THE CYCLOPAEDIA; OR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF llrts, ^tiemes, anti ^Literature. BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc. WJTH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. XXXIX. LONDON: Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternoster-Row, F.C. AND J. KIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAYOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH, CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO., J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819. ^' • '■^ ^/-\;^ CYCLOPEDIA: 1^13 N/. 5o-, yellow, in allufion to its yellow juice. — Schreb. Gen. 710. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 877. Marti Mill. Dia. v. 4. (Quapoya; Aubl. Guian. 897. Juff. 256. Lamarck Didl. v. 6. 21. llluftr. t. 831.) — Clafs and order, Dhec'ia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Gutllfcne, Juff. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, in five or fix fmall, deep, imbricated, roundifh, concave, acute feg- ments, with a pair of minute oppofite fcales at the bafe. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, fpreading, larger than the calyx. Stam. Filament one, columnar, ercft ; anthers five, two- lobed, forming a peltate concave difk, full of gluten, their under fide burfting, and difcharging the pollen. Female, Cal. like that of the male, permanent, inferior. Cor. as in the male. Slam. Filament none ; anthers five, prifmatic, ereft, imperfeft. Pljl. Germen fuperior, roundifti, with five furrows ; ftyle none ; ftigmas five, roundifh, thick, emarginate, feated on the germen. Perk. Capfule fmall, globofe or oval, with five furrows, five cells, and five valves, burfting at the furrows, their membranous parti- tions adhering to the central column. Seeds numerous, oblong, imbedded in the pulp, inferted in a double row upon the five-angled columnar receptacle. Obf. It appears that one-fifth is frequently added to the parts of fruttification, in the male as well as female flowers. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five. Filament columnar. Anthers five, two-lobed, form- ing a peltate diflv. Female, Calyx and Corolla like the male. Stigmas five, feflile. Capfule of five cells, with many pulpy feeds. I. X. fcandens. Twining Xanthe. Willd. n. i. (Qua- poya fcandens ; Aubl. Guian. 898. t. 343.) — Leaves obo- vate, flefhy. Capfule globofe. — Native of the forefts of Guiana, flowering in November. The Jlem is fhrubby, with knotty branches, twining round neighbouring trees. Leaves oppofite, on fhort ftalks, fimple, entire, thick, and fmooth, three or four inches long, with a thick mid-rib, and a fhort blunt point, but no branching veins. Panicles at the ends of the drooping branches, compound, three-forked, fmooth. Floivirs fmall, yellow ; their partial ftalks longer than the calyx. Petals flefhy. Capfule about the fize of a black currant, flefhy, crowned with the black Jligmas all meeting in a point. Seeds red. Every part of the plant, when wounded, difcharges a tranfparent, white, vifcid, re- finous juice. The Indians call this fpecies Quapoy. See Quapoya. 2. X. par. X A N X A N 5. X. parvtflora. Small-flowered Xanthe. Willd. n. 2. (Quapoya Pana-panari ; Aubl. Guian. 900. t. 344.) — Leaves elliptic-oblong. Flowers nearly feffile. Capfule elliptical. Native of the fame country'. Differs from the preceding in having thinner leaves ; fmaller Jlo'-juer:, with fhorter par- tial ftalks ; and an oblong, thicker, yellowilh fruit. The barl and leaves, if cut or broken, difcharge a yellow gluti- nous juice, which, when dried, refembles Gamboge, and is, like that fubftance, foluble in water. Auhlet. XANTHICA, 'S.'j.-Ami., in Antiquity, a Macedonian fefti- val, fo called becaufe it was obferved in the month Xan- thus, at which time the whole royal family with the army was purified. See Lustratiok. XANTHIUM, in Botany, moft unqueftionably the %%Am of Diofcorides, book 4. chap. 138, as appears by his very apt defcription, owes its name to the ufe made of unripe fruit by the Greeks, to dye the hair yellow. Our common Englifh fpecies, X. Jlrumarium, is evidently the identical plant of Diofcorides, and its fpecific name alludes to a reputed virtue of curing tumours. — Linn. Gen. 487. Schreb. 635. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 373. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1017. Prodr. Fl. Gric. Sibth. V. 2. 234. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 268. Purfh 581. Juff. 191. Tourn. t. 252. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 765. Gasrtn. t. 164 Clafs and order, Monoecia Pentandr'ia. Nat. Ord. Compofit£ nucamentaces, Linn. Corymblfera anomalie, Juff. Gen. Ch. Male flowers compound. Common Calyx of many imbricated, llender, equal fcales, as long as the nu- merous florets. Cor. compound, uniform, equal, hemi- fpherical, confiding of numerous, tubular, funnel-fliaped, monopetalous, upright, five-cleft florets. Stam. Filaments in each floret five, united into a cylinder ; anthers ereft, parallel, diftinft. Common Receptacle fmall, with chaffy fcales between the florets. Female flowers below the male, on the fame plant, doubled. Cal. Involucrum two-flowered, of two oppoCte, acutely three-lobed leaves, (their middle lobe longeft,) befet with hooked prickles, and clofely enfolding, as well as united to, the germen, except the lobes, which are free. Cor. none. Pifl. Germen oval, hifpid ; ftyles two pair, capillary ; ftigmas fimple. Peru. Drupa dry, ovate- oblong, cloven at the point, clothed all over with hooked prickles. Seed. Nut of two cells. Eflf. Ch. Male, Common Calyx imbricated. Florets of one petal, funnel-fhaped, five-cleft. Receptacle chaffy. Female, Calyx two-leaved, two-flowered. Corolla none. Drupa dry, muricated, cloven. Nut of two cells. Obf. Linnsus remarks, that the fruit of Xanlhium could fcarcely have been well underftood, without a previous knowledge of that of Amlrojia. Thefe genera in faft be- long to that ambiguous tribe, whofe habit, qualities, and in part the ftrufture of their male flowers, all affociate them with the compound or fyngenefious order ; while the difunion of their flowers, and the general nature of their female flowers, and fruit, necefTarily refer them to the Dicimes, or in the artificial fyftem of Linnaeus, the clafs Monoecia. I. X. Strumarium. Common Burweed, or Small Bur- dock. Linn. Sp. PI. 1400. Willd. n. i. Ait. n. i. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 2544. Fl. Dan. t. 970. Bigelow Boft. 221. (Xanthium; Fuch's Hift. 579. Ga- mer. Epit. 926, X. feu Lappa minor ; Mattb. Valgr. v. 2. 545. Bardana minor; Ger. Em. 809. ) — Stem without thorns. Leaves heart-fhaped ; three-ribbed at the bafe. — Native of dung-hilh, and rich moid ground, in various couatries of Europe, as well as North America, flowering towards autumn. In this ifland it is of very rare occur- rence, though occafioually met with about London, arid in the wed. Dr. Sibthorp noticed the plant in many parts of Greece, where the foil is rich and rather wet, and found it called, by the modem Greeks, KoWnT^lSoi ; a name alluding to its bur-like property, rather than to the quality on which its ancient appellation is founded. The root is annual. Iferi branched, rough, dark green, rather foetid, of a coarfe rank habit, with furrowed, rather hairy, branches. Leaves alternate, fl;alked, heart-fliaped, acutely lobed, and toothed or ferrated ; their two lateral ribs marginal, for a fmall fpace, at the bafe, as in the great Burdock, Ar&ium Lappa, and a few other plants. Male Jloiuers globular, green, few together, in axillary or terminal clujltrs, about the upper part of the branches ; female in axillary feffile tufts. Fruit elliptical, double-pointed, hard, near an inch long, befet with firm, prominent, awl-(haped, hooked prickles, which attach themfelves to the coats of animals, and thus ferve to difperfe the feeds. 2. X. orientale. Oriental Burweed. Linn. Sp. PI. 1400. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2 ? Linn. Fil. Dec. 33. t. 17. " Schkuhr Handb. v. 3. 239. t. 291." — Stem without thorns. Leaves ovate, flighdy three-lobed, fome- what triple-ribbed ; wedge-fhaped at the bafe Native of Ceylon, Japan, and China, from which lad country it was imported, according to the younger Linnseus, with other feeds for the Upfal garden, in 1761. Sir Hans Sloane is recorded by Ray as having introduced this Xanthium into England in 1685; but their plant feems to have been a flight variety of the fird, figured by Morifon, feft. 15. t. 2. f. 2, found in America, and not anfwering to the dif- tinftive characters of the prefent fpecies, though Morifon, and others who fpeak of this variety, are cited by Linnjeus and Willdenow. The true X. orientale is an annual herb, of a more /lender habit than the Strumarium, and more harfh, though lefs hairy. Their effential differences are in- dicated in our fpecific charafters. The mod remarkable feems to be the taper bafe of the leaves, in the prefent fpe- cies, and the union of their three rib?, at a greater or lefs didance, above the infertion of the footjlalt. The fruit is twice as large as the foregoing, with pecuUarly drongly hooked thorns. 3. X. echinatum. Compound-thorned Burweed. " Mur- ray in Comm. Goett. for 1784, with a figure." Willd. n. 3 " Stem without thorns. Fruit oval ; its prickles hooked, crowded, compound at the bafe." Annual. — Its native country unknown. Willdeno•.^1avu'Pv^, to?; xa^i. When he aflerted that there is no motion in nature, it is probable that he underftood the term motion metaphyfically, meaning merely that there is no fuch thing in nature as paffing from nonentity to entity, orthe reverfe. Accordingly, the an- cients more generally applied the term motion to a change of nature than to change of place. Brucker is of opinion that the notion afcribed to Xenophanes concerning the na- ture and origin of the celeftial bodies, as meteors daily re- newed, muft have been founded on a mifconception and mif- reprefentation of his opinion on tlie fubjeft. See Eleatic Philofophy. XENOPHILES, an able Greek mufician, who pro- feffed the philofophy of Pythagoras, and who hved at Athens, where he arrived at the great age of 105. It is Lucian who gives this account of his extraordinary longevity from Ariftoxenus. XENOPHON, the fon of Gryllus, an Athenian, was diftinguiftied as a philofopher, commander, and hifto- rian. His engaging appearance whilft he was a youth in- duced Socrates to admit him into the number of his difci- ples. Under his tuition he made rapid progrefs in that kind of wifdom for which his mafter was fo eminent, and which qualified him for all the offices of public and private life. Having accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnefian war, and manifefted his valour in defence of his country, he after- wards entered into the army of Cyrus as a volunteer ; but his enterprife againft his brother proving unfortunate, Xeno- phon, after the death of Cyrus, adviled his fellow-foldiers to attempt a retreat into their own country rather than to furrender themfelves to the viftor. His advice was regarded, and he was chofen as their commander. In the exercife of this duty he acquired by his prudence and firmnefs a high degree of honour ; and the memorable adventure is re- lated by himfelf in his " Retreat of the Ten Thoufand." Having joined Agefilaus, king of Sparta, after his return into Greece, and fought with him againft the Thebans in the celebrated battle of Chceronea, he difpleafed the Athe- nians by this alliance ; and he was publicly accufed for his former engagement in the fervice of Cyrus, and con- demned to exile. Thus ignominioufly treated, the Spartans took him under their proteftion, and provided for him a com- fortable retreat at Scilluns, in Elis. In this afylum he enjoyed the pleafures of domeftic life with his wife and two children for feveral years, and availed himfelf of the leifure that was thus afforded him by writing thofe hiftorical works which have rendered his name immortal. On occafion of a war between the Spartans and Eleans, he was obliged to abandon this agreeable retreat, and to join his fon, who was fettled at Lepreus. From hence he afterwards removed with his whole faniily to Corinth, where, in the fecond year of the C i 105th X E K X E K Nat. Ord. CompoftU 105th Olympiad ( B.C. 359), his life terminated, at the age of order, Syngenejia Polygamia-fuperfua. about 90. As a philofopher, he was an ornament to the So- nucamentacea, Linn. Corymbifera, Juff. cratic fchool by his integrity, piety, and moderation; and in Gen. Ch. Common Calyx imbricated; fcales numerous, hi8 whole military conduft, he was diftinguilhed by an admir- elliptic-lanceolate, fcariofe, permanent, the inner ones much able union of wifdom and valour. As a writer, he has pre- longer than the diflc, coloured, forming a radiant crown to fented to fucceeding ages a model of purity, fimplicity, and the whole compound flower. Cor. compound, fomewhat harmony of language, exprefling fentiments truly Socratic. unequal ; florets of the difli very numerous, all perfeft, By his wife Phitefia he had two fons, Gryllus and Diodorus ; tubular, funnel-fhaped, much fhorter than the calyx, in five the former of whom ended his life with mihtary glory in the equal fpreading fegments ; thofe of the circumference fewer, battle of Mantinea. The news of his fon's death was com- female, tubular, fomewhat two-lipped, with five unequal municated to him whilft he was offering facrifice ; and upon receiving it, he took the crown from his head, uttering with a figh thefe memorable words, " I knew that my fon was mortal :" but when he heard that he had fought bravely, and died with honour, he again put on the crown, and finirtied the facrifice. As an hiftorian, he may be confidered in his " Hellenics" as the continuator of Thucydides, and as having brought down the affairs of Greece to the battle of Mantinea. His " Cyropsdia," or " Inftitution of Cyrus," IS generally regarded as a work of fidion rather than of real hidory, exhibiting, under the name of the elder Cyrus, the pifture of a perfed prince, according to his own con- ception of the charafter. His " Anabafis" (or Afcent) is an account of that memorable expedition of the younger Cyrus, in which he himfelf appears fo confpicuous. This work appeared under the name of Themiftogenes of Syra- cufe, to whom Xeiiophon himfelf afcribes it ; neverthelefs it has been univerfally afcribed to Xenophon : but if this be the cafe, it muft have been written from memory, long after the events, whic'h are differently related by Diodorus. Among his political works we may enumerate his accounts of "The Republic and Laws of Sparta;" "Of the Re- public of Athens and its Revenues ;" his " Praifeof Age- filaus ;" and his " Hiero, or Dialogue on Tyranny." Of a mifcellaneous clafs, he wrote a treatife on " Oecono- mics;" " On Hunting ;" and " On the OfBce of Mafter of fegments. Stam. (in the perfeft florets) Filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers forming a cylinder rather longer than the corolla. Pifl. (in the fame florets) Germen fhort ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the flamens ; ftigma cloven : in the female florets, Stam. none. Pijl. Germen and flyle as in the perfeft florets ; ftigma finiple, club- fhaped. Peric. none, except the calyx fcarcely at all altered, except being clofed. Seed in both kinds of florets alike, oblong ; down a row of taper-pointed narrow fcales. Recept. flattifh, clothed with linear acute fcales, rather longer than the florets. Eff. Ch. Receptacle fcaly. Down of taper-pointed fcales. Calyx imbricated, its inner fcales forming a coloured fpreading radius. Obf. Gaertner has long ago obferved, what indeed no one could overlook, that the eflential charafter of this genus, as given by Linnaeus, anfwers to his firfl fpecies only, X. annuum. This ftands in the Syjl. Veg. making a feftion by itfelf, charafterized by a chaffy receptacle ; whereas the other feAions, " with a naked receptacle," re- ceive all the numerous fpecies befides, and direftly contra- dift the generic charafter, " receptaculu/n paleaceum.^' Gartner, Juffieu, and Willdenow, have properly correfted this overfight, as we have fhewn under Elichrysum. The true Xeranthemum, therefore, would be left with a folitary fpecies, fuificiently well marked indeed to be fo diftin- the Horfe." The charafter of Xenophon, pourtrayed in guifhed, as far as the Linnaean fpecies go. But our great us writings, feems to have exemphfied virtue and humanity, " ' " ' Jcmd and generous feelings, and a confiderable degree of piety blended with fuperltition. In his Anabafis he exhibits a lingular degree of credulity and regard to celeftial warn- ings, wluch, in his view of them, governed his condud, and were miraculoufly verified by the event. For his preference of the Spartan to the Athenian government and manners, derogating from his patriotifm, the only apology is his ba- nifhment. His ftyle has been always admired for its purity, fimphcity, and clearnefs ; and his works are reckoned amongft the moft popular of the Greek clafl'ics, and have pafled, coUeaively and feparately, through feveral editions. Laertius. iElian. Hitt. Var. Fabr. Bib. Grxc. vol. ii. Brucker's Philof. by Enfield, vol. i. XENOXUA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, Mnn.^.,n., . 36 n,ii„ s.E. of Akrida. in Macedonia ; XEQUETEPEQUE, a town of Peru, in the govern- ment of TruxiUo, on the Pafca Mayo ; SS miles N. of Iruxillo. XERANTHEMUM, in Botany, from ^r.^oc, dry, and a»So;, afiower, a name well adapted to exprefs-the dry and durable nature of the flowers of the prefent genus, one of the tribe populariy denominated Everlafting Flowers -^'""-..p'^."- 420. Schreb. 551, excluding Xeranthemoides of DiUenius. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1901. Mart. Mill. lJi«. V. 4, the firft feaion only Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. V. 2. 172. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 20. Tourn. t. 284. Juff. 179, excluding Eliehryfum of Touniefort. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 692. f. i. Q^rtn. t. 165.— Clafs and mafter is proved to have confounded feveral together, under his X. annuum. Willdenow diflinguifhes three fpecies, two- of which we cannot feparate, but we fhall fubjoiu a fourth. They were all known to Tournefort, who indeed divides them ftill further, miftaking double or white flowered va- rieties as fpecies. The root of the whole genus is annual. Herb ereft, rigid, alternately branched, clothed with fine, white, clofe, cottony down, eafily rubbed off. Leaves alternate, felTile, lanceolate, acute, undivided, entire; taper- ing at the bafe. Floiuers folitary, on long, terminal, flightly fcaly, ftalks. Outer fcales of the calyx roundilh, membranous and fhining, at leaft at the edges ; inner ob- long, fpreading while in flower, purple or brownifh, occa- fionally white, very brilliant and ornamental. I. X. annuum. Purple Xeranthemum, or Everlafting Flower. Linn. Sp. PI. 1201. Willd. n. i. Ait. n. i. Prodr. Fl. Graec. n. 2045. Jacq. Auftr. t. 388. Mill. lUutlr. t. 67. Mill. Ic. t. 279. (X. flore fimplici, pur- pureo, majore ; Tourn. Inft. 499, with perhaps the five following of that author. X. incanum non fostens, flore majore; Morif. feft. 6. t. 12. f. 2. Ptarmica auftriaca; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. II. Ger. Em. 607. n-7:'.p//i)cii of Diof- corides, according to Dr. Sibthorp.) (3. Linn. Sp. PI. 1201. (X. inapertum ; Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2 ; excluding the fynonym of Morifon. X. capi- tulis inapertis ; Hall. Enum. 709. t. 23. X. n. 122; Hall. Hift. v. I. 52. Ptarmica Impcrati ; Ger. Em. 606, no figure. .Tacea oleae folio, minore flore ; Bauh. Pin. 272.) Outer calyx-fcales roundilh-elliptical, awned, fmooth at II tlie X E K X E R the keel ; inner lanceolate, fpreading. Crown of the feed lanceolate, fliorter than the calyx. — Native of drj' hilly ground in Auftria, Hungary, France, Italy, and Greece ; I? is found in Switzerland, Spain, and Germany. This fpecies is a hardy annual, common in our gardens, ever fince the time of Gerarde and Lobel, flowering in July and Auguft. The firft variety, and efpecially the femidouble kind, figured by Philip Miller in his Icones, is preferred for cultivation. The flowers with their llalks, dried quickly, preferve their (hining purple colour very long, and make part of the winter decorations of a chimney-piece ; but for this purpofe, the back of every coloured fcale of the calyx (hould be drawn, while frefh, over the edge of a blunt knife, to keep the flower open after it is dried. The Jlem is ereft, branching, bearing linear-lanceolate, white, cottony leaves, and numerous Jloivers, an inch or more in diameter. The outer calyx-fcales are membranous and ihining, pale, quite fmooth, each with a red or browni(h mid-rib, moft confpicuous upwards, and terminating in a fmall awn-like point. In the variety /3 the Jloiuers are of a fmaller diameter, and the calyx fpreads lefs ; but we do not find that its outer fcales are more acute, though fomewhat variable in that refpeft ; the inner are lefs ftrikingly purple, and turn browner as they fade. This variety we have from the Valais, as the undoubted plant of Haller, fent by the late Mr. Davall. Both kinds have a pleafant aromatic fcent, different from the ftrong odour of the following. 2. X. cylindraceum. Cyhndrical Xeranthemum. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grsec. n.' 2046. (X. orientale, flore minimo, calyce cylindraceo ; Tourn. Cor. 38. X. oleas folio capi- tulis fimplicibus, incanum, foetens, flore purpurafcente minore ; Morif. v. 3. 43. feft. 6. t. 12. f. i.) — Outer calyx-fcales eUiptical, pointlefs, woolly at the keel ; inner lanceolate, ereft. — Native of Germany and Afia Minor. Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp on the Bithynian Olympus, or in its neighbourhood. Seeds of this fpecies were given to Mr. Davall by profeflbr Lachenal at Bafle, for the common X. annuum, as figured by Haller ; but on feeing the real plant of that author, above defcribed, from the country of the Valais, he allowed them to be diftinft. Mr. Davall firft detefted the true fpecific difference, in the woolly fcales of the calyx, whichi moreover, want the red mid-rib of the preceding fpecies. Morifon indeed defcribes this mid-rib, which proves that he confounded X. annuum 8, as many other people have done, with our cylindraceum ; for Mr. Davall obferved the ftrong difagreeable fmell in his fpeci- mens, by which Morifon charafterizes the plant before us. 3. X. orientale. Oriental Xeranthemum. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (X. annuum y ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1201. X. ori- entale, fruftu maximo ; Tourn. Cor. 38. X. oleae folio, capitulis compaftis ; Morif. v. 3. 44. feft. 6. t. 12. f. 4. Jaceai ole^ foho, capitulis compaftis ; Bauh. Pin. 272. J. incana, folio olex ;- Dalech. Hift. 1 193. Lob. Ic. 545. f. I.) — Outer calyx-fcales roundifh, membranous; inner ovate, pointed, ereft. Crown of the feed ovate, awned, longer than the calyx. — Native of Armenia and Syria. The leaves of this fpecies appear to be broader and more elliptical than either of the foregoing. But its moft ftriking difference is vifible in the ovate fcales, forming the crown of the feeds, each of them ending in a long point, far over- topping the upright radiant Icales of the calyx. We have never feen a fpecimen, but the figures above cited render the plant fufiiciently intelligible. Willdenow defcribes the Jloiuers the fize of X. annuum, or larger. Surely Lamarck's t. 692. f. 2. cannot be intended for this plant T We know nothing anfwerable to that figure. Xeranthemunt, in Gardening, contains plants of tht herbaceous, flowering, annual kinds, in which the fpecies cultivated are, the annual xeranthemum, or common eternal flower (X. annuum) ; the reflexed-leaved eternal flower (X. retortum) ; the golden eternal flower (X. fpeciofiffimum) ; the filvery eternal flower ( X. fefamoides ) ; the prohferous eternal flower ( X. proliferum ) ; the leafy-flowered eternal flower ( X. veftitum ) ; and the imbricated eternal flower ( X. imbricatum ) . As to the fpecies of Xeranthemum, fee the preceding article. The firft is an herbaceous flowering plant, of which there are varieties with large white flowers, with double white flowers, with double purple flowers, and with double violet- coloured flowers. Method of Culture In the firft fort and varieties, the culture is readily effefted by fowing the feeds in pots of light frefh mould, in the autumn or fpring, or at other fea- fons for a fucceffion, plunging them in a moderate hot-bed, to bring forward the plants. In the fpring they may alfo be fown in patches where they are to remain, or in beds to be afterwards removed. When the plants have a few inches growth, they fhould be pricked out in rows a foot apart on beds, or into the borders, clumps, or other places where they are to grow. They fhould afterwards be kept clean from weeds, and have occafional waterings immediately after pricking out, and afterwards in dry weather. The other forts are raifed by planting cuttings of the young fhoots in the fummer, in pots filled with light mould, giving them a little water and fhade ; or, which is better, plunging them into a hot-bed, and covering them with hand-glaffes. When they are become firmly eftablifhed in the autumn, they fhould be carefully removed into feparate pots, being replaced in the hot-bed till re-rooted, after which they (hould have the management of other Ihrubby green-houfe plants. The firft fort produces a fine effeft in the borders, clumps, &c. while growing, as well as in pots when the flowers are taken off ; and the other forts afford variety in green-houfe coUeftions, among other potted plants of the fame kind. XERASIA, in Medicine, the name of a difeafe, a fpecies of alopecia, in which the hair falls off through a drynefs of the part, and want of due nourifhment. Xerasia, in Animals, denotes a certain kind of difeafed ftate, which confifts in a drynefs of the hairs, caufed by the want of due and fufiicient nourifhment and fupport, from which they decay and fall off. It is met with in fuch animals as have been ftarved, and kept and fed in a ftinted manner only on poor forts of food. It is to be removed by a better and more full kind of fodder, and other forts of keep, and by being turned into a good falt-marfh pafture. See Surfeit. XEREQUARO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan ; 45 miles N.E. of Mechoacan. XERES, a town of South America, in Paraguay, now in ruins. S. lat. 20° 5'. Xeres de Badajos, or Xeres de los Cahalleros, a town of Spain, in Eftremadura ; 72 miles N.N.W. of Seville. N. lat. 38^17'. W. long. 6° 52'. Xeres de la Frontera, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, on the Guadalete ; near which a battle was fought between the Moors and Goths, in the year 712, in which Roderick, the laft king of the Goths, loft his life. The environs are celebrated for that excellent wine cor- ruptly called flierry. The beft and richell fort of fherry is called " pagarette," from the Spanifh wotA pago, a diftrift,. and particularly applied to this vintage. In one aranzado (an acre of vineyard) they plant i8co vines at regular dif- tances. X E R tances. It is reckoned a good year if it gives tlirec butts per acre, middling if two, and bad if but one : fome years, however, it yields four or five. The number of inhabitants is eftimated at 40,000, of whom one-twentieth, Mr. Swin- burne fays, are rehgious ; 15 miles N.N.E. of Cadiz. N. lat. 36^41'. W. long. 6- 15'. Xeres Ji la Frontcra, a town of Mexico, m the province of Zacateca?, with a garrifon of Spaniards to proteft the mines ; 25 miles S. of Zacatecas. Xeres Je Guadiana, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, near the frontiers of Portugal j 74 miles W. of Seville. Xeres Nueva, a town of South America, in the province of Venezuela. Xeres. Sec Ciiuluteca. XERICA, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia ; 7 miles N.W. of Scgorbe. XERIFF, in Commerce, a money of account in Morocco, which is divided into eight paels. XERITO, in Geography, a fmall river of Spain, which runs into the Alagon. XEROCHLOA, in Botany, from |n»o,-, dry, and jcXoa, a graft .—'Qrown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 196— Clafs and order, Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina. Efl". Ch. Calyx two-flowered, of two unequal valves, parallel to the hollow of the receptacle, and half funk. therein ; the outer valve fmalletl. Corolla of both flowers longer than the calyx, of two valves, awl-(haped, mem- branous, awnlefs. Stamens in the outermoft flower. Styles in the inner one, combined at the bafe. Ncftary none. Seed enclofed in the inner, paper-like, valve of the corolla. This genus confifts of perennial, rufliy, dry, fmootli graffes. Leaves awl-(haped, ftraight and ftiff, with a very (hort Jlipula. Stem terminated by alternate flieaths, each containing from two to four ftiort fpikelets, of few Jloivcrs. Xerochloa is akin to Apluda, whofe charadler requires cor- reAion. Brown. 1. X. imberbis. Beardlefs Xerochloa. Br. n. I. — Spikelets awl-(haped, (lightly curved. Inner valve of the male flowers fmooth. — Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New Holland. 2. X. barbata. Bearded Xerochloa. Br. n. 2 — Spike- lets lanceolate, ftraight. Inner valve of the male flowers bearded. — Native of the fame country. Brown. XERODES, in Jnimals, a term which is applied, and which ferves to exprefs any fort of tumour that is attended with the property of exficcation or drynefs. See Tumour. XEROMYRON, formed of |>i»o.-, dry, and ;ui;fov, oint- ment, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs what they do at other times call in exprefs words a dry ointment. It was a compofition of warm aromatic drugs, or of other things fit for external ufe, but without the fatty ingredients, by which they were ufually reduced into the form of oint- ments. XEROPHAGY, Sr.^o^xyix, formed of |>ifo.-, dry, and (fxyu, I eat, among the Ancients, the feeding only on dry viftuals, which was the pratlice of the alhletx. In the firft ages of the church, fome, not contented with fimple fafting, added the xerophagy thereto ; abftaining not only from flefh and wine, but alfo from all frefli, fuc- culent, and vinous fruits. And fome even brought them- felves to bare bread and water. TertuUian, in his book De Abftinentia, cap. 9. fpeaks of the xerophagia as a thing commendable in time of per- fecution. XEROPHTHALMIA, Ei^o(p8«^,x.a, compounded of Jip9;-, dry, and o^fla^pof, eye, a kind of ophthalmia, in X E R which the eyes itch, and are red, but without fwelling or watering. XEROPHYLLUM, in Botany, from ^.fo-r, dry, and ^uXXov, a leaf, a genus founded by Michaux upon Hehniai afphodeloides of Linnasus. — Michaux Boreal. -Amer. v. I. 2 10. Willd. Enum. 402 We confefs ourfelves unable to make out any fufficient reafon for this meafure, either in the author's defcription, or in the plant itfelf. Mr. Purfh probably was equally puzzled ; for he has not even cited the Xerophyllum of Michaux, as a fynonym under the above Helonins. It feems the bafes of the Jlamens are dilated in the afphodeloides, more than in other fpecies of Helonias. See that article. XEROPHYTA, fo named by Juffieu, from lipo;, dry, and pJlov, a plant, alluding to the arid habit of this little flirub.— JuiT. Gen. 50. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 15. La- marck Illuftr. t. 225. — Clafs and order, Hexandria Mono- gynia. Nat. Ord. Bromelis, JufT. 1 Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. of one petal, fuperior : limb in fix deep ovate-oblong, acute, permanent fegments ; the three outer ones narroweft, fpinous-pointed, ftouteft, externally glandular. Stam. Filaments fix, inferted into the lower part of each fcgment, thread-fhaped, very fliort, equal ; anthers ereft, linear, half as long as the corolla. Fiji. Germcn inferior, turbinate ; llyle one, (hort ; ftigma tumid, oblong, undivided. Feric. Capfule oval, rough, crowned with the faded corolla, with three cells, and many feeds. EfT. Ch. Corolla in fix deep fegments, permanent ; three outermod narroweft, fpinous-pointed. Stamens in- ferted into the bafe of each fegment. Stigma club-lhaped. Capfule inferior, of three cells, with many feeds. I. a. pinifolia. Fir-leaved Xerophyta. Willd. n. I. — Gathered by Commerfon, in Madagafcar. A hard rigid (hrub, whofe Jlem is round, alternately branched ; the wood formed of parallel tubes, as in the generality of the mono- cotyledonous tribe : branches quarter of an inch in diameter, tliickly clothed with the imbricated, deeply furrowed, per- manent (heaths of the laft year's foliage, each crowned with the reflexed bafe of a leaf, by which the whole branch alTumes a Angular fcaly appearance. Leaves alternate, two inches, or more, in length, linear, rigid, channelled, ftriated, with thick entire edges, and a pungent fpinous point ; their bafe (heathing, fibrous, and fomewhat woolly. Flowers terminal, one or two at the end of each branch, on fimple ftalks, an inch long, rough, like the germen, with minute prominent glands, of which fome traces are alfo found on the backs of the three outward fegments of the corolla. The colour, of the inner fegments at leaft, appears reddi(h. Each Jlower is about half the fize of a fnowdrop. Nothing is known of the ripe fruit, in which perhaps fome better marks, than have hitherto been given, may be found, to diftingui(h the elTential charafters of this genus from thofe of Hypoxis. See that article. XEROPKIN, in Commerce, a filver coin of Goa, in the Eaft Indies, which is worth ^s. i\d. fterling, nearly. XE ROTES, in Botany, l^foTns, drynefs, a name chofen by Mr. Brown to exprefs the arid ru(hy habit of this genus, in preference to Lomandra, by which it is defig- nated in the work of M. Labillardiere. This latter ap- pellation, formed of y^ni-a, a border, or rather /r/nfi», and an^, a male, is defigned to indicate the occafionally bordered anthers. It might perhaps have been allowed to remain, as well as many other names which are liable to fome exception, though the anthers are not properly fringed. — Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. t. 259. (Lomandra; Labill. Nov. HoU. v. I. 92.) — Clafs and order, Dioecia Hexandria. Nat. XEROTES. Nat. Ord. Trlpettthidet, Linn. Junc'i, Jufl". Juncetc, Brown. