
different cafes, by the writer. It is evident, from what has
been already done there, that this fort of wafte, though of
no utility in its ufual ftate, may be turned to very great ac-
count, in many inflances, by cultivation. See the agricul-
tural report of the above county.

It has been fuggeftcd, that by rendering the extenfive
turf boggy waftes of this country, Scotland, and Ireland
fertile and produftive, a very great addition is capable of
being made to the wealth of the nation, and to the means of
fubfillencc of its population. See Moss, Pkat, Turf, &c.

Waste Matters, UJejul as Manure, the refufe materials
produced in various ways and by different operations ; fuch
are, the bh)od and offal matters of the flaughter-houfe, the
refufe of the flcin and leather dreffer, the offals of the tan-
yard and the glue-maker, the wafte fat oily matters of foroe
large fifhes, (fee WiiALE-Blul/l/er,) tiie wafte of foap-makers.
See Ashes, Soai-ek'j yf/Ls, and WooD-yf/hes.

Waste of the Forejl, is, properly, where a man cuts down
his own woods within the foreft, without licence of the
king or lord chief juftice in eyre.

Tear, Day, and Wajle. See Yeah, Day and Wajle.

Waste of a Ship. See Waist.

WASVK-Board. See WAHH-Board.

WAsi-E-Clot/js, in a S/jip of ll^ar. See Fights.

Waste-7V«j-, in a Ship, are thofe timbers which lie in
her wafte, or waifl.

WASTE-Ga/cj-, in Canals, are fluices to let off fpare water
from a canal, miU-dam, &c.

VJ AHTK-lVeir, an over-fall or weir for fupcrfluous water
in a canal.

WASTEL Bkeai), IVaflelli. This word, which has
puzzled bifliop Lowth, in his Life of Wykeham, &c. ap-
pears, by the ConfuetviJines Glaftonienles apud Will.
Malmf. to have been a kind of fine bread or rolls, which
were ferved up in our ancient communities when the ufe of
the waffail-bowl was allowed.

WASTERAHS, \\\ Geography. See Westerahs.

WASTE RO, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63'^ 22'. E. long. 2 i'-\h'-

WASTORELS, or Wasthels, in Rural Economy, a
term applied to any fort of waile or outcaft fubftances or
matters, fuch as bricks, tiles, flates, and many other fucli like
things, when badly formed, or of a bad kind. The young
lambs, pigs, and calves, fold to the butchers, which are im-
proper for keeping as flock, are fomelimes alfo called by
this name.

WASTORS,

WAT

WASTORS, in our Statutes, a kind of thieves fo called,
and mentioned among robbers, draw-latches, &c.

WASUNGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the county of Henneberg, on the Werra ; 3 miles N. of
Meinungen. N. lat. 50° 41'. E. long. 10° 38'.

WATAGUAKI, a river of Labrador, which runs into
the gulf of St. Lawrence, N. lat. 50° 12'. W. long. 60° 5'.

Wataguaki IJltj, a clufter of fmall iflands in the gulf
of St. Lawrence, near the coaft of Labrador.

WATARA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 14 miles S. of Coflimcotta.

WAT A R AS, a town of Africa, in the country of
Agades ; 50 miles N. of Agades.

WATAS, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia, on the
Calix ; 50 miles N.W. of Tornea.

WATAUGA, a river which rifes in North Carolina,
and runs into the Holfton, in Tenneffee.

WATCH, GuET, a perfon pofted as a fpy in any place,
to have an eye to it, and to give notice of what pafles.

Watch is alfo ufed for a corps de garde polled at any
paflage ; or for a company of guards who go on the patrole.
Some officers are exempted from watch and guard.

In the fame fenfe they fay, night-wateh, guet de nuit ;
•watch-iuord, mot de guet ; royal ivatch, and city watch.

Chevalier du guet is a name given by the French to the
officer who commands the royal watch. Sec.

Watch, Figilia, in Roman Antiquities, a divifion of their
night ; being- the fourtli part of the fpace of time between
fun-fet and fun-rifuig, and confequently varying according
to the feafon of the year.

In the Roman army, there were night-guards or vigiles,
viz. four in every manipulus, who kept guard three hours,
and were then relieved by four others : fo that there were
four fets in a night, according to the four watches. The
way of fetting this nightly guard was by a tally or teflera,
witli a particular infcription, given from one centurion to
another quite through the army, till it came again to the
tribune who firft delivered it : upon the receipt of this the
guard was immediately fet. Befides, they had the circuitio
vigi/ium, or a vifiting of the watch, performed commonly
about four times in the night by fome of the horfe. Upon
extraordinary occafions the tribunes and lieutenant-generals,
and fometimes the general himfelf, made thefe circuits in
perfon, and took a itnft view of the watch in every part of
the camp.

Watch, at Sea, fignifies the fpace of time in which one
divifion of a (hip's crew remains upon deck, to perform the
neceffary fervices, whilft the reft are relieved from duty,
either when the velfel is under fail, or at anchor. The
length of the fea-watch is not the fame in the (hipping of
different nations. It is always kept four hours by our
Britifh feamen, if we except the dog-watch between four
and eight in the evening, that contains two reliefs, each of
which is only two hours on deck. The intent of this is to
change the period of the night-watch every twenty-four
hours ; fo that the party watching from eight till twelve in
one night, (hall watch from midnight till four in the morn-
ing on the fucceeding one. In France the duration of the
watch is extremely different, being in fome places fix hours,
and in others feven or eight ; and in Turkey and Barbary it
is ufually five or fix hours.

A (hip's company is ufually claifed into two parties : one
of which is called the ftarboard, and the other the larboard
watch. It is, however, occafionally lieparated into three
divifions, as in a road, or in particular voyages.

In a (hip of war, the watch is generally commanded by a
Jriutcnant, and in merchant-fhips by one of the mates : fo

WAT

that if there are four mates in the latter, there are two in
each watch ; the firft and third being in the larboard, and
the fecond and fourth in the ilarboard watch : but in the
navy, the officers who command the watch ufually divide
themfelves into three parts, in order to lighten their duty.
Falconer.

W ATCH-GlaJfes, in a Shij>, are glafies employed to mea-
fure the period of the watch, or to divide it into any num-
ber of equal parts, as hours, half hours, &c. fo that the
fev'eral ftations therein may be regularly kept and relieved,
as at the helm, pump, look-out, &c.

To fet the ivatch, in Sea Language, is to appoint one divifion
of the crew to enter upon the duty of the watch ; as at
eight o'clock in the evening.

Watch, Death. See Death.

Watch, in Horology, is a portable machine that meafures
and indicates the fucceffive portions of tranfient time. This
ufeful piece of mechanifm, when planned on the beft fcien-
tific principles, and executed in the moft perfeA manner,
contains within itfelf a colleftion of inventions, that have
exercifed the (l<ill of the moft ingenious mechanifts through
a lucceffion of three if not four centuries ; and when we
contemplate the curioufly-contrived and nicely-adjufted
means by which the never-varying period of our globe's
rotation on its axis is divided and fubdivided into hours,
minutes, and feconds, we need not be furprifed that a Paley
has felefted this curious machine as a ftriking fpecimen of
human ingenuity.

It is a matter of difficult refearch to afcertain what artift
firft reduced the portable fpring-clock into the fize of a
watch, which is fuppofed to have been firft effetted in Ger-
many; but it is evident that watches had become common
in France before the year 1 544, in which the corporation
of mafter clock-makers in Paris had a ftatute enafted, to
enfure to themfelves the exclufive privilege of making, and
of caufing to be made, clocks, alarums, and watches, large
or fmall, within the precinft of the faid city.

The fmall clocks and watches, however, which were made
antecedently to the time of Huygens and JJr. Hooke, were
very imperfeft performers, and profeflcd not to fubdivide
the hour into minutes and feconds ; the double lever, and
the balance arifing out of it, were very impeifeft regulators
of the motion, produced in the tram of wheel-work by the
maintaining power, inafmuch as they were under the influ-
ence of various oppofing agents, fuch as friiflion arifing from
coarfe workmanftiip, the inertia of matter, refiftance of the
air, &c. ; the confequence of which was, that the weight of
the moving balance was to be determined by experiments,
fuch as would be a proper counterpoife to the agency of
the main-fpring on the moving train, and at the commence-
ment of each returning ofcillation, a confiderable paufe took
place, which made a part of the meafure of time to be in-
dicated. Thefe inconveniences at length were obviated by
the introduftiou of a balance-fpring, which became to the
balance what gravity is to the pendulum ; and the accelera-
tion given to the moving balance during the firft half of the
ofcillation, is thus fufficient to overcome the refiftance
oppofed to its motion during the fecond half; and when the
ftiape, length, and ftreiigth of the regulating fpring are duly
proportioned, its ifochronal performance approaches very
nearly to the regularity of the pendulum. The conteft for
the honour of this ufeful invention was warmly difputed
between Huygens and Dr. Hooke, for feveral years fubfe-
quently to 1658 ; but if priority of publication can be con-
fidered as a proof of priority of invention, the palm is due to
our ingenious countryman.

In our articles CiiROKOMETBR, Clock, Compensation-

Balar.ce^

WATCH.

SalaiiLe, 'DlA.L-Work, EsCAPEMENT, PoWER, Maintaining,
and Remontoir, v/e have anticipated the coniidf ration of the
moft material parts of a watch, and have ^ven fuch a detailed
account of mo'* of the varieties that occur in the practical
conftnidion of thi? machine, that little remains to be done
in this place, but to defcnbe an ordinary watch, without re-
ference to its hillory, fcientific principles, compcnfations, or
fuperior workmanlhip ; all which have been amply dif-
cuflcd, and ili ' conftituent parts explained by accurate en-
gravings of the corrcfponding mechanifm. We may, how-
ever, comprt^-hend in this article the appendages which have
been applies', t > or aftuated by the common watch, for the
purpofe of either amufement or utility in civil fociety, fuch
as chimes, alarums, ftriking-work, and repeating meclianifm,
molt of whivli operate as a drag upon the works, and are
therefore nev r introduced in chronometers, and feldom in
watches of t'l • moll perfeft conftrutlion.

Fig. I. Plate XLIV. of Horology, reprefents the in-
terior works of an ordinary watch with the crown-wheel
efcapement, as they remain on the pillar-plate when the
upper plate of the frame, (hewn hy Jig. 5, is unpinned and
removed ; and^^. 2, which is a feftion of the whole frame
and of its cont>-nts, fliews the conneftion of all the parts, as
though the calliper were in one right line. Theft; two
figures, by having the fame letters of reference, mutually
explain each other. The main-fprnig, which aftuatcs all
the wheels and pinions that are called in one general term
the movement, is contained in the circular box a, feen in
different views in the feparate figures 1, 2, and 8, in the laft:
of which its parts are given in their detached ftate, viz. the
box ; the relaxed fpriiig immediately above, lying in a fpiral
form ; the arbor with its pin, on which the interior end of
the fpring is hooked ; and the lid through which the pivot
of the arbor penetrates : this fpring is forced into the box
by a tool on purpofe, when it is ftrong, and then the ex-
terior end is hooked to a pin in the circular edge of the
box, fo that if the box is made to turn round while the
arbor is held fall, the fpring begins to coil at the centre,
and is thereby wound clofe round the arbor, and is by this
aftion faid to be luound up. The fame cffeft would be pro-
duced if the box were held fail, and the arbor only were
turned ; but in the latter cafe the chain, which requires to
be uncoiled from the fpring-box as this fpring is wound up,
would remain unmoved ; it is necelfary therefore that the
box be turned while the arbor is at rell, which is thus
efFedled : one end of the chain is made fall to the fide of the
fpring-box, and the other to the fufee b, after being coiled
feveral times round the circumference of the box ; then as
the fquare end of the fpring-box arbor is held by the fmall
ratchet and click c, feen on the reverfed face of the pillar-
plate in fig. 7, fo that it cannot revolve, it is obvious that
infertii.g a key on the fquare, of the fufee-arbor, and turning
it in a proper direftion, will wind the chain upon the fpiral-
groove of the fufee, while it is unwound from the box ; and
during this operation the fpring will be coiled up to the
centre of the box, or be put into its Hate of greateft tenfion
for pulling the fiilec back again. The rapid motion which
the fufee would have in a retrograde direction, when pulled
by the whole force of the coiled fpring, is prevented by the
train of wheel-work and balance thus ; the great wheel d is
not fall to the thick end of the fufee, as appears in the
drawings, but carries a click and click-fjjring 2, as feen in
Jig. 3, while the ratchet-wheel, feen in Jig. 4, is made fall to
the fufee ; the confequence of which contrivance is, that
while a key applied to the fufee-arbor winds up the watch
and fills the fufce-groove with the chain, until the guard
driven by it catchej the beak at the fmall end of the fufee ;

9

the click injig. 3. Hides over the iloping teeth of the ratchet
mfg.4, without afting on them, and thus leaves the great
wheel d at rcfl, in connection with the pinion e, on the centre
or minute-wheel arbor ; but when the fpring atts on the
fufee in a contrary direction, the click attached to the great
wheel is laid hold of by the teeth of the ratchet, which thus
makes it fail to the end of the fufee, fo long as the chain is
unwinding from the fufee ; or, in other words, til! the fpring
wants winding up again, which happens ufually once in
28 or 30 hours ; but it is commonly wound up once in every
24 hours, more or lefs. The a£tion of the great wheel d on
the pinion e, is that of a long lever driving a fhort one ; or
this wheel may be faid to aft under a mechanical difadvan-
tage, where an increafe of velocity, but a lofs of power, is
experienced by the pinion ; again, on the fame central arbor
of this pinion e is riveted the centre-wheel/, which revolves
in an exaft hour, as we (hall fee prefently, and this wheel
drives the pinion g, on the arbor of the third wheel /i, alfo
with a mechanical difadvantage, for the force it imparts to
the pinion i, on the arbor of the contrate-whecl, is again
diminifhed in the ratio of the diameter of the wheel to that
of its pinion ; thus, the force of the main-fpring is conti-
nually diminiihing, as it is tranfmitted through the train,
and when the contrate-wheel comes to be aftuated, it has
jnit force enough to drive the horizontal pinion on the
balance-wheel /, fo that the alternate impulfes given by its
teeth to the pallets of the balance-verge are jult fufficient
to perpetuate the ofcillations to the right and left, under all
the obllacles of friftion, dirt, wear, and the air's refillance.
It is a curious faft that this crown-wheel efcapement,
though the olde/l that we know of, is dill the molt in ufe in
common watchea, probably from the facility with which it
is conllrufted ; for certainly it is more under the influence
of the irregularities of the main-fpring's force than any other
efcapement. The properties and action of thii efcapement
have been minutely explained under No. I. of the article
Escapement, with reference to^5-. 6. P/,j/<r XX XI. of //</ro-
logy, to which explanation and figure therefore we requett
our reader's attention.