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of fix regular, ovate, co- loured leaves ; the three innermoft, or perhaps all the fix, connefted at the bafe. Cor. none, unlefs the calyx be fo called. Stam. Filaments fix, very (hort, inf^rted into the bafe of each leaf of the calyx ; anthers orbicular, peltate. Some rudiments of a pijltl. Female, Cal. Perianth of fix feparate, permanent leaves. Cor. none. Stam. iniperfeft. Ptji. Germen fuperior, ovate, with three furrows ; ftyles three, fiiort, combined at the bafe ; ftigmas obtufe. Perk. Capfiile cartilaginous, coated, of three cells and three valves, with partitions from the centre of each valve. Seeds folitary, peltate. Elf. Ch. Male, Calyx of fix leaves ; three innermoft combined at the bafe. Corolla none. Anthers peltate. Female, Calyx of fix feparate, permanent leaves. Styles three. Capfule fuperior, coated, of three cells ; valves with central partitions. Seeds peltate, folitary. This New Holland genus confifts of perennial herbs, of a dry rigid texture, and a peculiar afpeft, refembling the Juncl and Calamarix. Root fibrous. Stem none, or gene- rally very (hort ; fometimes divided, and clothed with fheathing foliage. Leaves graffy, linear, either flat or channelled, rarely thread-ftiaped ; their bafe dilated, mem- branous, half fheathing ; their extremity fometimes toothed. Flowers terminating the Jlem, or radical j'?a/i, either panicled, racemofe, fpiked, or capitate. Inner leaves of the calyx often different from the outer in texture or Cze. When the Jlotuers are feflile, they are invefted with imbricated membranous braSeas ; the male ones are fometimes ftalked, without braP.eas. Bark of the capfule at length feparating, and occafionally a little pulpy. In fome fpecies, the fliin of the feed adheres fo loofely, as to referable a diftinft tunic. The embryo is longitudinal, flraight, in the bottom of a car- tilaginous albumen. Xerotes is allied in many points to the PalMjE. See that article. Brown. Seft. I. Female flowers in folitary heads. Leaves entire at the extremity. 1. %. flexifolla. Spiral-leaved Xerotes. Br. n. i. (Dra- csena obliqua ; Thunb. Dracxn. 6. t. i. f. 2.) — Stem fomewhat branched. Leaves fhorter than the branches, two-ranked, twilled ; their edges rough with minute teeth ; their points withering, acute. Male fpikes interrupted, fomewhat branched longer than the leaves. — Native of New South Wales, from whence fpecimens were fent us by Dr. White. The flem is about a foot high ; woody at the bafe ; more or lefs branched above, clothed with numerous, narrow, fmooth, ftriated leaves, an inch or an inch and a half long, fpreading in two direftions ; their fheathing bafes imbricated, and bordered with a long, thin, torn, flipulaceous membrane at each fide. Male flowers fmall, whitirti, in long, moftly branched, rigid- ftalked fpikes or cluflers, feparated into little whorl-like tufts, accompanied by brown fcaly brap.eas. Female flowers rather larger, in round folitary heads, terminating fhort leafy branches in the forks of the Item. 2. X. mucronata. Pointed Xerotes. Br. n. 2 " Stem fomewhat branched. Leaves fhorter than the branches, but longer than the male fpikes, two-ranked, flraight, or (lightly twifted ; their points withering, acute ; their margins roughifh, with very minute teeth ; dilated and entire at the bafe." — G.ithered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon, New South Wales, as well as the foregoing. 3. X. collina. Hill Xerotes. Br. n. 3. — " Leaves taller than the ftem, narrow and flraight; rough with marginal teeth ; withering and y^rj^ acute at the point ; dilated and jagged at the bafe. Head of female flowers I'efTlle." Found by Mr. Brown, on the fouthern coaft of New Holland. 4. X.glauca. Glaucous Xerotes. Br. n. 4. — " Leaves taller than the ftem, narrow and flraight ; withering and bluntifh at the point ; rough with marginal teeth ; dilated and jagged at the bafe. Tufts of flowers in the male fpikes fcffile." — Gathered on the fouth coaft of New Hol- land by Mr. Brown. 5. X. hucocephala. White-headed Xerotes. Br. n. 5. — " Male, as well as female, flowers capitate. Receptacle woolly. Leaves narrow, fmooth-edged, longer than the perfeiflly finiple flalk, bearing one or two heads of flowers. Stem fhort." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New Holland. Se£l. 2. Female floiuers racemofe or fplhed : male ones racemofe or panicled ; partial flalks fctttered ; flowers drooping. 6. X. panclflora. Few-flowered Xerotes. Br. n. 6. — " Flowers few in the male clufter, in diftant whorls. Leaves very narrow, acute and fmooth ; dilated and entire at the bafe ; fhorter than the divided ftem." — Found by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. 7. X. jillformls. Thread-fliaped Xerotes. Br. n. 7. (Dracaena filiformis ; Thunb. Drac. 4. t. i. f. i.) — Leaves thread-fhaped, femicylindrical, elongated ; flattened in front ; rough-edged ; finely ftriated at the back ; round at the point. Male clufter fcarcely branched. Stem fhort — Gathered near Port Jackfon, New South Wales, by Dr. White, and Mr. Brown. The root is woody. Stem fcarcely any. Leaves feveral, a fpan or more in length, eredl, rigid, very flender ; flattened and whitilli in front, with a green, ftriated, central furrow ; convex at the back. We do not find that the point is always, as Mr. Brown fays, round or cylindrical. Cluflers much fhorter than the leaves, branched in our fpecimens, as in Thun- berg's figure, ereft, lax, with rough ftalks. Flowers fcat- tered, or in pairs, drooping, whitifh, fmall ; the outer feg- ments of the calyx fmaller, and more membranous than the inner. BraBeas awl-fhapcd, acute, at the bafe of the partial flalks. Mr. Brown notices three varieties : k, male perianth nearly globular, twice the length of the partial ftalk : /3, male perianth nearly globular ; partial ftalk longer than that part, or the brafteas : 7, male perianth turbinate ; partial ftalk fhorter than it, or the braileas. The leaves feem variable in breadth and flatnefs. 8. X. tenulfolta. Fine-leaved Xerotes. Br. n. 8. — " Leaves thread-fhaped, elongated ; channelled in front ; deeply ftriated at the back. Male cluflers fomewhat divided, their branches alternate. Stem fhort." — Obferved by Mr. Brown, on the fouthern coaft of New Holland. 9. X. gracilis. Slender Xerotes. Br. n. 9. — " Leaves very long and narrow, channelled ; ftriated beneath ; flat and entire at the point. Male panicles lax, alternately branched ; partial ftalks folitary. Stem fhort." — Found by Mr. Brown at Port Jackfon. 10. X. dentlculata. Small-toothed Xerotes. Br. n. 10. — " Leaves elongated, thread-fhaped, compreffed, chan- nelled, with two or three terminal teeth. Male cluflers fimple or divided. Stem fliort." — Gathered by Mr. Brown at Port Jackfon. We have fome fpecim.ens which anfwer to this drfcriptijn, in the teeth of their leaves, but they feem nearly akin to X. jillformls to be feparated from that fpecies, and they exaftly accord with I'hn; berg's ^^. i, drawn from a dried fpecinien. We are not, however, cer- tain of their being Mr. Brown's dentlculata. 11. X. laxa. Loole-flowered Xerotes. Br. n. it. — " Leaves elongated, linear, flat, entire at the point. Male panicles XEROXES. -panicles loofe, with wliorled branches, and diftant clutters ; partial (talks folitary, fhorter than the nearly globular pe- rianth, but longer than tiicir minute braftea." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the fame country with the two laft. Seft. 3. Flo'Wfrs elthir fp'tked or pamclcd, their branches and tufis oppoftte or ivhorkd. Male perianths fejjile, imbri- cated -with hraaeas. Capfule fmoolh. Leaves toothed at the end. 12. X. rigida. Rigid Xerotes. Br. n. 12. Ait. Epit. 376. (Lomandra rigida ; Labill. Nov. HoU. v. i. 93. t. 120.) Stem very (hort. Stalks and fpikes much fhorter than the foliage. Leaves two-ranked, cartilaginous ; convex beneath ; abrupt, with two marginal teeth, at the end ; fmooth at the edges ; dilated and entire at the bafe. — Gathered by Mr. Brown in the fouthern part of New Hol- land. M. Labillardiere found it in Van Lewin's land. Root woody. Leaves a fpan in length, full a quarter of an inch in breadth, fpreading in two direflions, thick, rigid, fmooth ; greatly dilated, and bordered with a membrane, at the bafe ; fingularly abrupt, and three-pointed, at the end. Common flower-JIalk terminal, thick, (harply two-edged, fometimes triangular, fmooth. Tufts o^ Jlovjers one above another, not numerous, forming an interrupted, branched, upright fpike ; each tuft accompanied by feveral unequal, lanceo- late, acute IraBeas. Three alternate^amfnj, according to Labillardiere, are longer than the reft, and bear cloven, not bordered, anthers. 13. X. montana. Mountain Xerotes. Br. n. 13. — " Stem none. Leaves elongated, linear, flat, membranous, fmooth-edged ; their Iharp point with two very (hort lateral teeth. Female fpike undivided, many times fhorter than its ftalk." — Found by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon. 14. Yi.. Jluviatilis. River Xerotes. Br. n. 14. — " Stem none. Leaves elongated, narrow, channelled, fmooth- edged, two or three toothed, with an acute finus, at the extremity. Female fpikes fimple or divided. Brafteas rather rigid, twice as long as the tufts of flowers." — Ga- thered by Mr. Brown in the fame country, but, as appears by the name, in the vicinity of rivers. 15. X. longifolia. Long-leaved Xerotes. Br. n. 15. Ait. Epit. 376.— Stem none. Leaves elongated, linear, coriaceous, ereft ; irregularly toothed at the point ; rough- edged. Panicles lanceolate, rather denfe, with oppofite branches. Flower-llalk flattifh. Anthers uniform. — Ga- thered near Port Jackfon, by Mr. Brown ; at the Cape of Van Diemen, by M. Labillardiere. The leaves are a foot and a half long, fomewhat ftriated ; dilated at the bafe, and bordered in that part with a membrane, which at length feparates, and becomes torn. Stalk from nine to twelve inches high, two-edged. Flowers more numerous and crowded than in X. rigida, n. 12, with long taper-pointed braHeas. Capfule ovate, acute, thrice as long as the calyx, chefnut-coloured ; pale yellow at the bafe ; its coat fepa- rating in irregular fragments. 16. X. Hyjlrix. Porcupine Xerotes. Br. n. 16. — Stem none. Leaves elongated, linear, lax, fmooth-edged ; fomewhat toothed at the extremity. Stalk rather convex on both fides. Male panicles repeatedly compound, with whorled branches. Brafteas leafy, rigid, fpinous-pointed. — Sent from the neighbourhood of Port Jackfon, among the firfl: botanical communications from thence, by Dr. White. It has alfo been gathered there by Mr. Brown. We have feen the hving plant in lome garden near London, poflibly at Kew, and were much itruck with the delight- ful fragrance of its copious panicles of male flowers, re- fembling the fcent of Crajfula cnccinea, Mejcmbryanthemum noaiflorum, or a Bergamot Pear. Yet it does not occur in Hort. Kenu. The leaves are a foot and a half or twe feet long, fpreading. Flower-Jlalts of the male plant numerous, ereft, two-edged, though convex at each fide, from one to one and a half feet high, fomewhat zigzag occafionally, each bearing a flattifli panicle, from fix to fourteen inches long, compofi'd of numerous triangular branches, from four to eight in a whorl, befet with numerous tufts, or whorls, of feflile Jlcwers, accompanied by feveral chaffy, inner braSeas, and fubtended by about three long, fpreading, external ones, with needle-like points. The Jlonvers, and whole panicle, are of a delicate ftraw-colour, with a tinge of brown about the calyx or anthers. We have not feen the female plant. This fpecies well deferves a place in the green-houfe, for the fingularity of its appearance, as well as for its fine fmell. 17. X. arenaria. Sand Xerotes. Br. n. 17. — " Stem none. Leaves elongated, linear, fmooth-edged, jagged and toothed at the end. Male panicle fimple, with oppofite branches. Tufts of flowers globofe. Brafteas awl-ihaped, reflexed. Flowers obtufc." — Difcovered in the tropical part of New Holland, by Mr. Brown. Seft. 4. Male panicle ivhorled. Flonvers JlalkeJ, in droop- ing tufts- Capfule rugged. Leaves entire at the point. 18. X. dijlans. Diltant-flowercd Xerotes. Br. n. 18. — " Stem none. I>eaves very long, channelled, very rough at the edges. Male panicle with undivided branches, and diftant tufts of flowers. Partial ftalks fhorter than the calyx." — Native of the tropical part of New Holland. The male panicles are a foot long ; calyx about a line and a half. Brown. 19. X. media. Intermediate Xerotes. Br. n. 19. — " Stem none. Leaves very long, channelled, fmooth- edged. Branches of the male panicle undivided. Flowers five or fix in each tuft ; their partial ftalks fcarcely fo long as the very fhort calyx. Female fpike divided in the lower part, each branch bearing one head of flowers." — From the fame country as the laft. Calyx only one-third of a line in length ; ras^e panicle fix inches. Brown. 20. X. decompofita. Compound Xerotes. Br. n. 20. — " Stem none. Leaves very long, channelled, fmooth- edged. Male panicle repeatedly compound; Tufts of fewjflowers. Partial ftalks hardly fo long as the calyx." — Found alfo in the tropical part of New Holland. Male panicles a foot long. Brown. 21. X. multijlora. Many-flowered Xerotes. Br. n. 21. — " Stem none. Leaves very long, channelled ; fmooth at the back and edges. Male panicle with undivided branches, each bearing from one to three many-flowered tufts. Partial ftalks longer than the calyx." — Found by Mr. Brown in the fame country as the four preceding fpecies. 22. X. (tmula. Rough-long-leaved Xerotes. Br. n. 22, — " Stem none. Leaves very long, channelled, ereft ; rough at the back and edges. Male panicle with undivided branches, each bearing from one to three many-flowered tufts. Partial ftalks longer than the calyx." — Found by Mr. Brown, in the country near Port Jackfon, New South Wales. The rouglinefs of the leaves feems chiefly to dif- tinguifh this fpecies from the laft. We have feen no fpeci- mens of either. 33. X. Banifii. Bankfian Xerotes. Br. n. 23. — " Cau- lefcent. Leaves two-ranked, flat, rough-edged. Female panicle denfe, about the length of its two-edged ftalk ; branches quadrangular, very fhort." — Gathered by fir Jo- feph Banks, in the tropical part of New Holland, where it was not found by Mr. Brown. Seft. 5. Flowers of each fex in a cylindrical catkin-lite fpHe, M' X. X E R X 1 M 24. X. hajlilis. Spear-ftalked Xerotes. — " Stem none. Spike very long. Stalk round. Leaves elongated." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, on the fouthern coaft of New Holland. The habit of this fpecies appears, by the above charaAers, to differ widely from the reft of its genus, rather approaching a Xanthorrhcea. See that article. XEROTRIBIA, formed of l^^o;, dry, and rjiCi.;, I rub, a term ufed by authors to exprefs a dry friftion, a rubbing of fome affefted part with the hand or otherwife, to recall the warmth and circulation. XERTE, in Geography, a river of Spain, which paffes by Placentia, and runs into the Alagon. XERTIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges ; 7 miles E. of Epinal. XERUMENHA, or Jerumenha, or Gerumenha, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 10 miles S. of Elvas. N. lat. 38^35'. W. long. 6=58'. XERXENA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, on the confines of Leffer Armenia, of which it makes a part. Strabo. XERXES, in Biography, was the fon of Darius I. by Atoffa, the daughter of Cyrus ; and on the death of his father, fucceeded to the crown of Perfia, in the year 485 B.C. Having in the fecond year of his reign fubdued the revolted Egyptians, and committed them to the govern- ment of his brother Achaemenes, he determined to renew the invafion of Greece, in which Darius had been difap- pointed ; and for the fuccefs of his expedition, he formed an alliance with the Carthaginians, on condition of their making an attack on the Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, fo that they might not have it in their power to aflift the mother-country. His preparations were immenfe, and oc- cupied feveral of the firll years of his reign. Having pro- vided a large navy, he formed a projeft of cutting a canal through mount Athos, of fufBcient breadth to admit two galleys a-breaft ; and to this undertaking, which fome have regarded as a fiftion, he devoted three years. He alfo conftrufted a bridge of boats acrofs the HeUefpont, in order to convey his army from Alia to Europe ; and as the firfl bridge which had been laid was dcmoliftied by a ilorni, he not only manifelled his childidi rage by ordering 300 lafhes to be inflitled on the fea, and a pair of fetters to be thrown into it, but liis tyrannical and cruel difpofition by beheading thofe to whom the conduft of the work had been committed. The number of fea and land forces which he employed in this expedition is faid to have amounted to two millions and a half, to which we may add as many more attendants. When he afcended a high tower at Abydos, and took a view of the immenfe number that covered the fea and fur- rounding plain, his pride and triumph are faid to have given way to tears, when the refleftion occurred, that the brevity of human life was fuch as not to allow one of this countlefs hoft to furvive the lapfe of 100 years. Without detailing the events of this difaftrous expedition, which are the proper fubiefts of hiilory, we fhall merely mention that it termi- nated in the defeat of Xerxes's navy at Salamis, and the lubfequent overthrow and difperfion of Mardonius's army of 300,000 men ; and fpecify fome traits of the difpolition and charafter of this ambitious defpot. For his ignominious treatment of Leonidas, we refer to his article. Upon his taking pofleflion of Athens, he wreaked his vengeance on the buildings and the temples, and difpatched a fpecial meflen- ger to his uncle Artabanus, to inform him of this inglorious triumph. Having erefted a throne on a lofty mountain, in order to view the expefted viftory at Salamis, the event produced fuch coniternation, that he fuddenly left Mar- donius and the army, and haftened to the HeUefpont, where Vol. XXXIX. finding his bridge fhattered by florms, but ftill haunted with terror, he intrufled himfelf in a fifhing-boat, and haftened to Sardes ; but when Mardonius was defeated, and all his hopes of conquering Greece were fruftrated, he quitted Sardes, after having given orders for the demolition of all the temples in the Greek cities of Afia, and proceeded with all poffible expedition to the Perfian frontier. The other traces of his difgraceful expedition were the records of the cruelties and debaucheries exercifed by himfelf and his family. So much at length did Xerxes become the objeft of contempt and hatred, that a confpiracy was formed among his own guards, which terminated in his murder during fleep, in the 2lft year after his acceffion, B.C. 465. Herodotus. Diodorus. Anc. Un. Hift. XESTA, HsrEf, an Attic meafure of capacity, anfwer- ing to the Roman fextary. XESTES, an ancient Greek liquid meafure, which is = 2 cotyli. See Measure. XIAMETLA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Xalifco ; 30 miles S.E. of Purification. XIASSI, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Pofen. XIBACA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 120 miles S.W. of Meaco. XICOCO, called alfo Siioio, and Siioif, an ifiand of Japan, about 90 miles in length, and about half as many in breadth, divided into feveral provinces, fituated near the fouth-weft extremity of Niphon, from which it is feparated by a llrait, full of fmall iflands, and to the north-eaft of Ximo. It has feveral convenient harbours, and many towns within the country. N. lat. 33° 30'. E. long. 132°. XICONA. See XixoNA. XILCA. See Chilca. XILOA. See QuiLOA. XILOCA, a river of Spain, which rifea in the fouth part of Aragon, about 7 miles N.E. of Albaracin, and at Calataiud changes its name to Xalon, XILOTEPEC, a town of Mexico, in the province of Guafteca ; 90 miles S.S.W. of Panuco. XILVAN, a town of the principabty of Georgia; 20 miles N. of Gory. XIMABARA, a town of Japan, on the fouth coait of the idand of Ximo, on a gulf to which it gives name ; 33 miles E. of Nangafaki. N. lat. 32^ 45'. E. long. 132° 7'. XIMAGUINO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xi- coco ; 10 miles S. of Awa. N. lat. 33° 50'. E. long. 130° 30'. XIMENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville. Near this town Craffus is faid to have concealed himfelf in a cave, till Marius and Cinna were overthrown by Sylla ; 24 miles E. of Medina Sidonia. XIMENES, Francis, CarJiiial, in Biography, was born in 1437, in Old Caftik-, and educated at Alcala and Salamanca. Renouncing preferments which he obtained in his youth, he afTumed the habit of St. Francis, in a monaf- tery of the Obfervantines, one of the moil rigid orders of monks in the Romifh church. Dillinguiflied by his aufte- rities and devotional praftices, he became confefTor to queen Ifabella ; and flill retaining his cullomary modes of living, he fo far engaged her refpecl and attachment, that he was nominated by her to the archbiftiopric of Toledo, the richell benefice in Europe next to the papal fee; but his real or aflFefted reluftance to accept this high preferment could be overcome only by the authority of the pope. In this ele- vated llation he maintained his llritl adherence to the rigours of the order to which he belonged, and fo far from relaxing D ifi X 1 M in his feveritics, he indulged them to the extreme of fclf- mortification and penance. Having thus acquired a com- plete maftery over his own pafTions, and poffefling political talents in a very high degree, he was thought peculiarly fitted to exercife dominion over others ; and accordingly Ferdinand and Ifabella cntruiled him with a principal fliare in the adminiftration. When a "trong party was formed among the Caftilians to deprive Ferdinand of the authority as regent, devolved upon him by the will of the queen, he was deferted by every perfon of diilinftion except Ximenes and two nobles ; and after he had reiigned it to the arch- duke Philip, he again acquired it upon Philip's death in 1506, by the influence of Ximenes. In 1507 Ximenes was created a cardinal by pope Julius II. ; and in the following year he undertook theconquefl of Oran, and of other places on the coait of Barbary, with an armament, the expeuce of which he offered to defray out of his own revenues, and he fucceeded in this enterprife. Such was Ferdinand's con- fidence in the abihties and integrity of the cardinal, that when he was dying in 1516, he appointed him regent of Caftile until the arrival of his grandfor, Charles. Although he was then in his 79th year, he took an aftive part in fecuring the throne to Charles, though in his own judgment he difapprovcd the king's conduft, who in his affumption of power contended the declared opinion of the Cortes. With no lefs firmnefs and inflexibility, he profccuted a plan for ex- tending the royal authority, which the nobility had very much circumfcribed. The meafures which he adopted for this purpofe excited violent oppofition, but he perfifled, an d ultimately fucceeded. During his adminiftration he was alfo engaged in two foreign wars ; one for the preferva- tion of the kingdom of Navarre, in v/hich he was fuccefsful, and another againft Horuc BarbarofTa, who advanced him- felf from the condition of a corfair to the fovereignty of Algiers and Tunis, in which the Spaniards were totally de- feated. When Charles was prevailed upon by Ximenes to vifit Spain, the cardinal took a journey towards the coaft to meet his majefty ; but being difabled to proceed by the attack of a diforder, fuppofed to be the effeft of poifon, he requefted an interview with the king ; but Charles having conceived prejudices againft him, returned a cold anfwer, with permiffion for his retirement to his diocefe, that he might finifh his days in tranquillity. In a few hours after the receipt of this letter, he expired November 15 17, at the age of 80 years. Ximenes was held in high eftimation by his fuperftitious countrymen, under a delufivc idea that he pofTefTed the gift of prophecy, and a power of working miracles. But his more unequivocal claims to their refpeft were founded on his extraordinary talents and learning, his liberal pa- tronage of literature, and the munificence of his public cha- rities, to wliich he devoted the immenfe revenues of his arch- bifhopric. At Alcala he built the magnificent college of St. Ildefonfo, endowed with forty-fix profefforfliips, and conduftcd under excellent regulations. Here he printed the Complutenfian Polyglott, (fee Polyglott,) the Mozarabic liturgy, and the theological works of Toftatus. Here he alfo eftablifhed a fplendid monaftery for the education of indigent females of quality, which ferved as a model for that of St. Cyr, under Lewis IV. The granaries which he conltrufted remained without decay for cerituries ; and upon the whole he was juftified in declaring on his death-bed, that to the belt of his knowledge he had not mifapplied a crown of his revenue. Robinfon's Charles V. vol. ii. Ximenes, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 10 miles S. of Aftorga. 8 X 1 M XIMENESIA, in Botany, Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 60. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 5. 85, a genus which can by no means be feparatedfromPALLASiA. (See that article, n. 3.) Nothing can be more trifling as a generic, or even fpecific dittindlion, than the difference between the fyngeneiious orders of Polygamia-fuperflua, and P. frujlranea, of the Linnsean fyllem, provided the form of the Jloreti be alike. The Plflil, of which rudiments are found in feveral genera of the latter, may occafionally become perfcft, as it does now and then in HA'iantbus, and this overfets the dittind^ion. XIMENIA, owes its name to Plumier, who confecrates this genus to the memory of the Rev. Father Francis Ximenes, a Spanifh monk, one of the twelve Francifcan friars who firil preached Chriftianity to the Mexicans. Being well fliilled in the language of the country, he col- lefted a great ftore of information concerning the properties and medical ufes of the plants and animals of New Spain, and efpecially of Mexico ; whence he compofed a work, j printed in four books, at Mexico, in 1615, which is quoted ■ with approbation by De Laet, in many parts of his owp publication. It is fome confolation to find any of thei. apoftles turning their minds to the fludy of their Maker'* ■ works ; as we cannot fuppofe fuch to have been conta- ' minated with that infernal fpirit, which renders the whole hiftory of the Spaniards in America a foul reproach to humanity, and to Chriftianity itfelf, fo proftituted or fo mifunderftood ! — Plum. Nov. Gen. 6. t. 21. Jjinn. Gen. 190. Schreb. z'^'^. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 338. Mart. Mill. Dift. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 352. .lufT. 259. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 297. Poiret in Lam. Did. v. 8. 804. — Clafs and order, OBandna Momgyn'ia. Nat. Ord. Aurantia, Juff. Gen. Ch. Col. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very fmall, in four pointed, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals four, oblong ; hairy internally ; their lower half ere£l, forming a tube ; their upper part revolute. Stam. Filaments eight, ereft, fhort ; anthers ereft, longer than the filaments. Pijl. Germen fuperior, oblong ; flyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma obtufe. Peru. Drupa nearly ovate. Seed. Nut folitary, roundifh. Efir. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Petals four ; hairy inter- nally ; revolute at the upper part. Drupa fuperior. Nut folitary. Obf. Plumier's figure reprefents but three ^^/fl/j-. Lin- nsEus has left a note, that his correfpondent AUamand found but iewenjlamens. Swartz and Jacquin defcribe eight. I. X. americana. Thorny Ximenia. Linn. Sp. PI. 497. Hort. Cliff. 483. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Swartz Obf. 149. (X. multiflora ; Jacq. Amer. 106. t. 177. f. 31. X. aculcata, flore villofo, frudlu luteo ; Plum. Ic. 260. t. 261. f. I. Heymaflbli fpinofa ; Aubl. Guian. 324. t. 125? and H. incrmis ; tbld. 325?) — Branches fpinous. Leaves oblong. Stalks many- flowered. — Native of the neighbourhood of Carthagena, as well as of Hifpaniola, flowering in September and Odlober, and ripening fruit in December. Jacquin. Of the rocky fnores of Hifpaniola, flowering in July. Siuartz. We believe Liniisus never faw any fpecimen of this, except in CUffort's herbarium. That before us was given to the younger Linnjeus by fir Jofeph Banks. Though Miller might have the plant at Chelfea in 1759, it would now probably be vainly fought for in any colleAion. TheJ!em is either fhrubby or arbo- reous. Young tranches fpinous, round, ftriated. Leaves two or three together, in alternate tufts, from buds of many years' duration, ftalked, elliptic-oblong, obtufe with a minute point, rarely emarginate, entire, fingle-ribbed, fmooth oi both fides, about tv^io inches long. JFootJlalks quarter of .--.ii inch X I M inch long, fmooth. Thorns lateral, treft, longer than the footftalks, awl-fiiaped, ilout, but fparingly produced. Fhvjer-Jlalhs axillary, or rather from the fame bud as the leaves, not half their length, deflexed, round, divided into from three to five fmooth, fingle-flowered partial ftalks. Calyx fpreading quadrangular. Petals four, whitifh, fhaggy from the bafe almoft to the apex, on the infide; fmooth ex- ternally. Fruit the fize of a fmall apple, yellow when ripe. Jacquin fays the pulp is fweetifli, eaten by children and negroes, and that the fmell of \}ca jloo-wd(;ry feeds flew off like fmoke. The breadth of the whole fungus is about lialf an inch ; its colour black. 2. "K. andromeda. Marlh.rofemary Xyloma. Perf. n. 2. — " Oblong, ihickifh, with rib-like elevations, pohfhed." — Found in fummer on the leaves of Andromeda polifoUa, which hence appear as if pitch had been dropped upon them. Sometimes each fungus is as long as the whole kaf ; fome- times only half as long. Its thicknefs is confiderable with regard to the fize. The lower Jlratum is white and firm, as in the foregoing. ^. yi. acerinum. Maple Xyloma. Perf. n. 3. (Sphseria maeuliformis ; Ehrh. Crypt, n. 219. Beitr. v. 7. loi.) — Dilated, fomewhat orbicular, thin, flat, black, fiiglitly cor- rugated towards the centre. — Frequent on the leaves of Jur X Y L X Y L /3ctr platanoides, and A. campejlre, in the autumn. It con- fifts of numerous, black, opaque, infeparable patches, fcat- tered over the upper fide of the leaf, each about a quarter or one-third of an inch in diametLr ; the margin fonietimes varioufly and elegantly notched, or fringed, and always cir- cumfcribed by a very ftriking yellow, or tawny, difcolora- tion of the leaf. Perfoon fays he has obferved the furface of this fpecles, though ufually almoll even and uniform, cracking into waved bordered iiffures. We can fee fome- thing of this in a fpecimen from profeflor Schrader. 4. X. putidatum. Sycamore Xyloma. Perf. n. 4. Obf. Mycol. V. 2. 100. — Dilated, thin, imperfeftly orbicular, fomewhat convex, black. Receptacles unequal, aggregate, parallel, oblong, blunt, fuperficial. — Frequent on the fading or fallen leaves of Acer Pfeudoplatanus, which are rarely without this parafite in autumn and winter. The patches are from half an inch to an inch wide, clofely united with the leaf, (lightly convex above, and rather concave at the under iide, which is fomewhat blackened by them, efpecially at the circumference of each. The wrinkles, or receptacles, are fhaped like the clefts of an Opegrapha (fee that arti- cle); but much more (hallow, as well as more uniform in colour. 5. X.Jlellare. Starry Xyloma. Perf. n. 5. Obf. My- col. v. 2. 100 " Thin, pitchy ; the margin fringed with radiating fibres." — Found by Perfoon, on the leaves of Phy- teuma fp'icatum, though rarely. About half an inch broad, more or iefs, of a handfome appearance, with an uniform fmooth diHc, very black ; the marginal fringe either black, or greyifh. No diftinft receptacles have yet been noticed. 6. Y^.