In order that the force applied to the pallets of the verge
at each ofcillation may not fenfibly vary, it was found
necelfary to equalize, as much as polfible, the variable forces
of the main-fpring in its different dates of tenfion ; and the
moll pradlicable way of doing this has been found to con-
vert the cylinder on the arbor of the great wheel, which
would have been proper for a gravitating body, ufed as a
maintaining power, into a figure of a parabolic form, that is,
into a folid, generated by tlie revolution of a parabola, in
order tlrat, as the force of the fpring becomes greater by
increafed tenfion, its aftion on the great wheel might be
leffened in a fimilar proportion, by a gradual decreafe of the
radius of the fufee, round wliich the chain is wound, to im-
part the force thus modified. Every feparate fpring, there-
fore, has not f)nly its average force proportioned to the
balance it is dellined to aftuatc, when diminiflied by tranf-
milTion through a given train, but requires its Jalc of vary-
ing forces to be nicely counterafted in every degree of ten-
fion by ihvjhnpc of the fufee ; and this is done by means of
a tool, called a fufee ad'iulling-tool, which is nothing more
than a lever with a fiiding weight attached to the fquared
end of the fufee-arbor, as reprcfented mfig- 10. 7V(7/cXXl.
oi Horology ; for when the weight on the lever is an exadt
counterpoife to the force of the main-fpring in every part of
the fuccelTivc revolutions of the fufee, as the fpring is wound
up by the lever inlKad of a key, then the fiiape of the fufee
is proper, but not otherwife. Hence, whenever a new main-
fpring is put into a watch, the fufee ought to be adjulled in

the

WATCH.

the fufee-engine accordingly as the adjufting-tool deter-
mines. The comparative forces of the fpring at the two
extreme ends of the fufee may be adjulled by the fmall
ratchet c, on the back of the pillar-plate in Jig. 7 ; but
when the fpring is put to a fuitable degree of tenfion to aft
well at both extremities of the fufee, it muft not be altered
by the ratchet-click, but the intermediate forces muft be
equalized by a due (hape given to the fufee. We have
inlifted the more on this part of the mechanifm bemg at-
tended to, becaufe, as the pr'mum mobile, it is the bafis of
all the other motions. The number of rounds that the
fpiral of the parabolic fufee may be cut into, depends on the
length of the pillars of the frame, or, which is the fame thing,
on \he fhallownefs of the watch. The French frequently
leave out the fufee, and attempt to equalize the forces of
the maiii-fpring by tapering it, and with detached efcape-
ments this mode may fometimes anfwer tolerably, but with
the crown-wheel efcapement a fufee is indifpenfable. Again,
the number of teeth in the great wheel, and in the centre
pinion, depends on the number of rounds in the fpiral of the
fufee ; in a 30 hours watch, with fix turns of the fufee, the

great wheel muft have ^, or 5 times as many teeth as the

centre pinion ; fo that if this has 6 leaves, the wheel muft
have 5x6 = 30 teeth ; but if 8, then 5 x 8 = 40 ; if the
fpiral has 7 turns, the great wheel 48, and the pinion 1 2,

then the time of going will be -— x 7 = 28 hours ; alfo if

there be j^ turns on the fufee, 50 teeth in the wheel, and 10
leaves in the pinion, the period of going will be 27^ hours^

or ^ X S\ — S ^ Si — ^'ih' ^"'^ 'f 24 hours only were
10

required as the period, with 6 turns and a pinion of 12, the
great wheel would be required to have 48. Thus, when
an alteration is made in either the pinion, the wheel, or tlie
turns in the fufee, a correfponding variation may be made in
the others, to produce the fame period of going, but ftill
the centre-wheel revolves once in an hour. In the com-
moneft watches the pinions have only fix leaves each, which
do not aift fo well as pinions of higher numbers ; but in the
beft watches, and in all chronometers, the leaves and teeth
are more numerous. The pivot-holes, particularly of the
▼erge and efcapement-wheel arbor, have jewels for the pur-
pofe of diminiftiing the fri£lion in the beft watches ; but
detached and remontoir cfcapements are the beft correftives
of the unequal impulfes given through the medium of the
train in the different ftates of its foulnefs. The potance m,
and fmall or counter potance n, that hold the pivots of the
balance-wheel, arc fmall cocks leen in Jig. 2. both in their
attached and detached ftates, and are fcrevved to the top or
upper plate within the frame, but the fprings, buttons, and
joints of the cafe are not exhibited, as forming no part of
the movement. Fig. 5. reprefents the outer face of the upper
plate, with the balance^, cock 0, and balance-fpring s, called
the pendulum-fpring, from its having the properties of the
pendulum ; by means of this fpring not only is the regula-
tion made fteady, but the adjuftment for time is effeiled.
In every balance-fpring there is a certain length, to be taken
as the effeftive length, by which the going of the watch,
to which it is applied, is limited to exaft performance, and
when this length is determined by experiment, a pin is put
in the ftud that holds the exterior end, as at 4, in Jg. 5, to
prevent its being altered ; but as the Tariation of tempera-
ture will alter the momentum of the moving balance, the
effeft thereby produced is a lofs of time, in the rate, in hot

n

weather, and a gain in cold, by an alternate increafe and
decreafe in the dimenfions of the balance itfelf, as well as by
fome alteration in the fpring : to remedy this defeft, in an
ordinary watch, the contrivance ftiewn in Jig. 6. is intro-
duced ; the wheel t is placed under the graduated circle r,
feen in^^. 5, and a circular rack a, Jig. 6, that holds the
curb or flit -piece 5, feen in both figures, is moved by a
Aiding motion given to it, when a key is applied to the
fquared arbor of the figured circle, and thus the eifeftive
length of the fpiral fpring is limited by the pofition of the
curb 5 ; and accordingly as the key is turned forwards or
back, towards the wordija/i or_/7oTf, engraved on the cock,
the ftiortened or lengthened fpring alters the rate of going,
till the proper length is found, that fuits the feafon in quef-
tion. In Harrifon's time-piece the curb was moved by an
expanfion-lever of two metals, that afted by means of the
change of temperature ; but in the beft chronometers of
more recent date, the compenfating levers conftitute the
three portions into which the rim of the balance is divided,
and the adjuftment for time, as well as compenfation for
temperature, are by means of heavy fcrews, which form a
part of the moving balance. In thefe more perfeft machines,
the length of the fpring, which is now made hehcal, or cylin-
drical, is firft determined fuch, that the long and (hort vibra-
tions are performed in the fame time, and this is called the
ifochronal length, which is not afterwards altered by fubfe-
quent adjuftments. But of thefe niceties we have treated
more fully under our long article Chronometer. The
laft portion of the watch, which demands our explanation, is
the dial-work, for producing the hours and minutes ; this
will be eafily underftood by a reference to figures 2 and 7 :
when the pinion, called the cannon-pinion, feen near the
minute-hand in Jg. 2, is inferted on the arbor of the hour or
centre-wheel, to which it fits rather tight by friftion, it re-
volves therewith in an hour, and receives the minute or long
hand on its protruding fquared end ; then this pinion drives
the wheel .v round a ftud on the pillar-plate, and with it a
pinion w made faft to its centre ; which pinion again drives
a fecond wheel "u round the tube of the cannon-pinion in
twelve hours, and to this the hour-hand is attached. This
diminution of twelve revolutions from the cannon-pinion to
the hour-wheel might be effefted by one pinion driving a
fingle wheel of twelve times its number of teeth ; but as the
motion muft be brought back to the centre of the dial again,
two more wheels, or a wheel and pinion, are neceiTary to be
introduced, and thefe are therefore made a part of the train,
and no large wheel or fmall pinion is wanted, for the ratio
1 2 : I may be more conveniently obtained by two faftors,
viz. 4 : I and 3:1; thus, fuppofe the cannon-pinion to
have 15 leaves, its wheel may have 4 x 15 = 60 teeth for
wheel .V, and if wheel v be made the fame its pinion will be

360

30

60
3

, , . 60 60

20, and the tram — x — •

15 20

72 60
i- or —
6 5

— or 1 2 ; fo that when the pinions are fixed upon for the

dial-work, the wheels are readily determined, and vice verja.
Under our term CLOCK-Movement, we have given three
tables, containing the feveral varieties of the three diff^erent
portions of a clock-movement, which ai'e equally apphcable
to a watch -movement, and we prefume will be found ufeful
to the praftical workman, who is difpofed to vary his con-
ftruftion to fliew feconds, or for other particular purpofes..
The following table, fomewhat differently arranged, was pub-
lilhed by W. Shirt, balance-wheel and fufee-cutter. No. 2J,
Coleman- ftreet, Bunhill-row, London, with which we will
conclude this divifion of our article.

ATablb

WATCH.

A Table of Trains for Watches, ihcwing the Number of Turns on the Fufec and Teeth in the Balajice-whccl, with
the Beats in an Hour, and the Number of Seconds in which the Contrate or Fourth Wheel revolves, for the eafy
Timing of Watches by the Vibrations of the Pendulum.

9 Teeth in the. Balance-Wheel.

Second Wheel 58 6 Third Wheel Pinion

60 8

60 6

60 6

60 6

60 6

64 6

64 8

Third Wheel 56 6 Contrate Pin.

56 7

58 6

58 6

60 6

60 6

60 6

60 8

Contrate Wheel 54 6 Balance Pin.

80 6

52 6

56 6

54 6

60 6

54 6

So 6

Beats 1 46 1 6 in an Hour

14400

1C080

16240

16200

18000

17280

14400

Seconds 39 .'j in which the 4th Wheel revolves

60

37i

37i

36

36

33i

60

1 1

Teeth in the Bah

mce-Wheel.

Second Wheel 48 6 Third Wheel Pin.

54 6

54 6

96 7

56 6

56 6

Third Wheel 4J 6 Contrate Pin.

45 6

50 6

45 6

54 6

56 6

Contrate Wheel 7

0 6 Balance Pin

65 6

60 6

78 6

54 6

55 6

Beats 15400 in an Hour

16087

16500

17160

16632

17567

Seconds 60

in which the 4th Wheel r

evolves

53i

48

60

42f

4ii

58 6

58 6

58 6

58 6

58 7

60 6

60 6

60 6

60 6

60 6

60 6

52 6

54 6

54 6

56 6

56 6

50 6

52 6

54 6

54 6

54 6

55 6

52 6

52 6

54 6

54 6

56 6

52 6

52 6

50 6

52 6

54 6

52 6

>5973

16588

17226

17817

15879

15888

16520

16500

17160

17820

•7477

4^1

4'f

4'i

39i

54^

43

4'i

40

40

40

39

60 6

60 7

60 8

60 8

60 6

60 8

60 7

62 6

62 7

63 6

63 6

56 6

56 6

56 7

56 7

60 6

60 6

60 7

54 6

58 6

54 6

56 7

50 6

56 6

74 6

78 6

48 6

56 6

60 6

52 6

52 6

50 6

56 6

17111

16426

16280

17160

17553

15400

16163

17935

16324

17325

17248

3H

40

60

60

36

48

49

3«i

45

38

424

64 6

64 6

65 7

70 8

70 7

72 8

72 7

80 8

75 10

72 9

72 9

50 6

52 6

62 7

54 7

63 7

63 7

64 7

72 8

72 9

66 8

60 8

50 6

52 6

59 7

68 6

58 7

54 6

5« 7

68 8

66 8

60 6

54 6

16296

17625

15250

16830

16408

16035

17142

16830

13200

13200

11880

40i

39

43i

53t

40

44^

3«i

40

60

66

60

13

Teeth ir

the Balance-Wheel.

Second Wheel 48 6 Third Wheel Pin.

48 6

52 6

54 6

54 6

54 6

Third Wheel 45 6 Contrate Pii

45 6

52 6

50 6

52 6

52 6

Contrate Wheel 66 6 Balance Pin.

68 6

52 6

50 6

48 6

50 6

Beats 17160 in an Hour

17680

16925

16274

16224

16900

Seconds 60

in which the 4th

Wlieel revolves

60

46i

48

46

46

54 6

54 6

55 6

56 7

56 6

56 6

56 6

56 6

56 6

58 6

58 6

52 6

52 6

5. 6

45 f>

50 6

50 6

52 6

52 6

54 6

48 6

50 6

51 6

52 6

51 6

66 6

50 6

51 6

48 6

50 6

49 6

52 6

50 6

17238

17576

17219

17160

16851

17188

16824

17525

17836

17425

17453

46

46

46t

60

46i

46i

445

44^i

42i

4H

44!

60 6

60 8

60 6

60 6

60 7

60 6

60 7

60 8

60 7

60 8

60 6

48 6

48 6

50 6

50 6

54 6

54 8

56 7

56 7

58 7

58 6

60 7

48 6

66 6

46 6

48 6

52 6

60 6

56 • 6

66 6

56 6

56 6

48 6

16640

17160

1661 1

"7333

17382

17550

16640

17160

17234

17593

17828

45

60

43

43

46!

54

5^

60

50^

49^

42

60 8

60 6

62 7

63 7

63 7

64 7

64 7

64 8

64 8

65 7

70 8

60 6

60 7

56 7

52 6

60 7

52 6

60 7

60 8

64 8

62 7

60 7

54 6

56 7

56 6

51 6

60 7

50 6

60 7

66 6

72 7

58 7

52 6

17550

17828

17194

17238

17191

17168

17464

1 7 1 60

17115

17717

16900

48

42

5oi

46t

46I

46

45i

60

56i

43i

48

70 8

72 8

72 8

74 8

74 8

75 10

75 10

80 10

96 12

96 12

90 10

66 8

52 6

70 8

64 8

68 8

72 9

72 9

60 8

75 10

75 '0

90 10

64 7

52 6

68 8

63 7

68 8

70 7

72 9

60 »

80 8

88 8

90 10

17160

16673

■7403

17316

17400

15600

12480

15600

15600

17160

18954

50

44J

54

48I

60

60

60

60

60

60

44^

Vox.. XXX VH.

5B

WATCH.

Table continued.
15 Teeth in the Balance-Wheel.

Second Wheel 48 6 Third Wheel Pinion

48 6

43 6 5+ 6 '

54 6

54 6;

Third Wheel 45 6 Contrate Pir

.

45 6

45 6

48 6

4a 6

43 6 1

Contrate Wheel 54 6 Bal

ance Pin

58 6

60 6

46 6

48 6

64 8

Beats 16200 in an Hour

17400

18000

16560

17280

17280

Seconds 60

in which the 4th Wheel revolves

60

60

50

5°

50 1

54 6 56 7

56 7

?6 7

56 6

56 7

58 6

58 6

60 8

60 8

60 8 1

50 6 45 6

45 <5

45 6

48 6

60 8

48 6

50 8

48 6

48 6

56 7

48 6 56 6

58 6

60 6

46 6

69 6

46 6

58 6

58 6

60 6

48 6 1

18000

16800

17400

18000

17173

18000

17786

17520

17400

18000

14400 i

48

60

60

60

48

60

46i

59^

Co

60

60 1

1

60 8

60 7

60 8

60 8

60 8

60 6

60 6

60 6

60 6

60 10

60 6

56 7

^6 7

56 7

56 7

56 7

60 8

60 ID

60 8

60 10

60 6

60 10

S6 7

?8 7

58 6

60 6

60 7

48 6

48 6

56 7

58 6

60 6

64 8

14400

17044

17400

18000

15386

i8oco

14400

18000

17400

18000

14400

60

5^h

60

60

60

48

60

48

60

60

60

60 8

60 8

62 8

63 7

6S 7

64 8

64 t8

64 8

64 6

6y 7

70 6

64 8

64 8

60 8

54 7

56 7

45 6

60 8

60 8

60 10

56 7

60 10

66 7

70 7

60 6

50 6

56 7

56 6

58 6

60 6

70 8

56 7

48 6

1 697 1

18000

17437

17356

17280

16800

17400

18000

16800

17828

16800

60

60

6if

51I

50

60

60

60

5(>i

4«i

51I

70 7

70 8

70 8

70 10

72 6

72 8

72 8

72 8

72 8

75 8

81 9

60 10

64 8

64 8

65 8

60 10

64 8

64 8

64 8

65 8

64 8

72 9

70 7

50 6

58 7

60 6

48 6

50 6

54 7

64 8

64 8

64 8

72 9

18000

17500

17400

17062

17280

18000

16662

17280

17550

18000

17280

60

S^j

5if

56^

50

50

50

50

49

48

50

17 Teeth in the Balance-Wheel.

Second Wheel 48 6 Third Wheel P.n.
Third Wheel 45 6 Contrate Pin.
Contrate Wheel 50 6 Balance Pin.
Beats 17000 in an Hour

Se

conds 60 in which the 4th Wheel revolves

56 7

60 8

64 8

45 6

56 7

60 8

53 6

52 6

60 7

18020

17828

17485

60

60

60

GW. SWP.

TNS.

GW.

SWP.

TNS.

GW.

SWP.

TNS.

48 10

6^

60

10

5

55

12

6.V

50 10

6

62

10

4^

56

12

6^

52 10

5J

64

10

4l

58

12

6|

54 10

5^

, 48

12

7^

60

12

6

55 10

5r\

50

12

7t

62

12

54

56 10

5i

52

12

6^!

64

12

5t

58 10

5h

54

12

6*

If we divide double the produft of all the four wheels by
the produft of all the three pinions, the quotient will be
the number of teats as given in any of the trains contained
in this table ;'alfo, if we take the fecond and third wheels
and their pinions refpeftively, as a compound fraAion of
an hour, they will give the feconds in which the contrate-
wheel, attached to the latter pinion, will revolve ; thus,
Tcr of 3V of 60"" = I™, or 60', which numbers are canfe-
quently proper for a watch that indicates feconds ; and if
the beats be 18000, or 14400, there will be five or four
beatj refpeftively in a fecond, which are the beft trains
for raeafuring fraftional parts of a feeond.

French Repeater. — The mechaiiifm which confUtutes the

repetition portion of 3 French, and alfo of a Swifs watch,
was originally employed by Tompion, Quare, and other
Englifh artifts, and is reprefenled by the various figures
contained in Plate XL V. of Horology ; it is eafier of con-
ftruftion than the repetition-motion of Stockten, which
follows, but is not confidered fo perfeft. We have put
the fame letters of reference to the detached parts, that
ftand near them in the larger figures, where they occupy
their refpeftive fituations ; and that the reader may be able
to accompany us through our defcription of the aftion of
the relative parts, we will explain previoufly the appella-
tions by which the workmen defignate thefe afting pieces.
In Jigs. 1. and 2. A denotes the pendant-bow, carried at
the end of a cylindrical piece, called the pendant, and the
hollow piece, into which it is occafionally pufhed, is the
pendant-focket ; BCD the triple lever is called the cre-
maiUdre ; E is a fixed pulley ; and F the hour-fnail, by
which the number of hours to be ftruck by the hour-ham-
mer is limited ; H is the ftar -wheel, to which the hour-
fnail F is fixed faft ; I K is the tout-ou-rien and G its
fpring lying on its plane ; L and N are the two fets of
teeth, that take hold of the hammer-tails, which ftrike
quarters by double blows ; O is one of the quarter ham-
mer-

WATCH.

mer-tails, and Q, or Q 5, the other, wliich is attached to
the hammer that ftrikes alfo the hours ; S is the quart cr-
fnail that determines the number of quarters to be (truck at
any time, when the hour-hammer has ftruck the hours, and
has three Heps or arcs of different radii, prefented fuccef-
fively to the part that a6ls on, or rather refts on it ; 7, 8, is
the loofe piece attached to, and fecured under the quarter-
fnail S ; a is the end of the middle lever of the cremaillere ;
b the jumper, that makes the ftar-wheel jump a whole fpace
when a tooth, in raifing it, has arrived at its angular point,
fo as to give its fpring d its full tenfion ; e is the chain
made fall at one end to the cremaillere at D, and after palF-
ing round the pulley E, attached at the other to a fecond
pulley Z, which is inferted on the arbor of the repeating
main-fpring, /is the quarter-piece fpriag, prefiing on a pin
in the quarter-piece M ; A is the quarter hammer-fpring ; i
its counter-fpring ; g the quarter hammer-tail fpring ; p the
hour-hammer fpring, and 0 its counter-fpring ; g is the
hour-hammer quarter tail-fpring, and r the gathermg piece
or arm fixed on the arbor of the great wheel of the repeat-
ing train of wheels, over the pulley Z, that caufes the
quarter-piece to aft on the hammer-tails, and is the fame
arbor which we have before called the arbor of the repeat-
ing main-fpring. Thefe are the pieces of mechanifm that
lie under the face of the watch, and appear above the
frame when the face is removed, together with the dial-
work reprefented by the dotted circles tn Jig. i, but by
unfhaded wheels and pinions in Jig. 2, that the other parts
might not be concealed below them. Fig. 3. contains the
works under the upper plate of the frame, of which the
repetition-train {pelil rouage) only is fhaded, the ordinary
movement being given in outline. The conneftion between
the pieces exhibited in fgs. i. and 2, and the repetition
train in the frame, (hewn wjig. 3, is by means of the arbor
of the great wheel and its circular rack G, feen in this
figure, for this arbor prolrudmg above the upper plate of
the frame receives on its fquare the main-fpring of the re-
peating mechanifm, and alfo the gathering-piece r, fo that
whenever this main-fpring, exhibited in Jig. 4, is wound up,
the ratchet on the great wheel, feen in Jig. 5, allows the
great wheel to move with it without the rell of the repeat-
ing train ; but when the fpring unbends itfelf, and pulls the
chain and attached cremaillire back, the click of the ratchet
catches and aftuatcs the whole train, which terminates with
a fly on the lad pinion-arbor, as \n the (triking part of a
clock, and thus regulates the velocity with which the ham-
mers rcfpcftively ftrike.

We will now proceed to explain the aftion of the repeat-
ing mechanifm, which we have defcribed above, and fee
how the effeft is produced by means that are thus appa-
rently complex. When the pendant has been pu(hed in
(lowly a (hort fpace, the end a of the middle prong of the
cremaillere, being kept down by the fmall cock Y, ap-
proaches one of the (leps of the hour-fnail F, and at the
fame time pulls the chain, by means of the prong D, round
the pulley or friftion-roUcr E, and winds up the main-
fpring coiled in the box of pulley Z, at the fame time
making the gathering-piece r retrograde from its pin, in-
ferted into the quarter-piece : mjig.x. this motion is juft
commencing from a Hate of quiefcence ; fuppofe now, the
retrograde motion of the gathering-piece to take place,
while the pendant is pufhed very (lowly in ; and conceive
the circular rack on the face of the large wheel within the
frame, 11/z. G in^^. 3, to be retrograding alfo, as being on
the fame common axis ; prefently the end n of the third
prong of the cremaillere meets with one of the (leps of the
hour-fnail, and pulhcs againll it; this fnail, and its at-

tached (lar-wheel, having their common pivot borne by
the tout-ou-rien at H, communicate the pu(h received by
them to this piece, which turning on its centre of mo-
tion at I, has its remote or loofe end K carried from its
quiefcent pofition, notwithftanding the oppofing aftion
of its fpring ; and when confiderable force is applied to
pu(h the pendant home, this end K, which forms a detent
to the quarter-piece at the points of their contaft, quits its
hold, and leaves the quarter-piece at liberty to be urged by
its fpring/ till its heel-piece c drops upon one of the Iteps of
the quarter-fnail, as in Jig. 2, where it is feen refting on the
third ftep, or (horteft arc. At this inftant the repeating
main-fpring begins to relax itfelf, and brings forward the
concealed rack G, (Jig. 3. ) which had retrograded as many
teeth only as the hour-fnail permitted, before the tout-ou-
mn was difplaced ; its neareft tooth to the tail-piece 2, 3,
of the hour-hammer R R, catches now this tail-piece, and
makes the hammer ftrike on the circular rim of fteel, which
is fubftituted for a bell, and as many blows are given ia
fucceffion, as there arc teeth in the rack to fall againft the
hammer-tail, while the repeating train is running down ;
and during the time in which thefe ftrokes are going on,
the little pin between the hammer -tail fpring p, and its
connter-fpring 0, may be feen moving backwards and for-
wards, as though it gave the ft.rokes on the counter-fpring.
No fooner are the hours limited by the hour-fnail ftruck,
than the gathering piece r returns with the relaxing fpring,
till it catches the pin of the quarter-piece, which piece is
moveable roimd a pivot at M, and is now gradually brought
back by its pin till one of its teeth N catches O, the tail-
piece of the quarter-hammer P,Jig. 3, and then one of the
teeth at L, at the oppofite end of the quarter-piece,
catches Q the upper tail-piece of the hour-hammer, which
inftantly repeats the blow with the hour-hammer, and thus
as many double blows are given by the two hammers in im-
mediate fucceffion for the quarters, as there are teeth to ail
on »he faid tail-pieces, wlien the quarter-piece begins to
return ; and this number entirely depends on the ilep of
the quarter-fnail S, on which the heel-piece falls, when the
tout-ou-rien is difplaced ; hence if any blow is given, all the
blows that the two fnails limit will be given, from which
neceffity, the piece lout-ou-nen, (all-or-nothing,) takes its
name. But left tlic quarter-piece fhould return by a jerk
before the tout-ou-rien has produced its full effect, the
angular point m of the quarter-piece, in its return, Aides
down the interior face of the tout-ou-rien, in oppofition to
the aftion of its fpring G, while the ftrokes of the quarter*
are making, and arrives at the point K, at the termination
of the ftrokes, thus performing the office of a train and
fly, after which the tout-ou-rien refumes its quiefcent pofi-
tion, and its end becomes a detent to the quarter-piece.
It is not neceffary to dcfcribe the aftion and re-aftion of
the two hammer-tail pieces, which perform their opera-
tions, as in the ftriking work of a cluck heretofore de-
fcribed ; but it may be proper to (hew how the lower tail-
piece 3, 4, of the hour-hammer is detached from the rack
^tfs-h while the quarters are ftruck, by means of the
upper tail-piece Q afting with the teeth of the quarter-
piece at L only ; this will be bcft undcrftood by a reference
to the detached figures in the group denoted hy Jig. 6, ag
will alfo the aftion of feveral other parts, which wc have
defcribed and explained as being in their places wjigs. I and
2 ; the three pieces marked Q <; are the fame quarter tail-
piece feen in diftcrent views, 2 C i R, is a part of tiic hour-
liammer, and its arbor 6 paffes the fockct of the piece 3, 4,
which we have called the lower tail-piece of the hour-ham-
mer, befoije it rcc«ivc8 the upper t.iil-picce (^ on its fqu.-ire ;
5 B 2 now

WATCH.

now the part 3,4, is that which takes hold of the circular
rack G mfg. 3, and is thus occaGonally detached from the
faid rack ; wz. its pin 3 afcends through the upper plate
of the frame, fo that its fuperior end is vifible at 3 both in
fg, I. and fig. 2, and falls in the way of the extreme end of
the quarter-piece, which, on its return from the quarter-
fnail, catches it and turns the piece 3, 4, round the central
arbor 6 of the hour-hammer, and thereby takes the end 4
out of the circular rack, while the quarters are being ftruck,
but whenever the hours are to be ftruck, the proper fpring
reftores the due pofition of the tail-piece. As the repeat-
ing train of five wheels, and as many pinions, are introduced
to give motion to the regulating fly, it is of no confequence
what the numbers of their teeth be, provided they be duly
proportioned to aft fmoothly, and to produce the requifite
velocity for the proper intervals between the fucceflive
ftrokes. The dial-work for hours and minutes is the fame
as in any ordinary watch, except that the quarter-fnail is
attached to the cannon-pinion, and lies under it, fo as to
partake of its hourly motion, together with that of the
minute-hand, ihewn in dots, as being above the face, the
piece, however, \njig. 6, denoted by the figures 7, 8, and
called the loofe-piece, (or furprife,) is alfo faft by friftion
to the fame hour-arbor, and revolves contemporaneoufly
with the fnail and minute-hand, and when its pin 8 meets
with one of the points of the flar-wheel H, it moves it for-
wards until the angular point on the face of the jumper b
has paffed an oppofite point of the ftar, when it will jump
or move at once the remainder of the fpace ; in this ftar are
twelve points, and as the hour-fnail, which has twelve fteps,
is made faft to it, the fnail alfo jumps to the fucceeding
ftep once every hour, while the three fteps of the quarter-
fnail follow one another by a conftant flow motion, keeping
pace with the minute-hand. Hence the times at which the
refpeftive hours and quarters are to be ftruck, eorrefpond-
ing with the pofitions of their proper fnails, are guided by
the common dial-work, and when once they are duly ad-
jufted, a motion given to the minute-hand, by a fuitable key,
will always keep both the fnails in their requifite pofitions
for regulating the number of hour and quarter ftrokes, that
the face of the clock has indicated by the hour and minute-
hands ; and in the fame way the quarters even of the mi-
nute might be repeated, if fuch addition were deemed de-
firable. In our Jigs, l and 2, we have put the charafters
of the hours on the rim or edge of the cafe, as the face is
removed, merely to fliew how the hands, pointing to the
divided fpaces, are connefted with the fnails of the repeating
mechanifm. From this explanation, it will appear that the
movement of the watch is not at all affefted by pufhing in the
pendant, nor yet by the motions of the repeating parts, other-
wife than as the heel of the quarter-piece falls againll the
quarter-fnail carried by the cannon-pinion, and at the mo-
ments when the loofe-piece, under this fnail, moves the ftar
at its hourly period ; but trifling as thefe obftacles may ap-
pear in a common watch, they arc feldom, if ever, introduced
into a chronometer.

In the conftruftion which we have here defcribed, a large
femi-circular rack and pinion are fometimes fubftituted for
the chain and pulleys, in which cafe the rack is attached to
the cremaill^re, and the pinion to the arbor of the repeating
main-fpring ; and it is obvious that fuch a fubftitution will
remove the objeftion to the liability of the chain's breaking,
and the confequent dei-angement of the works.

Engl'ifi Repeater. — The conftruftion of the repeating mo-
tion, called, after the name of its inventor, a Stociten motion,
differs in many refpefts from and is very fuperior to the ori-
ginal repeating motion, which, with a very little alteration

in the mode of arranging its parts, is now generally known
by the term French motion : this appellation is however im-
proper, fince the repeating watch is indifputably an EBglifli
invention, the merit of which was difputed by Tompion,
Quare, and other Englifti watch-makers of celebrity of the
laft century.

Stockten was an Englifliman, bufhis hiftory, like that of
many other ingenious m.en, is fo little known to pofterity,
that even his fponforial appellation is loft, and his birth-
place unknown ; all that can with any certainty be recorded
refpefting him is, that he lived in London, and worked for
the celebrated Mr. George Graham, watch-maker and F. R. S.
the fucceflbr to Mr. Tompion, the motions of whole re-
peaters were always made upon this conftruftion. The
houfes of Mudge and Dutton, Fleet-ftreet ; of EUicott,
Royal Exchange ; and of Vulliamy, Pall-mall ; who, for
many years after the death of Mr. Graham, were the princi-
pal makers of repeaters in London, conftantly employed
this conftruftion of motion ; and it is now generally made
ufe of by all the London watch-makers in the manufafture
of their beft repeaters.

To enumerate very briefly the advantages of this repeat-
i[ig work, its main-fpring is wound up by a rack and pinion;
from its conftruftion the aftion of the parts is uniform and
gradual, and not depending on feveral fprings, whofe aftions
interfere with each other ; and moreover it is fufceptible of
being made to ftrike the half-quarters, without inconvenience
or additional work.

To underftand the general aftion of this repeating motion,
it is neceffary to be well acquainted with its conftruftion, the
detail of its parts, the manner in which the different pieces
come together, and their feparate aftions. The pieces com-
pofing the pendant work, and the aftion of the puftiing-piece
upon the cremaillere, or, as it is generally termed in this con-
ftruftion of a repeating motion, the rack ; the brafs edge,
and its ufe and mode of being fixed to the pillar-plate ; the
dial, and the manner of fixing it to the brafs edge, and the
hands ; the repeating main-fpring and its barrel ; the barrel
arbor, and the mode of hooking the fpring into the barrel ;
the repeating train of wheels, or, as they are frequently
called, the running train, and the fituations of the hammers,
relative to the wheels between the plates, and their refpec-
tive ufes and aftions are all fo nearly the fame as in the
common motion, previoufly defcribed, that any further de-
fcription becomes unneceffary : the ratchet, click, and click-
fpring of the great wheel of the repeating train, are alfo the
fame ; but the ratchet-wheel G, of twelve teeth (Jig-'i- Plate
XLV.) which in the common motion afts upon the honr-
hammer, is in thisconftruftion of the repeating motion omitted.
In Plate XLVI. Jig. i. reprefents the repeating work
complete in its quiefcent ftate, with the wheel Q of 48, the
hour-fnail F, retrograding ratchet P, and wheel of com-
munication R ; and alfo the lantern-pinion w, quarter-fnail
G, and hour-wheel S ; by which parts the motion is com-
municated to the hour-hand, and the hands carried round,
perfeftly detached from the other parts of the motion.

Fig. 2. reprefents the repeating work complete, as it ap-
pears at the inftant of unlocking ; the arm^/ of the piece D
bearing on the hour-fnail F, the arm y of the quarter-rack
on the quarter-fnail G, the little all-or-nothing piece I dif-
engaged from the piece K, and the hammer-tails L and M
in a proper fituation to be afted upon by the hour and quar-
ter ratchets N and O.

Fig. 3. reprefents merely the rack A B and pinion C ; the
piece D ; and the two all-or-nothing pieces H and I, in their
relative fituations to one another on the pillar-plate, the reft;
of the work being fuppofed to be taken off.

Fig. 4.

WATCH.

Fig, 4. reprefents the pinion C, and the hour and quarter
ratchets N and O, feparate in plan, and in profile ; and alfo
a feftion of tlie tliree together.

Fig. 5. reprefents the cannon-pinion tu feen from above,
as well as below ; and alfo in perfpeftive, with the quarter-
fiiail G attached to it.

Fig. 6. reprefents the wheel Q of 48, the hour-fnail F,
the retrograding ratchet P, and the wheel of communication
R, feparate in plan, and in profile; and alfo a feilion of
them together.

Fig. "J. reprefents the hour-fnail F on thewheelQof 48, and
the little fpring s in the notch of the focket of the hour-fnail.