\ rulrum. Red Xyloma. Perf. n. 6. Obf. Mycol. V. 2. loi. — " Aggregate, orbicular, fomewhat confluent, red." — Generally found in autumn on the leaves of Prunus domejllca, rarely on P.fpinofa. At firil light the red colour of this fpecies, all the others being black, caufes it to be taken for an CEcidium, or Uredo ; but on examination the internal fubftance proves to be folid, uniform, fcarcely containing dillinft receptacles, or fced--vej[els ; its genus, however, is reckoned by Mr. Perfoon as very doubtful. The patches are each from two to four lines broad, rather thick, with darker-coloured fuperficial dots, vifible only with a micro- fcope. Perfoon. Seft. 2. Simple. Receptacles folitary, Jcattered ; generally rounded, like a Peziza ; or dot-liLe. Smaller. 7. li.. pezizcides. Cup-like Xyloma. Perf. n. 7. (Pe- 7.iza comitialis ; Sowerb. Fung. t. 118. P. viridis ; Bolt. Fung. t. 109. f. I.) — Rather crowded, orbicular, black ; opening at length, with an upright, fomewhat crenate, ■ border, and a pale olive or greeni(h diflc. — Found on fallen leaves of oak in December ; more rarely, and in Iefs per- feftion, on thofe of beech. The fpecimcns are pretty uni- form in (ize, larger than mullard-feed, clofely attached to the furface of the leaf ; the border of each fometimes pale, fometimes black, unlefs Sowerby and Bolton defcribe two different fpecies. 8. X. fpharioldes. Dot-hke Xyloma. Perf. n. 8. — " Scattered, dot-hke, foftiih, with an open diflc, and a col- lapfed inflpxed border." — On the leaves of Salix caprea. This at a dillance refembles Sphsria punffiformis ; but under a magnifier it looks like fome Pezma, with a crifped mar- gin. The outfide is black ; the diflc, rarely all difplayed, is paler. 9. X. hyjlerio'ides. Oblong Xyloma. Perf. n. 9. " Ic. tt Defer. Fung. t. 10. f. 3, 4." — " Elliptical, (hining, ranged ntarly parallel.'' — On the fallen leaves of Hawthorn, in the Spring. Each plant is one-third of a line long, ovate, or elliptical, of a (hining black ; folid within. A longitudinal line feems to mark the place where it finally burfts. 10. 'K.-falignum. Willow Xyloma. Perf. n. 10. ("Sphae- ria fahgna ; Ehrh. Crypt, n. 299.") — "Aggregate and rather crowded, orbicuLir, thin, with a fomewhat convex diflv." — On the leaves of Salix caprea, occupying nearly their whole furface. Each individual is from one-third to one- half a line broad. 11. 'X.. popuUnum. Afpen Xyloma. Perf. n. 11. — "Ag- gregate, flattened, varioufly (haped, fmooth, opaque, black." — Found on the old leaves of Populus tremula, in the fpring. About a line broad ; the diili here and there grevilh. 12. X. concentricum. Concentric Xyloma. Perf. n. 12. Obf. Mycol. V. 2. loi " Simple. Receptacles fmall, orbicular, depreffed, fomewhat conical, concentrical, of a footy grey." — On half-decayed leaves of Populus tremula, forming circular patches, near an inch broad. Receptacles like Imall Icattered dots, at firft black, afterwards footy or greyifli, burfting finally at the fummit. 13. 'K. fagineum. Beech Xyloma. Perf. n. 13. " Difp. Meth. Fung. 52." — " Minute, crowded, of a (hining black, orbicular, plaited, a little depreffed." — Found on the under fide of fallen and dried leaves of Beech, in the form of crowded black dots. 14. X. alneum. Alder Xyloma. Perf. n. 14. — " Mi- nute, fcattered, roundilh, plaited." — This fpecies is met with in fummer, upon Alder-leaves, while they are ftill green. It confifts of a few black diftant dots. Thefe minute prodnftions are neceffarily very obfcure in their charafters and economy. The prefent genus is marked by Its internal folidity, of a corky or woody fubftance, having nothing of a gelatinous nature, nor are there any dif- tindl round capfular receptacles, as in Spkteria. See that article. XYLOMELUM, fo called by the writer of this, from |uAov, luood, and y-uAcv, an apple, in alliifion to the hardnefs and form of the fruit, which procured it, wlien firft difco- vered, the appellation of the wooden pear. — Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 214. Mart. Mill. Di(5l. v. 4. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. I. 387. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 189. 212. — Clafs and order, Tetrandria Proieaceee, Julf. Brown. Cor. Petals four, regular, equal, linear ; externally hairy ; a little dilated and concave at the tip ; revolute foon after expanfion. Neiitary four glands at the bafe of the germen. Stam. Filaments four, very (hort, inferted rather above the middle of eacli petal, and becoming prominent by its recurvation ; anthers linear, inflexed, of two lateral parallel lobes, with a membranous edge ; im- perfeft in fome of the flowers. Pijl. Germen fuperior, roundifl:) ; ftylc ereft, rigid, the length of the petals, deci- duous ; ftigma vertical, club-(haped, obtufe, often fmall and abortive. Peric. Folhcle woody, very thick, ovate, of one excentric fmall cell, and burfting into two divaricated half valves, at the point. Seeds two, roundifh, compreffed, each with a terminal, oblong, rather oblique, membranous wing, as long as the follicle. Eff. Ch. Petals four, bearing the petals above the middle, regular, revolute. Neftariferons glands four. Stigma club- (haped. Style deciduous. Follicle woody, of one excentric cell, with two winged feeds. \. "K. pyriforme. Wooden-pear. Brown n. i. (Bankfia pyriformis; Gsertn. v. I. 220. t. 47. f. I. iamarck lUuftr. V.' I. 242. t. 54. f. 4. White's Voyage 224. t. 21. Hakea pyriformis ; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 25. t. 536. )— Gathered on the eaftern coaft of New Holland, near Port Jackfon, by the firft fettlers in that colony. We received fpecimens from Dr. White, Ait. Hort. Kew. v. I. Monogynla. Nat. Ord. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. X Y L Dr. White, in 17R9 and 1793. Mr. Brown fays it Rrows on ftony hilly Rround. This, the only known fpeciea, is a tree, with oppolite branches ; downy and ruily when young. Leaves oppolite, ftalked, five inches long, lanceolate, acute at each end, entire, rather coriaceous, fmooth, with one rib, and many prominent reticulated veins ; pale and yellowifli beneath ; clothed, when they firft come out, with dsnfc, de- ciduous, rnfty down : thofc of young plants, according to Mr. Brown, are toothed. Footjlalh flattifti, an inch long, fmooth. Slif>u/tis none. Spiles axillary, oppofite, catkin- like, cylindrical, denfe, much (hortcr than the leaves, many- flowered, ihaggy with rnfty down. Fkiuers feflile, hardly an inch long, in pairs, each pair accompanied with one fmall downy braBca ; all of them abortive, except the lowermolt, fo that from fpccimens fcen in fruit only, the flowers were judged to be folitary. The fruit is ovate, or inverfely pear-fhaped, very haid, even, downy, two or three inches in length. SeeJs and their wings brown. Mr. Brown remarks, that the greater part of the fiowers, having a fmall pgma-, and no germi-n, are neccfTarily abortive. Many of the anthers too have, as above-mentioned, an imperfeft appearance ; but having never feen living flowers, we cannot tell whether this be an original defeft, or merely owing to their having long ago performed their office. It is poffible that the rufty hue of the flowers and young leaves, fo rich and beautiful in our fpccimens, may partly, if not altogether, be owing to drying. This plant, though procured for Kew garden, by fir Jofeph Banks, in 1789, appears never yet to have bloffomed there. XYLON, is fo well defcribed by Phny, book 19. chap. I, as to leave no doubt of its being our Cotton. (See GossYPiUM.) He fays it ferved to make the choiceft garments of the Egyptian priefts. Dr. J. II. Forfter, the famous botanift and circumnavigator, publidied in 1776 a moft learned little volume, to prove Cotton the true Bvfiis of the ancients. See alfo Matth. Valgr. v. I. 376. Xylon, Hi/^ov, among the Athenians, a puniflimcnt in- flifted, by putting the offender into the Hocks. XYLOPHYLLA, in Botuny, very expreffivcly named by Linnaeus, after Rumphius, from ^vX'tv, ivooJ, and ^^vXKov, a leaf, in allufion to the hardnefs and rigidity of its foliage, which indeed ferves the purpofe of both leaves and flower- ftalks. — Linn. Mant. 147. Schrub. Gen. 200. Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1500. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hon. Kew. v. 5. 336. Juff. 387. Poiret in Lamarck Dift. V. 8. 812. Lamarck Illuilr. t. 855. Ga;rtn. t. 108. (Phyllanthus; Browne Jam. 188.) — Clafs and order, Mo- noecia Monadelphia. (PentandriaTrigynia ; Browne, Linn. Schreb. Willd.) Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn. Euphorbit, Jufl". Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth in fix deep regular fegments ; the three innermoft largett. Cor. Petals none, unlefs the calyx, or its inner fegments, be taken for fuch. Neftary of fix globular glands. Stam. Filaments united into a very fhort column ; anthers tliree or fix, roundifli ; two-lobed. Female, on the fame plant, and in the fame fituation, as the male. 6W. and Neftary as in the male. Pifl. Germen fuperior, feffile, roundifli ; ftyles three, fliort, fpreading ; ftigmas three-cleft. Peric. Capfule roundifh, with three furrows, three cells, and fix elaftic valves. Seeds two in each cell, roundifli. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in fix deep fegments ; three of them interior. Petals none. Neftary of fix globofe glands. Female, Calyx and Neftary like the male. Styles three. X Y L Stigmas three-cleft. Capfule of three cells, with fix elaftic valves. Seeds two in each cell. Obf. Dr. Sims, in Curt. Mag. 102 1, has juftly indi- cated this genus as too near Phyllanthus (fee that article) ; where they^((/j are erroneoully faid to be folitary. Whether the difference between their neilaries be permanent, we have not feen enough to determine. At any rate, thefe two genera muft Hand next to each other, in the Lin- naean artificial fyftem, as well as in every natural one. 1. X. ? longifoUa. Long-leaved Sea-fide Laurel. Linn. Mant. 221. Willd. n. i. Swartz Obf. 112. (Xylo- phyllos ceramica ; Rumph. Amboyn. v. 7. 19. t. 12.) — Leaves linear, alternately toothed. Flowers fohtary at each tooth. — Found only on the lofty, ftony, cold mountains of the ifland of Ceram. The trunk is flirubby, fcarcely fo thick as a man's arm, dividing above it into many round branches, as thick as the finger. Thefe end in numerous, alternate, drooping, long, linear, acute leaves, or perhaps winged branches, with blunt alternate teeth, ufually an inch diftant from each other. The Jlotuers are folitary, nearly feffile, at each notch. Of their ftrufture nothing is known ; nor of the fruit, except what Rumphius relates, and this, as Dr. Swartz obferves, does not agree with the genus before us, Linnaeus having merely adopted this remarkable plant as a Xylophylla, on account of its habit, which is ilrikiiig enough. Rumphius fays, " the calyx refembles a fmall clove, and is red, bearing a roundi(h-oblong fruit, refembling a Bay-berry, or the Abrus of Alpinus, (and Linn;cus, ) green, hard, with a fmall point. When opened, a fmall nucleus is found, refembling a grain of rice, fixed on the llalk, and tailing fweet, like a Filberd, being enclofed in a white flng, fcattered, comprefled, (rather deprefied,) bordered. ^. eaves linear, rather broadeft in the middle ; tapering at le bafe ; ending in a very long acute point, ftriated, paler neath, two inches long, of a thinner fubftance than the regoing fpecies, which circumftance, added to its humbler titure, and different colour, has induced Dr. Swartz to con- .-.der it as diftinft. The flotuers are white, monoecious, ram three to fix at each notch of the leaves, on capillary Aalks, four lines in length. 7. X. montana. Mountain Sea-fide Laurel. Swartz Vol. XXXIX. Prodr. 28. Willd. d. 6. ( Phyllanthus montana ; Swartz Ind. Occ. 1117.) — Leaves fomewhat two-ranked, elliptic- lanceolate, coriaceous, deeply crenate. Flowers nearly fef- file, many from each notch. Branches round ; two-edged at the extremity. — Found on lime-ftone rocks, in the weftern part of Jamaica. Afirub, fix feet high, much and irregularly branched ; the branches often forked, round, nearly ereft, with annular fears ; ultimate ones permanent, glaucous alhcoloured, compreffed and two-edged at the fummit. Leaves alternate, imperfeftly two-ranked, nearly feflile, either blunt or acute, obliquely ftriated, rigid, brownifti-green, fmooth, with deep many-flowered notches. Floivers monoecious ; the males eight or ten, pale red ; females folitary among the males, deep purple. Clearly dilbnguilhable from all the fpecies which it otherwife re- fembles, by the permanency, and woody texture, of the ultimate branches. Szvartz. 8. X. ramiflora. Siberian Sea-fide Laurel, Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. I. 376. ed. 2. n. 4. Wi'ld. n. 7. (Phar- naceum ? fuffruticofum ; Pallas It. v. 3. 716. t. E. f. 2.) — Leaves elliptical, ftalked. Flowers axTiUary. — Native of the defarts of Siberia, from whence it was procured for the Englifli gardens, in 1783, by the late Mr. Bell. It is a hardy flirub, flowering in July and Auguft. Pallas, who never faw the plant alive, merely guefled at its genus. By his figure, its habit is altogether that of a Phyllanthus. The flem is bufhy, with many ftraight, wand-like, leafy branches, each a fpan long. Leaves fcattered, thin, hardly an inch in length, blunt, crenate, or fomewhat wavy. Flowers fix or eight together, making a little axillary tuft, accompanied by minute reAflipulas, or braBeas. Segments of the calyx five, concave, white, with a coloured margin. Anthers five, thick, obtufe, furrowed at the outfide. Germen in the fame flower, as we prefume from Pallas's defcription, very fmall. Styles three, thread-lhaped, fimple, the length of the flamens. The genus of this fpecies is, at beft, very doubtful, as Willdenow has already remarked. Phyllanthus and Xylophylla are fo totally different in habit, and the latter is, in this refpeft, fo very peculiar, that a clear charafter between them is much to be defired. The true XylophylU are all of Weft Indian origin. The tropical Phyllanthi are natives of the Eaft Indies ; a few hardy fpecies grow in North America. XvLOPHYLLA, in Gardening, contains plants of the tender exotic kind for the ftove, in which the fpecies cultivated are, the long-leaved love flower (X. longifolia), the broad-leaved love flower (X. latifolia), and the falcated love flower (X. falcata). The firft is a branching angular plant, but the fecond has round branches ; and the laft is woody in the ftems and branches. Method of Culture. — Thefe plants are increafed by lowing the feeds in pots in the early fpring, and plunging them in a hot-bed : when the plants are come up two or tlu-ee inches in growth, they fiiould be pricked out in feparate pots, re- plunging them in the bark-bed : they may afterwards be managed as other ftove-plants of a fimilar growth. They are alfo, fome of them, capable of being raifed by off-fets, flips, and Cuttings, affifted by a hot-bed in the fame manner. They require the conftant proteftion of the ftove in winter, but in the hot fummer months may be fet out in their pots in a Ibeltered fituation, being taken in on the approach of cold nights. They afford variety, and are curious in ftove colleftions amonij other plants of fimilar provrths. E XYLOPIA, XYLOriA. XYLOPIA, in Botany, altered by Linnasus from Xyhpi- crum of Browi.c, a name which tlie latter took from riukenet, whofe Xylcpkron, formed from Ja>» and rr.Kjc,-, alludes to the bittcrncls of the wood. M. De CandoUe, m foUowmg Linnaius, obfervcs, that this abbreviation entirely deftroys the fenfe. It certainly does to thofe who do not trace out the fource of the word. If the original had been conftruft- cd in the moft unexceptionable manner, we might have ha- zarded its reftoration ; but Xylopia is now too firmly efta- blifhed to be lightly difturbed, and in found nothing can be better.— Linn. Gen. 469. Schreb. 375. WiUd. Sp. PL V 2.1270. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 3. 336. JufT. 284. DeCand. Syft. v. 1. 499. Poiret v.\ Lamarck Dift. v. 8. 810. Lamarck lUullr. t. 495. Gxrln. t. 69. (Xylopicron; Pluk. Almagr. 395. Xy- lopicrum ; Browne Jam. 250. )— Clafs and order, Polyan- dria Polygynia. (Gynandria Polyandria, Linn.) Nat. Old. CoadunaU, Liiin. yinonte, Juff. Anonacit, De Candolle. .... Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in trom three to five deep, broad, ovate, coriaceous, rather acute, permanent fcgmcnts. Cor. Petals fix, feflile, linear-lanceo- late, coriaceous, much longer than the calyx ; the three outermofl largeil. Stam. Filaments none ; anthers numer- ous, oblong, quadrangular, abrupt, parallel, crowded, feated on the tumid, nearly globofc, receptacle, in fcveral rows. P'ljl. Germens feveral, on ftiort ftalks, comprefled ; ftylcs tapering, crowded together ; ftigmas fimple. Perlc. Capfules foveral, ilalked, coriaceous, comprcfTed, bluntly angular, of one cell and two valves, burfting at the top. Seedi one or two, obovate, polilhed, tunicated at the bafe. Efi". Ch. Calyx lobed, coriaceous. Petals fix; the three outermoft largcft. Capfules ftalked, angular, comprefled, of two valves. Seeds one or two, tunicated. The plants compofingthis genus are trees or flirubs, with oblong or lanceolate (entire) leaves, and axillary, bradteated, fimple or divided fower-Jlalks. The -wood is bitter ; lark and fruit aromatic. De Candolle, who defcribes eight fpecies, uf which the firfl is Hill the lead underftood. Linnieiis, by a mifapprehenfion of the true charafter of his own clafs of Oynandiua, (fee that article,) has placed this genus far afunder from Anona, Uvaria, &c., to which it is clofely allied, both in natural and artificial diftinftions. Few genera have hitherto been lefs underftood. I. X. muricata. Rough-fruited Bitter-wood. Linn. Sp. PI. 1367. Willd. n. I. De Cand. n. i. Ait. n. i. (X. frutefcens ; Gxrtn. v. 1. 339. t. 69, excluding the fy- nonym of Aublet. Xylopicrum n. i ; Browne Jam. 250. t. 5. f. 2.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, pointed ; clothed with clofe-preffed ha;rs beneath. Branches zigzag, nearly fmooth. Stalks with feveral flowers. Fruit muricated. — Found by Dr. Patrick Browne, at the foot of the moun- tains, in Sixteen-mile walk, Jamaica. His fpecimen, drawn in the plate above-cited, is in our hands, but ftripped of the leaves. This deficiency is fupplied by another very large and perfect one, gathered in Jamaica, by Mr. ^lafTon. The latter M. De Candolle unfortunately did not fee, when the writer of this was favoured with too fhort a vifit from this learned and amiable man. It is become necellary to correft fome errors in the defcription, whofe fource is un- known to us. The leaves are certainly r.ot " bearded at the point," nor do we perceive in what fenfe they are termed " ftrigofe beneath." Thefe are Willdenow's expreffions, adopted by De Candolle. Sir Jofeph Banks fent a living plant of this fpecies to Kew garden, in 1793 ; but if it furvivcs,it has not yet flowered. This is a fmaU tree, fifteen 2 or twenty feet high, with alternate, round branches, zigzag • when young, quite fmooth, except towards the very extre- mity, which is fiightly filky. Leaves alternate, on (hort thick ilalks, fpreading, rather ovate than lanceolate, with a blunt or emarginate, fmooth point ; their length two inches, or a little more ; their margin entire, (lightly revolute ; their upper furface fmooth and (hining, reticulated with veins ; under paler, more opaque, clothed with fine, fcattered, clofe, filky hairs, after a while deciduous: mid-rib ftout, rough with minute tubercles at the back. Flonver-Jlalks co- pious, axillary, folitary, (hort, knotty, bearing from two to fivijloivers. Calyx three-lobed, fcarcely downy. Petals half an inch long, denfely filky on both fides ; the three innermoft very narrow, triangular-awlfliaped. Capfules, by Ga:rtncr's account, which in the main agrees with that of Linnxus, nearly ovate, but angular and compreffed, fome- times as many as fifteen, coriaceous, covered with little points, of one cell and two valves, containing one or two oval feeds, each with a cup-like tunic at the bottom. Browne made no remarks on the bark or wood of this tree. We perceive little bitternefs in either, though fome aromatic flavour in the bark. This fpecies being the type of its ge- nus, we have thought a full defcription requifite. 2. "K. frutefcens. Shrubby Silky Bitter-wood. Aubl. Guian. 602. t. 242, excluding the lynonyms of Linnsus and Browne. WiUd. n. 2. De Cand. n. 2. " Dunal Monogr. 120." Lamarck t. 495, copied from Aublet, ex- cluding the fruit, which is Gartner's figure of the forego- ing. Poiret n. 2. (X. fetofa ; Poiret n. 4, according to De Candolle. Embira feu Pindaiba ; Pif. Braf. 71. Ibira; J Marcgr. Braf. 99.) — Leaves lanceolate, pointed; glaucous \ and iilky beneath. Branches filky. Stalks with few flowers. Capfules fmooth. — Found by Marcgraf in Brafil, flowering in February ; by Aublet in Cayenne and Guiana, bearing flowers and fruit in Augud. M. De Candolle has examined a fpecimen, and we, having feen none, are obliged to rely on him and the other authors here cited for the fpeci- fic diftin borrowed, originally, from the Greek v. It is occafionally both vowel and confonant. As a vowel fome authors have judged it unnecefTary in our language, becaufe its found is precifely the fame with that of the ;'. Accordingly, it is but little ufed, except in words borrowed from' the Greek, to denote their origin, by reprefenting the Greek viiAo;. The vowel y, however, has a place even in fome words purely Enghfh ; and that both in the middle of them, as in dying, frying. Sec. and at the end, as in lay, &c. Some afcribe the ufe of the y, in pure Englirti arid French words, and thofe that have no y in Latin or Greek, to this ; that anciently each of thofe words was written with a double ii ; which having fomething aukward in it, the y was fubllituted in their place. Others fay, that thofe words being anciently written, as well as pronounced, with a double ii, as they ftill are in the Walloon, as paiing,paiifan, &c. to avoid their being millakcn for an a with two dots over it, they made the fecond /' longer than the firft, and fo formed the j' without defigning it. Some give a particular reafon why words ending in i came to be written with y ; i-iv.. that the copyifts found the tail of the y very commodious, in adorning the margins and bottoms of pages. T was much ufed by the Saxons ; whence it is found for i in the old Eiig'.ifli w'riters. When the y follows a confonant, and at the end of wordr, it is a vowel, and has the found of i ; and when it precedes a vowel, or diphthong, and at the beginning of words, it is a confonant. Some have thought that y is in all cafes a vowel ; but Dr. Johnfon obferves of j', as of au, that it follows a vowel without any hiatus, as rofy youth. The Romans ufed the y for the vowel u, which they had no charafter for, diftinft from the v confonant ; their way being to pronounce the common u, as we do the diphthong im ; and the Greek i/4-i>.oi, as the Englifh and French «. Peter Diaconus obferves, that Auguftuji firft took the letters y and z from the Greeks, which were not ufed by the Romans before his time ; s s being viritten for z, and i for y. But Mr. Jackfon (hews, that the y was uft d before the time of Auguftus, though probably (fays Aftle, Orig. and Progr. of Writing, p. 78. ) it was not much older. In our own and fome other modern tongues, authors begin to difpenfe more and more with the precife ortho- graphy, which requires all words that have an upfilon, in the Greek, to be written with a y. And with reafon ; fince our Greek y has loft the found it had, in the language from which we borrow it. But it is certainly ridiculous to Vol. XXXIX. Y A D ufe it, as many do, in words which indeed have a Greek origin, but have no u in the Greek, as in eclipfe : yet fome affedl to do this. Y is alfo a numer.il letter, fignifying 150, or, according to Baronius, 159 ; as in the verfe, — " Y dat centenos et quinquaginta novenos." When a dafh was added at top, Y, it fignified 150 thou- fand. Pythagoras ufed the Y as a fymbol of human life ; the foot reprefenting infancy, ar.d the forked top the two paths of vice and virtue, one or the other of which people are to enter upon, after attaining to the age of difcretion. Y, on the French coins, denotes thofe ftruck at Bourges. Y, in Geography, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-tong ; 317 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat. 35° 10'. E. long. 118' 19'. Y, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Pe-tche-li ; ^^ miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 39" 25'. E. long. 115' 14'. Y, or Ey, a river, or broad piece of water, which palfes by Amfterdam, exhibiting the appearance of a creek of the fea rather than of a river. YA, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Se-tchuen, on the borders of Thibet ; 840 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 30° 9'. E. long. 102° 39'. YABAQUE, one of the Bahama idands, fituated in N. lat. 2 ^"^ 30'. YABARGULSKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the go- vernment of Tobollk, on the Irtifch ; 120 miles E. of Tobolft<. YABAY, a town of Burmah ; 50 miles S.W. of Ava. YABTONOI, a ridge of the Altaian chain in Afiatic RulTia, bending in a northerly direftion to the vicinity of Ochotfl<. The name denotes the mountains of Apples. YACHT. See Ship, and Plate XIII. Skip-BuiUing. YACHTA, in Geography, a fort of Ruffia, in the go- vernment of Irkutflv, on the borders of China ; 48 miles S.S.W. of Selenginfk. YACINTE, St. See St. Tadntc. YACONG Tala, a number of fmall lakes in Thibet, fituated near each other. N. lat. 30° 5c'. E. long. 78° 39'- YADAVA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of the Hindoo Krithna. It is faid to indicate his being of the family or tribe of Yadu. YADI, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Oblkaia gulf, N. lat. 68° 25'. E. long. 72^ 38'.— Alfo, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Obfkaia gulf, N. lat. 67° 25'. E. long. 72= 18'. YADKIN, a river of North Carohna, which rifes in the F Allegany YAK YAK Allegany mountains, and after a courfe of about lOO miles, changes its name to Pedee, in North Carolina ; 9 miles S.W. of Salem. YADRIN, a town of Rviflia, in the government of Kazan; 122 miles W. of Kazan. N. lat. 55° 34'. E. lonji. 45° 44'. YAEGONMEW, a town of Pegu ; 58 miles S. of Prone. YAFA. See Jaffa. YAGARCHOCA, a lake of South America, in the jurifdidion of St. Miguel de Ibarra. It is famous for having been the fepulchre of the inhabitants of Otabalo : upon this place being taken by Huana Capac, the I2tli ynca, he, in (lead of (hewing any clemency to them on account of their magnanimity, being exafperated at the noble refiftancc which they made againft his army, ordered them all to be beheaded, both thofe who had quietly fur- rendered, as well as thofe taken in arms, and their bodies to be thrown into the lake : fo that from the waters of the lake being tinged of a bloody colour, it acquired its prefent name, which (ignifies " a lake of blood." YAGATH, in Mythology, a deity adored by the ancient Arabian idolaters, under the figure of a lion. YAGO, St. in Geography. See St. Tago. YAGUACHE, or St. Jacinto de Yaguaciie, a town of Peru, and principal place of a lieutenancy, in the pro- vince of Guayaquil ; 25 miles N.E. of Guayaquil. YAGUAHS, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; 22 miles S. of Bayamo. YAGUARIPE, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 13'' 12'. YAGUARON, a town of South America, in the pro- Tince of Paraguay ; 10 miles S.E. of Affumption. YAGUEPIRI, a river of Brafil, wliich runs into the Negro, 50 miles above Fort Rio Negro. YAH, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Pavana, the Hindoo god or regent of the wind ; another of whofe names is Vayu. See Pavana and Vayu. YAHANGA, in Geography, a fmall i(land in the fea of Japan. N. lat. 43° 8'. E. long. 131^ 45'. YAHEBIRI, a river of South America, which runs into the Parana, S. lat. 24° 20'. YAIK, a conliderable ftrcam of Afiatic Ruilia, which flows into the Gafpian. The name has been recently changed for that of Ural, on account of a daring infurredlion of the tribes bordering on the Yaik. YAITCHNEI, a fmall ifland of Ruffia, in the Pen- einflioi fea. N. lat. 60° 30'. E. long. 160° 50'. YAIVA, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Kama, 16 miles S. of Solikamil{, in the government of Perm. YAK, in Zoology, the bos grunntens of the Linnaean fyftem, or ox with cylindric horns curving outwards, very long pendant hair, and extremely villous horfe-hke tail, the grunting ox of Pennant, and yak of Tartary, has been lately particularly defcribed by Turner, in his " EmbafTy to Tibet." He calls it the bu(hy-tailed bull of Tibet ; and in Hindooftan it is denominated foora goy. It is about the height of an EngUfh bull, which it refembles in the general figure of the body, head, and legs. He could difcover no di(Ference between them, except that the yak is wholly covered with a thick coat of long hair. The head is rather Ihort ; the horns tapering from the root upwards, and ter- minating in (harp points ; arched inwards, and bending to- wards each other, but a little turned backwards near the extremities ; the ears fmall ; the forehead prominent ; the eyes full and large ; the r.ofe fmall and convex ; tlie noftriis fmall ; the neck (hort and curved ; the withers are high and arched ; the rump low ; over the fhoulders rifes a thick mufcle, like the protuberance peculiar to the cattle of Hin- dooftan, covered with a profullon of foft hair ; the tail compofcd of a prodigious quantity of long, flowing, gloffy hair ; the (boulders, rump, and upper part of the body, clothed with a fort of thick fott wool, the inferior parts having ilraight pendant hair that defcends below the knee, and iometimes trailing on the ground ; from the cheft, be- tween the legs, iffues a large pointed tuft of ftraight hair, fomcwhat longer than the reil ; the legs very (hort. In all other refpefts, this animal refembles the ordinary bull. Thefe cattle appear of a large bulk ; they have a downcaft heavy look, and are, as they appear to be, fullen and fuf- picious, and very impatient at the near approach of (Irangers. Their lowing is not loud, but a kind of fcarcely audible grunting noife. They are pallured in the coldeft parts of Tibet, on the (liort herbage peculiar to the tops of moun- tains and bleak plains. Their favourite haunt is the chain of mountains that is fituated between the latitudes 27° and 28°, wliicli divides Tibet from Bootan, and whofe fummits are commonly covered with fnow. They are a valuable property to the tribes of itinerant Tartars, called Duckba, who live in tents, and tend them from place to place ; they at the fame time afford their lierddnen an eafy mode of con- veyance, a good covering, and wholefome fubfiftence. They are never employed in agriculture, but are very ufe- ful as beads of burthen ; for they are ftrong, fure-footed, and carry a great weight. Tents and ropes are manu- fadlurcd of their hair, and caps and jackets are made of their (Ivins. Their tails are much efteemtd ; and under the denomination of choivries, they are univerfally ufed for driving away winged infefts, flies, and mufquitoes, and are employed as ornamental furniture upon horfes and elephants They fupply an abundant quantity of rich milk and excellent butter, which may be kept in lltins or bladders through the year, and to the utmoit verge of Tartary furni(he3 a very material article of commercial produce. Tlie orientals highly value a large kind of bezoar that is fometimes found in tliis animal's ftomach. The yak is faid to vary in colour, as well as in the length and form of the horns. Thofe with white tails are moft efteemed ; and fometimes their horns are as white as ivory. In India no man of faihiou ever goes out or fits in form at home without two " chowrabadars," or brufliers, attend- ing him, each furniflied with one of thefe tails, mounted on filver or ivory handles, to bru(h away the flies. The Chinefe dye them of a beautiful red, and wear them as tufts to their fummer bonnets. Elian, according to Pennant, is the only ancient writer who takes notice of this fingular fpecies. Yak, in Geography, a name given by the Oftiaks to the Oby ; which fee. YAKE DsAKE, a lake of Thibet, about i2 leagues ! in circumference. N. lat. 34° 40'. E. long. 90° 24'. YAKSAI. See Akshai. YAKSH.A., in Hindoo Mythology, a race of malignant beings of hideous form , into wliom the fouls of bad men are faid to migrate ; particularly the fouls of fuch as in this life are addifted to fordid and bafe paffions, or abforbed too much . in worldly profperity. In the plural, they are termed Yakfhafa ; and are afiigned as flaves or fervants to Kuvera, the Plutus of the Hindoo Pantheon. Another race of beings, of a like defcription, is called Rahjha. (See that article.) Rakfhni and Yak(hni are the fLiiiinines of thefe races of demons. Thefe names, and fome note of their characters YAK Y A L charafters and attributes, occur in the articles Kuvera, Ravena, and Sitanta. YAKSHNI-DEVI, a name and an inferior manifeftation of the Hindoo goddefs Parvati. It means goddefs of mah'gnant beings ; one race of whom are in the mafculine termed Yakjha, which article, and others thence referred to, the reader defirous of information concerning them may confult. YAKSIMVAR, in Geography, a town of RuFia, ia the government of Viborg, on the north-well coaft of lake Ladoga ; 8 miles S. of Serdopol. YAKUTSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutflf, on the Lena, which is here about two leagues in width ; but it is greatly impeded with ice, and navigable only by a few fmall boats, chiefly employed in fupplying the town with provifions. This town is the capital of a province, to which it gives name : it contains between 500 and 600 houfes, moftly of wood, with fome Hone churches, ar.d is defended by a wooden fort. The bed fables are found near this town and Ner(hin(k ; 960 miles N.E. of Irkutfk. N. lat. 62° 5'. E. long. 129° 14'. Yakutsk, the Province. The Yakutes, or, as they deno- minate themfelves, Socho, or natives of this province, are robuft, and in general large ; they referable the Tartars in the caft of their features, and there is faid alfo to be a great fimilarity in the idioms of thefe two people. Their ancient homeftead extended from the Sayane mountains as far as the Angara and the Lena. Perfecuted by the Bunts and Mongoles, they removed down the Lena to their prefent rude and inclement diftrifts, where they are found in the government of Irkutlk on both fides of that river quite to the Frozen ocean. In the year 1620 they fubmitted to the Ruffian conquerors, and at the middle of the laft century they numbered upwards of 40,000 bows ; but fince that time they are conGderably increafed. Their drefs is fimple, and nearly the fame all the year round ; the only difference is, that in winter it is made of fkins ; over their chemife they commonly wear a large ftriped waiftcoat with fleeves ; their breeches do not extend below the middle of the thigh, but their long boots, callcdyarr/, reach above the knee. In tot weather they wear nothing but the breeches. Polygamy forms a part of the political code of this people ; obliged to make frequent journies, a Yakute has a wife in every place ■where he ftops, but he never affembles them together. Notwithftanding this licence, they are jealous to excefs, and the fworn enemies of any one who (hall dare to violate the rights of hofpitality. When fummer commences, they leave their winter habitations, and with their families and a fmall number of horfes, make their harvefts of fodder for confumption during the froft feafon. They repair to a oonfiderable diftance from their yourt, and to the moft fer- tile cantons. In their abfence, the horfes are left to the care of the fervants, and the neighbouring paftures fcrve for the maintenance of all their herds. Chamans, or forcerers, are regarded as interpreters of the gods ; they grant their mfdiation to the ftupid Yakute, who implores it with trembling, but always pays for it. In the idolatry of the Yakutes, we find all the abfurdities and fuperftitious prac- tices of the ancient Kamtfchadales, Koriaks, Tchutchis, and other inhabitants of thefe countries. The funerals are attended with a kind of pomp more or lefs magnificent, in proportion to the rank and wealth of the defunA. If a prince, he is arrayed in his fineft habits, and moft fplendid arms. The body, placed in a coffin, is carried by the family to the tomb ; deep groans announce the folemn pfoceffioD ; his favourite horfe, and another the beft. in his llud, both richly caparifoned, and led by a valet, or near relation, walk by the fide of the corpfe. When arrived at the burying-place, they are tied to two Hakes, fixed near the grave, and while the mafter is interred, their throats are cut over the corpfe. This bloody libation is the homage paid to his attachment to thefe animalt, who are fuppofed to follow him into the other world, where it is imagined that he wiU again be able to enjoy them. They are then flayed ; the head and hide, in one entire piece, are fixed horizontally upon the branches of trees at a fmall dif- tance from the grave ; and fuch is the memorial that is erefted. A fire is then kindled, and the laft proof of friendfliip for the deceafed confifts in roafting and eating upon the fpot thefe favoured animals : the feall being coh- chided the company difperfes. The fame ceremonial is obferved for a woman, except that inftead of a horfe, they facrifice her favourite cow. Their houfes, like the yourts of the wandering Koriaks, are circular, fpacious, and con- ftruAed with poles, fewer in number, but ranged in the fame manner, and kept afunder by a fort of hoops at the top, the whole covered with the bark of the birch-tree, formed into pieces eighteen inches wide, placed in a downward direftion. Thefe pieces are edged with a kind of ribband, made of bark, and fhaped into feftoons, and the infide of the yourt is ornamented in the fame manner. The tafte of the ornaments is governed by the caprice of the proprietor, and there is in them a fort of wildnefs that is fufficiently amufing. The fame decoration is annexed to the chairs and beds of the heads of families. The domeftics lie upon the ground on mats or flrins, and the fire is lighted in the middle of the lioufe. See Yuhaghirs. YALE, a town'of the ifland of Ceylon ; 56 miles S.S.E. of Candi. N. lat. 6° 52'. E. long. 81° 20'.— Alfo, a river of Ceylon, which runs into the fea, on the S.E. fide of the ifland, N. lat. 6° 23'. E. long. 81° 41'. Yale College. See College. YALEPUL, in Geography, a town of Ceylon, at the mouth of the Yale ; 30 miles S. of Yale. — Alfo, a town of the ifland of Ceylon, near the E. coaft ; 96 miles S.E. of Candi. YALLAH's Bay, a bay of the ifland of Jamaica, on the S. coaft, fituated to the E. of Yallah's Point. Yallah'j Point, a cape on the S. coaft of Jamaica ; 12 miles S.E. of Kingfton. N. lat. 17° 53'. W. long. 76° 21'. Yallah'j River, a river of Jamaica, which runs into the fea, a little to the eaft of Yallah's Point. YALMAL, a cape on the E. coaft of Ruflla, in the Karfltoe fea. N. lat. 72°. E. long. 68° 24'. YALME, a river of Devonftiire, which runs into the Enghfli Channel, 7 miles S.E. of Plymouth. YALOFFS, Yalloffs, Jalofs, or Jalloffs, an aftive, powerful, and warlike race of negroes, and efteemed the moft handfome of thofe people, who inhabit a great part of that traft of Africa which lies between the Mandingo ftates, on the river Gambia to the S., and the Senegal to the N. and E. See Jallobfs. The YalofFs differ from the Mandingoes, ( fee Manding, ) not only in language, but likewife in complexion and fea- tures. Their nofes are not fo much deprefled, nor the lips fo protuberant, as among the generality of Africans ; and although their fkin is of the deepeft black, they are con- fidered by the white traders as the moft fightly negroes in this part of the continent. They are divided into feveral independent ftates or kingdoms ; which are frequently at war either with their neighbours, or with one another. In r 2 their Y A L thiir manners, fuperllitions, and go»ernmcnt, however, they have a greater rciemblaiice to the Mai.iiiiigoes than to any other nation ; but excd them in the manufaaure of cotton cloth, fpinning tlie wool to a finer tliread, weaving it in a broader loon>, and dyeing it of a better colour. Their language is faid to be copious and fignificant, and is often learnt by Europeans trading to Senegal. Their numerals are as follow : One ... Ween Two - - - Ynr Three - - - Yat Four - - - Yanet Piye . . - Judom Six - - - Judom Ween Seven ... Judom Yar Eight - - - Judom Yat JiJine ... Judom Yanet Ten - - • Fook Eleven - - - Fookang Ween, &c. Park's Travels, vol. i. In conneftion with this brief account of the Yaloffs, we cannot forbear mentioning an anecdote that redounds very much to the honour of Darnel, their king. On occafion of a ■war between Darnel and Abdulkader, king of Foota Torra, a country to the W. of Bondon, the latter inflamed with zeal for propagating his rehgion, fent an ambaffador to Darnel, accompanied by two of the principal Bafhrecns, who carried each a knife, fixed on the top of a long pole. When they obtained admiflion into the prefence of Darnel, they announced the objeft of their embafTy in the following fmgular manner : — " With this knife," faid the ambaffador, " Abdulkader wiU condefcend to (have the head of Darnel, if Darnel will embrace the Mahometan faith ; and with this other knife, Abdulkader will cut the throat of Damel, if Damel refufes to embrace it — take your choice." Damel coolly replied, that he had no choice to make ; he neither chofe to have his head (haved, nor his throat cut : and with this anfvver the ambaffador was civilly difmiffed. Abdulkader with a powerful army invaded Damel's country. The inhabitants of the towns and villages filled up their wells, deftroyed their provifions, carried off their eiTtfts, and abandoned their dwellings as he approached. Thus he was led on from place to place, until he had ad. vanced three days' journey into the country of the Yaloffs. Several of his men had died with fatigue and hunger by the way. This led him to direft his march to a watering-place in the woods, where his men, having allayed their third, lay down, overcome with fatigue, to fleep among the bufhes. In this fituation, they were attacked by Damel before day- break, and completely routed. Many were killed, and a greater number taken prifoners. Among the latter was Abdulkader himfelf, who was led, as a miferable captive, into the prefence of Damel. The behaviour of Damel on this occafion is celebrated, in terms and founds of the higheft approbation, by the finging men. When his royal prifoner was bro'jght before him in iron*, and thrown upon the ground, the magnanimous Damel, inftead of fetting his foot upon his neck, and ftabbing him with his fpear, accord- ing to the cuftom in fuch cafes, addreffed him in the follow- ing manner : — " Abdulkader, anfwer me this queftion. If the chance of war had placed me in your fituation, and you in mine, how would you have treated me ?" " I would have thruft my fpear into your heart," returned Abdulkader with great firmnefs ; " and I know that a limilar fate awaita me." " Not fo," faid Damel ; " my fpear is indeed Y A M red with the blood of your fubjcfts killed in battle, and ^ could now give it a deeper ftain by dipping it in your own : but tliis would not build up my towns, nor bring to lite th? thoufands who fell in the woods. I will not therefore kill you in cold blood ; but I will retain you as my (lave, until I perceive that your prefence in your own kingdom will be no longer dangerous to your neighbours ; and then I will confider of the proper way of difpofing of you." Abdul- kader was accordingly retained, and worked as a (lave for three months ; at the end of which period. Darnel liftened to the folicitations of the inhabitants of Foota Torra, and reftored to them their king. YALOVA, a town of Natolia, on the fea of Marmora, once the refidence of Dioclefian ; 30 miles N. of Brufa. YALUTOROVSK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Tobollk, on the river Tobol ; 108 miles S.W. of Tobolfk. N. lat. 56° 8'. E. long. 66° 32'. YAM, in Botany, a large flefhy root, eatable when boiled or roafted, of which there are feveral fpecies, all natives of tropical climates, and highly ufeful to voyagers, as they will, like potatoes, keep for a confiderable time without fpoiling. See DiOSCOREA. Yam, in Geography. See Jamez. YAM A, in Hindoo Mythology, is the god of the infernal regions, correfponding with the Pluto of weftern heathens. Yama is a very important deity : his name is of perpetual recurrence in the facrificial ceremonies of the Hindoos ; oblations and invocations to him forming a portion of many of thofe ceremonies. The Hindoos, as is expl.iined under our article Marl'T, have affigned regents or guardian deities to each of the cardinal and intermediate points of the world. Yama is regent of the fouth, or lower world, in which the Hindoos place the infernal regions ; this corre- fponding with the Grecian Pluto or Minos. Under our article Menu, the great law-giver of that name is fup- pofed to have been the fame perfon as the Minos of an- tiquity. Yama has many names ; and in his charafter and fundlions is found related to many important perfonages of facred and profane hiftory. Among his names are, Dherma- raja, or king of jufticc ; Pitripeti, lord of the Pitris, or patriarchs (fee Pitris) ; and Mrltu, meaning death ; a name alfo of Kala, or Siva. ( See thofe articles. ) Siifan- yama, and Valvafwata-yama, are other! of his names, de- rived, it is faid, the firft from a term denoting comelinefs or beauty, the other from his ft>lar origin ; Yama being of the race of the fun, of which fome explanation will be found under our article Suryavansa. He is alfo named Sradha- deva, or lord of the obfequies, in honour of deceafed an- ceftors, of which a copious account is given under Sradha. As well as the Seventh Menu, Yama bears likewife the name of Satyavrata. He is alfo nam.ed Adhumbara; this name is faid to be derived from a fpecies of wood, by the attrition of which fire is produced, wherewith to light the pile on which funeral obfequies are performed to Yama. Every thing conne(£led with the important element of fire is peculiarly myftical with the Hindoos. Touching the facri- ficial and other fires, the reader will find many particu- lars under our articles Pavaka, Sagnika, Sami, and others thence referred to. Anheka is another name of Yama ; it means death, or the dejlroyer : thus the compound Kal-anheka-yama is Yama, the deftroyer of Kal or Time, a perfonification of great boldnefs and extent. Kal is alfo a name of Yama. (See Kal.) Yama has other compound names, meaning the (layer of all beings, king of deities, reducer of all things to afhes, the dark-lslue deity, of wolf- like Y A M like bellv, the variegated being, the vronderful inftiftor of pam^, &c. His abode iS" in the infernal city of Yamapur, whither the Hindoos believe that a departed foul immediately repairs ; and receiving a juft fentence, afcends to Swerga, the firft heaven, or defcends to Nareka, the fnaky hell ; or is re- turned to earth, according to its merits or demerits, where it aflumes the form of fome animal, unlefs its offences had been fuch as deferved condemnation to a vegetable or even to a mineral prifon. This extenfive theory of tranfmigra- tion is of a very poetical tendency, affording great fcope for the imagination, which the myftical and enthuCaftic turn of Hindoo metaphyficians or theologians has amply indulged in. Mr. Wilford believes Yama to be the fame with Serapis ; deriving the latter from a Sanfkrit term, implying thirft of blood. In the Puranas, Yama is defcribed as attended by two dogs, named Serbura and Syama ; the firft name fig- nifies varied, and it has other appellations mezninsr ^tti/t;ci ox Jfottcd. When we add that it was alfo called Tri-firas, or the three-headed, little doubt can be entertained of its being the fame with the Cerberus of the Greeks. Syama means black. See Sereura, Syama, and Tri-siras. As Dherma Raja, or the king of juftice, Yama is de- fcribed in the Puranas as having two countenances. " One, called his divine countenance, is mild and benevolent ; and thofe only fee it v.-ho abound in virtue. In this form, he is called an emanation of Vifhnu. He is attended by a fer- vant named Karmala, who condufts the righteous on felf- moving cars into the prefence of their judge. His other countenance or form is more efpecially named Yama. He is then depifted with large teeth and a monftrous body, and is thus feen only by the wicked. His attendant is ■".amed Kafhmala, who drags the wicked with ropes round their necks over rugged paths ; and at the command of Yama fome are beaten, fome cut to pieces, fome devoured by monfters, and thrown headlong into hell. He is unmer- ciful, hard is his heart, and every one t ambles at his fight." Yama is the name of a celebrated legiflator, whofe enaft- ments are ilill venerated by the Hindoos. For his profound knowledge and juilice, he is faid to have been made the judge of departed fpirits. In the feeming contradictions of mythologifts, Yama is found to be identified, or nearly fo, with both Si-va and Vifhnu, (fee thofe articles,) as well as with Menu, Kala, and others. This may be reconciled, as in the mythology of Greece, by recollefting that almoft all the deities melt into one. Proferpine or Hecate is given to Pluto as a help-mate, being but another form of Diana. Thus Yama has a form of Parvati afGgned him, under the name and charafter of Pataladevi, or goddefs of the infernal regions. (See Pataladevi.) In heaven Diana is Luna, and Par- vati is Swardevi, or queen of heaven. On earth they are diftinguifhed by the names of Diana and Bhudevi, the latter meaning goddefs of the earth. Thefe Cmilarities or coincidences could be carried to a great extent. Some of the ceremonies ftill in ufe as propitiating Yama, or his confort Sakti, (which fee,) have been found by fir W. Jones and others, as ftrikingly refembling thofe of the Eleufinean goddefs ; and there can be no doubt but the inveftigation of the mythological fables of the Hindoos has thrown great hght, and may throw ftill greater, on many obfcure and unintelligible paffages of our ancient poets of Europe. We do not find any dire& reprefeniation of Yama, or YAM any minute defcription of his perfon and attributes, in the mythological works before the public ; nor many particulars of his family. We have already noticed him as the off- fpring of the fun ; this he fhares in common with feveral other of the heroic perfonages of the Hindoos. Yama is indeed one of the many names of Surya, or the fun. The nver Yamuna, or Jumna, or rather perhaps the damfel who was poetically metamorphofed into that intereiting ftream, is fabled as the twin fifter of Yama. She is poetically called the " blue daughter of the fun." Days are efpecially fet apart for certain ceremonies to their honour. On one, Yamuna u faid to have entertained her brother ; and the re- membrance of it is preferved in an exifting ufage of Hindoo young ladies feafting and making their brothers prefents oa its anniyerfary. In the Rig-veda (fee Veda), a dialogue is given, in which Yama endeavours to feduce his beauteous filter : but his bafe offers are rejefted by her with virtuous expoftulation. In fome accounts, a divinity named Swadha IS defcribed as the goddefs of funeral obfequies ; and as fuch we fhould expeA to find her clofely allied to Yama, but know little of the relationfhip. We have noticed her under the article Swadha. Several other of our articles contain fome particulars of Yama. See Kasya, Kri- taxta, Sradhadeva, Tapas, and Vaivaswat. YAMAMAK, in Geography. See Jamama. YAMANCHALINSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Caucafus, on the Ural; 20 miles N. of Guriev. YAMASCA, a river of Canada, which runs into the St. Laurence, N. lat. 46^ W. long. 72° 45'. YAMASCO, a town of Canada, at the conflux of the Yamafca with the St. Laurence. YAMBL AK, one of the Aleutian tjlands ; which fee. YAMBO. See Jambo. YAMBURG, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Peterlburg, on the Luga. The cloth manufactory at this place was inftituted by Catharine II., prefently after her accefllon to the throne : it contains 36 looms, and employs 600 perfons. The cloths are fold at St. Peterfburg at a low price ; 20 miles E. of Narva. N. lat. 59° ij'. E. long. 28^ 40'. YAMEOS, a town of South America, in the audience of Quito, on the river Amazons ; 36 miles W.S.W. of St. Joachim de Omaguai. YAMIMKA, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in the go- vernment of Tobolik, and runs into the Irtifch, 14 nules S.S.W. of Kozlovo. YAMINA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bam- barra, near the Niger. This town, according to Mr. Park, was large, covering the fame extent of ground as Sanfan- ding ; but having bet-n invaded and plundered a few years fince by the king of Kaarta, it was, when he was there, half in ruins. N. lat. 13° 46'. W. long. 3° 50'. YAMON Bay, a bay on the north coaft of the iOand of Lu9on. N. lat. 14° 21'. E. long. 122° 37'. YAMSCHEVSKAIA, a fort of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Kohvan, on the Irtifch. N. lat. 51° 55'. E. long. If 50'- YAMSKAIA, a gulf of Ruffia, in the Penzinfltoi fea, between Cape Piliatchin and the continent. N. lat. 60° 20'. E. long. 154^ 14'. YAMS KOI, a town of Ruffia, near the gulf of Yam- ikaia ; 2500 miles E. of Tobolil<. N. lat. 6o* 1 2'. E. long. 15?° 34'- YAMUMINTI, in Hindoo Mythology, the name of one of Y A N Y A N of the wives of the amorous Hindoo deity Kri(hna. Her name foldom occurs. YAMUNA, in Geography, a river of India, which takes its rife, as is fuppofcd, in the great range of mountains called Himalaya. Its fource has not been accurately explored, but it probably is not more remote than that of the Ganges, which rifes in the fouthern part of that range. The Ya- muna flows through the province of LSrinagara, or Serinagur, in a foutherly courfe, nearly parallel with the Ganges, ap- proaching its filter flream to within forty miles, at the village of Gariidavara (Gurudwar), in N. lat. 30° 22' ; it is then of nearly equal width. The Yamuna enters Hindooftan Proper, in the province of Delhi, varying its diitance from eighty to fifty miles from the Ganges. The country between them is called Dooab, a word meaning two waters, or watered by two rivers. It is a very fertile diftrift. The rivers ap- proximate and join at Allahabad, an important fortrefs and mihtary ftation under the Bengal government, when the Yamuna, Httle inferior in magnitude, has its name and waters abforbed in the more celebrated ftream. Its length, of courfe under its own name, is ettimated at about nme hun- dred miles. For many miles of its courfe, the Yamuna, or Jumna, as it is more properly called, was confidered a boundary to the Britifh territories, dividing them from the poffeflions of the Mahrattas. But from its fhallownefs, being fordable in many places in the dry feafon, it was not an important military barrier ; and for the fame reafon is of lefs confequence for the operations of commerce. The confluence of any two rivers is viewed with holy refpeft by Hindoos, — of thefe two grand ftreams more par- ticularly. To heighten the myfticifm, (any ternary connec- tion being flill more deeply venerated,) it is feigned that a third river, the Sarafwaty, joins the other two by a fubter- ranean communication at Allahabad. Frequent allufion is made to this occult union by mythological poets, who teach that thefe three rivers are terrene manifeftalions of the three great goddelTes, Parvati, Lakfhmi, and Sarafwati ; the Sakti, as they are called, or a£tive energies of their refpec- tive lords, Siva, Vifhnu, and Brahma, who compofe the Hindoo triad of divinity. Of thefe perfonagcs fufficient will be found in the articles given under their feveral names in this work. The fable of the " three plaited locks," as this fuppofed union of thefe rivers is poetically called, often occurs in the writings of the Hindoos : it is noticed in our articles Junctions, Triveni, and Zennau. Under Sui- cide, an account is given of the fuppofed pronenefs of the Hindoos to this crime. At the confluence now under our notice, it not only lofes its fin, but alTumes a meritorious form. Of this, fee more under Suttee. The river goddefs Yamuna is made by mythologitts to be the fame with Lakfhmi, confortof Vifhnu, and twin fifler of Yama, the judge of departed fpirits, and ruler of the infernal regions. Of thefe perfonages fufRcient occurs under their refpeftive names. YAMUTHA, one of the Aleutian iflands. N. lat. 53° 40'. E. long. 180° 29'. YAMYA KoNDA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Yani. YAMYAMA Kunda, a town of Africa, in the king- dom of Tomani. YANA, a river of RufCa, which rifes in a lake, fituated in lat. 63* 40', long. 131° 14', and running due north, being fupplied by many fmall flreams, empties itfelf in the Frozen fea, N.lat. 71" 25'. ~ ' E- long. 131" 12 16'. At its difch arge it forms five confiderable rivers, which ifTue in a capacious bay. Y ANAM, a town of Hindooilan, in the circar of Raja- mundry ; 28 miles S.E. of Rajamuiidry. YANATONG, a town of Burmah ; 40 miles S. of Mellone. YANAUCA, a fmall ifland at the mouth of the river of the Amazons ; 10 miles N. of Caviana. YANDABOO, a town of Birmah, on tha Irawaddy, remarkable for its manufadlure of earthenware ; 70 miles W.S.W. of Ava. YANDINSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the Angara ; i6o miles N.N.W. of Irkutfk. N. lat. 54° 30'. E. long. 103° 20'. YANFONG, a town of Corea ; 40 miles E.8.E. of Ou-tchuen. YANG, a town of Corea ; 13 miles E. of King-ki-tao. YANGBONRAW, a town of Pegu ; 60 miles S. of Lundfey. YANG-CONG, a river of China, which runs into the Kincha river, near Lo-choui-tong. YANG-HO, a river of China, which joins the San-cam- ho, N. lat. 40° 23'. E. long. 1 1 2° 49'. YANG- KIN, a town of the kingdom of Corea ; 15 miles S.E. of King-ki-tao. YANG-LI, a city of China, of the fecond rank ; 1157 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 22" 54'. E. long. 106° 35'. YANG-TCHEN, a town of Corea, in Tchufin ; 150 miles S.S.W. of King-ki-tao. N. lat. 35° 19'. E. long. 125° 14'. YANG-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the iirfl rank, in Kiang-nan, fituated on the bank of the royal canal, which extends from the Ta-kiang northwards to the river Hoang- ho, or the Yellow river : it carries on a great trade in all manner of Chinefe works, and is rendered extremely popu- lous, chiefly by the fale and diftribution of the fait that is made on the fea-coafls of this jurifdiftion and parts adjoin- ing, and which is afterwards carried along fmall canals made for this purpofe, which end in communication with the great canal ; 485 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lal. 32° 26'. E. long. 1 1 8° 54'. YANG-TCHUEN,atownofCorea ; 35 miles W.S.W. of King-ki-tao. YANG-TE', a town of Corea ; 84 miles E. of Han- tcheou. YANG-TSE-KIANG, a river of Afia, which rifes in the mountains of Thibet, and after crofling the empire of China, from eafl to wefl, empties itfelf into the fea, 1 20 miles E. from Nan-king. This river changes its name almofl in every province through which it pafTes. See Kincha. The Yang-tfe-kiang may be confidered as equalling, if not exceeding in fize, the Yellow River (which fee). Tiic fources of both thefe rivers are in the fame range of moun- tains, and they approach one another in one part within a few miles. The Yang-tfe-kiang, according to Mr. Barrow's ftatement, confids of two diflinft branches, which feparating from each other about eighty miles, flow in a parallel direc- tion to the fouthward for the fpace of 70 miles, and then unite between the 26th and 27th degrees of N. latitude, juft at the boundaries of the two provinces of Yunnan and Se- chuen. Then ftriking off to the N.E. direftly through the latter of thefe provinces, coUeAing the watersof the numerous rivers that defcend towards it from that and another province called Quee-choo, it continues in this direftion about 600 miles, and then enters the province of Hoo-quang, in the 31ft Y A N 31ft degree of N. latitude. Through this province it takes I'erpentine courfe, and receives the waters of feveral lakes, with which this part of the country abounds. Leaving Hoo-quang, it pafTes between the province of Ho-nan and Kiang-fee, and with a little inclination from the E. towards the N., its copious ftream glides fmoothly through the province of Kiang-nan, and is difembogued into the fea, which bounds China to the E. in the 32d degree of N. lati- tude. The diftance from thence to Hoo-quang is about 800 miles, which makes the whole length of tlie river about 2200 miles. The current, where the yachts of lord Macartney's erabaffy paflTed it, did not exceed in thft ftrongeft part two miles ; but it was much deeper than the Yellow river. There thefe two great Chinefe rivers, taking their fources in the fame mountains, paffing almoft clofe to each other in :; particular fpot, feparating afterwards from each other to .:ie diftance of 15 degrees of latitude, finally difcharge r.cmftlves into the fame fea, within two degrees of each ;her ; comprehending within their grafp a traft of land of above I coo miles in length, which they contribute greatly :o fertilize and enrich, though by extraordinary accidents uccafioning unufual torrents, they may do injury in parti- cular inftances. This traft includes tlie principal portion r the Chinefe empire in ancient times ; and lies in that part f the temperate zone, which in Europe, as well as in Afia, ^3 been the fcene where the mod celebrated characters have xifted, and the moft brilliant actions been performed, whicli iiiftory has tranfmitted to pofterity. When the gentlemen jf the embalTy had crofTed the Yang-tfe-kiang, they found ;hat, inftead of a flat country, lakes, and fwamps, the ground rofe gradually from the margin of the river, enriched with various kinds and tints of culture, interfperfed with trees, temples, and pagodas. In the river were iflands flfirted with fhrubbery, and rocks rifing abruptly from the furface of the water. The waves rolled hke thofe at fea, and porpoifes are faid to be fometimes feen leaping amongft them : feveral junks were lying at anchor. In the middle of the river is the ifland called " Chin-lhan," (which fee.) The ground to the fouthward of the river gradually rofe to fuch a height, that it was found neceflary to cut down the earth in fome parts to the depth of near 80 feet, in order to find a level for the pafTage of the canal. The land in this neighbour- hood is chiefly cultivated with that particular fpecies or variety of the cotton-fhrub that produces the cloth ufually called Nankeens in Europe. The down enveloping the feed, or cotton-wool, is whole in the common plant ; but in that growing in the province of Kiang-nan, of which the city of Nan-kin is the capital, the down is of the fame yellow tinge which it preferves when fpun and woven into cloth. The colour, as well as the fuperior quality of this fubftance in Kiang-nan, was fuppofed to be owing to the particular na- ture of the foil ; and it is alFerted, that the feeds of the Nan- keen cotton degenerate in both particulars when tranfplanted to another province, however little different in its climate. Lord Macartney's Embaffy, vol. ii. YANG-TSI, a town of Corea ; 30 miles S. of King- ki-tao. YANI, a kingdom of Africa, fituated to the eaft of Burfali, and divided into Upper and Lower, on the north fide of the river Gambia. See PisAKlA. YANIMAREW, a town of Africa, in the Lower Yani. YANIMAZCU, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Yani. N. lat. 13= 40'. W. long. 14° I '. YANKEON, a mountain of Thibet . 30 miles N. of Zuenga. YANKJA, a town of AfTyria, near the Tigris, and YAP not far from Bagdad. This place and alfo Doueflla are fmall ilragghng towns, eveiy houfe being furrounded by a feparate mud-wall. YANTAC, a town of Thibet; 28 miles S.W. of Harachar. YAN-TCHIN, or Van-tchin-, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Quang-fi ; 1177 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23°!'