The rack AB (fee Plale XLVl. Jigs, i, 2, and 3.) is
the piece firft put in motion when the watch is made to re-
peat, and is that by the aftion of which with the pinion C
of twenty teeth, concealed mjigs. I. and 2. by the hour and
quarter ratchets N and O, the main-fpring of the repeating
part is wound up ; this rack may be confidered as a portion of
ayery large wheel, whofe axis or centre of motion is placed, as
near as it conveniently can be, to the edge of the watch : this
axi» is a hollow tube, palling through a well fitted hole in the
pillar-plate, and pivoted into the upper plate ; ( the reafon of
its being a tube will be prefently fhewn ;) it is fet upright in
the frame, and confequently at right angles to the face of the
pillar-plate ; hence it follows, that the rack, which is alfo
fixed at right angles to its axis, moves parallel to the pillar-
plate, and is placed as near the plate as it can be, to move
freely without rubbing it ; the rack is cut into twenty-two
teeth. Immediately connefted with the rack are the two
pieces D and E, called, the piece D the unlocking-arm, and
the piece E the quarter-rack : the ufe of the piece D is two-
fold ; firft, to determine tlie number of blows to be ftruck
by the great or hour-hammer, by means of its army, which,
when the watch is made to repeat, comes to bear upon one
of the fteps of the hour-fnail F ; fecond, to unlock, or, as it
is commonly termed, difcharge the ilriking. This efTift is
produced, as will be explained hereafter, by a motion of the
piece D peculiar to itfelf. This piece D is attached to the
rack, at its greateft dillance from its centre of motion, by
the fcrew i, which fcrcw is tapped into the rack up to a
fhoulder, leaving a plain part equal to the thicknefs of the
piece D, and as much more as is neccffary for the piece not
to be bound, between the under fide of the fcrew head and
the upper furface of the rack ; and the hole in the piece D,
through which this fcrew i paffts, is made to fit very cor-
redlly on the plain part of the fcrew, upon which it moves
as its centre of motion. The quantity of motion of the
piece D is determined by a circular hole at its other ex-
tremity, through which the axis of the rack paffcs, fome-
v;hat larger than that axis, which, in order to pafs through
the end of this piece D, and for it to aft againil, is purpofely
prolonged above the furface of the rack, a very little more
than the thicknefs of this fame piece D : in fig. 3. the qnar-
ter-rack and the cock a are omitted to ihew the fhape of this
piece.

The quarter-rack E, fituated above the piece D, has its
centre of motion within the centre of motion of the rack
A B, or conlidcring the centres of mouon of both the
pieces as lines, they may, under that fuppofition, be con-
fidered as polTcfling one common centre of motion : this rack
is alfo fixed at rigl;t angles to its axis, which pafTes through
the tube that forms the axis of the rack A B, the whole
length of that axis to the upper plate ; the under fide of this
quarter-rack bears upon the top of the tube, or centre of
motion of the great rack, which terminaCes a little above
the centre of motion of the piece D, as has been before
mentioned ; and the upper extremity e of the axis of this

piece is pivoted into the cock a, figs, i and 2, uJiich cock is
fcrewed faft to the pillar-plate Y Z : in this manner is the
quarter-rack confined in its place between the upper end of
the hollow arbor of the rack A B, prolonged through the
piece D, as before defcribed, and the under fide of the
cock a. The ufe of this piece is to determine the number
of quarters, if any, or the half-quarter, as the cafe may be,
to be repeated after the hour : this effeft is produced by the
aftion of one, and one only, of the eight teeth at the end of
the rack, on the little all-or-nothing piece I ; and according
to the tooth which fo afts, the v.atch, after having repeated
the hour, repeats the half-quarter, the quarter, or the quar-
ter and half-quarter, &c. as fliewn by the hands ; or if the
minute-hand has not paffed the 7'^ and 30' after the hour, the
firft tooth of the eight caufes the repeating to ceafe imme-
diately after the repeating of the hour is completed. Which
of the teeth (hall aft on the little all-or-nothing piece is de-
termined by the advance of the quarter-rack, which is regu-
lated by the ftep on the quarter-fnail G, upon which the
zrm y comes in contaft, when the watch io made to repeat.
The arm y is made a feparate piece from and fixed to the
quarter-rack E, by means of the fcrew 2, on which fcrew it
moves as its centre of motion, in the fame manner as the
piece D moves on the fcrew i , and is kept in its place by
the fpring g : the reafon of this piece being thus made, is to
prevent the poftibility, in the cafe of the watch being made
to repeat exaftly at the quarter, of the repeating work ftop-
ping the watch, by the arm ji holding back the quarter-fnail,
during the ftriking of the hours : the arm 0, which is a por-
tion of the quarter-rack, by its aftion with the retrograding-
ratchet P, brings the hour-fnail F into its proper place to
receive the arm /, of the piece D. The quarter-rack E
is kept in its place by the pin 3, tapped into the piece D,
which bears againft its edge ; and is carried forward when
the watch is made to repeat, by the aftion of its fpring h,
which is fcrewed to its extremity the fartheft from the
centre of its motion, and let up by its other extremity
being confined in a notch in the cock a.

The total furface of the piece D refts on the rack A B,
and, confequently when, in the aft of unlocking, it moves
on its centre, or fcrew i, its under face rubs on the furface
of the rack A B ; but the quarter-rack E, on the con-
trary, is entirely detached from, and does not touch the
furface of the piece D, its under fide bearing upon the
prolonged arbor of the rack A B, through the hole in
the piece D ; and is kept down by the cock a, which
bears againft the ihoulder of its upper pivot, as has
been before mentioned. There is what is termed, in the
peculiar dialcft of watch-makers, a light between the under
lide of the rack and the pillar-plate, and between the under
fide of the quarter-rack and the piece D ; and from their
conftruftion, it is evident that they move in planes parallel
to one another, and to the pillar-plate.

Having defcribed the rack, and the parts connefted with
it, we will next in order proceed to the defcription of the
pinion C, and the hour and quarter ratchets N and O at-
tached to it, and alfo their mode of conneftion, by which the
hammers are raifed to caufe them to hit the blows, or to
Jlrilce. The larger of the two ratchet-wheels, N, the one next
the pinion, has originally been cut into twenty teeth, of which
twelve confecutive tielh are left ; then three more teelh, at
an interval apart from each other, and from the laft of the
twelve teeth, equal to the fpace of a tooth ; the remainder
of the teelh, that occupied the fpace from the laft of the
three to the firft of the twelve teeth, are taken away. The
upper ratchet, O, which afts on the fmall hammer, has been
originally cut into ten teeth, of which only four confe-
cutive

WATCH.

cutive are left. The pinion C fits by a long fquare hole on
the arbor of the great wheel of the running train, pro-
longed through the pillar-plate, which arbor is pivotted
into the upper plate, and the cock, b, which is fcrewed to
the pillar-plate. The hour ratchet, of fifteen teeth, is fitted
to this pinion C, by means of a focket, attached to and form-
ing part thereof; and the upper ratchet, of four teeth, is at-
tached by a hole through its centre, in a finiilar manner to
the under ratchet ; and the two are firmly held together, and
alfo to the pinion, by means of two fcrews which pafs through
them both, and are tapped into the pinion, as reprefented
in feftion in Jig. 4 ; confequently, whatever portion of a
circle the pinion is made to revolve by the aftion of the
rack, the two ratchet-wheels neceflarily do the fame. It
may not be amifs to notice in this place, that the arbor of
the great wheel pafles through the barrel which contains
the repeating main-fpring ; and that the barrel is fcrewed
to the under fide of the pillar-plate, and is conneAed with it
exaftly in the fame manner as in the cafe of the common re-
peating motion, and its operation is the fame ; but the bar-
rel arbor is not pivotted between the upper and pillar-
plates, as in the cafe of the common motion, but into the
upper plate and the cock b, fcrewed to the pillar -plate ;
and the connection between both the hammers and the mo-
tion is entirely above the pillar-plate, through the medium
of the hammer-tails, as will be explained.

The pieces next to be defcribed are the two hammers, and
their conneftion with the motion. The two pivots or centres
of motion of the hammers are generally placed at equal dif-
tances from the arbor that carries the pinion C, and perpendi-
cular to the plates, and, confequently, parallel to that arbor,
and to one another ; they are pivotted into the frame, and their
upper pivots are prolonged through the pillar-plate, to receive
the hammer-tails, L and-M : there is a pin planted in each
hammer, at a (hort diltance from its centre of motion, which
alfo pafles through the pillar-plate, in which there are
notches or flits forming portions of circles concentric with
the centres of motion of the hammers, for thefe two pins to
pafs through, as feen in Jig. 3 ; it is by means of thefe
pins 4 and 5,7?^^. 1 and 2, which pafs into notches, made on
purpofe to receive them, in the hammer-tails L, M, that
thefe tails, when aAed upon by the two ratchets, in
tjieir tuni aft upon the hammers ; were it not for this con-
trivance, the hammer-tails, when impelled by the ratchets,
would turn on the pivots of the hammers, as their cen-
trea of motion, without raifing the hammers. The ham-
mers are kept to their places by the two hammer-fprings
•u and *, which prefs againft the pins 4 and 5, that pafs
tlirough the hammers, below the hammer-tails, and as clofe
to the furface of the pillar-plate as they can be, to be free
from the furface of the plate : it is by thefe fpnngs that
the hammers, railed by the aftion of the ratchet-wheels,
are impelled forward to ftrike ; and the ftronger they are,
provided they are not too ftrong for the power of the
main-fpring, the louder will be the blow (truck. Imme-
diately connefted with the hammers are the hammer-tails
L, Mi through the agency of which the hammers are raifed
to ftrike, by means of the two ratchets N and O ; thefe tails
require to be extremely well fitted on the upper pivots of
the hammers, prolonged through the pillar-plate, which are
their centres of motion, though not fo tight but that they
will move with eafe up and down on thofe pivots ; for on this
aftion depends the whole performance of the motion : the
part of the hammer-tail, which, by way of diftinftion, is
called the afting lever or pallet, is that againft which
the teeth of the ratchets aft to raife the hammers, the
upper ratchet being the fmaller of the two ; the lever of

9

the quarter hanimer-tail is left as much longer than the
lever of the other hammer-tail, as is neceffary for it to
reach the ratchet. To prevent the hammer-tails, when afted
upon by the ratchets, from turning on their centres of mo-
tion, there is, as has been noticed in defcribing the ham-
mers, a notch in each hammer-tail, to receive a pin planted
in each hammer, parallel to its centre of motion, and which
pin for this purpofe is made to pafs through a circular notch
in the pillar-plate.

The next piece to be defcribed is the crofs-piece, or piece
K. The furface of this piece, when at reft, is in a plane
parallel to the pillar-plate, and the piece moves upon two
pivots, which aft in holes in the two fmall cocks c and d,
fcrewed, the cock c to the foal of the cock b, and the
cock d to the pillar -plate Y Z. This piece K is maintained
in its place, when the motion is at reft, by the end of the
httle all-or-nothing piece I, which prefles againft its arm 8,
on the one fide of its centre of motion, and by the fpring q,
^7h^ch prefling againft the under fide of its arm 9, on the
other fide of its centre of motion, caufes it to bear againft the
little all-or-nothing piece I ; the hammer-tail L is main-
tained in its place, depreffed, or raifed on its centre of mo-
tion folely hy the aftion of this piece K ; the hammer-tail M
is alfo depreffed in the fame manner, but is raifed on its cen-
tre of motion by the fpring u, the end of which is made to
bear on the under fide of the hammer-tail for that purpofe ;
and by the power of this fpring it is impelled upwards, and
made to follow the piece K, when it is raifed by the little
all-or-nothing piece I, as before defcribed.

The ufe of the piece K, when the unlocking takes place,
is to dcprefs the hammer-tails on their centres of motion, (the
prolonged upper pivots of the hammers) to bring them into
the fame planes as the hour and quarter ratchets N and O,
they being, when the motion is at reft, fituated confiderably
above thofe planes ; and as foon as the ilriking is finillied, to
raife up again the hammer-tail L, and by relieving the other
tail M from its preffure, fuffer it to be raifed by its fpring u.
For this purpofe the arm 7 enters into a groove, made on
purpofe to receive it in the hammer-tail L, and the arm
6 is made to bear upon the top of the other hammer -tail
M. The aftion of the piece I will be more fully explained
prefently.

The pieces next to be defcribed are the large all-or-no-
thing piece H, and the little all-or-nothing piece I. The
upper furface of the piece H is in the fame plane, and it
is of the fame thicknefs with the piece D, by which it is
afted upon : the upper furface of the piece I is on the fame
plane with the upper furface of the quarter-rack, and as
thick as it can be for its underfide to be perfeftly free from
the fprings -u and p on the pillar-plate : it is neceffarily re-
quired to be of a certain thicknefs, being afted upon by
the two pieces E and H. Both the all-or-nothing pieces
move on ftuds, fcrewed into the pillar-plate, which thus
become their centres of motion, the piece H on the ftud r,
the piece I on the ftud i: it is indifpenfable that thefe
ftuds ftiould be perpendicular to the face of the pillar-plate,
and the pieces perfeftly well fitted upon them : it is more-
over ablolutely neceffary that both the all-or-nothing pieces
ftiould, in all fituations, be parallel to the plane of the
pillar-plate ; on which account, the piece H, being a thin
piece, is fixed to a focket, the hole through which focket
is perfeftly well fitted to the ftud, and the ftud is left as high
as it can be, to avoid touching the underfide of the dial.
The unlocking is effefted by the aftion of the piece D
on the piece H, in the following manner : when the pen-
dant is puftied in to make the watch repeat, the arm/of
the piece D comes into contaft with the hour-fnail, and

caufes

WATCH.

caufes this piece D to move on its centre of motion, [viz.
the fcrew i ) ; its oppofite end is then prefled againft the
extremity of the all-or-nothing piece H, and caufes that
end of the piece to move in a direftion outwards ; con-
fequently the other end of the piece H, which prelTes
againft. the little all-or-nothing piece I, is moved inwards :
the neceflary effeft of this motion in the all-or-nothing
piece H, is, from the (hape of the two pieces, to caufe
the little all-or-nothing piece to move outwards from under
the arm 8, of the piece K ; and this aftion is called
the tmlocking of the motion. The piece I being thus, by
the aft of unlocking, difengaged from under the arm 8,
of the piece K, this piece K, by the power of the fpring q,
depreffes the hammer-tails, and brings them into tlae fame
planes as the two ratchets, and confequently into a fitua-
t!on to be afted on by thefe ratchets : after the itriking
is completed, the piece I is returned by the quarter-rack
into its former fituation, and with it the piece K, and
the two hammer-tails neceflarily refume their fituations.
It is to be obferved, that the all-or-nothing piece H afts
upon the little all-or-nothing piece I, very nearly at its centre
of motion i, and on the end oppofite to that which paffes
tinder the arm 8, of the piece K.

We come now to defcribe the wheels that carry the
hands, commonly called the dial-work, and their mode of
communication, together with the two fnails attached to
them, which determine the hour and the quarter, or half-
quarter, if any, to be ftruck.

The arbor of the centre-wheel, which makes one revo-
lution in an hour, is prolonged through the pillar-plate, and
on this arbor the pinion w is fitted, fufficiently tight to be
carried round by the wheel, but not fo tight as to prevent
its turning on the arbor, the upper end lu only of the focket
of this pinion is feen injigj. i and 2, but the pinion is fully
reprefented, in Jig. 5, detached from the pieces with which
it is connefted. The centre-wheel arbor is turned with a
fhoulder to receive the bottom of the cannon-pinion's focket,
and for it to bear againft, in order to prevent the extremities
of its four teeth, that ftand parallel to the arbor of the wheel
from rubbing on the furface of the pillar-plate : the upper
part of its focket, above the dial, is fquared to receive the
minute-hand, and the hand fits down to the (houlder, formed,
by the reduftion of the original cylinder, into a fquare. At
the bottom of this pinion's focket is a collar turned out of
the fame piece, of which the pinion is made, purpofely to
receive the quarter-fnail ; and to this collar in the fame plane
with the quarter -rack, is the quarter-fnail G fixed by two
fcrewB. This fnail is cut into eight fteps, by which the
number of blows to be ftruck is regulated ; if the arm y
reaches the ftep next the centre, the ftriking ceafes with the
repeating of the hour ; if it only defcends to the next, or
fecond ftep, the watch, after having repeated the hour, re-
peats the half-quarter, which is invariably defignated by a
fingle faint blow ; if it defcends to tlie third ftep, the
quarter only is repeated ; if to the fourth ftep, the quarter
and half-quarter; if to the fifth ftep, the half hour; if to
the fixth ftep, the half hour and half-quarter ; if to the
feventh ftep, the three-quarters ; and if to the eighth ftep,
the three-quarters and half-quarter. Under the fnail is the
cannon-pinion, which communicates the motion to the wheel
Q of 48, and through it to the hour-hand, and which, from
its finp;ular ftiape, obtains the name of lantern-pinion. This
pinion is of a very peculiar conftruftion, and confifts of
four upright, equidiltant, cylindrical teeth, attached at one
end to the under fide of the collar, and made out of the
fame piece of tteel that forms the focket and collar above-
mentioned, as feen in^^. 5.

Above the cannon-pinion, and refting on it, is the hour-
wheel S, which makes one revolution in twelve hours ; and
this wheel carries the hour-hand by means of n.s focket,
which fits on the wheel's focket prolonged through the hole
in the centre of the dial. To explain the mode by which
this wheel is made to perform one revolution in twelve hours,
it will be neceflary to defcribe the wheel Q of 48, fo called
from being cut into 48 teeth ; the hour-fnail F, with its rat-
chet P ; and the wheel R of communication to the hour-wheel.
Thefe four pieces have one common centre of motion, which
is a ftud X, fcrewed perpendicularly into the pillar-plate,
fimilar to the ftuds r and i ; the wheel of 48, to which are
attached the other three, is placed as clofe as it can be to
the plate to turn freely. To the centre of the wheel is fixed
a long focket, well fitted to the ftud, by which means the per-
feft parallelifm of the wheel's p'ane to the furface of the
plate is preferred : from the face of the wheel upwards,
equal to the thicknefs of the hour-fnail, this focket is left of
a confiderable diameter, equal to the hole in the centre of
the hour-fnail ; for on this part of the focket it is that the
hour-fnail fits, but not fo tight as to prevent its turning
cafily on the foc'ket, while its underfide bears on the upper
furface of the wheel : above the furface of the fnail the
focket is reduced in diameter to the fize of a common foc-
ket. The ratchet P is faftened to the hour-fnail by two
fcrews, and thus becomes one piece with it ; the centre of
the ratchet being cut out a quantity equal to about half
its diameter, (fee ^g. 6,) and it is fo placed on the
hour-fnail, that the fmall circk- thus cut out is concentric
with its centre of motion. Tl-e wheel of communication R
(fee^^. 6. ) forms the laft of the four ; it fits tight, by a hole
through its centre, on the focket of the wheel of 48, and
on its under fide a collar is left, which fits, but not tight,
into the fpace formed by tlic cutting out of the centre of the
ratchet, and which collar bears on the (lioulder of the large
focket above-mentioned, that is formed by the reducing it
from the fize, at which it pafTes through the hour-fnail, to
the fmaller fize : in this manner the hour-fnail and ratchet arc
confined between the wheel of Q 48 and the wheel of com-
munication R. To enfure the fnail being carried round
once in twelve hours by the wheel of 48, and its being
prcfcrvcd in its relative fituation with refpeft to the hour-
hand, fo that the hour ftruck fhall accord with the hour
(hewn ; and alfo to enfure the fafe bearing of the arm /, of
the piece D, on the ftep of the fnajl, there is a notch in the
thick part of the ftud on which the fnail is fitted, and a cor-
refponding long flit, commencing at the centre of the fnail,
and extending nearly to its circumference ; in which flit is a
ftraight fpring x, that takes into the notch in the focket,
(feejff. 7. ) ; the efleft of this contrivance is twofold : firft,
by the aftion of the fpring in the notch it preferves the fnail,
when not aCtcd upon by the arm 0 of the quarter -rack E,
conilantly in the fame fituation relatively to tlie wheel of
48 ; and fecondly, it allows of its being moved on its
centre when required, and at the fame time regulates the
quantity of that motion by the width of the notch in the
focket. The cafe in which the hour-fnail is required to turn
on its centre, independently of the wheel of 48, is, when the
minute-hand having juft paft tlie 60"', and confequently the
hour only being required to be ftruck, there would, without
this peculiar additional motion of the fiiail, be danger of
the arm/, which cannot be a line, but mnft polfef-i width as
well as thicknefs, not coming down fafe on the ftep of the
fnail it ought to reach, but, by being ftopped by the preced-
ing ftep, of its caufing the watch to repe.it one hour lefs than
it ft>ew8 ; to prevent this, the arm 0, of the quarter-rack,
when the wateh is made to repeat cxaftly at the hour, and

I for

WATCH.

for fome few minutes after, coming into contaift with the
ratctet, which is fituated in the fame plane as the arm o,
caufes it, and alfo the fnail, to advance a fufficient quan-
tity to enfure tlie fafe bearing of the arm/ on the fnail,
and confequently the corred ftriking of the watch : this
cffeft, from the conllrudion of the parts as juft defcribed,
is produced, without didurbing either the wheel Q of 48, or
the wheel of communication R, and confequently without
moving the hands. But it yet remains to explain the mode
in which motion is communicated to the hour-hand : the
cannon-pinion of four tecth,or pins, revolving with the centre-
wheel once in an hour, neceflarily caufes the wheel of 48, in
which it afts, and with it the wheel of communication, to
revolve once in Vj c twelve hours ; and the wheel of com-
munication afting on the hour-wheel, fo called becaufe it
carries the hour-hand, is of the fame fize and number of
teeth as itfelf, and therefore caufes it and the hour-hand to
make one revolution in twelve hours.

The feveral parts of the motion and their refpeftive ufes
being now defcribed in detail, it remains laftly that we
defcribe the general aftion of the whole.

Let us fuppofe the watch made to repeat in the ufual
manner, by pufhing in the pendant at the three-quarters and
a half-quarter pafl feven o'clock, the rack A B, fg. 2. by
the prefTure of the pufhing-piece, is carried forward until its
further advance is flopped by the arm /, of the piece D,
reaching the feventh ftep from the exterior point of the
hour-fnail F ; at the fame time the rack, by its aftion on the
pinion C, winds up to a certain degree the main-fpring; and
the hour and quarter ratchets N and O, being attached to
this pinion, are carried forward with it, or rather, relative to
the ftiape of the teeth of thofe ratchets, are carried backwards
with it : the piece D, neceflarily advancing with the rack,
being immediately attached to it, difengages the quarter-rack
E, pi-evioufly kept in its place by the pin 3, which quarter-
rack being difengaged, is by the power of its fpring h im-
mediately brought forward after the rack A B, until it is
flopped by its arm y, reaching the quarter-fnail G ; but in
this cafe, the watch being to ftrike the three-quarters and
the half-quarter, the advance of the quarter-rack is almofl
immediately flopped by its arm y, coming agamfl the ftep,
the farthell removed from the centre of the quarter-fnail G :
the iuflant the arm/, of the piece D, has, by its preffure
againft the hour-fnail F,aftedfufficiently upon the large <7//-or-
nothing piece H, the unlocking is efFefted. By unlocking is
meant that portion of the total aftion of the motion, every
time the watch is made to repeat, which confifts in the ham-
mer-tails being fet at liberty to defcend into the fame planes the
two ratchet-wheels are in. By the aftion of the piece D, with
the all-or-nothing piece H, which in its turn afts on the little
all-or-nothing piece I, this piece I is thrown from under the
piece K ; and this piece K, being no longer fupported by
the little all-or-nothing piece I, has its two arms 6 and 7, by
which the fituation of the hammer-tails, on their centres of
motion is determined, depreffed by the aftion of the fpring q,
on its arm 9, until the two hammer-tails are brought into the
fame planes as the two ratchets N and O, and are thus placed
in a fituation to be aded upon by thofe ratchets, and through
them the hammers. The power of the blows ilruck by the
hammers depends on the ftrength of the hammer-fprings 0
and *; which power is communicated to the hammers, by the
fprings bearing againft the pins 4 and 5, planted in them,
which pafs through the pillar-plate into the hammer-tails :
■when by the aftion of the ratchet-wheels on the hammer-tails
the hammers are raifed, thefe pins prefs againft the hammer-
fprings and continue fo to do, thus gradually increafing the
power of the fprings until the hammer-tail efcaping from

the tooth of the ratchet, the hammer is by the ftrengtli of
the fpring fuddenly thrown forward, and made to ftrike.
The friftion of the running-train and of the parts of
the motion, added to the refiftance of the two hammer-
fprings, is the whole power the repeating main-fpring has
to overcome ; and the ftronger thefe fprings are, provided
they are not too ftrong for the power of the main-fpring,
the louder will be the blows ftruck. The number of the
teeth of the ratchets that are brought to aft on the ham-
mer-tails, is the fame as of the hour to be ftruck, which
are determined by the two fnails. The unloi;king being
thus effefted, the aft of ftriking commences ; the power
by which the repeating main-fpring was wound up, being
removed, the fpring immediately uncoils, and returns
into its former ftate, carrying with it the pinion C, the two
ratchets N and O, and the rack A B ; the hammer-tails
L M, having been depreffed, and from the aftion of the
arms 6 and 7 of the piece K upon them, continuing in the
fame planes with the ratch'rts, are neceffarily afted upon
by them, and thus is the ilriking of the hours and quar-
ters effefted. The inftant the ftriking is completed, the
rack A B continuing to return overtakes the quarter-rack
E, and by means of its pin 3, carries it with it : at the
moment the quarter-rack begins to move, one of its teeth,
which tooth is regulated by the quarter or half-quarter that
has been Ilruck, afting on the pallet of the little all-or-nothing
piece I, this piece is brought back to its former fituation,
and through it the piece K, and the hammer -tails ; and all
the pieces of the motion return by the power of the repeat-
ing main-fpring, into the fame fituations they were in before
the watch was made to repeat.

The mode by which, in this conftruftion of repeating
work, the proper number of quarters, and the half-quarter,
if any, as fhewn by the hands, is ftruck, is pecuhar to
itfelf, and requires to be particularly explained. The
hour-fnail and the great ratchet are fo proportioned to one
another, that, as has been before obferved, according to the
ftep on the fnail, the arm/ of the piece D defcends upon ;
fo is the number of teeth of the great ratchet fent back,
previoufly to the unlocking taking place, to engage as foon
as the unlocking ftiall be effefted, in the hammer-tail of the
hour-hammer : thus, fuppofe the watch to repeat l-wrhf,
the arm/ defcends to the twelfth or loweft ftep of the
hour-fnail, and at the fame time the ratchets revolve a fuffi-
cient quantity for the twelve fuccefiive teeth, that aft on
the great hammer -tail, to come into aftion : it, on the con-
trary, the watch were required to ftrike one, the arm of
the rack would defcend to only the firft or exterior ftep
of the fnail, and the ratchet would revolve a fufficient
quantity for the firft only of the twelve teeth to come into
aftion with the hour hammer-tail. It is evident, from the
above defcription of the aftion of the twelve teeth of the
great ratchet that aft on the hour hammer-tail, that the
tltree teeth in the fame wheel which, conjoiptly with the
fmall ratchet of four teeth, are employed to ftrike the
quarters, muft be fo fituated relatively to the twelve teeth
that ftrike the hours, that when the watch is made to repeat
they will precede thofe teeth, in their advance towards the
hammer-tails ; othervvife the quarters would be repeated
before the hours ; for if the aftion of thefe pieces is at-
tended to, it will be fecn, that, in the aft of winding up
the repeating main-fpring, as many teeth of the two
ratchets will pafs under the hammer-tails, as are to aft on
them before the unlocking is effefted : confequently, the
tooth that firft paftes under the hour hammer-tail would be
the laft to aft upon it in returning ; and every time the
watch is made to repeat, the three teeth of the great

ratchet,

WATCH.

ratchet, and the four teeth of the fmall ratchet, muft, by
being in advance of the other twelve teeth of the great
ratchet, be carried forward, and fo fituated, if not prevented
by fome external caufe, as invariably to occafion the watch
to repeat the three-quarters and half-quarter, after the hour,
every time the watch is made to repeat. Such effeit is pre-
vented taking place by the aftion of the quarter-rack : the
extremity of this rack is cut into eight teeth ; (the afting
face only of the firft tooth being cut, and the remainder
of that tooth left fohd, to infure the fafe aftion of the
little all-or-nothing piece I, when the watch has finifhed
ftriking, ) and thefe eight teeth correfpond with and are
proportionate to the eight fleps in the quarter-fnail ; if the
hour only is to be ftruck, tlie quarter-fnail is fo fituated
with refpeft to the quarter-rack, that the arm y, of the
latter, defcends to the deepeft ftep in the fnail, allowing the
firft tooth of the eight juft to pafs the ftiort lever, or, as it is
frequently called, /la/Zc/ of the little all-or-nothing piece I, and,
from the conftruftion of the parts, the quarter-rack is in
fuch a fituation, relative to the great rack, that the latter,
through the medium of the pin 3, coming into contaft with
it, at the inflant the laft blow of the hour is ftruck, carries
the quarter-rack with it, and caufes it to return into its
original fituation : now the effeft produced by the great
rack, carrying the quarter-rack back, is, to occafion the
latter, by the aftion of its firft tooth on the little all-or-nothing
piece I, to bring that piece fuddenly into the fame pofition
it was in before the ftriking was difcharged, and thus to
ratfe the piece K, and confequently the hammer-tails, and to
difengage them from the three teeth of the great ratchet
that ftrike the quarters, and alfo from all the teeth of the
fmall ratchet, which along with the rack-pinion, all now re-
turn into tlicir original fituation.

We are indebted to Mr. Bcnjnmin Lewis Vulliamy, of
Pall Mall, clock and watch-maker to the King and Prince
Regent, for this minute defcription and accompanying plate
of the Stocken repeater, which has never before been de-
fcribed, and for which, therefore, we beg to acknowledge
our obligation to him.

EiUol's repeating Watch. — A new, cheap, and fimple ap-
paratus for repeating the hours and quarters was contrived
by J. M. Elliot of Aylefbury-ftrcet, Clcrkcnwcll, and pub-
lifticd in Nicholfon's Journal (vol. vii. 8vo. Scries, p. 157-),
as being applicable to either clocks or watciies. The
flcetches that are given in the original drawings are not cal-
culated to give a clear conception of the coiincftion of the
parts employed ; and, therefore, we have given fuch a new
arrangement of the figures, as we truft will enable our
readers to comprehend the conftruftion and adtion of
Elliot's mechanifm, as applied to a watch. Fig. I. of
Plate XL VII. of Horology, exhibits the repeating work of
Elliot's watch, publifhed in 1804; and _/ff j'. 2, 3, 4, and 5,
fhew the parts detached, with the fame letters of reference
as in _^^. I. In this conftruftion, the ufual apparatus of
wheels, pinions, chains, pulleys, and racks, arc difpenfcd
with ; and the afting pieces, inftead of being fpread over
the furface of the upper plate of the frame, are arranged
concentrically on the axis of the pendant, which is not
pufhed in, but made to turn round to the right or left, ac-
cordingly as the hours or quarters are required to be ftruck ;
either of which may precede, or one only may be ftruck, at
the option of the wearer. A A B, in fig. 2, is called the
repeating potance, Icrcwed to the upper plate at .v, in_/ff. i,
and bears the works furrounding the axis of the pendant
CD. The portion for ftriking the quarters, fccn in_/ff. 3,
is attached to the axis i ; but the part fcen in fig. 2, for
ftriking the hours, is on a tube through whicli the axis

Vol. XXXVII.

pafteB, fo that each part will revolve feparately ; a circum-
ftance not adverted to in the original defcription. The
quarter-fnail, S, in ^^. i, with its loofe piece, the ftar-
wheel and its hour-fnail H, the jumper G, and its fpring I,
with the dial-work Y, are fuch as we have already de-
fcribed. But tlie levers or detents M and N, with their
fprings r and /, aft here with the circular rucks on the com-
mon axil of the pendant, thus ; the pendant fockct D, iu
fig. 2, has a conneftion with the axis, feen in fig. 5, by
means of the pin/, on the axis, taking hold of its projcfting
piece a, which may be called the hour-pallet ; e is the hour-
locking fnail, in fgs. 2 and 4, with its projefting pin,
placed without or beyond the repeating potance, and fixed
on a focket that furrounds the axis ; on which focket alfo
are fixed the repeating wheel ^, and its ratchet R, with a
fpiral fpring, exhibited infg. 4 ; then while the tail-piece x,
of detent N, of the hour-fnail, falls on the proper ftep of
fnail e, to regulate the number of ftrokes to be made for the
hours, the tail-piece i, in fg. 1 , of the hammer V, is
caught by the doping teeth of the ftriking-wheel g, and
raifes the hammer under the plate of the frame, that ftrikes
a circular rim of fteel furrounding the works, inftead of
a bell ; but before thefe ftrokes will be made, the pendant
muft be turned round by hand gently and regularly, and
continued till all the blows are given ; this manual turning,
therefore, fuperfcdea the ncceflity of a repeating train of
wheelj and pinions. The ftriking mechaniTm for the quar-
ters is fimilar in conftruftion to that for the hours, and is
fecii detached in fg. 3, where / is the pallet ; m, the lock-
ing-fiiail, with its projefting pin to he caught by the pallet
in the retrograde motion of the pendant ; 0, the ratchet-
wheel, and n, its fpiral fpring ; and laftly, />, the contrate
wheel for ftriking the quarters, by means of the fecond
elongated hammer-tail S, while the hammer has its centre of
motion at Z. Thus, when the hours and quarters are both
ftruck by the fame hammer, as regulated by their refpeftive
fnails, the fpringi.w and h, connefted with the concentric
fnails and their ratchets, bring back the afting parts to their
wiginal fituations, for repeating the fame ftrokes as many
limes as may be wiflicd, for the purpofcs of either utility or
curiofity. It may be necefiary to notice further, that the
rim fubftituted for a bell has a notch cut into it, to admit
the arbor of the pendant to pafs without obllruftion ; and
that we give tjiis conftruftion without having feen the watch
itfelf, and, therefore, without making any remark on its
merits or demerits, further than that it apjiears to have the
recommendations of fimplicity and cheapnefs.