. E. long. 106^ ci'. YAN-TINCOU, a town of Thibet ; 7? of Pa. ^ 75 miles E.N.E. YANTRA, a word denoting a myftical figure among the Hindoos ; alfo a mathematical inftrument ufed in any fcience or art of an occult nature. An inftrument ufed in aftronomical obfervations, called Golavantra, or the fpheric yantra, is defcribed in the ninth 'volume of the Afiatic Refearches, art. 6, as fimilar to our armillary fphere. The article now referred to by Mr. Colebrooke, prefident of the Afiatic Society of Calcutta, is very curious and important. The Hindoos, being fo prone to myilicifm, can fancy various wilhes in occult figures and praAices. Figures fimilar to the magic fquares, abracadabra, &c. of weftern wizards, are ftill ufed and venerated by the knaves and fools of Afia ; thefe are generally called yantra : as are peculiar figures or hieroglyphics, appropriated to certam Hindoo deities, whofe followers or feftaries mark their fore- heads therewith, and deem tliem of a fanftifying tendency. The nature of thefe various yantras, with fuitable inftruc- tions and warnings as to their formation, ufes, and pur- pofes, are taught in a Sanll- Fallen, a term ufed among our farriers to exprefs a malady to which horfes are fometimes fubject, which is the hanging down of the penis from its (heath between the legs, the creature not being able to draw it up again. This is caufed by weaknefs of the peculiar mufcles which (hould aft in the drawing up ; and proceeds (ometimes from a vio- lent dip or drain, fometimes from a blow on the back, and fometimes from extreme wearinefs in long journeys. The method of curing this is, (irft to wa(h it with oil of rofes, after this with warm white wine, and (inally, to anoint it with a mixture of oil of rofes and honey ; it is then to be returned into its place, and kept from falling down again by a little canvas bolder. It is to be thus dreifed once in twenty-four hours, till the cure is per- Fefted. There are fome other didemperatures to which this part 5 fubjeft in a horfe, as the being foul at the end, fo that the creature voids his urine in the (heath ; in this ca(e, the method of cure is to draw out the penis, and cleanfe the ;nd of it from any foulnefs that may be found there ; then t is to be wa{hed with butter and white wine vinegar melted .ogether : fometimes there is a difcharge of yellow dinking natter from the penis ; this is peculiar to done-horfes, and Vol. XXXIX. principally affefts them after the time of their covering of mares. This running is attended with a fwelling of the penis, and with a pain in voiding the urine ; the creature alfo (inds a difficulty in drawing up the penis into the (heath. The method of cure is, to dilTolve in a pint of white wme an ounce of roach-alum by boiling ; ar.i four or five times a day this is to be ufed, injefting it up into the yard with a fyringe, blood-warm. This will prove a cer- tain cure. Yakd-FouI, the filthy, furred date of the yard and (heath in animals of the horfe kind, which fometimes pro- duces difeafe. It is removed by well walhing and cleaning the parts, by the free ufe of foft-foap and water. Yard, Mattering of, a difeafe in the yards of horfes, produced by different caufes, in which matter is formed. It is removed by the ufe of cooling wa(hes, and keeping the parts clean and perfeftly free from dirt and naftinefs. Yard, Sheep. See Sii&KP-Tard and Standing Fold. Yakd, Stable. See Stable. Yard, Slack. See Y AKi.i-Taid, Stack, and Stack- Tard. Yard, Straw. See Stravi -Tard. Yards, in a Ship, are long cyhndrical pieces of fir-timber, fufpended to the mads of (hips, &c. to extend the fails to the wind. All yards arc cither fquare or latteen ; the former are fuf- pended athwart the mads by the flings, at right angles, and the latter at one-third their length, obhquely. The proportional lengths of yards are as follow, parti- cularly in the royal navy : — Main-yard, eight-ninths the length of the main-mad; fore -yard, feven-eighths of the main- yard ; mizen-yard, fix-fevenths of the main-yard; main- topfail-yard, five-fevenths of the main-yard ; fore-topfail- yard, feven-eighths of the main-topfail-yard ; mizen-top- fail-yard, two-thirds of the main-topfail-yard ; topgal- lant-yards to 74-gun (hips, two-thirds all under three-fifths of their topfail-yards ; royal-yards, half of the topfail-yards ; crofs-jack-yard and fpi-itfail-yard, the fame as the fore-top(ail- yard ; fpritfail-topfail-yard and driver-yard, the fame as the fore-topgallant-yard ; and the dudding-fail-yards, four- fevenths of their booms. Proportion of diameters of main and fore yards at the (lings is one-quarter of an inch to every foot in their length • mizen-yard, two-thirds the diameter of the main-yard ; top- fail-yards, five-eighths of an inch to every yard in the length ; topgallant-yards, three-fifths of an inch to every yard in the length ; royal-yards, half the diameter of the topfail-yards ; fpritfail-yard and crofs-jack-yard, the fame diameter as the fore-topfail-yard ; fpritfail-topfail-yard and driver-yard, the fame diameter as the fore -topgallant-yard ; and the dudding- fail-yards, one inch diameter to every five feet in the length. The fquare yards are of a cylindrical furface the greater part of their length. They taper from the middle,- which are called the Jlings, towards the extremities, which are termed \he yard-arms ; and the didance between the (lings and the yard-arms on each fide is divided into quarters, which are didingui(hed into the fird, fecond, and third quarters, and yard-arms, which are regularly tapered by the following proportions. The fird quarter, or that next the flings or middle, thirty thirty -ones of the given diame- ter ; the fecond quarter, feven-eighths ; the third quarter, feven-tenths ; and the arms or ends, three-fevenths. From a middle line druck on the tree or fpar the yard is to be made from, half of the fevcral dimenljons above is to be G fat YARDS. let off, and the yard then fawn to its fiJir.g ; it is then canted, and a middle hnc ftruck on one of thofe fides, and the middle and the quarters fquared up thereon from the middle line on the firll fide, and the fame diameters fet off as before, then lined and fawn fquare to the upper fide ; it is then fawn eight-fquare the whole length. The main and fore yards (fg. 17. RisS'"S' ■P'"''' I^O arc then trimmed fixteen-fquare, and rounded from one quarter on each fide the flings to the outer ends, except on the aft-fide, which mult remain cight-fquarc two-quarters on each fide the middle. The whole is then planed fair and fmooth. In merchant (hips they have a (lieave-liole in their arms for the topfail-fheets, ind arc left fquare the length of the fheave-holc ; but this method weakens the lower yards. Topfail-yards [J!g. 18. Rigging, Plate l\.) being trimmed fixteen-fquare, are rounded and planed from the firfl quarter on each fide the middle to their outer ends, and a (heave- hole cut from their upper fide, its length within each outer end for the reef-tackles. In fome merchant fhips a hole is cut within the cleats for the top-gallant-fheets, but is better avoided, as it weakens the yard-arms. Topgallant-yards (Jg. 19. Rigging, P/ate II.), royal- yards, crofs-jack-yards, mizun-yards, fprit and fprit-topfail- yards, ttudding-fiil and driver yards, are trimmed eight- fquare, fixteen-fquare, and then rounded and planed fair and fmooth from end to end throughout the length. Battening of Tards. — Main and fore yards, main, fore, and mizen topfail-yards, have oak battens nailed on their fquares nearly the fame length and breadth, one inch to three-quarters of an inch tliick ; their ends rounded and fnaped, and the edges chamfered. The fore-fide has no battens. Cleating of Tards. — The fling-cleats, a a, (Jig. 17. Rig- ging, Plate II.) nailed on the foie-fide of the main and fore yards, are once and a quarter the given diameter of the yard in length, with n fhouldcr breadth one-fourth the length ; the breadth, made of elm, and meter on each fide the (lings. Stop-cleats, i, [fg. 17. Rigging, Plate II.) are made of oak, and nailed within the arms, on the fore-fide and aft- fide of the lower yards, one inch and a half to every yard in their length. Their length half the given diameter of the yard ; the breadth one-fourth its length ; and its thick- nefs two-thirds its breadth. Yards for merchant fhips have their cleats fometimes raifed from the folid. Topfail-yards have ftop-cleats, nailed on the fore-fide of the yard, once the given diameter on each fide of the flings. Thofe within the arms, on the fore and after fides of the main and fore topfail-yards, three inches to every yard in the length ; and mizen topfail-yards, two inches and a quarter. Topgallant-yards the fame as topfail-yards. Royal-yard-cleats are once the diameter on each fide the middle afunder, and twice their length within at the arms. Crofs-jack-yards have ftop-cleats, nailed on the fore-fide of the yard, half the diameter on each fide of the flings ; thofe at the arms, one inch and a half within their outer ends to every yard in length, and nailed on the fore and after fides. Mizen-yarJs have ftop-cleats nailed once the diameter afunder on the ftarboard-fide, and once and a half the given diameter below the middle of the yard : thofe at the peek or outer end, once the diameter within. Sprit and fprit-topfail-yards have ftop-cleats nailed on their under fides ; the fpritfail-yard once the diameter on one-third its length ; tht the thicknefs two-thirds nailed once the given dia- each fide the flings ; the fprit-topfail-yard half the diameter one each fide : thole at the arms one inch and a half within their outer ends to every y.ird in the length ; and they nail on the fore and after fides contrary to thofe at the ilings. Studding-fail and driver yards have ftop-cleats, nailed once the given diameter afunder, at one-third the length of the yard from the inner end ; thofe at the arms twice their length within. Boat-yard-clcats are once the given diameter afunder at the flings ; fome in the middle, others one-third from the end, fuch as lugs, lattecn, and fettecs, and the length of the cleat within at the arms. Yards arc fitted at their outer ends for rigging out ftudding-fails. Main and fore yards have four boom-irons ; one on each of their outer ends, c, [fg. 17. Rigging, Plate II.) the others at one-third the length of the boom within, d. The outer boom-iron is compofed of a ring, a neck, and ftraps. The ring, through which the boom Hides, is of the fame diameter in the clear as its topmaft-ftudding-fail boom breadth three-eighths the diameter, and from five-eighths to three-quarters of an inch thick. In one fide a lignum vitas roller is fitted, one-third in length the diameter of the boom- ring. The neck is fquare, and connefts the ring to the ftraps ; each neck one inch longer than the diameter of the j ring, and one-fourth its length in fize. The ftraps are made one inch and a quarter in length to every three feet of the yard ; their breadth once and a half the breadth of the ring ; thicknefs at the inner part, three-eighths of an inch : they increafe in fubftance towards the neck, and are made to the fhape of and let in their thicknefs into the yard-arm. They are bolted, and have two hoops made to the fize of the yard-arm, one clofe to the end, and the other near the neck. Inner boom-irons are made after the fame proportion as the outer ones, but differ in fhape. The ftraps are made to compafs the yard at one-third the length of the topmaft- ftudding-fail boom within the end, and the ring is feparated from the ftrap by a collar ; the upper part of the ring openn with a hinge on one fide, and the heel of the boom is clafped therein. Boom-irons fix on the yards thus : the rings are par.illel with the axis of the yard, in a ftraiglit direftion, with a line ftruck upon the yard, in the middle of the fquare, between the upper and fore fide. Boom-irons, on the yard-arms of fliips in the merchant fervice, differ much in fhape. The ring the boom flidcs through is connected by a collar to a fquare hoop, that lets on and nails to the yard-arms, they being left fquare ; and fometimes a round hoop to the fize of the yard-arms. Others have a ftraight neck, projefting from ftraps, with a fhoulder in the middle of the neck, and the part without left fquare. The boom-ring has a fhank on the under part, with a mor- tife that fits the neck, and there faftened by a fcrew-nut, a fpring-forelock, that goes on the neck next the or rini Topfail-yards, main and fore, commonly have boom-irons| at their outer ends, like the lower yards in merchant fhips. In the navy they are moftly fitted with a boom-ring, and a! fprig-eye-bolt driven in the middle of their ends, parallel toi its axis ; and an iron hoop let in its thicknefs and breadth, and nailed, to prevent fphtting the yard-arm. Yards thatj have no inner boom-irons have faddles for the heel of the' boom. Topgallant-yards, main and fore, mizen-yards, fprit and fprit-topfail-yards, have their arms fitted with a ferrule-hoop: and fprig-eye-bolts, as the topfail-yards, Mizen-, Y A R Mizen-topfail and topgallant yards have hoops like the former let on their outer ends, but no eye-bolts. Driver-yards have a fheave-hole cut through their outer end, and a hoop and eye-bolt. The main and fore yards of large (hip3 are fometimes made of two trees ; they have each tree lined, long enough to fcarf four feet beyond the firft quarter, next the middle, or flings, which is in all five-eighths the length of the yard, adding four feet. The fcarfs line itraight, from each quar- ter next the middle to one-fourth the fubftance at the quar- ter next the butt, and three-fourths at the quarter next the middle, and haunches to about three inches at the butt. Each tree is then fawn 33 before direfted, and completed thus : the fcarf and haunches are trimmed ftraight, and out of winding on the infide, and a line ftruck along the middle, and a chain-coak fet off, each about two feet four inches long, and one-third the diameter broad ; and the butts fquared acrofs and down the fides. The coaks are raifed one inch and a quarter at the butt, and funk to the fame on the other fide of the middle, towards the arm ; the other half is then canted thereon, fet ftraight and out of winding, and fayed as the ma/?/, (which fee, and the Plate of Majls, ) and bolted together fore and aft through the middle, in the butt of every coak ; the heads are to be driven from the thinneft part of the fcarf, and clenched on a ring, and the haunches nailed. The yard is then completed as before direfted, and the fcarfs caulked their length and hooped ; one hoop over the butt of each fcarf, one in the middle of each haunch, and one over every bolt : then a fifh of fir, two inches thick, and the fame length and breadth as the fquare on the aft- lide, is fayed and nailed clofe over all the hoops. Another method of fcarfing yards together made of two trees, which is the ftrongeft, and takes lefs trees than the former, is by providing two trees that will hold the dia- meter beyond the fifties, and fcarf together fimilar to the former. Then the deficiency of the diameter towards the middle is made good by long fifties of fir, from four to fix inches thick, as the fize of the yard may require, extending two feet in length at each end beyond the long fquare on the aft-fide, and each of fufficient breadth to form the eight- fquare on the outfide. The inner furfaces of the fiflies are coaked and fayed clofe upon the yard, the coak extending near the whole length. The yard is then fiiiiftied as before direfted,and hooped and bolted, as in the Plateoi Majl-making, Y ARD-^rm is thathalf of the yard which is on either fide the maft, when it lies athwart the ftiip. See the preceding article. Yards alfo denote places belonging to the navy, where the ftiips of war, &c. are laid up in harbour. See DocK- Tards. YARDLEY, in Geography, a village of Worcefterftiire, which, according to the population return of the year 181 1, contained 191 8 inhabitants, including 121 families employed in manufaftures, and 453 houfes ; 7 miles S.E. of Bir- mingham. YARE, a river of England, in the county of Norfolk, which rifes about five miles N. from New Buckenham, pafles by the city of Norwich, and runs into the German ocean near Yarmouth. Yake. See Segovia Nueva. Yare, among Sailors, implies as much as, nimble, ready, quick, expeditious. Hence, to be yare at the helm, as fome iay, fignifies to fet a frefli man at the helm. YARECA, in Geography. See Jareca. YAREE, a town of Burmah ; 40 miles S.W. of Ava. YARENSK, a town of Ruflia, in the province of Y A R Uftiug, on the Vitchegda ; 92 miles N.E. of Uftiug. N lat. 62°. E. long. 47° 50'. YARI, a town of Brafil, in the government of Para; 60 miles N.E. of Paru. YARIN, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers to exprefs the flos asris. YARKAN, Yarkand, Irken, or Tarkien, in Geogra- phy, a town of Caftigar, or Little Bucharia, where the grand khan of the Eluth Tartars chiefly refides. The town is large, and well built of bricks dried in the fun. The environs are fertile, and the palace of the khan large, but not handfome. In 1400 this town was taken and plundered by Timur Bee ; 90 miles S.E. of Caftigar. N. lat. «8° i «'. E. long. 78° 49'. Yarkan, or Yarkand, fuggefted to be the Oechardes of Ptolemy, a river of Afia, which paffes by the town of Yarkan, and after a confiderable courfe runs into lake Lop ; 100 miles S. of Tourfan. YARM, or Yarum, a market-town in the W. divifion of the liberty of Langbaurgh, in the North Riding of the county of York, England, is fituated on the banks of the river Tees, 4 miles S. by W. from Stockton, 44 N.N.W. from York, and 237 in the fame diredlion from London. In 181 1 the houfes in the town and parifti were 361, and the inhabitants 143 1. Here is a neat modern church. A market is held on Thurfday, and fairs on Thurfday before the 5th of April, Holy Thurfday, 2d of Auguft, and 20th of OAober. At Yarm was an hofpital, founded before 1 185 ; alfo a houfe of Black friars, founded about 1271, by the family of Brus or Bruce, both of which were fupprefled by Henry VIII. Over the river Tees at this place is a hand- fome ttone bridge, communicating with the county of Dur- ham. The town, formerly more confiderable than at prefent, ftill carries on a good trade by water, particularly in corn and lead for the London market. In 1761 the town fuffered feverely by an inundation of the river Tees. — Beauties of England and Wales, Yorkftiire, by J. Bigland, 8vo. Lond. 1812. YARMOUTH, Great, an important fea-port, borough, and market-town, in the hundred of Eatl Flegg, and county of Norfolk, England, is fituated on the E. coaft of England, near the mouth of the river Yare, whence it has its name, 22 miles E. from Norwich, and 124 N.E. from London. The number of houfes in the parifti, according to the re- turns of 181 1, was 3594, and the inhabitants were 17,977. A market is held here on Saturday, and a fair in Eafter week. The town, which fends two members to parliament, was incorporated by James I. It is governed by a mayor, recorder, 7 aldermen, 36 common-council-men, a town- clerk, and other inferior officers. In former times, Yar- mouth was a member of the Cinque Ports, and by ancient cuftom appointed bailiff^s, who, in conjunftion with the ma- giftrates of the town, hold a court there during the herring- fair. The corporation poftefs alfo the privileges of courts of admiralty and of record. Yarmouth is Angularly fituated on a long, narrow, fandy peninfula, having on the E. the German ocean, and on the W. the river Yare, which, after pointing N.E. towards the fea, fuddenly bends round to the S. parallel to the ftiore, and opens into the fea, two miles below the town. The coaft near Yarmouth and fouthward to Loweftoft is the moft eailerly part of Great Britain, Yarmouth church lying in E. long. 1° 45' from Greenwich. The firft mention of this town is in Domefday-book, which renders it probable, that it had its beginning in the early part of the Anglo-Saxon dynafty. When the fand- bank, ou which it ftands, and which, thrown up by the fea, G I impeded, YARMOUTH. .inptJcJ, or at Icaft JiverU-a, the courfe of the Yare, was iiifficiently confolidatcd, habitations were formed on it by the finiermcn who reforted to the coaft. By the influx of torcj^rners for the purchafe and fale of fi(h the town in- creafed, fo as to become the moft confiderablc port on the tad coaft of England. To provide for its fecunty, Henry III. granted to the inhabitants pcrmiflion to inclofc the town with a moat and walls ; works which, however, do not appear to have been commenced until 1285, the thir- teenth year of his fuccellbr, Edward I. But when war with France broke out in 1545, an additional rampart was thrown up towards the fea, and further extended in 1587. _ In the following year, to guard againtl the Spauifh invafion, out- works were conllrufted, the fouth mount was raifed and planted with camion, and a boom was laid acrofs the entrance of the harbour. Coeval with the firft fortificalioii of Yar- mouth was probably the caftle, in the centre of the town. It ftrved for fome years as a prifon ; but in 1621 the whole was demolished. In 1642 the inhabitants of Yarmouth de- clared for the parliament ; but it was only after the inde- pendents had gained an afcendancy in the Hate that a garri- fon was admitted here. During the American war, forts and batteries were conftriifted, and barracks for a confiderablc body of troops were ereaed for the defence of the place. Indebted for its original exiftence, and fubfequcnt increafe to the firtiery, Yarmouth very early poffeffed a very numerous lliipping. In the fummer of 1310, when Edward II. or- dered the feveral ports of England to fend (hips to Dublin, to convey troops over to Scotland, Yarmouth furnithed fix, while even Briftol and Gloucelter, although fo conveniently fituated for that objeft, furnifhcd only two between them. To form a fleet to be employed in the fiege of Calais, in 1346, under Edward III., Yarmouth fent out forty-three veflels, carrying 1095 mariners ; a number of men far ex- ceeding thofe furnifhed by any other port in the kingdom ; for London itfelf was called on for only twenty-five veflels, containing 662 mariners. In 1797, when men for the navy were required in pro- portion to the tonnage of each port, Yarm.outh was the ninth in order ; but according to the Cuftom-houfe books of 1 800 it had advanced to be the eighth, the fhips of the port being 375, the tonnage 32,957, navigated by 2442 men, while Briftol potfelTed 186 fhips, carrying 26,193 ^°"^ and 1674 men. Yarmouth was early diflinguifhed, and ftill remains unrivalled, for the herring-fifhcry. About 1220 the abbot of St. Alban's purchafed a large houfe in Yarmouth, " in order to lay up fifh, cfpecially herrings, which were bought in by his agents at the proper feafon, for the ufe of his abbey." Prior to 1238, the people of the oppofite coaft of Europe were in the habit of reforting to Yarmouth for a fupply of lierrings. Thefe and other recorded facls fhew that the method of preferving that fifh, probably by fait, muft have been known in En^^land more than 200 years before the pretended invention of Beukels in Flanders, from whom picilin? is faid to have had its name. (See Herring- Fi/hery.) The herrings ufually appear on the eaft coaft of England about September, when the grand fifhing feafon commences. The boats fitted out for the fifhcry are decked, and average from forty to fifty tons burthen, with a crew of eleven or twelve men to each. The veffels, with fome tons of fait on board, proceed from four to twelve leagues out to fea. Each boat is provided with eighty or a hundred nets, twenty-one yards in length, and eight and a half in depth ; all of which, fattened to a long rope, are let down into the fea at dufk, and drawn up at day-hght. When falted, the fifh are hung up in lofty buildings, and expofed, with fmall intermifTions, for about a month, to the fraoke of a wood fire, and thus become red-herrings. Two centuries ago the fifhery was alfo carried on in fummer ; but in the prefent times no herrings are found on the coatl in that fea- fon. In the interval of the fifhery, the boats are employed in catching mackarel and cod. Yarmouth trades very largely in the export of corn and malt, and in the woollen ftulTs of Norwich. Timber, iron, and hemp, are imported from the Baltic, and ihip-building is carried on at this place to a confiderablc extent. The formation and the maintenance of the harbour of Yarmouth have required great exertion, ingenuity, and ex- pence ; for the prefent is the feventh recorded to have been made, and its yearly charge amounts to about 2000/., which fum is defrayed by duties cxafted from goods brought in. The new works were executed by .Toas .lolinfon, a Dutch- man, who had been invited from Holland for the purpofe. The principal or north pier is in length 265 yards, and the fouth pier, which is better conftrufted, 340 yards : the extent of the harbour between thefe piers is 11 1 1 yards ; and the depth of water, in all ftatcs of the tide, being now about twenty-four feet, inftead of three feet, as was the cafe before the ereftion of the piers, veflels can always lie afloat at their moorings. The well-known Yarmouth roads are formed by ranges of fand-banks, lying out parallel to and at no great dillance from the fhore. The channels between the banks, fome of which are dry at low water, and between them and tlie fhore, are in general narrow, but deep enough for fliips of any fize. The roads confequtntly afford moft defirable flicker in ftorniy weather, on a traft of coall pro- jefting a great way into the German oce.in, and peculiarly deftitute of acccffible harbours. But the coiicourfe of fhip- ping in this ftation has, on various occafions, produced dreadful difafters, the veffels being frequently driven from their anchors, and wrecked on the banks or on the fhore. The town of Yarmouth is in form an oblong quadrangle, confiftingof four principal ftreets, croffed at right angles by 156 lanes, called rows, fo confined in breadth, that for the conveyance of goods through them, the inhabitants have adopted narrow carts, mounted upon low wheels, and drawn by one horfe, the driver ftanding in the front of the cart. The town is inclofed by a wall on the north, eaft, and fouth fides, in length 2240 yards, which, with the wefl fide along the river, 2030 yards, make the circuit two miles and 750 yards. Although fo populous a town, Yarmouth forms but one parifh, and, until a century ago, had but one church, that of St. Nicholas, which was erefted by Herbert Lofinga, bifhop of Norwich, in 1123 ; but it was greatly enlarged in 1250. It confifts of a nave, two aifles, and a tranfept, and liad lately a fpire 136 feet high, a diftinguifhed fea-mark in the midft of a long traft of low and dangerous coaft; but in 1803 it was taken down. The other public buildings of Yarmouth arc, the town-hall, ahandfome build- ing, with a Tufcan portico, fituated near the centre of the quay; the council-room, which alfo ferves for affemblies ; the iifher- man's hofpital, a quadrangle, containing twenty rooms on a floor, each intended for an old fifherman and his v/ife ; the hofpital-fchool for maintaining and clothing thirty boys and twenty girls, at the expence of the corporation ; and the charity-fchool for feventy boys and thirty girls, who are clothed and educated. The quay of Yirmcath is juftly the boaft of the town, and is one of the fineft and the mofl ex- tenfive in Europe. Its length from the fouth gate to the bridge is 10 14 yards, beyond which it reaches ioi5 yards farther, making its whole extent a mile and 270 virds. In many places the breadth is 150 yards, and the fputhern part Y A R is ilccoialcd with a raii,qe of handfome buildings. By means ot a bridge acrofs the Yare a commumcation is maintained with the county of Suffolk, which ilretches up the weft bank of the river. As a fafhionable watering-place, Yar- mouth is well provided with every accommodation, and con- fequently much frequented. On the beach a bathmg-houfe was erefted in 1759, commanding a fine view of the roads and (hipping ; and in 1778 a neat theatre was opened. Op- pofite to Yarmouth, and for about two miles north and fouth of the town, the coaft is nearly a level common, ele- vated only from two to three yards above high-water mark. From the edge of the common down to the water is a gentle flope of fine fand, intermixed with loofe pebbles called fhingles ; and as the tides rife but about fix feet, the fpace brought under water is only a few yards. From high- water mark to the turf of the common the fands abound with marine plants, fome of them rare and curious, of which an account is given by Mr. Dawfon Turner in the Hiftorical Guide to Great Yarmoutli, i2mo. 1806. — Beauties of England and Wales, Norfolk, by J. Britton, F.S.A. 8vo. Lond. 1809. Yarmouth, South, a fea-port, borough, and market- town, in the S.W. half hundred of Weft Medina liberty, in the Ifle of Wight, and county of Southampton, or Hamp- fliire, England, is fituated at the entrance of the little river Yare, on the N.W. coaft of the ifland, 10 miles W. from Newport, and 97 S.W. from London. The town, which is governed by a mayor, twelve burgefles, a fteward, a town-clerk, &c. was incorporated by James I., and fends two members to parliament. In 181 1 the houfes in the borough and parifh were 88, and the inhabitants 427. A market is held here on Saturday, and two fairs annually. Yarmouth is built on a bank (loping to the fea, and feems to have been formerly much larger than it is at prefent. The church is fituated in the middle of the town. The market- houfe has over it the town-hall. Here was a caftle, built by Henry VIH. on the fcite of an ancient church, which had been deftroyed by the French. This fortrefs is defended by fome pieces of cannon, and a fmall garrifon. Between Yarmouth and Lymington a packet fails daily. — Beauties of England and Wales, Hampfhire, by J. Britton and E.W. Brayley, 8vo. Lond. 1808. Yarmouth, a fea-port town of MalFachufetts, in Barn- ftaple bay ; jo miles S.E. of Boiton. N. lat. 41- 42'. W. long. 70° 10'. Yarmouth, a town on the weft coaft of Nova Scotia ; 35 miles W. of Shelburn. Yarmouth, North, a town of America, in the diftriA of Maine, and county of Cumberland, with 3295 inhabitants ; 9 miles N.E. of Portland. N. lat. 43^ 45'. W. long. 70° 8'. YARMUC, or Yarun, a town of Faleftine, in the dif- trift of Saphet, on a river of the fame name, which runs into the lake of Tiberias, chiefly inhabited by Chriftians ; 24 miles S.E. of Saphet. Yarmuc, a river of Syria, anciently called Marjyas, which runs into the Orontes, near Apamea. In 636 a battle was fought on the banks of the river, between the Chriftians and the Saracens, in which the former were defeated. YARN, denotes fpun wool. See Wool, and Wooi.len ManufaBure. Yarn, Marling. See Marking. Yarn, in Rope-Making, is fpun from hemp, and is called twenty -five, twenty, and eighteen thread yarn, which differs only in the finenefs ; the twenty-five being finer than tlie twenty, &c. It is thus diftinguilhed, becaufe either Y A R twenty-five, twenty, or eighteen threads a hook, make a rope of three inches in circumference, and fo in propor- tion. Yarn, Spun, on board a Ship. See Spun. YARNALLS, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania ; 20 miles E. of Sanbury. YAROVOI, a town of RufGa, in the government of Tobolik, on the Irtifch ; 52 miles N. of Tobolik. YARRA. See Jarra. YAJIRINGLES, or YAv^ninGLY.