In the fame year and month in which this watch was firft
defcribcd, the inventor prefented the model of another ra-
peating watch to the Society of Arts at the Adelphi, an
account of which is publiflied in the 2 2d volume of their
Tranfaftions, for which he received their bounty of thirty
guineas. We have not given a drawing of tliis fecond re-
peater, as being acceflible to all fcientific men properly intro-
duced to the Society's rooms, and particularly as the mode
of ufing it docs not differ from what we have juft defcribcd,
fo far as the rotatory motions to be given to the pendant,
direft and retrograde, arc concerned. In this watch the
fnails for the hours and quarters, the itar-wheel, dial-work,
jumper with its fpring, and locking detents, are nearly the
fame as in the other ; hut inftead of the ftriking-wheels,
ratchets, and fprings, being on the arbor of tlie pend.int,
they are jilaccd on a flat circular rim of ftcel, that revolves,
by means of friftion -rollers, roiind the dial-work on the fame
plane, to about one quarter of a revolution. This rim it
indented about a quarter of its cirriimference, and is adiu-
alcd by a beveled pinion, placed on the inner extremity of
5C the

WATCH.

I

the pendant's axis, which, by being turned to the right or
left, will catife either the hours or quarters to ftrike firft,
according to the direftion of motion ; and pins inferted into
the plane of the rim, at the fide oppofite to the indentation,
lift the hammer-tail to flrike as many blows as the hour and
quarter notches made on the inner edge of the rim, and aft-
ing with the fecond arms of the detents, refpeftivcly deter-
mine. In this mechanifm, a chain wound round a barrel
containing a fpring, and fixed on the pillar- plate, brings the
fteel rim back again to its original fituation, which entirely
depends on the pofition of the fnails.

A patent was taken out for a repeating watch by the fame
ingenious man, dated 30th Oftober, 1806 ; but as we have
not feen the defcription thereof, we are unable to fay how it
differs from either of thofe which we have juft defcribed.

Berrollas' Repeater. — Jofeph Anthony BerroUas of Den-
mark-ftreet, in the parilh of St. Giles in the Fields, London,
took out a patent for what he calls an infallible repeating
watch, bearing date 31ft Odober, 1808, of which watch
we (hall give a brief defcription in this place. In the plate
to which we lad referred. Jig. 6. fhews the repeating portion
of BerroUas' watch, in a ilate of aftion ; _^^. 7. (hews the
calliper of the common movement, hammer, and ring ufed
for the bell ; and the detached pieces of the repeating por-
tion are reprefented fingly in the group of Jig. 8. Like
Elliot, Berrollas founds his pretenfions to pubhc approba-
tion on the fimplicity of his contrivance, and on the confe-
quent cheapnefs, where the repeating motion by wheels and
pinions is difpenfed with, and where one hammer only is ne-
ceffary for ftriking both the hours and quarters. Thoygh
we have not feen the watch we now undertake to defcnbe,
et as it has fome peculiarities in its conftruftion, not quite
o intelligible as could be wifhed in the defcription given in
the Repertory of Arts, vol. xiv. p. 364, we will venture to
deviate a little from the author's own account. The
outfide of the watch refembles common watches, except in
the pendant, which is mounted with a button, confifting of
two parts, C and X : the lower one, X, does not move,
and the upper one, C, having an endlefs fcrew annexed to
it, turns round and comes out to the extent of four turn?,
and is cut into four turns and a half. The upper part of
the button G, being turned to the right, fcrews off from
the lower part X, and operating upon the hour-rack A,
can be continued to be unfcrewed until it has flruck the
hour which the hand indicates, when it cannot be further
unfcrewed. The fame part C, being afterwards fcrewed to
the left, to bring it back again to join the lower fixed part
X, operates upon the quarter-rack B, and quarters are
ftruck in the fame manner as the hours, until the part C is
completely joined to the part X. The piece W draws
piece B back to its former flation. The motion is com-
pofed of three principal parts, A, B, and C : A contains
the hour-rack, B the quarter-rack, and C the pendant and
endlefs fcrew. The piece C, turning on itfelf, afccnds per-
pendicularly, and is kept in a proper direftion by the piece
E, which performs two objcfts. The interior of it forms
the catch-work of the fcrew, whilft the exterior is fixed by
two fcrews on the pillar-plate ; and when the piece C is
turned, it afts upon the piece A, and gives it a circular
motion, firft by means of the piece D D, whofe interior is
caught in the notch at the extremity of the piece C, while
the exterior part of it is caught in the piece A ; fecondly,
by the piece F, which holds the piece D D in a groove ;
tTiirdly, by the piece G, which is fixed to the pillar-plate
with three fcrews, and under which the piece A is fixed by
mean* of a pivot, on wliich it moves. The piece A, being
thus moved, catches by means of twelve teeth, cut in its in-

13

terior part, the piece H, which puts ia aftion the ham-
mer Q, that ftrikes on the bell-fpring R, fixed to the pillar-
plate S, as feen in fig. 6.

The piece A panes under the piece K, which is a brafs
bar with two fcrews to keep piece A from rifing. In
order to give a free and a fteady motion to the piece A, it
is operated upon by a pivot faftened to a fpring U, placed
on the infide of the pillar-plate ; which pivot, pamng tlu'ough
a hole in the pillar-plate, caufes a fteady fridlion under the
teeth of the piece A. The piece A is regulated by the ftar N
and hour-fnail M, in the common way, with a jumper and
fpring, when the hours are ftruck ; alfo the quarter-fnail P,
the quarter-piece B, and its fpring O, regulate the fame, when
the quarters are ftruck, through the agency of the forked
piece J, which is on the fame arbor as the tail-piece H and
hammer. The tooth V, on the piece A, falls on one of
the fteps of the hour-fnail, and determines the number of
ftrokes for the hours, when A is turned one way round,
and the heel-piece of the quarter-piece near P falls on the
quarter-fnail, when the motion is given to A in the contrary
direction, and thus determines the ftrokes given for the
quarters, while two fprings keep the tail-pieces H and J in
their refpeftive places ; one of which fprings, L, is feen
upon the plate, and the other is faft to the piece K, not
feen. Thus the ilriking in this watch is produced by
manual prefTure, as is done in Elliot's watches, and the me-
chanifm differs from that at the rooms of the Adelphi
Society only in thefe refpetts : — that the motion is produced
by a fcrew, inftead of a pinion ; and the piece A moves
round a pivot at the end of the cock G, inftead of being
formed into an exaft ring to move within friftion-roUers.

Alarum, 'larum, or ivarning IVatch. — The watches which
we have above defcribed under the denomination of repeating
watches, can be ufeful only to pcrfons who are awake,
and, therefore, do not anfwer the purpofe of giving pre-
vious notice of the approach of any particular hour and ipi-
nute, at which it may be required to be roufed from fleep.
This purpofe is ufually effected by a 'larum clock ; but we
will now defcribe how the fame thing has been done by fome
additions to a pocket-watch. We will firft defcribe the
former method of adding the warning mechanifm to a
watch, and then explain the conftruftion lately adopted by
Berrollas, and fecured to himfelf by a patent. The old
'larum watch has been fo well defcribed by Berthoud, in
the firft volume of his " Hiftoire de la Mefure du Tems,"
p. 66, &c. that we cannot do better than give a fimilar
drawing and defcription, after omitting his account of the
ordinary movement.

In the frame of the watch a fpring-box is made faft to
the under fide of the upper-plate, and has a great wheel,
ratchet, and click, to wind up by ; but the winding is per-
formed by the key inferted on the fquare end of the fpring-
arbor, while the box remains at reft. When the great wheel
is made to revolve by the ratchet, it drives two other wheels
and pinions, which, with it, conftitute the warning train,
and is in every refpedl fimilar to a repeating train, except
that there is an efcapement-wheel inftead of a fly. This
train, therefore, will be the more eafily underflood, from
our preceding defcription of the ftriking or repeating train.
Fig.9<. of Plate XLVI. exhibits fo much of the warning
mechanifm as appears on the exterior face of the upper-plate,
and will fuffice to explain the conftruftion and aftion of all
the eftential parts, if we bear in mind that a part of the
warning train and the fpring-box are within the frame, of
which this plate forms the cover. The arbor of the con-
cealed fpring-box is feen at A, bearing a finger that afts
with three teeth cut in the femicircle of the circular piece F,

pivotted

WATCH.

ptTOtted into Uie cock G. In the prefent pofition, the
finger carried by the fpring-arbor is refting on the plain or
iinindented part of piece F, and is keeping the fpring to its
required degree of tenfion. When the key for winding is
applied to the fquarc of tliis arbor, the teeth of piece F re-
gnlate the number of turns that the fpring requires to be
wound, before it comes to its due tenfion for driving the
warning-train. The wheel n, under the cock H, is on the
arbor of the pinion driven, within the frame, by the great
wheel, and may be called the fecond wheel of the warning-
train ; and the pinion driven by it is on the fame arbor as
the efcapement-wheel R, (pivotted alfo into cock H,l which
is the third or laft wheel of the train. The teeth of the
efcapement-wheel, when put in motion by the main-fpring
urging it through the train, afts with the two pallets a
and // alternately, which are conneftcd by the portions of
two fmall wheels : that reprefented by a is faft to the fquare
end of the hammer-arbor, concealed in the frame ; and the
other, b, turns on a fixed ftud on the plate. The forked
piece or angular lever 12, of the piece b, embraces the
angular end d of the warning-detent df^, which is moveable
at f, while the remote end 4 preffes on a fpiral plate p,
made fail to the wheel of the hours C, by the adtion of the
fpring q. Now as plate p revolves once in twelve hours,
and has only one ftep at 0, the end of the fpiral, it is ob-
vious that, when this ftep comes to the angular point 4 of
the detent, this point will drop fuddenly towards the centre
of the hours-wheel, and at the fame inftant the angular end d
will quit the fork i 2 of the piece b, which will now be at
liberty to obey the force of the efcapement-wheel R, exerted
on the pallets a and b alternately ; and the concealed femi-
circular hammer, on the arbor of pallet a, will ftrike at both
ends alternately againft the fonorous ring that produces the
warning noife, until the finger of A has gathered up all the
teeth of piece F, and is again arrefted on the oppofite point
of the diameter beyond the laft tooth. At x the piece b
has a tail-piece, which vibrates between the elaftic prongs
of the fixed fork P, and thus brings back the hammer after
each ftroke to the right and left ; and the frequency and
loudnefs of thefe reiterated ftrokes are competent to roufe
any perfon, not too lethargic, from a ftate of fteep. A
fmall dial-plate lying over the centre of the watch-face, and
divided into twelve hours and parts, is fo connefted with
the fpiral-plate p, that turning this dial to a pointer, made
on the ftiort end of the hour-hand, will put the ftep 0 mto
a proper fituation for making the point 4 of the detent fall
at the time required, and will confequently produce the
alarm at the time for which the fmall dial is thus adjufted.

Warning Watch by Berrollas. — In the year 1810 we find
J. A. Berrollas refiding in Coppice-row, Clcrkenwell, and
taking out a patent, on the 26th of May of that year, for
a warning watch of a new conftruftion, which we will next
proceed to defcribe ; but the defcription given of this in-
vention in the Repertory of Arts, &c. is fo imptrfeft, at
leaft to us fo unintelligible, that we have been obliged to
alter both the drawings and explanation, before we could
make the mechanical contrivances undcrftood. The reafons
which fcem to have induced Berrollas to attempt a new con-
ftruftion of a warning watch, were the inconveniences at-
tending winding up, fetting to time, and turning the fmall
dial-plate, all which he profefles to have obviated. We
have ftiewn the different parts of this mechanifm in feveral
figures in Plate XLIV., which we (hall now proceed to
explain in our own way. \nfig. lO, a (liews the place of
the main-fpring, and b the fiifee of the ordinary works,
which are conftrufted in the common way, but which arc
sot feen m fg. 11, that reprefcnts an elongated feftion of

the warning mechanifm and dial-work only. At c i« the
arbor of the warning-fpring box, of the great wheel of
60 teeth, and of a ratchet-wheel, which is made of ftccl
with 33 teeth, that catch the tail of the hammer d, and
make it ftrike againft the circular rim of fteel, while the
fpring e brings back the hammer after each ftroke. This
part of the mechanifm is not given in the original drawings,
nor yet Jig. 11, which explains the aftion. As the ftrokes
are made by a wheel on the arbor of the fpring-box, it was
neceftary that it fhould wind five times round, that the
blows might be fufficiently numerous and loud for giving
the alarm : hence 165 (33 x 5) ftrokes are given at once
winding, and the firft is the loudeft, as being urged by the
warning-fpring, without a fufee, at its greateft degree of
tenfion ; an advantage which the inventor feems to have
overlooked in his own account. Thefe parts, and alfo the
pinion f, are planted within the frame, as feen in Jig. 1 1 ;
but the parts ftiewn in ^gs. 9, 13, and 14, are on the ex-
terior face of the upper-plate, agreeably to the calliper given
in Jig. 9, but ading together, as more clearly reprefented
in Jig. II, where the pivot-holes are fuppofed to be in a
right line, for the fole purpofe of explanation. The arbor
ofpinion/ afcends through the upper-plate of the frame, and
has the wheel o attached to it, which drives a fecond pinion
on the arbor of an efcapement-wheel h ; which two wheels
are pivotted above into a long cock, fcrewed to the upper
plate ; all which pofitions are clearly feen in fig. I I, as well
as the mode by which the motion and force are tranfmitted
from the main-fpring c to the pallets »', i. The wheel g \\ia
45 teeth, the efcapement-wheel 20, and the two pinions
each fix leaves. This aflismblage of wheels and pinions con-
ftitutes the warning-train ; but tlie warning detent, on which
much ftrefs is laid by the inventor, remains yet to be de-
fcribed. This detent i is feen in two detached pofitions, in
Jig. 14, where the parts 1,2, and 3, are taken off, to render
their ui'es more obvious. The dial-wcrk confifts of a can-
non-pinion of 1 2 leaves, the wheel q of 36 teeth on the ftud,
its pinion r of 10, and the hours-wheel n of 40, which are

36
common numbers, that may be thus exprefled : viz. — x

Between the hours-wheel and the

40 1 440

10 ~ 120

cannon-pinion the ring of the detent i furrounds the arbor
of the centre-wheel, or rather the tube of the cannon-
pinion, but not fo as to be tight upon it : on the hours-
wheel n is a pin projedting above and below its plane, as feen
in Jg. 1 3, againft which pin the rim of the faid ring is
prclfed by the fpring /, as feen in Jig. 9. Now as the
fcrcw I takes into the cock 3, made fall to the plate, after
it has palTed through a hole in the lever of the detent, this
fcrew becomes the centre of motion of the detent, and the
prelfure of the fpring / at one end elevates the ring at the
other, and with it tlie perpendicular bar /, which reaches to the
teeth of the efcapement-wheel /j ; fo that when the elevation
of this bar / exceeds the plane of the efcapement-wheel, the
train will be at liberty to run on, and the hammer will be
made to ftrike a repetition of blows ; but while the elevation
of the faid bar / lies in the fame plane with the teeth of the
efcapement-wheel, it will operate as a detent to the train,
and filence will be prefcrvcd. Above the hours-wheel h,
and on its tube, revolves a large additional wheel m, bearing
a circular piece of fteel, with an oblong notch cut through
it, as feen in Jig. I 3 ; and the pren"ure of the upper end of
the pin in the hours-wheel is againft this circular fteel piece
at all times, except when it arrives at the faid notch, and
then it afcends into it by the downward .irtion 01 the
5 C 2 fpriug

WATCH.

fpring /, beyond the centre of motion i ; and at this inftant
the bar /, afcending alfo, quits the teeth of the efcapement-
wheel, and fuffers the alarm to comnrience, and to continue
until the warning-fpring is relaxed. It does not, however,
appear by what means the pin of the hours- wheel is difen-
gaged from the oblong hole in the fteel circle of wheel m,
when the blows of the hammer are finifhed, unlefs the fecond
edge of the flit be made floping ; and its continuance there
muft obvioufly flop the watch, by preventing the free pro-
grefs of the hours-wheel. Either the mechanifm or the
original defcription muft be defeftive in this part. Within
the ring of the pendant is a button, in form of an
acorn, which conftitutes the head of a fteel arbor, termi-
nating with a pinion s, that aftiiates a contrate-wheel o,
which has teeth alfo on the edge, that drive the double
pinion p ; the upper portion of which pinion again impels
the large wheel m, that carries the fmall hand, and alfo the
circular piece of notched fteel. This train is introduced
for the purpofe of fetting the warning-hand, which is the
fhorteft of the three feen \n Jig. 12, to the requifite hour on
the fmall fixed dial, without opening the cafe, and de-
ranging the other hands for fhewing hours and minutes in
the ufual way. At the bottom of the acorn there is a fmall
ratchet-wheel, with a click and fpring, feen detached be-
tween ^^x. II and 14, the ufe of which is to allow the
acorn to turn only in one direftion, while the warning-hand
is fet to its place. It is a condition to be obferved in fet-
ting the hour-hand, that it lie exaftly over the pin in the
hourscwheel, and alfo that the warning-hand lie parallel to
the Jlit of the fteel circle, attached to the wheel m. Laftly,
the warning mechanifm may be put into a ftate of acflion, or
of inaftion, by moving the button v, in the cafe, to the
right or left, fo as to fall in the way of the end of the
detent /, or to efcape it.

Rolling Watch. — After having defcribed various conftruc-
tions of watches adapted for the pocket, and contributing
to the punftuality with which focial intercourfe is carried on
in civilized life, we proceed laftly to defcribe the mechanifm
of a watch, which wiU meafure time only by its defcent
down an inclined plane, and which therefore is more curious
than ufeful. During the time that various experiments on
the laws of moving bodies were made, and applied to the
regulation of horological machines by Dr. Wallis, fir Chrif-
topher Wren, Dr. Hooke, Huygens, Leibnitz, Dr. Hal-
ley, fir Ifaac Newton, and others, M. de Gennes and the
marquis of Worcefter contrived watches, the former of
wliich would ajcend, and the latter defcend along an inclined
plane, by means of a fpring coiled up at the centre of the
frame, which relaxed as the rolling motion proceeded ; but
as no explanation had been given of thcfc contrivances in the
year 1684, Mr. Maurice Wheeler publiftied an account of
a rolling watch, invented by him, in the firil volume of
Lowthorp's Abridgment of the Philofophical TranfaAions
of London, p. 468, et feq., which account has been co-
pied into other works of fcience ; but which we will
abridge, agreeably to our own plan of defcription. In
f.g. 15. Plate XLIV., let a i be the diameter of the cir-
cle afb h, ftanding on the dotted horizontal bafe b m, on
the point b. In this fituation, fappofingthe circle to be an
uniform plate of metal, jt will remain at reft when placed
truly vertical, while the line b m remains horizontal ; but
make this line to coincide with the inclined line n b, and the
circle will roll down this inclined plane, becaufe the vertical
line, or line of direftion, d e, raifed from the point d, which
will be the nev? point of contact, falls behind c, the centre
of gravity of the uniform circular plate ; fo that the por-
tion efd becoming fmaller than the portion e h d, the cen-
10

tre of gravity will be before the bearing point d, and the
plate will roll down the plane ; and the motion thus pro-
duced will have the greater velocity, the more the plane n b
is inchned to the horizontal line. But if fuch a piece of
metal ^ be attached to the portion efd3.% will form a coun-
terpoife therewith to the larger portion e h d, then the plate
will have no tendency to roll, but become ftationary, fo long
as the inchnation of the plane, and the pofition of the addi-
tional piece g, remain unaltered ; but lefTen the angle of in-
clination, or remove the weight g towards f, and, in either
cafe, the plate will aftually afcend, till the weight g, in its
new pofition, balances the^new angle of inclination. Alfo,
if the angle be increafed, or tjie weight g be brought nearer
to d, in either cafe the plate will defcend ; but as the defcent
of the plate down the increafed inclination, by a rolling
motion, throws the weight g farther from the point of con-
tadl d, the rolling motion will ftop as foon as the retrograde
motion of the weight fhall have produced a counterpoife to
the portion e h d of the plate in the new inchned plane.
Thefe premifes being granted, we are now prepared to (hew
how the train of a watch in motion may be made to change
the pofition of an appended weight in fuch way as to render
that weight a maintaining power during the whole time that
a cylindrical box, which contains the weight and movement,
fhall gradually and flowly defcend down a con-efponding in-
clined plane, while a pendulous hand or index ftiall point
out the fucceffive hours and parts during the faid defcent-
Let the four wheels and pinions, fliewn mjig. 1 7) be placed
like the common train of a watch, with the arbor x of the
great wheel in the centre of the box, and conceive a ba-
lance and efcapement to allow one tooth of the laft wheel to
efcape at every alternate ofcillation of the moving balance ;
then let the weight w, at the end of the lever x iv, be made
faft to the faid arbor at the hole x, Jig. 16, as is feen in
Jg. 17 ; and let its pofition be between (/andy"; and the ten-
dency of the weight w to come to d, will draw round the
great wheel, pivotted to the ends of the box, and give fuch
motion to the train as will keep up the ofciUations of the
balance ; but this motion of the great wheel will be fo flow,
that it will be fcarcely perceptible when the angle of incli-
nation is fmall ; but increafe this angle, or alter the pofition
or the magnitude of the weight, and the force will be in-
creafed by which the train is aftuated ; fo that by one al-
teration or other, or all, fuch a final adjuftment may be
made, that the box will revolve exaftly in twenty-four
hours. But before this can be duly effedled, the train of
wheels muft be counterpoifed by a load, attached to the box
at the oppofite fide of the centre, fo that there may be one
common centre of gravity of all the materials, exclufive of
the weight <w, falhng in every pofition of the box, at the
centre of motion of the weight w ; ;'. c: at the arbor of the
great wheel round which the box revolves. Wheii this is the
cafe, and the angle of elevation of the plane is nicely ad-
jufted by a fcrew A, as in Jg. 18, the regulated train of
the watch will allow the weight to to approach d, juft as
faft as the rolling motion of the box will throw it back,
and the equipoife of thefe two contrary a<Elions of gravity,
and of the rotation of the box produced thereby, will keep
up an uniform flow motion down the inclined plane. In
fome conftruClions detailed in the " Recueil d'Ouvrages
curieux de Mathematique et de Mechanique ; ou Defcription
du Cabinet de Monfieur de Serviere," a Lyon, 1733, the
hours are drawn on the face of the inchned plane, and indi-
cated by the point of contaft of the box ; but in the watch
before us, one end of the box contains the figures from I. to
XII. twice over, and a pendulous hand, made heavy below,
and revolving loofely on the pivot of the great wheel,

always

WATCH.

ulwaye puiiits upwards to the paffiiig hour, as reprefented in
fig. 18.

Ill the work of which we have juft given the double title,
there are various devices for making balls defcend on fpiral
and Z'gzacc planes in a given time, which are again elevated
by a fpring, and which indicate the time by the number of
their defcents ; but thefe matters of curiofity are no longer
ufefnl as horological machines in the prcfent ftate of the
fcience of horology.

Mufical Watch. — The works of a watch may be applied
moreover to give motion to various devices and piecei of
machinery, at the fame time that the watch performs its
own operations ; fuch as aiSuating the handle of a planeta-
rium, or orrery, exhibiting the motions of any of the ce-
leftial bodies by means of its dial-work, or urging the bar-
rel of fmall mufical chimes : but after the detailed accounts
we have given of Planetarv Machines, it will only be necef-
fary here to explain how a tune may be played by a mufical
watch, from which our reader will perceive that the appli-
cation of fimilar means to other amuling puipofes is equaUy
prafticable. In Plate XLII. of Horology, fig. 4. exhibits,
on an enlarged fcale, the internal difpoCtion of a watch-
movement, as feen on the pillar-plate from above, when the
other plate of the frame is removed, and the watch laid
down on its face ; the pillars being fuppofed to be at
the circles N, N, N, and N ; the box A contains the main-
fpring ; B is the fufee, with the chain or cord winding
round it, as it comes from the circumference of the faid
box ; D is the great wheel, and within it are the ratchet,
click, and fpring, as ufual ; E is the pinion of the centre
wheel, or hour-wheel, F, and is driven by the great
wheel as foon as the main-fpring is wound up ; G is the
pinion on the arbor of the fecond wheel, and is driven by F ;
and H, that revolves in the fame time with the pinion G, is
the third wheel, which wheel again actuates a pinion, I, on
the arbor of the fourth wheel, K ; which here is not a con-
trate-wheel, becaufe the balance-wheel I is made for the cy-
linder efcapemciit, which we defcribed under the article
Escapement, N'^ 8. The arbors of thefe wheels and
pinions pointing upwards to meet the eye, appear only in
plan ; and the dial-work, lying under the plate, is con-
cealed from view. The parts done only in outline exhibit
the calliper of the watch, independently of the mufical
train, barrel, fpring, and other appendages, which are
Jbaded, for the purpofe of diftinguilhing this portion from the
ordinary movement of the watch. In this figure, the calli-
per of the mufical train and fpring-barrel may be obferved
to lie on one fide of the frame ; but the mode of their aftion
will be better explained hy fig. 5, which is a feftion of the
frame, in which the calliper is io altered into a llraight line,
for the purpofe only of explanation, that the effeA to be
produced may be clearly comprehended. In botl; the figures,
4 and 5, the great wheel attached to the fpring-barrel is de-
noted by the unit i, and the wheels that follow, with
tlieir refpetlive pinions) in the mufical train, are denoted
by 2, 3, 4, and j, till we come to the regulating fly, 6,
placed on the arbor of tile lall pinion. This fly performs
the fame office as in the ilriking part of a clock, or re-
peating train of a watch ; that is, it regulates the velocity
with which ihe main-fpring fhall unbend itfelf, and give mo-
tion to the barrel in which it is contained ; fo that if a quick
motion be required, a few wheels and pinions only are iie-
cedary, and a liglit fly ; but when the motion is required to
be flow, there mull be a longer train, or a heavier fly,
proportioned to the ttrength of the main-fpring. The in-
terior end of the fpring is, as in the common main-fpring
boxes, hooked to a pin on the arbor </, and the exterior «id

to the fide of the box, fo that turning the arb»r d round by
a key, coils the fpring into its ftate of greatefl tenfion,
which is adjufted by the notched piece, or ratchet, e, which
is held to its place by the click and fpring in the ufual way,
as reprefented m fig. 6. Upon the rim or cylindrical fide of
the box a, containing the main-fpring, are inferted various
pins in parallel lines, but at unequal diftances, according to
the frequency of the occurrence of the refpeftive notes to
be founded by the correfponding prongs of the forked piece
of fteel b c, in any given tune which is to be played ; and
the number of prongs muft be equal to the number of mufi-
cal tones and femi-tones to be produced. In the drawing
before us the fork has eight prongs, and the notes are pro-
duced by the catching of the pins, inferted into the revolv-
ing barrel, on the ends of the prongs, which are elaftic and
tapered, as well as tempered, to produce the requifite fuc-
ceflion of tones that are required in the tune to be per-
formed.

The upper pivots of all the arbors of the mufical train
are callipered in the cock h h, while the lower pivots hate
their holes on the pillar-plate ; and upon this cock h h the
bent detent, or double lever/;, with a hook at e, is placed
fo as to be moveable round a fcrew at the angular point in
the middle : the hook of this detent is kept clofe to the re-
volving barrel by the prefiing fpring \, and when the tune il
finilhed, a hole is caught on the fide of the barrel, free from
the pins, by the hook e, which ftays the motion till the
button g, in the cafe of the watch, is puflied in againft the
tail-piece of the detent, and frees the hook again from its
hole, when the tune is repeated nearly in the fame manner
that chimes are ufually performed. (See Chimes.) The
parts drawn in perfpedive in _yf^. 6. reprefent a conftruftioa
in which the elaftic prongs of the mufical fork are bent into
a curve, fo as to occupy lefs fpacc than in figs. 4 and 5, or
to produce more powerful tones where the fpace will admit of
an enlargement of their dimenfions. But inftead of a barrel
containing the main-fpring, fometimes a cyhnder, A, revolv-
ing in the cocks 0 and/, contains the pins, as is feen mfig. 7,
where a pinion on the projedling arbor of the cylinder is
actuated by the great wheel attached to the fpring-box ; and
this conftrnftion is beft calculated for a fork with more tones,
and confcquently for a tune of greater compafs. F\g. 8.
flievvs how tlie prong of the fork is caught by the pins in
fuccefiion, and/^. y. explains how a number of double-
pronged forks, b f, are feparately fcrewed into a frame, k,
where the dift^erence in the tones is produced by a correfpond-
ing difhTence in tliu dimenfions of the prongs. The hole in
which the hook e falls is here in the end of tlie cylinder, but
the motion is not ftayed thereby ; for tlie (lender fpring,
prelfing againft it, lays hold of the fly-pinion, when it fol-
lows the detent, and thus ftops the part that has the greateft
velocity, and leall power ; whereas confiderable ftr.-iiii takes
place on the barrel when its motion is flopped by the hook
of the detent, as ^nfiigs. 4 and 6. The arrangement in_y%. 4.
is beft fuited for a fmall watch, but does not produce the
moll audible tones ; and is that which is ufually concealed
ill tlie Swils mufical feals, that have been lately intro-
duced into England : but the cylinder in fig. 7. is that
wiiicli the mufical boxes contain, and which, from its length,
is capable of containinjj two tunes, as well as notes on both
the trci)le and bafs clefs. When the elaftic prongs are tem-
pered, they are brought to an exa6l mufical fcale by grind-
ing with oil-ftone dull, and the prongs that require to iiave
their tones much flattLued, are made more flender at the end
iiioft remote from the cylinder or barrel, where their rc-
fiftance to motion is diminiflied, fo that the vibrations arc
rendered lefs frequent, and the tones lefs acute. Wiicn a

fecond

WATCH.

facOTd tune is played, the cylinder is puihed into and held
in a new fituation, as in a barrel-organ.

WATCH-Maker is a term that might originally denote the
mahr of a watch out of the rough materials ; but this was
the cafe only in the infancy of the art ; for when the de-
mand for pocket-watches became fo great as to render the
manufafture an objeft of commerce, the confequent divifion
of labour was foon found to facilitate the execution ; and each
branch of the trade had its appropriate tools and artifans ;
fo that thoufands of families have at length been employed
and maintained by their refpeftive manipulations, without
interfering with the bufinefs of their neighbours, who are
equally occupied in their refpeftive departments. In this
art, the materials are of very little value in their original
ftate ; but the workmanfhip is fo various, and requires fuch
dehcacy in the management, that, as has been ftated to a
committee in the houfe of commons, materials that did not
coft fixpence in the Hate of ore, have been and frequently
are manufaftured into a watch that is worth lool. and up-
wards. This view of the fubjeft induced minifters to with-
draw their projefted plan of taxing w^atches, as being, in
faft, a tax on ingenuity and induftry.

We have anticipated much of the fubjeft of watch-
making under the articles we have already referred to in ho-
rology, for a watch may be cpnfidered as a fpring-clock in
miniature ; and what we have faid about calculating, cal-
lipering, making, and adjufting the various portions of a
fmall clock, is therefore equally applicable to a watch, ex-
cept that the balance mull be fubftituted for the pendulum.
It may gratify the curiofity of our readers, however, to
explain how the labour, we have adverted to, is divided and
fubdivided into various branches of manufadlure ; and how
perfons fituated at different parts of the kingdom confpire,
without any mutual knowledge of each other, to bring this
fmall piece of mechanifm into its finithed ftate.