- Blades, a kind of reel, or inftrument, with which hanks of yarn are wound on to clues, or balls. YARROW, in Botany. (See Achillea.) Perhaps this old Englifh name originated in the Spanilh Terha, or Terva, an herb ; our Common Achillea Millefolium having been formerly called, in that language, Mllhoyas Terva, or Thoufand-leaved Herb, a tranllation of its Latin appeUa- tion. The leaves and flowers of the common yarrow, or achll- lea millefolium of Linnjeus, which is in flower en our ditch- banks, and in dry paftures, the greateft part of the fummcr, are greatly recommended by fome of the German phyficians, as mild corroborants, vulneraries, and antifpafmodics, in diarrhoeas, hemorrhages, hypochondriacal, and other dif- orders. They promife, fays Dr. Lewis, by their fenfible qualities, to be of no inconfiderable aftivity. They have an agreeable, though weak, aromatic fmell, and a bitterifh, roughi{h, fomewhat pungent tafte. The leaves, having the greateft bitteriihnefs and aufterity, are chiefly direfted for medicinal ufe ; the flowers have the ftrongeft and moft fubtile fmell, are remarkably acrid, and promife to be of the greateft efficacy, if the plant has any fuch efficacy, as an anodyne or antifpafmodic. The virtue of both leaves and flowers is extrafted by watery and fpirituous menftrua ; the aftringency moft perfeftly by the former ; their aro- matic warmth and pungency by the latter ; and both of them equally by a mixture of the two. The flowers, dif- tilled with water, yield a penetrating e(renti2l oil, poffefTmg the flavour of the milfoil in perfeftion ; in confiftence fome- what thick and tenacious ; in colour very variable, from a greenilh-yellow to a deep green and blueifh-green, and fine blue, which differences depend in a great meafure on the foil in which the plant is produced ; the flowers gathered from moift frefh grounds yielding generally a blue oil, and thofe coUetfted from dry commons a green one, with a greater or lefs admixture of yellow. The extract obtained by infpiffating the yellowilh tinfture made in rectified fpirit, is more agreeable in fmell than the flowers, of a moderately warm penetrating tafte, fomewhat like that of camphor, but much milder, accompanied with a (light bit- teriihnefs and fubaftringency. The achlllea ptarmlca of LinnsEus, czWeA fneezewort, or lajlard pclUtory, is perennial, grows wild on heaths, and in moift (hady grounds, and is found in flower from June to the end of fummcr. The roots of this plant have a hot biting tafte, approaching to that of pelhtory of Spain, with which they nearly agree in their pharmaceutic properties, and for which they have been fometimes fubftituted in the (hops. They are by fome recommended internally as a warm ttimulant and nttenuant ; but their principal ufe is as a mallicatory and fternutatorv. Lewis. Yarrovv, in Agriculture, a plant of the herbage kind, which is common but ufeful in the pafture-ficld in many cafes. It has long ago been noticed, by the writer of the " Effays on Rural Affairs," as valuable for cultivation m grafs-laiids in difi'erent forts of (oil. It fuccecds on moift loams, but is moft proper for dry burning gravels, fands, and Y A S and cltalke. It is faid to poffefs the Angular quality or property of refilling drought on the moft and foils ; fo that if a green fpot appears in a burnt-up clofe-fed pafture ground, it may almoll with certainty be concluded to be covered with this plant. In paLlures there is not any fort of plant which is eaten down more clofely than this, by every kind of browfing domeftic animal. It has been re- marked with furprifc, that fpots of rich dry land, which were almoft wholly filled with thefe plants, were eaten down barer than even white clover. It is a ftrong-rooted perennial plant, which has many fine leaves, of a highly aromatic fmell, and which is confidered as not only very acceptable, but uncommonly healthy, or even medicinal, both to (heep and black cattle. It is found in the bell bullock paftures and grounds, where it is faid to be highly grateful to every fort of liye- ftock of the cattle kind, and particularly fo to Iheep, which bite it as fall as it grows or rifes : fo that on tolerably well- ftocked paftures or grounds it is rarely fuffered to come into flower. The feeds of it are, therefore, to be obtained from fome rich dry fpot which is well llored with the plant ; and if the foil be well fupplied with good mouldy compoft, it has been found that the yarrow may be made into a rough hay, from which it is eafy to obtain feeds, which are of a pecuhar winged form and appearance. It flowers late in the fummer, and the feeds may be gathered about the month of Oftober. It is a plant that has not been obferved in abundance in boggy or wet lands ; but which, for dry rich foils, deferves the preference to moft others for the purpofe of being depaftured. It is a plant that on the whole feems to merit the attention of the ftock-farmer, at leaft in a much greater degree than he has yet beftowed upon it. Yarrow, Water. See Water Violet. Yarrow, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which rifes in a mountain called Tarronv Cleugh, in the county of Sel- kirk, forms two lochs, St. Mary's and Lows, in its courfe, and runs into the Tweed, about two miles below Selkirk. YARUM. SeeYARM. YARUQUI, a plain twelve miles north-eaft from the city of Quito. This fpot was pitched upon as the bafe of the whole operations for meafuring the length of an arc of the meridian, by UUoa, &c. Near it is a village of the fame name. YARWHELP, or Yarwip, an Englilh name ufed in fome places for the agocephalm of authors. See GoDWlT. YASASCHNA, in Geography, a town of RufTia, in the government of Irkutlk, on the Kitoi ; 68 miles N.W. of Irkutlk. YASASCHNAIA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Kohma, at Verchnei Kovimlkoi. YASCHAMBOU, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adirbeitzan ; 198 miles S.W. of Tauris. YASSA, in Alodern Hiftory, the name given among the Tartars to a body of laws, afcribed to the famous con- queror Gengis-Kan, which are ftill obferved among the Tartars of Crimea, and other parts of Afia. M. de la Croix has given, in his life of Gengis-Kan, an extraft of thofe laws, comprifing twenty-one articles : the firft of which inculcates the belief of one God, the Creator of heaven and earth, and to whom belong the abfolute difpofal and dominion of events. YASUDA, in Hindoo Mythology, the name of the fofter- mother of the Hindoo Krifhna : it is faid to mean the giver of honour . YASUDERA, the name of the wife of Budha, or Y A T Boodh, or deity of the Hindoos, and of other people. See BOODH. YATA, in Geography, a town on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Catanduanes. N. lat. 13° 52'. E. long. 124° 29'. YATCHEVERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 25 miles S.W. of Nellore. YA-TCHI, a town of Corea ; 25 miles S.W. of Ou- tcheou. YA-TCHINGo a town of China, in Fo-kien ; 15 milet N.E. of Fou-nhing. YATE's River, a river of Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 8° V. W. long. 12° 15'. YATHKIED, a lake of North America. N. lat. 63" 10'. W. long. 98°. YATI, the priefthood of the extenfive feft of Jaina, in India. (See Jaina.) A yati is fometimes faid to be more properly an afcetic, for it doth not appear that he performs any religious rite. It is his duty to read and expound to his difciples the fcriptures of the Jaina fyftem. See under Sects of Hindoos for a general notice of the Jainas. The yatis are devoted to religion from their infancy ; for with the Jainas the priefthood is not hereditary, as with the orthodox Hindoos. A yati never marries, but fometimes purchafes a child, adopts it, and inftrufts it in religious duties. Parents fometimes vow or promife their firft-born to the deity, in the hope of obtaining the blefiing of fecun- dity in their family. They ferve their noviciate with their guru, or preceptor, and perform for him many domeftic offices. After a proper period, when arrived at a fufficient age and progrefs in their ftudies, they are admitted as yatis. The ceremony on this occafion is fimple. The noviciate is carried out of the town with mufic and rejoicing in pro- ceffion, followed by a crowd of Sravakas, as the laity of the Jainas are called. (See Sravaka.) He is taken beneath a tree with milky juice. The pipala, or Indian fig, is ufually preferred. A circle is formed on the ground, within which none but yatis are admitted. The hair, or lock, of the noviciate is pulled out by the root at five pulls ; and camphor, mufl<, fandal, faffron, and fugar, are applied to the fcalp : lie is then ftripped, and placed, with joined palms, the pollure of refpeft and fupplication, before his guru, ■who pronounces a mantra (fee Mantra) in his ear, and invefts him with the drefs of a yati, which confifts of a cloth of three cubits for his loins, another of five cubits for his head, a coarfe country blanket, called hamly, for his bed, a water-pot, a plate for his viftuals, a cloth to tie them up in, a long ftick to defend him, but not to injure others, and laftly, a broom of cotton-threads to fweep the ground where he fits or lies, to avert the deftrudlion of any infeft. The Jainas are the feft that fo efpecially avoid Ihedding blood or deftroying life ; a tenet that leads them to ridiculous excefles, as will be feen under our article Jaina, in which feveral particulars of the yati are alfo given. YATREB, in Geography, the real name of Medina, in Arabia. It is called Medina, or the city, by way of emi^ nence. YATTENDON, a village of 5;ngland, in the county of Berks. Here Alfred overthrew the Danes in 876 ; 4 miles S.E. of Eaft Ilfley. YATTONG, a town of Burmah ; 15 mUes W.N.W. of Ava. YATTONUR, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; iq miles S.W. of Candy. 4 YAUACA, I YAW YAUACA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Lima^ on luc coaft ; 20 miles S.S.E. of Nafca. S. lat. 15°. YAUGAR, a town of Burmah, on the right bank of ',e Irawaddy, oppofite to Raynangong. YAUGOS, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Lima ; 80 miles S.E. of Lima. S. lat. 12^ 40'. W. long. 75° 46'- YAVI, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of La Plata ; 85 miles E.S.E. of Lipes. YAW, in Sea Language, denotes the movement by which a (hip deviates from the line of her courfe towards the right or left in fleering. See Steady. YAWL, a fmall light fhip's boat, rowed with four to fix oars, ufed to convey the ofScers to and from the (hip. YAWNING, OsciTATio, an involuntary opening of the mouth, generally indicating a troublefome wearinefs, or an inclination to deep. See Lungs. YAWS, in Medkin', a fevere cutaneous difeafe, which is indigenous in Africa, and has been thence conveyed to the Weft Indies and America; fo called from the refemblance of its eruptions to a rafpberry, the word yaiv in fome African dialecl being the name of that fruit. Nofologifts have denominated it Frambcsfia, from the French Framboife, which has the fame fignification. The nature of this difeafe has been imperfeftly invefti- gated by European practitioners ; and as it is perhaps never feen in England, a brief account of it wiU be here fufficient. It is not eafy to difcover the precife charafter of this eruption, from the varying language of authors. An anonymous writer, who gave the firft explicit account of the difeafe, (fee Edinb. Med. Eflays, vol. v. part 2. art. 76. ) fays, they are at firft " level or fmooth with the fkin," but foon " become protuberant like pimples." Dr. Hillary, who has copied much from this writer, defcribes them as '^ pimples," though fmootli and level with the fliin, but foon becoming " ^xolvbinnt pujlules." ( On the Dif. of Barbadoes, p. 339.) And Dr. Winterbottom, who has given on the whole the moft perfpicuous defcription of the difeafe, calls them " pufluhs," from their firft appearance. Again, as to the contents of thefe eruptions, the anonymous author and Dr. Hillary fay, that no pas nor any quantity of ichor is found in them, but fpeak of a little ichor as drying upon the furface ; while Dr. Winterbottom fays, they are " filled with an opaque whitifh fluid," and when they burft, " a thick vifcid matter is dilcharged." There is alfo fome difference of opinion among the writers on this difeafe re- fpe6Ung the precurfory fymptoms, the earlier authors af- ferting, that the general health is not impaired during the firft ftages ; but others, efpecially Dr. Winterbottom and Dr. Dancer, affirm, that a felricular ufually precedes it. On the whole, however, the following appears to be the moft correct account of the malady, which is to be collected from the various defcriptions which have been publiftied. The eruption of the yaws fometimes commences without any precurfory fymptoms of ill health ; but it is generally preceded by a fiight febrile ftate, with languor, debiUty, and pains of the joints, refembling thofe of rheumatifm. After feveral days, minute protuberances appear on various parts of the (kin, at firft fmaUer than the head of a pin, but gra- dually enlarging, in fome cafes to the diameter of a fix- pence, and in others even to a greater extent : they are moft numerous, and of fiie largeft fize, in the face, groins, xiila, and about the anus and pudenda. But the crop is t completed at once ; new eruptions appear in different places, while fome of the earlier ones dry off. When the cuticle is broken, a foul cruft is formed on the furface, from YAW under which, on the larger protuberances, red fungous excrefcences often fpring up, which attain different magni- tudes, from that of a fmall rafpberry to that of a large mul- berry, which fruit they fomewhat refemble from their gra- nulated furfaces. When the eruption is moft copious, thefe tubercles are of the fmalleft fize j and when fewer, they are largeft. Their duration and progrefs are various in differ. ent conftitutions, and at different periods of hfe. Children fuffer lefs feverely than adults, and are more fpeedily freed from the difeafe. In them, according to Dr. Winter- bottom, the duration of the yaws is from fix to nine months; while in adults it is feldom cured in lefs than a year, and fometimes continues during two or three. The fungous tubercles attain their acme, according to the anonymous writer already quoted, more rapidly in the well-fed negroes than in thofe who are ill-fed and thin ; and they Ukewife acquire a larger fize in the former than in the latter. They are not poffeffed of much fenfibility, and are not the feat of any pain, except when they appear upon the foles of the feet, where they are confined and compreffed by the hard and thickened cuticle : in that fituation they render the aft of walking extremely painful, or altogether imprafticable. They never fuppurate kindly Dr. Winterbottom fays, but gradually difcharge a fordid glutinous fluid, which forms an ugly feat round the edges of the excrefcence, and covers the upper part of it, when much elevated, with white (loughs. When they appear on any part of the body covered with hair, this gradually changes in its colour from black to white, independently of the white incruftation from the difcharge. They leave no depreffion of the (kin. The period during which the eruption is in progrefs varies from a few weeks to feveral months. " When no more pulf ules are thrown out," Dr. Winterbottom obferves, " and when thofe already upon the (kin no longer increafe in fize, the difeafe is fuppofed to have reached its acme. About this time it happens, on fome part of the body or other, that one of the puftules becomes much larger than the reft, equalling or furpaffing the fize of a half-crown piece : it affumes the appearance of an ulcer, and inftead of being elevated above the (kin like others, it is confiderably deprelTed ; the furface is foul and floughy, and pours out an ill-conditioned ichor, which fpreads very much, by corroding the furrounding found (Icin : this is what is called the majter or mother yavj." When arrived at its acme, however, the eruption continues a confiderable time without undergoing much alteration, often without very materially injuring the funftions, and it feldom proves dangerous, except from the mifchievous inter- ference of ill-direfted art. The yaws is propagated folely by the contagion of the matter difcharged from the eruption, when it is applied to the wounded or broken (]lT7-7ElT»jiV, 30. 3* Borid(;OjUii.'y, 29. 4. MaifiZPCTfljituv, 30. 5* rTuavsitiKi', 29. 6. ritjo-fijfaiy, 30. 7. Txjj.ri\iuy, 29. 8'. AvSsrnjiuv, 30. 9. E^»?ii-,fi'oAia'y, 30. 10. Mavu;^iw», 30. II. Qx^yrXi^s, '29. 12. SitlfO^opiiv, 30. The Macedonians had other names for their months ; fo had the Syro-Macedonians, Smyrnaeans, Tyrians ; fo alfo the Cyprians, Paphians ; and fo the Bithynians, &c. Year, Ancient Macedonian, is a lunar year, only differing from the Attic, in the names and order of the months ; the firft Macedonian month agreeing with the Attic Ms- mafterion : as the Macedonian year commenced not at the fummer folftice, but at the autumnal equinox. The months ftandthus: l. Aw?, 30 days. 2. AtAAohoi, 29. 3. AuJdvkio?, 30. 4. ITtfiTlo?, 29. 5. Aurpo;, 30. 6. H»j9ixof, 29. 7. ApTf^/iaioc, 30. 8. .idio-iof, 29. 9. n«»Ejuo5, 30. 10. Ai'O;-. 11. Vo^Xiouv, 30. 12. 'TTEpospETaie;. Year, Modern Macedcmian, is a folar year, whofe be- ginning is fixed for the iirll of January of the Julian year, with which it perfeftly agrees. This year was particularly called the Attic year ; and the intercalary month, after Poiideon, was called rtwH^si* j?, or latter Pojideon. Year, Ancient Jenmjb, is a lunar year, confifting, com- monly, of eleven months, which alternately contain 30 and 29 days. It was made to agree with the folar year, either by the adding of II', and fometimes 12 days, at the end of the year, or by an embolifmic month. Tradition reports, that Abraham preferved in his family, and tranfmitted to pofterity, the Chaldaan form of the year, which originally confilled of 360 days (compare Dan. vii. 25. xii. 7. with Rev. xii. to xiv. xi. 2, 3.}, and re- mained without any correftion until the date of the Na- bonaffarean era. If any intercalation was ufed by the Jews^ Mofes YEAR. M jfes appears to have been unacquainted with it. After the Babyloiiidi captivity, they adopted the folar year. When they were fubjeded to the Syro-Macedoman yoke (B.C. 312). they were compelled to admit the lunar year into their calendar. To adjud this year to the courfe of the fun, tliey added, at certain periods, a month to Adar, a.id called it Ve-Adar. They compofed alfo a cycle of 19 years; in feven of which they inferted the intercalary month, viz. in the 3d, 6th, 8th, i ith, 14th, 17th, and 19th. The defign of this corredion was, to bring the 15th day cf Nifan to the equinoAial point, and to regulate the courfes of the feafons, and of the feafts, in fuch a manner, as that t.'ie corn might be ripe at the paffover, as the law required. The names and quantities of the months ftand thus : I . Nifan, or Abib, containing 30 days. 2. Jiar, or Zius, 29. 3. Siban, or Siwan, 30. 4. Thamuz, or Tamuz, 29. 5. Ab, 30. 6. Elul, 29. 7. Tifri, or Ethanim, 30. 8. Marchefvan, or Bui, 29. 9. Cifleu, 30. 10. Tebeth, 29. II. Sabat, or Schebeth, 30. 12. Adar, in the embohfmic year, 30. Adar, in the common year, was but 29. Note. — In the defeftive year, Cifleu was only 29 days; and in the redundant year, Marchefvan was 30. Year, Modern Jeiui/h, is hkewife lunar, confiding, in common years, of 12 mouths, but of 13 in enibolifmic years ; which in a cycle of 19 years are, the 3d, 6th, 8th, I uh, 14th, 17th, and 19th. Its beginning is fixed to the new moon next after the autumnal equinox. The names, &c. of the monthn are, i. Tifri, containing 30 days. 2. Marchefvan, 29. 3. Cifleu, 30. 4. Te- beth, 29. 5. Schebeth, 30. 6. Adar, 29. 7. Veadar, in the embolifmic year, 30. 8. Nifan, 30. 9. liar, 29. 10. Sivan, 30. It. Thamuz, 29. 12. Ab, 30. 13. Elul, 29. Year, Syrian, is a folar year, having its beginning fixed to the beginning of 0£lober, in the Julian year ; from which it only differs in the names of the months, the quantities being the fame, as follows : I. Tilhrin, anfwering to our OAober, and containing 31 days. 2. Latter Tiflirin, containing, like our Novem- ber, 30. 3. Canun, 31. 4. Latter Canun, 31. 5. Sha- bat, 28, or 29 in a leap-year. 6. Adar, 31. 7. Nifan, 30. 8. Aiyar, 31. 9. Haziram, 30. to. Tamuz, 31. 11. Ab, 31. 12. Elul, 30. Year, Olympic, was of a fingular form, the firft month commenced at the new moon, that the full moon might fall on the 15th day. Four years of 360 days contain 1440 days; 48 lunations are equal to 1417 days, 11 hours, 14 niinutes ; 349111 lunation added to the 4th year makes 1447 days, nearly. By this adjuftment, the new moon would have happened on the 8th inftead of the ift. of the month. To correft this error, two days were added to the laft. month of every year, the 4th excepted, when one day was added. By thefe means, the Olympic year, which confifted of 362 or 361 days, mull have varied 14 days from the courfe of the fun in the fpace of an olympiad ; and, at the end of 50 yeard, the games would have been transferred to the winter folftice ; but for preventing this deviation, a month was intercalated at certain intervals. Notwithftanding this, a confiderable error ftill remained. The Olympic games were regulated by the Cycle o/" 6Vo/?rj/uj ; which fee. See alfo Olympiad and Epocha. Year, Perfian, is a folar year, of 365 days, confilling of 12 months of 30 days each, with five intercalary days added at the end. The months are as follow : i. Afrudia meh. 2. Ardi- hafcht meh. 3. Cardi meh. 4. Thir meh. 5. Merded meh. 6. Schabarir meh. 7. Mehar meh. 8. Aben meh. 9. Adar meh. 10. Di meh. 11. Behen meh. 12. Aflirev ineh. This year is called the yezdegerdic year, to dillinguifh it from the fixed folar year, called the gelakati year, which the Perfians began to ufe in the year 1079, and which was formed by an intercalation made fix or feven times in four years, and then once every fifth year. The yezdegerdic year, it may be obferved, is the fame with Nabonarfar's year, differing from it only in the names of the months, and the commencement of the epocha ; for whereas the Nabonaffarean began on February 26, this be- gan on June 16. As to the gelalean year, it is abfolutely the beft and jufteft of all the civil years yet invented, as being found, by calculation, to keep the folftices and equi- noxes precifely to the fame days, and anfwering very accu- rately to the folar motions ; which no other civil year does, not even the Gregorian, for want of fo commodious an in- tercalation. See Per/tan Calendar. Year, Arabic, Mahometan, and Turii/h, called alfo the year of the hegira, [ which fee, ) is a lunar year, equal to 354 days, 8 hours, and 48 minutes, and confifting of 12 months, which contain alternately 30 and 29 days. Tliough fometimes it contains 13 months; the names, &c. of which are as follow : i. Muharram, containing 30 days. 2. Saphar, 29. 3. Rabia, 30. 4. Latter Rabia, 29. 5. Jomada, 30. 6. Latter Jornada, 29. 7. Rajab, 30. 8. Shaaban, 29. 9. Ramadan, 30. 10. Shawal, 29. 11. Dulkaadah, 30. 12. Dulheggia, 29; and in the em- bolifmic year, 30. An intercalary day is added every 2d, 5th, 7th, lotii, 13th, 15th, i8th, 2iit, 24th, 26th, 29th, in a cycle of 29 years. The months commence not from the real new moon, but from its firft appearance after conjunction. Year, Ethiopic, is a folar year, perfeftly agreeing with the Aftiac, except in this, that the names of the month are different. It commences with the Egyptian year, on the 29th of Auguft of the Julian year. Its months are, I. Mafcaram. 2. Tykympt. 3. Hy- dar. 4. Tyfhas. 5. Tyr. 6. Jacatil. 7. Magabit. 8. Mijazia. 9. Ginbat. 10. Syne. II. Hamel. 12. Hahafe. Intercalary days 5. Year, Aaian. See Actiak and Egyptian Yea*. Year, yitlic. See Macedonian Year. Year, Canicular. See Canicular. Year, Texdegerdic. See Perfian Yeak and Calendar. Year, Gelalean. See Perjian Year and Calendar. Year, Nabonajfar't. See Egyptian Year and Nabo- NASSAR. Year, Sabbatic, Annui Salbatieut, among the ancientti, was every feventh year ; during which the Jews let their lands lie at reft. Levit. xxv. 8. Every feventh fabbatic year, «'. e. every 49th year, was called the year of Jubilee ( which fee ) ; and held with fo- lemnity extraordinary. Year, Anomali/lical. See Anomalistical and Year fupra. Year, ClimaHeric. See Climacteric. Year, Emergent. See Emergent. Year, Enneatical. See Enneatical. Year, Holy. See Holy. Year, Platonic, or Great. See Platonic. Year of the Hegira. See Hegira, and Arabic Year. Year'j Day, Ne'w, or the day on which the year coir- mences, has always been very different in different nations ; and yet in all has been held in great veneration. Among the Romans, the firft and laft diy of the year YEAR. efe confecrated to Janus ; on whic'; account it was that ■V reprefented him with two faces. Fo them we owe the ceremony of wifhing an happy neiu ir, which appears to be very ancient. Before the firft . v.a? fpent they not only vifited and complimented each iier, but alfo prefented ftrenje, and offered vows to the 4. nls for the prefervation of each other. Lucian reprefents it as a praftice of a very ancient Iland- I'l^', even in his time, and refers it to Numa. Ovid intimates the fame ceremony in the beginning of ■ i_^ Faiti : " Poftera lux oritur, linguifque animifque favete : Nunc dicenda bono funt bona verba die." And Pliny more exprefsly, lib. xxviii. cap. I. " Primum 3 ni incipientis diem Isetis precationibus invicem fauftum oirmantur." In Ruffia at the new year is annually held a feaft of the doad, called Raditzli Sabol, on occafion of which every L ody \-ifit3 the grave of his relations, lays fome vidluals upon it, and then hears roafs, in payment for which the priefts get the viftuals. In our own country, the ulhering la of the new year, or " New Year's tide," with rejoicings, prefents, and good wifhes, was a cuftom obferved, during the 16th century, with great regularity and parade, and was as cordially celebrated in the court of the prince as in tfie cottage of the peafant. On the firft day of the new year, prefent?, called new year's gifts, were given and re- ceived with the mutual expreffion of good wifhes, and par- ticularly that of a " happy new year." The compliment was fometimes paid at each other's doors in the form of a fong ; but more generally, efpecially in the north of Eng- land and in Scotland, thehoufe was entered very early in the morning by fome young men and maidens felefted for the pur- pofe, who prefented the fpiced bo>vl, and hailed you with the gratulations of the feafon. In the reign of queen Elizabeth, the chief officers of ftate, and feveral of the queen's houfehold fervants, gave new year's gifts to her majefty, confifting, in general, either of a fum of money, or jewels, trinkets, wearing- apparel, &c. The largeft fum given by any of the tem- poral lords was 20/.; but the archbifhop of Canterbury gave 4c/., the archbiftiop of York 30/., and the other fpi- ritual lords 20/. and 10/. Many of the temporal lords and great officers, and moft of the peerefTes, gave rich gowns, petticoats, fmocks, kirtles, filk (lockings, Cyprus garters, Aveet-bags, doublets, mantles, fome embroidered with pearls, garnets, &c., looking-glaffes, fans, bracelets, ca/kets ftudded with precious ftones, jewels ornamented with fparks of dia- monds in various devices, and other coftly trinkets. Thefe prefents alfo confifted of books, and appropriate gifts from phyficians, apothecaries, &c. The queen, though {he made returns in plate and other articles, took fufficient care that the balance fhould be in her own favour. In the country, however, with the exception of the extenfive houfeholds cf the nobility, this interchange was condufted on the pure bafis of reciprocal kindnefs and good will, and without any view of fecuring patronage or fupport ; it was, indeed, fre- quently the channel through which charity delighted to ex- ercife her holy influence, and though originating in the hea- then world, became fanftified by the Chriftian virtues. We (hall here add, that the rejoicings on new year's tide were fucceeded by the obfervance of the " Twelfth-day," called, from the idea that the Eattern magi, who are faid to have vifited our Saviour on that day, were kings, the " Feaft of the Three Kings." The " Twelfth-cake," diftributed on that occafion, was almoft always accompanied by the wajfail iou'l; which fee. Drake's Shakfpeare, vol. i. on the day of the Ar.i.unciation ; i. ,. on the zcih dav of March : though the hWtorical year began on the day ^ tul Circumcfion ; , .. the firft of January, on which day xh.- Oerman and Italian year alfo begins. Stowe obferves that WiUiam the Conqueror havine b-en crowned on the firft of January, that henceforth became ihe hrlt ot the year for hiftorians, &c. though, in all civil aff-airs, they retained the ancient manner of acccuntinff, which be- gan the 25th of March. The part of the year between thefe two terms was ufuaUy expreffed both ways, as 1748-9, or .74I. But by the aft for altering the ftyle, the civil year now commences with January 1. See A^e^ Style. Since the Conqueror, the king's patents, charters, pro- clamations, &c. are ufually dated by the year of the kind's reign. ° The church, as to her folemn fervice, begins the year on thehrft Sunday in Advent, which is always that next St. Andrew's day, or the 30th of November. The Jews, as moft other nations of the Eaft, had a cImI year, which commenced with the new moon in September ; and an ecclefiaftical year, which commenced from ihc new' moon in March. The month Tifri, which began about the time of the au- tumnal equinox, was the firft month of the Jewifti year, till it was changed at the time of the coming up of the children of Ifrael out of Egypt. For that happening in the month of Abib, afterwards called Nifan, this month was for this reafon reckoned the firft month of the year in all ecclefiafti- cal matters. Before this period, Tifri was reckoned the commencement of the year, becaufe it was thought tl^at the world was created and firft began at the time of the autumnal equinox. And for this reafon, the Jews do ftill in their era of the creation of the world, as well as in their era of con- traftp, compute the beginning of the year from the firft of Tifri, and all their bills and bonds, and all other civil afts and contrafts, are ftill dated among them according to the fame computation ; and from this month alfo they began all their jubilees and fabbatical years. And therefore, although their ecclefiaftical year began from Nifan, and all their fef- tivals were computed from it, yet their civil year was ftill reckoned from Tifri, and the firft day of that month was their new year's day ; and for the more folemn celebration of It, the feaft of trumpets feems to have been appointed. The French year, during the reigns of the Merovingian race, began on the day on which the troops were reviewed ; which was the firft day of March. Under the Carlovingians it began on Chriftmasday ; and under the Capetians, on Eafter-day ; which, therefore, varied between the 22d of March and the 25lh of April. The ecclefiaftical year in France begins on the firft Sunday in Advent. But for the civil, Charles IX. appointed, in 1564, that for the future it ftiould commence on the ift of January. For an account of the change that took place in the year of France, fee French or Republican Calendar. The French calendar was of no long duration. It was abolilhed in the courfe of thirteen years ; and the Gregorian was re- ftored, and ordered to be ufed in all dates after the ift of January, i8o6. The Mahometans begin their year the minute in which the fun enters Aries. The Perfians in the month anfwering to our June. The Chinefe, and moft of the Indians, begin it with the firft moon in March. The Brachmans begin it with the new moon in April, on which day they hold a feaft czl\eA famivat faradi pauduga, q. d. feall of New-year's day. The Mexicans, according to D'Acoita, begin the year on Y E A our 23d of February, when the leaves begin to grow green : their year confifts of eighteen monllis, having twenty days each, which make three hundred and fixty days ; the re- maining five days are fpent in mirth, and no bufinefs is fuf- fered to be done, nor even any fervice at the temples. Al- varez relates much the fame of the AbyfTmians ; who begm their year on the 26th of Auguft, and have five idle days at the end, wliich they ciW pagome/i. At Rome there are tvfo ways of computing the year ; the one beginning at the Nativity of our Lord : this the notaries ufe, dating a Natlvitate. The other on tlie 25th of March, on occafion of the Incarnation ; and it is by this the bulls are dated, anno Incarnalionh. The Greeks begin their year of the world from the firft of Sep- tember. See Year fupra. Years are alfo diltinguifhed with regard to the epochas whence they are numbered : thus, years of our Lord, are thofe reckoned from the birth of Jefus Chrift. Tears of the •world, are tliofe elapfed fince the Creation. Years of Rome, of the Hegira, of Nahonajfar, &c. See the difference be- tween thefe years, under the article Epocha. Year is alfo a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers to exprefs any produft of their operations, which may ferve as a medicine, whether internally or externally. Year and Day, in Law, Sec. is a time that determines a right in many cafes, and is in fome an ufucaption, and in others a prefcription. Thus, in the cafe of an eftray, if the owner, proclama- tion being made, challenge it not within a year and day, it is forfeit. In like manner is the year and day given in cafes of appeal, of defcent, of entry or claim, of non-claim upon a fine, or writ of right, of the death of a man fore bruifed, or wounded, of proteftions, effoins in refpeft of the king's fervice, of a wreck, and on many other occafions. Year, Day, and Wajle, Annus, Dies, et Vaflum, is a part of the king's prerogative, by which he challenges the pro- fits of the lands and tenements of perfons attainted for petit treafon, or felony, for the fpace of a year and a day, who- foever is lord of the manor to which they belong. Formerly the king had only a Uberty of committing wafte on the lands of felons, by pulHng down their houfes, extir- pating their gardens, ploughing their meadows, and cutting down their woods. But this tending greatly to the preju- dice of the public, it was agreed in the reign of Henry I. that the king (hould have the profits of the land for one year and a day in lieu of the deftruftion he was otherwife at liberty to commit : and, therefore, Magna Charta pro- vides, that the king fliall only hold fuch lands for a year and a day, and then reltore them to the lord of the fee ; without any mention made of wafte. But the ftatute 17 Edward II. de prtrngat't-ua regis, fcems to fuppofe, that the king (hall have his year, day, and wafte, and not the year and day infteadof wafte ; which fir Edward Coke, and the author of the Mirror, before him, veryjuftly look upon as an encroachment, though a very ancient one, of the royal prerogative. This year, day, and wafte, are now ufually compounded for ; but otherwife they regularly belong to the crown : and, after their expiration, the land would naturally have dc- fcended to the heir (as in gavel-kind tenure it ftill docs), did not its feodal quality intercept fuch defcent, and give it by way of efcheat to the lord. Black. Com. bookiv. YEAR-jBoo/fj, in Lait). See Reports. Years, Efiatefor, in Laiu, is a contraft for the poftef- fiou of lands or tenements for fome determinate period : and it happens when a man letteth them to another for the term of a certain number of years, agreed upon between the leftbr and the leffee, and the leffee enters thereon. YEA If the leafe be but for half a year, or a quarter, or any lefs time, this leflTee is reputed as a leflee or tenant for years, and is fo ftyled in fome legal proceedings ; a year being the Ihorteft term which the law in this cafe takes notice of. An eftate of this kind, even for a thoufand years, is only a chattel, and reckoned part of the perfonal eftate ; and, therefore, a leafe for years may be made to commence m futuro, tliough a leafe for life cannot. With regard to emblements, or profits of land fowed by tenant for years, there is this difference between him and te- nant for Hfe : that where the term of tenant for years de- pends upon a certainty, as if he holds from Midfummer for ten years, and in the laft year fows a crop of corn, and if it is not ripe and cut before Midfummer, the end of his term, the landlord fhall have it ; for the tenant knew the expiration of his term, and therefore it was his own folly to fow what he never could reap the profits of. But where the leafe for years depends upon an uncertainty ; as, upon the death of the lefTor, being himfelf only tenant for life, or being a huf- band feifed in right of his wife ; or if the term of years be determinable upon a life or lives : in all thefe cafes, the eftate for years not being certainly to expire at a time foreknown, but merely by the aft of God, the tenant or his executors fhall have the emblements in the fame manner as a tenant for life, or his executors fhall be intitled to it. But not fo, if it determine by the aft of the party himfelf ; as if tenant for years