The beft watch-movements are made at Prefect, in Lan-
cafhire, by perfons called movement-makers, who furnilh
the movement complete to the London watch-makers,

The following is a lift of the principal workmen employ-
ed in manufafturing a movement, previoufly to its coming
into the hands of the London watch-maker.

1 . The frame-maker, who makes the frame ; that is to
fay, the two plates, the bar, and the potance.

2. The pillar-maker, who turns the pillars, and makes
the ftud for the ftop-work.

3. The cock-maker, who makes the cock and the ftop-
work.

4. The barrel and fufee-maker, who makes the barrel,
great wheel, fufee, and their component parts.

5. The going fufee-maker, who makes the going fufee,
(the means by which the watch is kept going while wanding
up,) when made ufe of.

6. The centre wheel and pinion-maker, who makes the
fame.

7. The fmall pinion-maker, who makes it of wire, pre-
vioufly drawn by another workman, called pinion-wire ; the
third and fourth wheels, and efcapement-wheel pinion ; and
in the cafe of repeaters, the pinions of the repeating train of
wheels : thefe are all tiiiilhed in the engine.

8. The fmall wheel-maker, who makes the third and
fourth wheels, and the wheels of the repeating train for re-
peating movements, and rivets them to their pinions.

9. The wheel-cutter, who cuts the wheels.

10. The verge-maker, who makes the verge of vertical
watches.

11. The movement-finiflier, who turns the wheels of a
proper fize previoufly to their being cut, forwards them to

and receives them from the wheel-cutter, examines all the
parts as they are made, to fee that they are as they
Ihould be ; and finally completes the movement, and puts it
together.

12. The balance-maker, who makes the balance of fteel
or brafs.

Note. — The brafs balance is preferred to the fteel balance
by fome watch-makers, in confequence of the latter being
fiibjeft to the influence of magnetifm : but others prefer
the fteel to the brafs balance, in confequence of the latter
being more influenced by variation of temperature than the
former.

13. The pinion wire-drawer, who prepares the pinion-
wire ; this, however, may be confidered as only a branch
of the trade of wire-drawing.

The plates and wheels are now all made out of rolled
brafs ; but formerly, when it was to be had, they were
made of Dutch brafs, it being confidered preferable to the
Englifli.

The movement, in the ftate in which it is fent to the
London watch-maker, confifts of the frame, compofed of
two plates, connefted together by four or five pillars, as the
cafe may be, which pillars are riveted to one of the plates,
called the pillar-plate ; the wheels, confifting of the great
wheel attached to the fufee, the fecond or centre wheel,
the third and fourth wheels, the fufee and barrel, potance
and ftop-work, which latter are attached to the upper plate,
(fo called in contra-diftinftion to the pillar -plate, ) but the
potance fcrewed to it is between the plates ; and laftly,
the cock fcrewed to the outfide of the upper plate.

The following is a hft of the principal workmen employed
on a watch to complete it from the ftate in which the move-
ment is received from the country.

1. The Aide -maker, who makes the Aide.

2. The jeweller, who jewels the cock and potance, and,
in a more forward ftate of the watch, any other holes that
are required to be jewelled.

3. The motion-maker, who makes the brafs edge ; and,
after the cafe is made, joints and locks the watch into the
cafe, and makes the motion-wheels and pinions.

4. The wheel-cutter, who cuts the motion-wheels for the
motion-maker.

5. The cap-maker, who makes the cap.

6. The dial-plate maker, who makes the dial.

7. The painter, who paints the dial.

8. The cafe-maker, who makes the cafe.

9. The joint-finiflier, who finiflies the joint of the
cafe.

10. The pendant-maker, who makes the pendant.

11. The engraver, who engraves the name of the watch-
maker on the upper plate ; and alfo engraves the cock and
flide, or index, as the cafe may be.

12. The piercer, who pierces the cock and flide for the
engraver, and afterwards engraves them.

13. The efcapement-maker, who makes the horizontal,
duplex, or detached efcapements ; but the efcapement of a
vertical watch is made by the finiflier.

14. The fpring-maker, who makes the main-fpring.

15. The chain -maker, who makes the chain.

16. The finiflier, who completes the watch, and makes
the pendulum-fpring, and adjufts it.

17. The gilder, who gilds the watch.

18. The fufee-cutter, who cuts the fufee to receive the
chain, and alfo balance-wheel of the vertical efcapement.

19. The hand-maker, who makes the hands.

20. The glafs-maker, who makes the glafs.

21. To thefe rauft be added the pendulum-fpring, wire-

drawer.

WAT

drawer, who draws the wire for tlie penduUim-fprings,
which is almoll a diftinft trade.

The above are the principal workmen employed in the
manufafture of a plain watch ; in the manufafture of a re-
peater, the fame workmen are employed, with the addition
of the repeating motion-maker, in the place of the maker
of the plain motion, who makes the brafs edge and motion,
and joints and locks or fixes in, which ever way it is done,
the watch into its cafe ; and when the repeater is made to
ftrike on bell-fprings, the motion-maker makes the fprings.
Formerly, repeaters were made to ftrike what was termed
dumb ; that is to fay, a dead blow againft the cafe or cap,
or elfe on a bell, which bell was made by a feparate work-
man, entitled the bell-maker. But the bell-fprings have
now entirely fuperfeded the old bells. The fame fpring-
maker who makes the main-fpring of the watch, alfo makes
the main-fpring of the repeating train of wheels.

The fprings of a hunting-cafe are made by a feparate
workman, called a fecret fpring-maker. Single cafes (not
hunting-cafes ) are frequently made to open with fprings :
pairs of cafes (the old-fafhioned box and cafe) are fprung,
lined, and polifhed by a workman called a fpringer and,
liner ; the better defcription of fingle cafes and hunting-
cafes are polifhed by a perfon fimply called the polifher ;
this is fometimes done by women, particularly by the wives
of fome of the cafe-makers ; and this is the only branch of
the trade, probably, in which women are employed in this
country.

The compenfation-balances for chronometers are fome-
times made by the efcapement- maker, and fometimes by a
feparate workman, who confines himfelf entirely to making
compenfation -balances .

Plain watch-movements are made of all prices, from 2s. dd.
to 2/. I2s.6i/.; but repeating movements coft from 2/. to
47. 4^. each, according to their quahty. There are many
inferior movements, made as low as 21s. a dozen. The
loweft prices at which the movements called Lancafhire
movements are fold, is js. for plain, and il. los. for re-
peating movements.

The principal London watch-makers order the move-
ments, as above defcribed, of the movement-makers of
Prefcot, who make them according to the callipers they re-
ceive from each maker with their orders. But the ordinary
defcription of movements may be pnrchafcd at moft of the
watch-tool (liops in London ; one of the chief of whicli is
Fenn's, N^ 105, Newgate-ftreet, where every defcription
of clock and watch-makers' tools and engines may alfo be
procured at moderate prices.

At and near Geneva, but chiefly at Locle and Chaux
de Fond, in the principality of Neufciiatel, the Swifs
watches are manufaftured in great numbers. In thcfe
manufadlories women are very generally employed, and the
fubdivifion of labour is carried dill further than in our's ;
and this concurs with the poverty of the workmen, and
other caufcs, to render thefe watches cheaper than the
Englifh manufatturens can make them. The Swifs watches
have accordingly fupplanted the Englifh in many countries
of Europe. In general, tiie workmandiip of the Swifs
watches is exceedingly (light.

Watch ■Milling is the art of making watciics. See
W \TCii-Mider.

Vf ATCii-Too/s are the tools witii which watches arc ufually
made, fucii as vices, pliers, files, hamrners, drills, gravers,
turning-tools, broaches, turn-benches, balance-tools, fpring-
toifgs, gauges, fpring-tools, fufee-ndjufting tools, pitching-
tools, calHpers, fcrew-plates, burniflicrs, wire-nippers, fcrcw-
drivefs, and various others, whicii would require feveral

WAT

plates to reprefent them, but which greatly rcfemble the
clock-tools that we have dfefcribcd and explained by a refer-
ence to Plates XIX., XX., and XXI., of Horology.

W ATcu-Gla/s, the concavo-convex portion of a glafs-
fphere ufually employed to cover the dial of a watch. The
fpheres out of which the watch-glaffes are cut are blown of
various dimenfions, according to the degree of convexity-
required : the edges are then ground to fit the groove of the
cover of the watch-cafe. There is a fuperior defcription of
watch-glafles, technically called bottoms, which are not por-
tions of fpheres, but are flat on the top, the edges only
being concavous. Each of thcfe is cut from a feparate
piece of hollow glafs, blown in the (hape of a cone, of
which the watch-glafs forms the bottom ; whence it takes
its name. The wade of glafs is, therefore, confiderable,
and the flat glafles are confequently much more expenfive
than the fpherical. The method of converting a circular
piece of plain glafs into a concave, by a heated convex
piece of iron, as recommended by Boyle, (fee Works Abr.
vol. i. p. 135.) is no longer praftifed in the conflruftion of
wdtch-glaffe* ; but large convex glaffes for clock-faces are
frequently made in this way.

Watch and Ward, in Latu, conftitute one of the prin-
cipal duties of conftables, who, by the ftatute of Winchef-
ter, 13 Edw. I. cap. 4., are appointed to keep watch and
ward in tlieir refpeftive jurifdiftions. Ward, guard or cuf-
todia, is chiefly intended of the day-time, in order to appre-
hend rioters, and robbers on the high-ways ; the manner of
doing which is left to the difcretion of the juftices of the
peace and the conftable ; the hundred being, however, an-
fwerable for all robberies committed therein, by day-light,
for having kept negligent guard.

Watch is properly applicable to the night only (being
called among our Teutonic anceitors luachl or •wada), and
it begins at the time when ward ends, and ends when that
begins ; for, by the ftatute of Wiiichefter, in walled towns
the gates fliall be clofed from fun-fitting to fun-rifing, and
watch fliall be kept in every borough and town, efpecially
in the fummer feafon, to apprehend all rogues, vagabonds,
and night-walkers, and make tiiem give an account of them-
felves. The conftable may appoint watchmen at his thfcre-
tion, regulated by the cuftom of the place ; and thefe,
being his deputies, have for the time being the authority of
their principal. Blackll. Com. book i.

Watch Point, in Geography, a cape on the E. coaft of
Rhode ifland. N. lat. 4 1 ° 1 3'. W. long. 7 1 ° 50'.

WATCHER, North, or Sev^n IJlands, a clufter of
fmall iflands, in the ftraits of MacafTar, near the W. coaft of
Celebes. S. lat. 0° 27'. E. long. 1 19° 33'.

Watcher, South, a fmall ifland in the ftraits of Ma-
•affar, near the W. coaft of Celebes. S. lat. o^ V- E. long.
.■9° 24'.

WATCHET, an ancient borough, market, and foa-port
town, in the parifli of St. Decumans, hundred of WiUiton
and Freemanors, and county of Somerfet, England, is fitu-
ated in a fruitful vale on the verge of the Brillol cliannel,
at the diftance of five miles E. from Dunfter, 20 miles W.
from Bridgewater, and 157 miles W. by S. from Lon-
don. In tlie year 918, tile Danes under Ociitor and
Rhoald landed here, but were .ntt;icked by the inhabitants,
and routed with immenfe flangliter. The fccne of this
victory is marked by three large barrows, called Grab-
barrows, in which have been difcovcred feveral cells, con-
taining human bones, and a variety of weapons anciently
ufed in war. In 987 the Danes returned, and fuccecded in
laying wafte the town, but did no furtiier injury : about ten
years afterwards they madt a third tlefccnt ; and in order to

remove

444078

W A T

W A T

remove every obftacle to a future landing, they fet fire to
the houfes, and put nearly all the inhabitants to the fword.
This place was one of the vills conferred by William the
Conqueror on fir William Mohun, as an appendage to the
caftle of Dunfter. The town of Watchet is now compofed
of four ilreets, nioftly paved, and containing about 140
houfes. It was formerly a place of confiderable trade, and
had a very large fifliery ; but now very few velfels belong to
the port, and the trade is hmited to a trifling freightage of
coal, kelp, alabafter, and linic-ftone. In the time of queen
Elizabeth the harbour was cleaned out, and a pier built at
the expence of the Wyndham and Luttrell families, then
joint lords of the manor : this pier was repaired at the be-
ginning of the laft century, by the care of fir William Wynd-
ham ; and a duty granted by parliament on all goods im-
ported, has been applied to making good the expence of
further reparations. Two fairs are lield annually, and a
market weekly on Saturdays. The population, in the re-
turn of the year 181 1, was included ni that of the parifh
of St. Decumans, which comprehends the town of Watchet,
the village of Williton, (whence the hundred derives it name, )
and the hamlets of Orchard, Donniford, Kentsford, and
Stream, and was then ftated to contain in the whole 345
houfes, and 1659 inhabitants. The church of this parifti,
which ftands on an eminence about a mile to the fouth of
Watchet, is a handfome ftructure, a hundred and eight feet
in length, and forty -eight in breadth, and confifts of a nave,
two fide aifles, and a chapel, with an elegant embattled
tower, eighty feet in height at tlie weft end : in the north
aifle are feveral monuments in memory of the Wyndham
family. — Collinfon's Hiftory and Antiquities of Somerfet-
fhire, 4to. 1791.

WATCHING. See Sleep.

WATEEOO, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pa-
cific Ocean, difcovered by Capt. Cook in March 1777 ;
lying in S. lat. 20° i' and E. long. 201° 45'; about fix
leagues in circumference. It is a beautiful fpot, with the
furface varied by hills and plains, and covered with verdure.
Some gentlemen who landed from Capt. Cook's company,
found the foil where they pafled the day to be light and
fandy. But farther up the country, where a different fort
perhaps prevails, was feen from the fhip, by the help of
glaffes, a reddifh caft upon the rifing grounds. There the
inhabitants have their houfes ; for they could perceive two
or three which were long and fpacious. Its produce, with
the addition of hogs, was the fame as that of Mangeea,
which they had laft vifited. (See Mangeea.) From cir-

cumftances that are recited, it apj)ear8 that Wateeoo can be
of httle ufe to any (hip that wants refrefhment, unlefs in a
cafe of the moft abfolute necefiity. The natives, knowing now
the value of fome of our commodities, might be induced to
bring off fruits and hogs, to a (hip ftanding off and on, or
to boats lying off the reef. It is doubtful, however, if any
fre(h water could be procured : for, though fome was
brought in cocoa-nut fliells to the gentlemen, they were
told that it was at a confiderable diftance, and probably it
is only to be met with in fome ftagnant pool, as no running
flream was any where feen. The manners of thefe iflanders,
their method of treating ftrangers, and their general habits
of life, appear to be much like thofe that prevail at Ota-
heite, and its neighbouring ifles. Their rehgious ceremonies
and opinions are alfo nearly the fame. The language fpoken
at Wateeoo was equally well underltood bv Omai, and by
two New Zealanders. What its pecuharities may be, when
compared with the other dialefts, Capt. Cook was not able
to point out. The natives of this ifland fprung originally,
without doubt, from the fame (lock, which has fpread itfelf
fo wonderfully all over the immenfe extent of the South
fea ; though from a circumflance mentioned by Omai they
put in their claim to a more illuftrious estraftion ; for they
dignified their ifland with the appellation of " Wenooa no
te Eatooa," that is, a land of gods, efteeming themfelves a
fort of divinities, and poffefTed with the fpiritjof the Eatooa :
and this notion Omai informed our voyagers was entertained
by fome at Otaheite, and prevailed univerfally amongft the
inhabitants of Mataia, or Ofnaburg ifland. It appears that
Omai, on landing in this ifland, found three of his own
countrymen, natives of the Society iflands ; one born at
Matavai in Otaheite, another at Ulietea, and the third at
Huaheine. By them he was informed, that about twenty
perfons, of both fexes, had embarked on board a canoe at
Otaheite to crofs over to the neighbouring ifland Ulietea ;
but they were driven by a ftorm far from their courfe, and
having exhaufled their flock of provifions, they pafTed many
days without food or drink. Many of them fell viftims to
famine and fatigue, and four only furvived to reach this
ifland at the diftance of 200 leagues from their native abode,'
by the inhabitants of which the furvivors, clinging to their
canoe which was overfet, were refcued from their danger
and diftrefs, hofpitably received, and treated with fo
much kindnefs, that the three who remained, and who
had lived on this ifland above twelve years, had no inclina-
tion to return, though an opportunity now offered itfelf for
this purpofe.

END OF VOL. XXXVII.

New-Sueet-Scjaare, London.

Universitv of California
fVnm which it was borrowed.

AE 5. RZ'3 1819 37

"C SOUTMEBN REGION*

D 000 342 554

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