does any thing that amounts to a forfeiture ; in which cafe the emblements ftiall go to the leffor, and not to the leffee, who hath determined his eftate by his own default. Blackft. Com. vol. ii. YEARLINGS, in Rural Economy, a term applied to young neat cattle of the heifer kind in the fecond year. It is obferved in the Gloucefterftiire Report on Agriculture, that until within thefe few years, it was there efteemed a bad praftice to let them be put fo early to the bull, but that now it is even thought that this method improves them as milkers ; and that from the increafed value of ftock, it is advantageous to anticipate a year, as a heifer in calf, at two years old, will be worth nearly as much as it would be if kept three. See L.iVE-Stoci. YEARN, in Hunting, fignifies to bark, as beagles pro- perly do, at their prey. YEARNING, in Rural Economy, a term applied to runnet, ufed for curdhng milk in fome places. See Dairy- ing and RuNNET. YEAST, Yest, or Barm, the foam or flower of beer, or other liquor in fermentation. The yeaft of beer is ufed for a leaven or ferment in the making of bread : as ferving to fwell or puff it up very con- fiderably in a little time, and to make it much lighter, fofter, and more delicate. But when there is too much of it, it renders the bread bitter. The ufe of yeaft in bread is but of late ftanding among us : it is not above a century fince the avarice of the bakers firft introduced it ; and then it was only done by ftealth. Though Pliny witneffes it to have been ufed by the ancient Gauls. The faculty of medicine of Paris, by a decree of the 24th of March, 1688, folemnly maintained it noxious to the health of the people ; yet even that cenfure could not prevent its progrefs. Common ale-yeaft may be kept frefh and fit for ufe feve- ral months by the following method : Put a quantity of it into a clofe canvas bag, and gently fqueeze out the moifture in a fcrew-prefs, till the remaining matter be as firm and ftiff as clay. In this ftate it may be clofe packed up in a tight cafk, for feeuring YEAST. fecuring it from the air ; and will keep frefti, found, and fit for ufe for a long time. This is a fecret that might be of great ufe to the brewers and diftillers here, who, though they employ very large quantities of yeaft, feem to know no method of preferving it, or raifing nurferies of it ; for want of which they fullain a very confiderable lofs ; whereas the brewers in Flanders make a very great advantage of fupplying the malt-diflillers of Holland with yeaft, which is rendered laftiiig, and fit for carriage, by this eafy expedient. Shaw's Leftures. Mr. Henry has repeatedly prepared an artificial yeaft, by impregnating flour and water with fixed air, with which he has made very good bread, without the afliftance of any other ferment : and he propofes this method of procuring frefh fermented bread at fea. The procefs is as follows ; Boil flour and water together to the confiftence of treacle ; when the mixture is become cold, fill a fmall caflc with it. This cafk is to be filled up in the manner reprefented in Plate XV. Jig. 7. Pneumatics, and defcribed under Pyrmoxt Water, for the impregnation of water with fixed air ; and the procefs is to be conduced in a fimilar way, except that the caflt is to be agitated as often as the mixture rifes to about two-thirds of the capacity of the funnel k ; and after each agitation, which fliould con- tinue during feveral minutes, the unabforbed air is to be let out, by withdrawing the plug from the orifice m, till that part of the mixture which remained in tlie funnel has re- turned into the cafk. The orifice at i fhould alfo be larger than is neceflary in the other operations, on account of the fuperior vifcidity of the mixture. When, after repeated agitation, the mixture which has afcended into the funnel does not fubfide into the call<, it may be fuppofed incapable of abforbing more air. Pour the mixture, thus faturated, into one or more large bottles, or narrow -mouthed jars ; cover it over loofely with paper, and upon that lay a flate or board with a weight to keep it fteady. Place the veffel in a fituation where the thermometer will ftand from 70° to 80°, and ftir up the mix- ture two or three times in twenty-four hours. In about two days, fuch a degree of fermentation will have taken place, as to give the mixture the appearance of yeaft. With the yeaft in this ftate, and before it has acquired a thoroughly vinous fmell, mix the quantity of flour intended for bread, in the proportion of fix pounds of flour to a quart of the yeaft, and a fufficient portion of warm water. Knead them well together in a proper veflel, and covering it with a cloth, let the dough ftand for twelve hours, or till it appears to be fufliciently fermented, in the above-mentioned degree of warmth. It is then to be formed into loaves and baked. Mr. Henry adds, that perhaps the yeaft would be more perfeft, if a decoftion of malt were ufed inftead of fimple water. When the operation is finiflied, the cafli, in order to pre- vent its contrafting a difagreeable taint, fliould be well waflied. Henry's Account of a Method of preferving Water at Sea, &c. p. 26, 1781. Yeast, Chemical Properties of. The nature of yeaft has been briefly difcuifed under the head of Fermentation. Since that article was written, however, fome additional experiments have been publifhed on the fubjeft, which deferve to be noticed here. The aftive and effential principle of yeaft, as obfervcd under the article Fermentation above alluded to, appears to bea fpecies of gluten. When yeaft is kept for fome time in cylindrical glafs vefl^els, a white fubftance, not unlike curd, feparates and fwims upon the furface. If thia fubftance be removed, Voi. XXXIX. the yeaft lofes the property of exciting fermentation. Thi» fubftance poflefles many of the properties of gluten, though it diff'ers from it in others. Its colour is much whiter. It has not the fame elafticity, and its particles do not adhere with the fame force. It diflblves more readily in acids. Dr. Thomfon confiders this as the real fermentative prin- ciple, and thinks it may be confidered as gluten fomewhat altered, and rendered much more capable of decompofition. He thinks alfo that it exifted in the raw grain originally, but underwent confiderable modifications by the malting procefs, and perhaps others during the fermentation of the beer from which it feparated. The fame diftinguiflied chemift ftates, in fupport of this opinion, the experiments of Fabroni and Thenard. Fabroni, by heating the juice of grapes, and pafling it through a filtre, feparated an adhefive matter, which poflefied the properties of gluten, and deprived of which the juice refufed to fer- rnent, though it fermented as well as ufual when this prin- ciple was again added. Thenard Ukewife found in the juices of all the fruits he examined a fubftance fimilar to that de- fcribed by Fabroni, and which, according to him, is abfo- lutely the fame with pure yeaft. This fubilance is infipid, does not change vegetable blues, is infoluble in water, lofes three-fourths of its weight when dried, and is decompofed like animal fubftances. When eight parts of it were dif- tilled, they left 2.83 of charcoal, and yielded i 61 of water, 1. 8 1 of oil, and a quantity of ammonia, which, when fatu- rated with muriatic acid, formed 1.46 of muriate of ammo- nia. The gas obtained weighed 0.33, and confifted of one- fifth of carbonic acid, and four-fifths of carburetted hydro- gen, requiring li times its bulk of oxygen to confume it. Nitric acid, even when much diluted, converts it into a fpecies of tallow. With potafli it forms a foap, while ammonia is difengaged. When mixed with fugar and a fufficient quan- tity of water, fermentation takes place, carbonic acid is dif- engaged, and a vinous liquor formed. By this aftion, the ferment lofes the whole of its azote, and becomes incapable of exciting fermentation when mixed with a new portion of fugar. In farther corroboration ftill of this opinion. Dr. Thomfon adduces an experiment of Kirchhoff, which he thinks throws confiderable light on the nature of yeaft. Barley-meal contains both gluten and ftarch. Pure ftarch infufed in hot water is not converted into fiigar ; nor does gluten become faccharine matter when heated in the fame manner. But if a mixture of pure dried pulverized wheat- gluten and potatoe-ftarch be infufed in hot water, the ftarch is converted into fugar. During the procefs an acid is faid to be evolved. The gluten is httle changed in appearance or quantity, and may moft of it be feparated by filtration. What is Angular, however, it is incapable of inducing the fame change upon ftarch a fecond time. The following are the conftituents of yeaft, according to Weftrumb, as quoted by Dr. Thomfon. From 15-360 parts he obtained, Potafli 13 Carbonic acid 15 Acetic acid 10 Malic acid - 45 Lime 69 Alcohol 240 ExtraAive - 120 Mucilage 240 Saccharine matter ■ ^0^ Gluten 480 Water - »3-595 15.142 Befides YEA Befiilds forine traces of phofphoric acid and fdica. But it is evident, ai Dr. Thomfou obferves, that all thcfe ingredients are not cffential, and he confiders the gluten only as deferv- ingr that appellation. Some of the French chemifts have conlidered the principle of fermentation to refide in an imperfeft fpecies of fugar, whicli they have denominated the fiucel principle, and which they ftate to exift in combination with real fugar in all fruits containing that principle. This ftucd prirtfiple they fup- pofe to differ from pure fugar, in being incapable of cryftal- lizing. A familiar example of it we have in treacle or mo- la/ffs, which, according to them, is ihef-weet principle of the fugar-cane. This doftrine, however, has not met with many adherents ; for, as Dr. MaccuUoch obferves, although che- miftry has not hitherto difcovered the means of feparating the fugar from iht fiueet principle , the refultB of fermentation leave no doubt that the latter confifts of fugar combined vrith the vegetable extraftive matter, or gluten, as it is de- nominated by moft chemifts. Thus moTafTes confifts of a certain portion of real fugar, in fuch a ftate of combina- tion with a variety of fubftances, and the fermentative prin- ciple among the reft, that it cannot be made to cryftallize or be otherwife obtained in a feparate ftate. Tiiis is demon- ftrated by the well-known faft, that molafles may be made to undergo the fermentative procefs, and to yield alcohol, in precifely the fame manner as a fimple mixture of fugar andyeaft. The fweet principle of molaffes, therefore, muft be (n faft nothing elfe than fugar, unlefs we fuppofe two different fubftances capable, by the fame means, of producing the fame refult, which is totally unprecedented in chemiftry, befides being in itfelf extremely improbable. Upon the whole then, in the prefent ftate of our know- ledge, we are obhged to conclude that the eflential principle of yeaft, or the real fermentative principle, is either identical with gluten, or clofely allied to it. Of its real nature, how- ever, and modus operandi, we are totally ignorant, and fhall probably long remain fo. The yeaft of beer is that moft generally employed, and is of the utmoft importance in the manufafture of bread, and of fermented liquors from malt. If carefully dried and pre- ferved from moifture, it retains its properties for a long time, and it is a pity this praftice is not more generally re- forted to, as fluid yeaft in warm weather foon becomes acef- cent and putrid, and not only lofes its properties, but im- parts a moft difagreeable flavour to the bread, &c. with which it is mixed. Yeaft may be readily dried by firft fe- parating its watery parts as much as potfible, and afterwards cxpofing it in fliallow veffels to the air, or to a gentle heat in a ftove. In this way, it may be obtained in thin laminx, and requires only to be preferved in clofe veftels in a dry place, when it will be always ready for ufe, by diffufing it in a little warm water. A popular method of prcferving yeaft is by drying it upon bunches of twigs. See Bread, Brewing, Fermentation, and Wine. Yeast, Medicinal Properties of. Yeaft has been highly extolled as an antifeptic remedy in difeafes, when a putrid diathefis was fuppofed to prevail ; as in low typhus fevers, gangrene, &c. A good method of exhibiting it is, to mix one or two table-fpoonfuls of it with a quart of infufion of malt or mild porter, and to take a wine-glafsful of this mix- ture frequently. Many praftitioners alfo have fpoken highly of the good effefts of a fomenting poultice compofed partly of yeaft, when applied to foul and gangrenous ulcers. The good effefts of this remedy, if in reality it poftefles any, may probably be attributed to the carbonic acid gas gene- rated by its agency. See Feveu. YEATS, Mns., in Biography, the celebrated tragic Y E L aftrefsjwho, in conjunftion with Mrs. Brooke, the novelift, a. lady of confiderable literary merit, undertook, in 1773, 'it all riflgly> having protuberant bellies, and white teeth. Thefe Yoos are fubjeftsof the Birman ilate, and obferve the fame religious worfhip. They fpeak the language of Tavay, which is merely a provincial dialeft of the Birman tongue. Symes's Embafly to Ava, vol. ii. YOPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Culiacan ; 100 miles E.N.E. of Culiacan. YOPAS, Las, or Tope%, a river of Mexico, which rifes in TIafcala, and runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 17° 10'. YO-PING, a town of Corea ; 33 miles S.W. of King- ki-tao. — Alfo, a town of Corea ; 28 miles S.S.E. of Tfin. YORK, the Eboracum of the Romans, is the capital of the great county to which it gives name, the fee of an arch- bifhop, who is primate and metropolitan of England, and the fecond city in rank in the kingdom. It is of unqueftionable antiquity, and eminently diftinguifhed in Englifh hiftory by the important political, ecclefiaftica!, and military tranfac- tions which have occurred within its walls, or with which it has been in other ways intimately connefted. Seated in the midft of a va!t plain, by the fide of a river which was navi- gable for the largeft Ihips of ancient times, and too remote from the open fea to be immediately expofed to predatory in- vafion, York muft have early attrafted the attention and become the favourite abode of the chiefs of the northern ftates, and of their fuccefsful invaders from foreign lands. Eboracum was accordingly felefted by Roman emperors and commanders as a principal refidence during their pro- trafted contefts with the ungovernable inhabitants of the northern parts of Britain. The metropolis of a (hire un- paralleled in the kingdom for extent, population, and pro- ductions, York is placed at the point of junftion, although independent of them all, of the three ridings or diftrifts into which the {hire is fubdivided. The cathedral is fituated in N. lat. 53° 58', and in W. long, from Greenwich 1° 7'. The city is diftant, by the fhorteft roads, from London, N. bv W. 198 miles; from Edinburgh, S.S.E. 201 miles; from Durham, S. by E. 67 miles ; from Hull, V/.N.W. 38 miles ; and from Liverpool, EN.E. 100 miles. The neareft point of the fea-coaft on the E. is at Bridlington bay, dillant 33 miles, and on the W. at Lancafter 90 miles. The pofition of the city is central, with refpeft to both the limits of the county, and the great body of the population, induftry, and commerce, by which it is diftin- guifhed. The ancient (lation of Eboracum was confined between the river Oufe on the W. and the collateral ftream, the Fofs, on the E., which falls into the Oufe at the fouthern extremity of the old city. In later times, how- ever, the limits were extended confiderably on the oppofite fides of both rivers. Such a pofition, defended on three fides by rivers and marfhes, and acceifible by an enemy on the N. fide alone, although in the midft of a plain, but con- fequently overlooked by no neighbouring eminence, would, even in the modern art of war, be fufceptible of power- ful defence : in ancient times it might have been rendered 12 nearly impvregnable. In conftrufting the walls, and laying down the ftreets, on ground previoufly occupied by their camps, it was the praftice of the Romans to preferve m much as poflible the form and diftribution of the prior io- trenchment. Of this praftice frequent inftances are found in Britain, as well as in Gaul, and other parts of the conti- nent. The fame, notwithftanding the many changes to which the city has been fubjefted, may flill be traced in York, where evident remains of Roman architefture are yet preferved, and where monuments of antiquity of various clafles have often been difcovered. In its prefent ftatc, the plan of York forms an irregular pentagon, extending from S. to N. about 1340 yards, and from W. to E. about 1360 yards : the area within the walls is therefore about 300 acres. It is divided into four wards, which take their names from the four gates. Bootham- gate-ward, in the N.W., contains three parifties ; Mickle- gate-ward, on the W. fide of the Oufe, contains fix pariflies ; Monk-ward, in the N.E., five pariflies ; and Walm- gate-ward, on the S.E., feven pariflies. But the clofe of the cathedral is not included in any ward. Some of thefe pariflies extend beyond the walls ; and the two churches of St. Lawrence and St. Maurice, fituated on the outfide of the city, are flill commonly reckoned to belong to it. The number of churches, exclufive of the cathedral, is therefore twenty-three. In former times they amounted to forty-five. Although no regular plan can now be traced in the diftribu- tion of the ftreets, yet fome of them are of refpeftable ap- pearance, having of late years been much improved by widening and paving ; and new and handfome buildings, public and private, have been creeled. The river Fofs, long a piece of ftagnaled water, has again been rendered navigable, and now materially contributes to the ornament of the city as well as to the health of the inhabitants. York, ftill inhabited by many genteel families, maintains its importance in no inconfiderable degree; but in point of population and wealth, it has been far excelled by many ma- nufafturing and trading towns in the county, of compara- tively modern foundation. According to the reports of the population of the kingdom in 18 11, the inhabitants of York werethenonly 18,217, and the houfes 2743. Ci-vil Hiftory. — York, under its romanized name, Ebo- racum, early appears in Britifli hiftory. In the "year 2c8, the emperor Severus, with his fons Caracalla and Geta, vifited Britain; andreturning froman expedition againft the northern infurgents in the following year, Severus refided at Ebora- cum, while his troops were employed in conilrufting acrofs the idhmus, between the mouths of the Eden and the Tyne, the great wall of defence ftill known by his name. In this enterpnfe, he followed the example and completed the for- tification of his predeceiTor Hadrian, which had been formed in the year 12 1. While Severus's great work was in progrefs, the emperor died at York in 210 ; and his fuc- ceflbr Caracalla, more intent on the deftrndion of his en- vied brother Geta than on the enlargement or the preferva- tion of the Roman dominion in Britain, foon afterwards re- turned to the continent. During his refidence in York, Severus ftruck money, on which he ilyled himfelf Britan- n'lcus ; and alfo ifl'ucd a decree rcfpefting the recovery of flaves, which decree is ftill preferved in the Roman code, dated at Eboracum, on the 3d of the nones of May, in the coafulate of Faufl.nus and Rufuf, correfponding to the year A.D. 209. , 1 xi • Turning his arms a;;ainft the Caledonians, and other Bri- tons, who ftnigghd for freedom in the north, Conftantius fixed his hcad-quarters in York, and there ended his life m 306. York was alfo the fcene of the inaaguration of his •" fon YORK. fon and fucceffor Conftantine, who, learning in Afia the m- difpofition of his father, haftcned to York, where he ar- rived in time to receive his laft inftrudions ; and was there proclaimed emperor by the army. r t>. i Among the towns fpecified in the geograp'^y of Ptolemy, the Itinerary of Antoninus, and the '"uch later work of Richard of Cirencelter, Eboracum is ranked firit as a co- lony, and afterwards as a municipal town. As a colony, or fettiement of veteran troops, the inhabit as were citizens of Rome, and governed by the laws of the ftate. When advanced to the highelt ilation, that of mumcipium, the in- habitants retaining the privileges of Roman citizens were no longer under thofe particular laws, but invelled with the power of felf.government, under niagillrates of their own appointment. Befides Eboracum, Britain contamed but one other municipal town, Verulamuim. In the hl\o"\o- man troops Itationed in York, the fixth legion, called the vidorious, appears to have been there for three fucceihve centuries, down to 446, when the Romans finally renounced all dominion in Britain. The Bi itilh name of York is loil ; but although foftened into Eboracum by the Romans, and by their colonies, who copied from them, traces of the origi- nal may ftill be perceived in the Kair-Ebrauc of Nennius and Henry of Huntingdon, and in the Cair-Effroc, or Efroc, of the Welfh. In Britifh compouno appellations of places, the defcriptive part precedes the proper name : in the lan- guage of the Saxons a contrary mode prevailed. Hence Cair-Effroc was by them converted into Efroc-wyc, and Yevor-wyc, from which the prefent name of York feems to be derived. York was the capital of Deira, one of the diftrifts into which the Provincia Maxima of the Romans, or the county of Northumberland, was divided ; and there, in the beginning of the feventh century, refided Edwyn, who re-united thofe kingdoms, and acquired the principal afcendency over Saxon- England. To this prince are afcribed the conftruftion of the caftle, and the foundation of the city of Edinburgh (Edwyn's burgh), now the capital of Scotland. He alfo founded a cathedral in York ; but in 63 3 he fell in the de- fence of his dominions, againft the combined attack of the Saxons of Mercia and the Britons of Wales. Under Of- wald, who came to the crown in the following year, Nor- thumberland was again united into one kingdom ; and after- wards governed by the celebrated Egbert, who, in 827, out of the Saxon heptarchy, formed the great kingdom of England. After a long feries of difallers from Danifli invaiion, and the internal diforders of the kingdom, York was expofed to utter deftruftion from tlie memorable expedition of Harold Hardrad, king of Norway. On the death of Harold of England, an unfuccefsful attempt was made by the people of York to place Edgar Atheling on the throne. For this Hep, William of Normandy befieged the city in 1070, which, after many months, was compelled by famine to furrender. The conqueror inflifted the mod horrible ven- geance on the inhabitants, the furrounding country was laid wafte, and cafUes were erefted within the walls, to keep the conquered citizens in fubjeAion. With the exception of the contefts between the metropoUtans of York and Canter- bury, little is recorded of the former city until 1 137, when the cathedral church, thirty-nine pariih -churches, and the greater part of the houfes, were accidentally burnt down. About 1 160, one of the firft parliaments of England was held there by Henry II. ; and in the reign of bis fucceffor, Richard I., in 1 190, occurred the horrible maffacre of the Jews, which was perpetrated and accompanied with circum- ftances of peculiar atrocity. In 1299, the courts of juftice were removed from London to York by Edward I. during 10 In his reign this city was England, and required to fanguinary contefts be- th his expeditions againft Scotland clafled among the fea-ports of furnifh one ftiip for his ufe. In tween the houies of York and Lancafter, the former city naturally efpoufed the caule of the white rofe ; and in 1483, Richard III. was a fecond time crowned in the cathedral. The ycajr 15C9 was diftinguiflied by tlie eilablifhment of a printing prefs in the minfter-yard of York, near the place where the royal prefles were afterwards eretted in 1642, while king Charles refided in the city. Nothing of moment relative to York is afterwards recorded until the 3 1 ft year of Henry VIII., when commiflioners were appointed there to condudV the fuppreffion of the, northern monalleries. Adhering to the royal caufe, the city was, in 1644, befieged by the parliamentary forces under fir Thomas Fairfax. But on the approach of prince Rupert, the fiege was raifed ; and on the 2d of July, the important battle of Marfton-moor, about five miles off, was fought, in which the royal party was completely defeated. Returning to the fiege, Fairfax, at the end of fix weeks, obtained pofieflion of the city, or moft honourable terms for the garrifon and inhabitants. Notwithftanding the zeal for the royal caufe manifefted by the citizens of York, their charter was fupprefled by Charles II., and never rellored. A new charter, however, confirming all tlie former rights of the city, was granted by his fucceffor James II. in 1685. Down to the 30th of July, 1688, the inhabitants of York continued to exprefs the moft determined attachment to James ; and on that day, the mayor, aldermen, and commons, congratulated him, in the moft energetic terms, on the birth of a young prince. Civ}/ Government — The government of York is vefted in a mayor, who, like the mayors of London and Dublin, and the provoft of Edinburgh, is authorized by the aft of Richard II. to affume the title of lord ; a recorder, two city-council, twelve aldermen, two ftieriffs, feventy-two com- mon-council-men, and fix chamberlains. What is ftyled the privy-council, or the upper houfe, confifts of the lord-mayor, aldermen, and ftieriffs, together with thofe citizens who have paffed the office of ftieriff. This body, whatever may be its number, is ufually called the twenty-four. The mayor, whofe office ceafes on the 3d of February, is chofen annu- ally from thofe aldermen who have not borne that office twice, nor within the fix preceding years ; and during his mayoralty takes precedence of all perfons within his jurif- ditlion. York was early diftinguiflied among the cities of England : in the Domefday-book it appears to be exempted from the payment of geld, except when the fame is paid by London and Winchefter, and from paying reliefs. In 1396 king Richard appointed two ftieriffs, inftead of three bai- liffs, for the government of the city, which was then confti- tuted a county within itfelf. The earlieft charters of York now preferved are, one granted in 1199, and another by Henry III., who died in 1272 : but both recite preceding charters of Richard I., Henry I., and Henry II. Repre- fentatives in parliament for the city of York appear in the fummons and returns of the 23d of Edward I. For the parhament called to affemble at Shrewftiury, on the 30th of September 1283, which was but the nth year of Edward, two reprefentatives were fummoned from a number of cities and towns, among which York ftands the fourth in order ; thofe before it being London, Winchefter, and Newcaftle- upon-Tyne. Under the jurifdiftion of the lord-mayor, aldermen, and ftieriffs, befides the city, is a confiderable dif- trift on the W. of the river Oufe, called the Ainftey, in ancient writings, Ancitty ; but its origin and import are now unknown. This traft was once a hundred or wapen- take of the Weft Riding of Yorkftiire ; but in the 27th year I YORK. year of Henry VI. it was annexed to the jurifdkSkion of the magiftrates of York, and has ever fince been comprehended in the county of the city of York. The whole diftriA was anciently a foreft, but laid open in the reigns of Richard I. and John : it contains 22 parilhes I'ubdivided into a number of townihips ; the inhabitants of the whole amounting, in l8i I, to 8205 perfons. In all parhamentary aflefTmeiits the city is called on for three-fifths of the amount, and the Ainftey for two-fifths. Doubts having long been entertained whether the inhabitants of this diltridl could vote for the reprefentatives of Yorkfhire in parliament, a decifion was obtained in the houfe of commons in 1735, declaring, " that the perfons whofe freeholds lie within that part of the county of the city of York, which is commonly called the Ainfley, have a right to vote for knights of the (hire for the county of York." Ecckjiajlkal Hi/lory — The earlieft; notice refpefting the recogniled eftabhftiment of Chnitianity in Eboracum, York, exiils in the lill of bifhops, or pallors, who comp_r j Plantagenet, fon of Henry II. and the Fair Rofamond. His lucceflbr, Walter de Grey, is faid to have tranfmitted a pro- digious fum to Rome for his inftallation : but for this apparent limony he atoned by purchafing the manor of Thorpe for the country-refidence of the archbifliops of York, and by contributing materially to the ereaion of the cathedral. While the fee was occupied by John Thorefoy, appointed m 1352, in order to remove the contentions between the two archprelates, pope Innocent VI. eftablifhed the diftinftion before-mentioned in the metropolitan dignity. Richard Scroope, who fucceeded to the fee in 1398, was, in 1405, beheaded for the aftive part he took in oppofition to Henry IV. after the murder of Richard II., who, on va- rious occafions, had (hewn a particular favour for York. The fifty-fecond prelate, appointed in 1464, was George Neville, brother of the famous earl of Warwick, and dif- tingui(hed by the misfortunes of his latter years, no lefs than by the unbounded magnificence of his inftallation. Chriftopher Bainbridge, appointed in 1508, and ambalTador the fynod or councd of Arelate, now Aries, ,n the fou^h of to Rome, was created"a cardinal ; but was fo^n after poifoned France, about A.D 314. The bi(hops who then app.^^^ by an Italian prielt, his fteward. His fucceffor, in ,?i4, wa. on the part of th^ Bnuft, church were, Ebonus de i^,,^, the celebrated cardinal Wolfey. By the exertions of^Irch- Eborxcenfi, Reititutus de civitate Londinenfi, and a^^i hifhnn W^^fj, ,r,„„;„.„j • .u r ^ ""» "' «"^ r , ■ ' n \ ■ f A r xi \ Adel- Dnnop tleatti, appointed in 1 5 c r, the fee recovered a ereat fius de civitate Colonia Londinenlium. Ey the re.„„ „r nart nf tl,o ro™r,,,^.„ ;► ■ u- u l jl ,. ° . ,. D . , ,,, r .. .. ,' = /"treat ot part ot the revenues it now enjoys, which had been ahenated the Romans in the middle of the 5th century, and the fub- by the arbitrary and avaricious meafures of Henry VIII. fequent overwhelmmg invafions of the Saxons, Chriftianity As a Roman CathoUc, he was deprived of his dignities by was almoft entirely fupprefled in the northern ^^ „f ^^^ Elizabeth, who, however, refpefted his merits, and allowed kingdom. At laft about 628, Edwin, king of Northumbria, him to retire to his eftate at Cobham. In 1 641 the fee was having married Ethelburga, the (iller of Ebald, the converted fiUed by John Williams, who, after warmly efpoufing the "^i °f A^.'L'^vLiJ ZZIa^^J":^'^^ ^1 Paulinus, who royal caufe, openly joined the parliament. After him tfe fee ^^^^j^^^ vacant for ten years until 1660, when, on the reftoration of Charles II., it was conferred on archbilhop Frewen. Archbi(hop Dolben, who fucceeded Richard Sterne, was an enfign in the army in his youth, and bled ia the royal caufe at Marfton-moor : he died in 1688. The laft prelate was Dr. Markham, who had been head-mafter of Weftminfter-fchool, and preceptor to the prince of Wales. Dying in 1808, he was fucceeded by the prefent archbi(hop, the honourable Edward Vernon. Antiquities. — That Eboracum poffelTed temples, palaces, theatres, and the other public edifices with which the politic Romans were in the habit of adorning the principal, and even in fome cafes the minor cities within their dominions, cannot be doubted ; but all fuch ftruftures have long dif» appeared. The moft remarkable monument of Roman oc- cupation now to be feen is what is called the multangular tower, being a polygon forming the N. W. angle of the Ro- man wall, near the N.E. bank of the Oufe. The lower part of this tower is faced with rows of regularly fquared ftones, feparated at broad intervals by layers of flat bricks. The upper part of the tower, pierced with loop-holes, is of much later date. Various Roman infcriptions have been and continue to be difcovered in York : fome are mentioned by Camden, who was the firft to record them. In digging for a cellar, in the beginnmg of the laft century, in what is called the manor, or the ruins of St. Mary's abbey, on the outfide of Bootham-bar, was found a fmaJl buft in bronze. In the environs of the city, particularly on the London road, which follows the courfe of the ancient Roman way, fepulchral urns of various kinds have been difcovered. Coins, feals, fibulsE, and many other relics of Roman antiquity, are abundantly found within and around the city. The coins bear the names of all the emperors, from Auguftus to Gra- tian. In 1807 a fmall vault of Roman conftruftion was difcovered, four feet below the furface, on the outfide of Micklegate-bar, containing a ftone coffin, with a human (keleton entire, a lacrymatory, &c. In 1813 two large M wone attended her to York, induced alfo to embrace the Chriftian religion. PauUnus was confequently publicly appointed bifliop, or, as fome fay, archbiihop of the renovated church of York. The appointment was confirmed, and the new prelate formally inverted with the enfigns of his office, by pope Honorius. In former times, jealoufies and contefts occafionsUy took place between the metropolitans of York and Canterbury ; to appeafe which it was often neccffary to appeal to the pope. Under the archbifhop of York are placed the biihops of Durham, Chefter, Carlifle, and the Ifle of Mann ; and he is ftyled in general primate and metro- politan of England ; but the archbifcop of Canterbury affumes the fame titles over sll England. At the coronation the latter crowns the king ; but the queen has that ceremony performed on her by the archbilhop of York. By the re- moval of the feat of government to the fouthem parts of the kingdom, and particularly after the Norman Conqueft, the prelates of Canterbury and Winchefter, fituated near the throne, foon acquired an afcendancy over their brothers of York in political favour and power. Among the latter, however, were many men of eminence in the hiftory of the church and of the ftate. Wilfrid, appointed in 669, founded the celebrated monaftery of Ripon. Egbert, the brother of Eadbert, king of Northumberland, was the patron of Al- cuin, the enlightened fecretary of Charlemagne. In 930 Wulftan was deprived for aiding Anloff, the Daniih king of Northumberland, againft Edred of England. Aldred, who fucceeded in 1060, was the laft prelate of the Saxon race ; for dying in 1070, he was fucceeded by Thomas, a Norman. Gerard, appointed in 1 100, as well as his pre- deceflbr, refufed obedience to the fee of Canterbury ; but pontifical authority compelled him to fubmit. Obedience was again denied by Thurftan, who had been appointed n II 14; but at lall he retired to a monaftery. In 1153 fucceeded William, afterwards canonized. Roger, fufpefted of being privy to the death of Becket, was acquitted on his oath of purgation. In 1 190 the fee was filled by Geoffrey Vol. XXXIX. YORK. ftoiK cofniis were found without Bootham-bar ; and are now prefervtd in the cathedral. In 1814 was laid open a beautiful teiTellatcd pavement, within Micklegate-bar, but without the Roman town ; but unfortunately a partot it only was preferved: this was the firll ever found in York. The waUs of the city, which probibly fucceeded to the Roman fortifications, and which are now in rapid and dil- graccful decay, ftiU retain fufBcient evidences of their an- cient ftrength and importance. When they were erefted is now unknown ; but their conftrudion on the Roman found- ations is generally afcribed to Edward I., about 1280 : in the time of Henry VIII. they were m complete repair. The oldeft part of the prefent walls appears to be that adjoin- ing to Walmgate-bar, at the S.E. corner of the city, on the road to Hull, wliere the remains of the Red tower are Itill vifiblc. During the laft fiege of York, in the civil wars, by fir Thomas Fairfax, in 1644, thefe walls were fo fhat- tered as to require three years to repair them : but fince that period they have been (hamefuUy neglefted by thofe whofe duty it is to preferve them. York is dillinguidied among the cities of England for its ancient gates, or bars, as they are termed. Of thefe, Micklegate-bar, on the S.W. fide of the prefent city, under which is the road from London, is the moil remarkable. It confifts of a lofty fquare embattled tower, with loop-holes, &c. and guarded by an adorned work, with ballion-turrets, &c. Bootham-bar, at the N. entrance of the city, not far from the Roman tower, is almoft wholly conftrufted of ma- terials formerly employed in Roman buildings. Monk-bar, on the N.E., and the Walmgate-bar on the S.E., feem to be of equal date, and were probably ereded by Edward III. The whole circuit of the ancient walls is nearly two miles and three-quarters. Cq/lk: Gilford's rowfr.— Nearly at the junAion of the Oufe and the Fofs, on an eminence, is the fcite of the an- cient caftle, acceffible only from the city on the N., and llrengthened on the other fides by the Fofs, carried round it in a deep moat. Prior to the Norman Conqueft, York pofTefTed a caftle, by fome fuppofed to have ftood on the AV. fide of the Oufe. It is, however, much more probable, that the principal fortrefs occupied the pofition here de- fcribed, on which WiUiam of Normandy erefted his caftle, which was reftored by Richard III. Ceafing to be re- garded as a place of ftrength, it was converted into the prifon for the county of York : but becoming ruinous, the whole \Ya3, in 1701, taken down, and the prefent grand ftruc- tures, ftill retaining, although very incongruoufly, the ori- ginal name, were erefted. Within the inclofure of the an- cient caftle on the N.W. is a high mount, furrounded by a deep ditch, rifing 90 feet above the river Oufe, and 30 above the fcite of the caftle. On the fummit ftands Chfford's tower, confifting of four fegments of circles joined toge- ther, and fo called, it is faid, from the firft governor, after its ereftion by William the Conqueror, to whofe caftle it ferved as the keep. In the time of Henry VIII. this tower was in a ruinous ftate : but on the commencement of the dif- orders in the reign of Charles I., it was repaired and forti- fied by the earl of Cumberland, who mounted fome pieces of artillery on the platform. In the year 1684, the pow- der-magazine within the tower exploded, and the building was reduced to its external walls, as now exifting. Cor- refponding to Clifford's tower, on the W. fide of the Oufe, is another mount, called the Old Baile, or Vetus Ballium; alfo the fcite of an ancient fortrefs. Public Buddings, — At the head of the public edifices of York is neceffarily placed the venerable minfter, or cathe- dral, which, confidered in its totality, is unparalleled in England. The earlieft ercAion of zjlone edifice for the fer- vice of the Chriftian religion in York is always afcribed to Edwin, king of the Northumbrians. This church was founded about A.D. 628 ; but it was completed by bifhop Wilfrid, after 669, who covered the roof with lead, and filled the windows with glafs. This laft invaluable fubftance muft have been imported from the continent ; for it was not till 674 that glafs-makers were firft introduced into England by Benedift Bifcop, to glaze the windows of his new monaftery at Bifhop-Wearmouth. That the cathe- dral of York fuffered with the other parts of the city by the ravages of the Danes in 867 is moft probable : but it is not noticed until 1069, when it was deftroyed, with a great part of the city, in a conflagration occafioned by the Norman garrifon, when attacked by the united Danes and Northumbrians. To punilh the refradory people of the city and vicinity, William of Normandy expelled the eccle- fiaftics, and feized the revenues of the lee : but thefe were foon reftored, and his chaplain and treafurer, Thomas, a Norman, was promoted to the archbifhopric. By this pre- late the cathedral was rebuilt in a magnificent ftyle ; but in 1 137 it was again deftroyed by fire, together with the abbey of St. Mary, and 39 parifh-churches. Having for a num- ber of years lain in ruins, archbiftiop Roger, the ftrenuous opponent of Becket of Canterbury, began in 1171 to re- build the choir with its crypt, which he lived to finifh. In 1227, his fucceflbr, Walter de Grey, erefted the tranfept, with the exceptionof the N. part, which was the work of John le Romaine, the treafurer, who alfo raifed a central fteeple in 1260. In 1291, the fon of the preceding being advanced to the fee, commenced the nave, which, together with the two noble weftern towers, was completed by archbiftiop William le Melton. In 1361, the prefent beautiful choir was com- menced by archbifhop Thorefby, who contributed largely to defray the charges of the work. More money having been collected than was required, the furplus was, in 1370, em- ployed to conilruft the prefent noble central tower, in the place of one eredled by John le Romaine. Thus, in the courfe of 150 years, the catliedral of York was brought into a form nearly as it now appears. It is a grand and in- terefting edifice ; and confifts of a nave with fide aides, a large and lofty tranfept with aides, a choir with aifles, and a large fpace eaft of the choir, called the lady-chapel, with aifles. Beneath the altar is a crypt ; on the fouth fide are three apartments called veftries and treafury ; and at the end of the north tranfept is a fijie chapter-houfe, with a cor- refponding veftibule. The weft end is adorned by two ele- gantly ornamented towers, whilft another, of larger dimen- fions, rifes at the centre of the tranfept. All thefe parts of the church are on a large and magnificent fcale ; and though not in an uniform ftyle, yet the nave and choir are of'cor- refponding height and width, and very fimilar in their win- dows, columns, and other members. The W. front is more richly adorned than any other part of the edifice. Its two towers diminifti in dimenfions as they afcend, and have been ornamented with feveral ftatues, of which now only very few remain. Each tower is furmounted by eight pinnacles ; and in the fouth tower is a fet of celebrated bells. In the front are three entrances ; tliat in the centre is di- vided into two by a pillar. The entire length of the cathe- dral is above 524 feet ; that of the nave, from the weft end to the fcreen at the entrance of the choir, is 250 feet ; the length of the choir to the altar-fcreen i jo feet ; and that of the lady-chapel, at the eaft end, 65 feet. The tranfept is in length 222 feet. The breadth of the nave, with its fide aifles, is 103 feet ; that of the nave itfelf being 63. In the centre of the nave the height to the roof is YORK. is 9ii feet ; in the tranfept 103 feet ; and in the choir loi feet. The elevation of the central tower or lantern is 213 feet ; that of the towers at the W. end 196 feet. The great windows which occupy the principal part of tlie W. and E. ends of the church are particularly beautiful. The great E. window, efpecially, is of uncommon dimenfions and richnefs. It was executed about 1405, at the expence of the dean and chapter ; and the glafs painted, &c. by John Thornton, of Coventry, glazier, who engaged to finifh it in three years, and for which he was paid four {hil- Lngs per week. Spacious, lofty, and light, the interior of this cathedral has a moft impoGng effeft. For although the choir be feparated from the body of the building by a fcreen furmounted by the organ, ftill from the W. end the eye ranges over all, quite to the great terminating window in the E. The nave confifts of a double range of eight lofty pointed arches, fupported by flender cluftered columns. A Cmilar arrangement prevails in the choir ; but the tranfept is of a different age, ftyle, and character, to all the other parts of the church. Great labour has been bellowed in the carving of the flails of the choir, which are of oak. The fcreen behind the altar is flone, divided into eight pointed arches, the upper parts of which are perforated and glazed. At the entrance of the choir is a very elaborate fcreen of tabernacle work, perhaps of the time of Henry VI. It is covered with niches, canopies, pediments, pinnacles, &c. and con- tains ftatues of fifteen Englifh monarchs ; i. e. eight on one fide of the entrance, and feven on the other fide. The whole has been of late years fuitably repaired. The central tower, or lantern, as it is ufually called, is fupported by four lofty arches refting on flrong mafCve cluftered piers. Among the monuments of prelates and other eminent per- fons preferved within the cathedral of York, is diftinguifhed that of archbifhop Walter Grey in the fouth tranfept. It ex- hibits his effigy in his pontificals, covered by a magnificent canopy, fupported by flender pillars. The whole was en- clofed with a handfome railing by the late Dr. Markham. But the moft elegant of all is the monument of archbifhop Bo wet, appointed in 1423, of great height, and in the moil florid flyle of the pointed architefture. A full-length ftatue, with emblems and an infcription, commemorates the late fir George Saville. Attached to the fouth fide of the choir is a range of low building?, flyled the veftries ; in one of which are preferved fundry emblems of the ancient metro- politan dignity of York cathedral. Among thefe is a famous antique horn, as it is termed, although formed out of an elephant's tooth, by the poffefTion of which the church holds lands of great value, faid to have been granted by Ulphus, a Saxon prince of Deira. In the fame place is preferved the filver paftoral ftaff, prefented by Catharine of Portugal, dowagsr of Charles II.; to her confefTor, who had been appointed popiih archbifhop by James II. in 1687. Adjoining to the S.W. angle of the tranfept was a fmall building, formerly ufed as a library. A Lbrary for the ufe of the ecclefiaftics of the cathedral is believed to have been founded by Egbert the archbifhop in 740, and his fuccefTor Albert ; but the whole was confumed by fire in 1069. By this misfortune no fmall lofs was fuftained by the lovers of learning ; for according to certain writings of Alcuin, the fecretary of Charlemagne, many valuable clafBc and other works were contained m it. To fupply in feme meafure its place, another library was collefted by archbifhop Thomas, the Norman ; but that alfo was deftroyed by the flames in 1 137. From this period, the cathedral is not known to have been furnifhed with many books until the private colledlion, confifling of upwards of 3000 volumes, of archbifhop Matthew, was bellowed on it by his relirt in the beginning of the 17th century. By various fuhfe- quent bequcfts, prefents, and purchafes, a large collection of valuable books and manufcripts has been formed, and placed in what was formerly the chapel of the archiepifco- pal palace, on the north fide of the cathedral. This build- ing has been lately repaired in a ftyle fuitable to that of the church, and commodioufly adapted to its prefent deflina- tion. Connefted by a fhort paffage or veftibule with the N.E. angle of the tranfept of the cathedral is the chapter- houfe, an oftagon room, 63 feet in diameter, and nearly 68 m height. This building differs from many others of the fame kind, in having no central pillar to fupport the roof : but the preffure of the arched roof upon the walls is efl'cc- tually counterafted by buttreffes at each extenial angle. From the fimilarity of the ftyle of building with that of the nave of the cathedral, founded in 1291, the chap- ter-houfe is fuppofed to have been erefted about that time. The buildings belonging to the cathedral were formerly feparated from the city by walls ; and fome remains of the gates of communication may ftill be difcovered. Of thofe buildings, the principal was the archiepifcopal palace, fituated on the north of the church. It was erefted by the firft Norman prelate appointed in IC70 ; but after a lapfe of about 500 years, the great hall was taken down by the Proteftant archbiftiop Young, for the fake, it is faid, of the lead on the roof. Since that time other parts of the palace have been leafed out. In former times to the fee of York belonged various places of refidence ; but now that of Bifhopthorpe alone is occupied. This is agreeably fituated on the fide of th« river Oufe, about three miles fouth-weft from the city. It was purchafed and appropriated to the fee by archbifhop Walter de Grey, in the early part of the 13th century; fince whofe time it has undergone many important alter- ations and improvements. The principal front and the vef- tibule are in the pointed ftyle of architefture, and in the interior are feveral fpacious and elegant apartments, befides the chapel and library. In the minfter-yard ftill remain* the refidence of tlie dean of the cathedral, a fpacious and convenient edifice of refpedlable appearance. Of the parifh-churches in York, that of St. Margaret in the fouth-eaft quarter of the city is remarkable for th« porch attached to it, but which is of much higher antiquity than any other part of the edifice. It was removed from the church of St. Nicholas, formerly fituated without Walmgate-bar, but ruined during the fiege of York in 1644. The arch of the porch is femicircular, and exhibits alternately the figns of the zodiac and the emblems of the months. The churches of St. Denys and St. Lawrence have alfo an appearance of confiderable antiquity. Next to the cathedra], the church of St. Michael-le-Belfrey is the largeft and the moft regular in the city, fupported by light pillars and pointed arches. The prefent building was erefted on the removal of the former in 1535. The church of AH Saints, on the pavement, is diftinguiflied by its open oftangular turret, erefted on a fquare tower, in which, ac- cording to tradition, a large lamp was fufpended in the night, to guide travellers over the broad foreft of Galtres, which extended on the north and eaft of the city. York contains places of meeting for various clafles of difienter* from the eftablifned church ; that for the Society of Friends, lately erefted, is large and commodious. A handfome chapel for the ufe of the Roman Catholics wi» built in 1782. Of the numerous religious eftabhfhments formerly exilU- ing in and near York many veftiges ftill remain. Of thcife, M 2 i!ic YORK. the principal was St. Mary's abbey, fituatcd on the bank of the river Oufe, on the outfide of the city wall. The found- ation of the monaftery is of uncertain date ; but tlie church, of which fome confidcrable ruins ItiU remain, was rebuilt in 1 270. Having fallen to decay after the general fuppreffion of religious houfes, Henry VIII. ordered a palace to be ereaed out of the ruins, for the refidence of the lord-pre- fident of the north of England, to be defignated the * king's manor.' This was enlarged by James I. Pre- vioufly to the Revolution it became an objeft of popular outrage : but fome years afterwards the kmg's Mint was eftabhfhed in it, and much gold and filver, diftinguilhed by the initial letter Y, was ftruck there for Wilham III. The fcite of the abbey and the minor have long been leafed from the crown by lord Grantham and his predeceflbrs. Connefted with the religious fyftem of former times, it may be noticed, that adjoining to the walls of York, im- mediately without Micklegate-bar on the London road, is an eftablifliment called the Nunnery. The building was originally acquired in 1686, as a place of education and living for young ladies of Roman Catholic families. The eftablifliment at prefent confifts of the fupcrior and twenty affiftants, who wear the drefs and conform to the regulations cf nuns in Catholic countries, with twelve lay-fifters, and a chaplain. From fixty to feventy boarders are ufually ac- commodated in the inftitution. The Guild-hall and the Manfion-houfe are fituated near the river Oufe, in the north-weft quarter of the city. The hall, built in 1446, is a noble room, ninety-fix feet long, forty-five broad, and twenty-nine feet fix inches high. In it are held the law-courts and the courts of municipal juf- tice. The Manfion-houfe was ereaed in 1725, and con- tains every necelFary accommodation for the lord-mayor. In the fame quarter of the city are the affembly-rooms, the theatre, the fubfcription library, the principal hotels, Sec. As a fortrefs, York caftle has long ceafed to be of importance : it is now occupied by feveral ftruftures. That on the W. fide of the area is the county-hall, rebuilt in 1777, in which the aflizes are held, and other county bufi- nefs is tranfafted. The centre building is the prifon for debtors and criminals: the third building on the E. con- tains the record-office, and various apartments neceffary for the tranfaftion of the bufinefs of the county. Of all thefe buildings it is but juftice to fay, that in their conftruc- tion external elegance and tafte have been properly com- bined with a due attention to their feveral deftinations. The arrangement and management of the prifons have been frequently the fubjeft of commendation. The new city -gaol, an extenfive ftone ftrufture near the Old Baile, on the weft fide of the river Oufe, and the houfe of correftion, are alfo deferving of attention. The charitable eftabhftiments for the poor and the fick in York are very numerous, and well conducted. Among thefe, the county-hofpital and the city-difpenfary are highly commendable. Schools for the education of youth of both fexes are not wanting in York. In 1647 a petition was pre- fented to the crown from the inhabitants of the city and the county, and from other parts of the north, for the eftabhfti- ment of an univerfity in York : but the unfettled ftatc of the affairs of the kingdom then prevented due confideration of the requeft ; nor has it fince been renewed ; although, for various important reafons, York feems pecuharly adapted for a place of hlerary and fcientific retirement and lludy. A feminary or college for the education of minifters and lay-gentlemen among Proteftant diftenters, which formerly fubfifted at Manchefter under the fucceffive care of the Rev. Dr. Barnes and Mr. Walker, and was liberally fupporled by voluntary fubfcription, was on the death of the latter pro- feflbr removed to York, where it is conduced with great reputation by the Rev. Meflrs. Wellbeloved, Kenrick, and Turner. Bridge. — Communication between the original city of York, and the fuburb ftyled Micklegate-bar on the fouth- weft fide of the river Oufe, is maintained by a handfome ftone bridge, which has lately been erefted from the defigns and under the direftion of Peter Atkinfon, efq. of York. In 1 154 the bridge w.-is wood : but in 1 268 it was probably of ftone ; for then was founded on it St. William's chapel, in atonement for the death of feveral perfons on the fpot in a fray with the people of the town. In 1564 a flood fol- lowing an intenfe froft fwept away two arches of the bridge, with the houfes built on them. On the fouth-eaft fide of York, going out by Walmgate- bar, near the village of Heflington, is an eftablifhment for the reception and relief of perfons difordered in mind ; which has, for fome time, been the fubjeft of general approbation. This was called the Retreat, founded by the refpeftable Society of Friends, and originally intended for members of their clafs alone. The firft idea of this admirable inftitu- tion was fuggefted in 1791, by the unfortunate death of one of their fociety, at a common receptacle for the infane. In 1794 land was purchafed, and the building commenced, on a commanding eminence. The general arrangement, management, and fyftem of treatment of the unfortunate patients, have been imitated, as the moft perfeft of their kind, in various parts of the kingdom and America. See an " Account of the Retreat," 8vo. — Eboracum, or Hiftory and Antiquities of York, by Francis Drake, F.R.S. folio, 1736. Defcription and Hiftory of the City and Cathedral of York, l2mo. 3d ed. 1790. Defcription of York, l2mo. 1816. A Guide to the Cathedral of York, l2mo. 1815, is a rational and judicious vade mecum. York, Cujlom of. See Rationabili parte lonorum. York, in Geography, a county of the United States, in the diftrift of Maine, containing 23 towns, and 41,877 inhabitants. York, a diftrift of South Carolina, containing 10,032 inhabitants, including 3164 (laves. York, a county of Pennfylvania, fouth-weft of Suf- quehanna. It contains 22 townlhips, and 31,958 in- habitants. York Borough, a town of Pennfylvania, in York county, containing 2847 inhabitants. York, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in York county, con- taining 1649 inhabitants. York, a county of Virginia, with 5187 inhabitants, in- cluding 2931 flaves. York, a town of United America, in the diftrift of Maine, and county of York, containing 3046 inhabitants ;, 50 miles N.N.E. of Bofton. N. lat. 43" 7'. W. long. 70° 40'. York, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Belmont, containing 1349 inhabitants. York, the capital of Upper Canada, fituated on the lake Ontario. It is likely to become a city of great importance, as it poflefTes great facilities for commerce and navigation. It lies in about 43° 35' N. lat., within an excellent harbour of the fame name, made by a long peniiifula, which embraces a bafon of water fufficiently large for containing a confiderable fleet. VefTels may ride fafely at its entrance during the winter. On the extre- mity of the peninfula, which is called Gibraltar Point, are erefted commodious block-houfes and ftores command- ing the entrance into the harbour. On the main land op- pofite YORK. pofite to the Point is the garrifon, fituated on a point made York. iVif*. ono nf f»,= n ■. j o by the harbour and a fmall rivulet, which being improved f.tuated accoTdinrt„ ,h! ft."^'^ ^'ff^ °i America, by fluices, afford s an eafy accefs for boats to go%p to the 40"^ Vnd 4C° N^ lat and /° ITf °^. M^''"?' b«wee„' ftores. The barracks being built upon a knoll are well fTom^WafhinLn ' evtVS ^ «' E. and 2° 43' W. long, iituatedfor health, and command a delightful profpea of and from zfoW ",^^'^"'^'"g/'-°'" N. to S. ,98 milet, the lake to the weft, and the harbour to the eaft.'^ The 46^00 To LmiS' of^'l'LT^''^'"'^'"^^'^ T ^ "^ government-houfe has a ftriking appearance from the lake, bounded ^.7 he N^'byake'^nl^io ITc ^ ^"'' ^' and is well calculated for the refidence of a governor. Its S. by Pennfylvania. N^trffyTd th'e £ ate' orn'? ^r-!"Tl:'.^'^?J"T"'!,'"?i; '^u^^liT"..""'"^?^"!" *^'. ^?'- °! !^" E Ky V^™ont,_Maffachufetts, and Connedicut ' fituation. The town is furnifhed with every convenience, and the market is well fupplied with good ,beef, mutton, venifon, fi(h, &c. The wheat fupply is from Montreal : the land around York is in general fandy ; but bears good crops of every defcription. The plan of the town is one mile and a half in length : the ftreets are tolerably uni- form ; and the river Don empties itfelf into the harbour, a tion mcludes all the inland rivers and lakes, one half of lake Champlam, and the St. Lawrence ; excluding only all the waters below New York ifland, and that part of ihe lakes Ontario and Erie which belong to this ftate. This ftate- ment gives 20.8 perfons to a fquare mile. New York IS at prefent divided into 45 counties, and 452 townfhips, including four mcorporated cities ; -viz. New York, little above the town, running through a marfh, which, Albany, Hudfon, and Scheneaadv 'as exhihit^ in^lhl when drained, will afford excellent meadows. The country following ocnenectaay, as exhibited in the round this place is capable of great improvement, and renders it fit for a feat of government. See Boulton's Sketch of Upper Canada, ch. viii. York, a river of Virginia, formed by the union of the North Anna and South Anna, which runs into the Chefa- peak, near its mouth. — Alfo, a river of America, in the dif- tria of Maine, which runs into the fea, a little below York. York Bay, a bay on the fouth-weft coaft of the ifland of St. Vincent ; 2 miles N.W. of Kingftown bay. — Alfo, a bay formed by the union of the Eaft and Hudfon's rivers below New York. It communicates with the fea by a channel, called the Narrows. York Fort, a fortrefs at the mouth of Nelfon's river, in Hudfon's bay. N. lat. 57° 2'. W. long. 92° 46'. York //land, a fmall ifland, near the eaft coaft of the ifland of Antigua ; about half a mile N.N.E. of Frier's Head. — Alfo, one of the Gallapagos iflands, in the Pacific ocean. York IJlands, three fmall iflands, in the South Pacific ocean, near York Cape, on the north coaft of New Holland. York M'mjler, a lofty promontory on the coaft of Terra del Fuego, fo called by captain Cook in 1774. It forms the north-weft point of entrance into Chriftmas found. S. lat. 55' 26'. W. long. 70° 25'. York Point, a cape in the ftraits of Magellan. N. lat. 53° 39'- W. long. 73° 32'. York River, a river of America, in the province of Maine, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 43° 7'. W. long. 70° 40'. York Road, a road for ftiips in the ftraits of Magellan, near the coaft of Patagonia. The only danger of failing into the bay, that is formed by two points in this road, .-irifes from a reef that runs off to about a cable's length from the weftern point, which once known may be eafily avoided. To anchor in this bay, it is fafeft to bring York Point E.S.E. ; Bachelor's river N. by W. half W. ; the weft point of the bay or reef N.W. half W. ; and St. Jerom's found W.N.W. at the diftance of half a mile from the flvore. There is good watering about a mile up Bachelor's river, and good wooding all round the bay, where the landing alfo is, in all parts, very good. There is plenty of celery, cranberries, mufcles, and limpets, many wild-fowl, and fome fifh, but not enough to fupply a fhip's company with a frefti meal. S. lat. 53° 39'. W. long. 73" 52'- '2 Topographical Table. Countiei, Albany Alleghany Broome Cattaraugus* Cayuga Chatauque* Chenango Clinton Columbia Cortlandt Delaware Duchefs Effex Franklin Genefee Greene Herkimer Jefferfon King's Lewis Madifon Montgomery New York Niagara Putnam.* Oneida Onondaga Ontario Orange Otfego Queen's Renffellaer Richmond Rockland Saratoga Scheneaady Schoharie Seneca Steuben St. Lawrence Carry up 372 822,792 Townfliips . Population Chief Towns. 8 34,661 Albany 9.356 5 1,942 Angelica tp. 439 6 8,130 Chenango tp. 225 • I Olean tp. 458 10 29,843 Auburn tp. 500 2 Chatauque tp. J»039 14 21,704 Norwich 225^ 5 8,002 Plattfburg tp. 3,112 II 32,390 Hudfon 4,048 6 8,869 Homer 35° '^ 20,303 Delhi tp. 2,396 16 51.363 Poughkeepfie 1,800 II 9.477 Elizabethtown tp • i>362 4 2,617 Ezraville 767 10 12,588 Batavia 200 7 19.536 Cat/kill 1,000 10 22,046 Herkimer tp. 475 12 15,140 Watertown 250 6 8,303 Flatbufli tp. 1.159 7 6,433 Martinfljurg 150 II 25,144 Cazenovia 500 ' 15 41,214 Johnftown 605 I 96.373 New York 96,373 4 8,971 Buffalo 500 26 33.792 Utica 1,500 13 25,987 Onondaga S^S 24 42,032 Canandaigua 685 II 34.374 Newburgh 2,000 21 38,802 Otfego 55° 6 19.336 Northempftead tp ■ i>150 13 36,309 Troy 2,640 4 5.347 Richmond J 00 4 7.758 Clarkftown tp. 1,996 14 33.147 Saratoga 4 10,201 Scheneftady 2,000 8 18,945 Schoharie 125 7 16,609 Ovid tp. 4,535 9 7,246 Bath 250 e 12 7,885 Ogdeofburg 350 Suffolk YORK. Countiei TownfMp«. Brought up 372 Suffolk 9 Sullivan 7 Tioga 9 Ulfter 15 Warren.* Wa(hington 2 1 WeftChefter 21 Populaiiufi, 822,792 6, 1 08 7,?99 26,576 Cliif f Towni. Riverhcad tp. Thomfon tp. Spencer tp. Kingfton Salem Bedford tp. 1,711 1,300 3,128 750 280 2.374 45^ 959.049 * Laid out fince the cenfus was taken. Putnam county was erefted in June 18 12, from the S. end of Duchefs county, and is formed of the towns of Phihps or Philipftown, Carmel, Frederick, Patterfon, and South-Eaft. Courts are held in the Baptift meeting-houfe in the town of Carmel, and this county fends one member to the houfe of aflembly. The towns are, Carmel the chief, including, in 1 8 10, 2020 inhabitants, the eleftors being 153 ; Frederick, with 181 1 inhabitants, and 98 eleftors ; Pat- terfon, with a population of 1446, and no eleftors ; Philips, with 3129 perfons, and i65eleftors; and South- Eaft, in which the population is 1887, and the number of eleftors 161. Warren county was erefted from the N.W. extremity of Wafhington, March 12, 1813. It comprifes the towns of Bolton, Caldwell, Chefter, Hague, Johnfburgh, Luzerne, Queenftjury, and Thurman, the laft of which is divided into two towns, called Athol and Warrenburgh. The chief town is Caldwell, with a population of 560 perfons, and 60 eleftors ; Athol has 443 inhabitants, audits eleftors are 20 ; Bolton has 726, and 30 eleftors ; Chefter 937, and 1 20 eleftors ; Hague 398, and 2 r eleftors ; Johnfburgh 6ji, and 82 eleftors; Luzerne 1015, and 85 eleftors; Queenftjury 1948, and 197 eleftors ; and Warrenburgh 887, with 41 eleftors. The face of this ftate exhibits a great variety. To the S.E. its furface is agreeably uneven ; in the middle, moun- tainous ; to the N.W. undulating ; flat towards the lakes ; and hilly towards the fouthern extremity. Oi the mountains in this ftate, the chain called Katfkill, or Catflcill, is the largell and moft extenlive, and this pre- fents a bifurcation of the Apallachian ridge, which at the Highlands occupy a traft of about 16 miles in width, lying obliquely acrofs the Hudfon, and penetrated by that river. Thefe ridges preferving their general direftion ftretch acrofs Duchefs county, the eaftern parts of Columbia and RenlFe- laer counties, and exhibit fome lofty fummits. The Tau- conick mountains are lofty and very rugged, and Hoofack and WiUiamftown are mountains which deferve the appel- lation. But the Catftierg or Catikill mountains prefent fome fummits that are higher than any others of the Apalla- chian chain, if we except the White-hills in New. Hamp- (hire. At the Highlands, the fummit of Butter-hill is 1432 feet above the level of the river; that called the Crow's-neft 1330; Bell-hill 1 391. About 60 miles N., the Round-top is elevated 3655 feet above the level of the river; the High-peak 3487. Thefe fummits are in Wind- ham, Greene county, about 20 miles W. of Hudfon, and in full view from that city. A turnpike-road which croffes this range of mountains near thofe fummits, winds up till it reaches the aftoniftiing altitude of 2274 feet. Upon this fpot the view is inexpreflibly grand. The general altitude of the Catlkill mountains may be eftimated at about 2000 to 3000 feet acrofs Greene county. From Greene they pafs into Schoharie county with ridges lefs rugged ; and towards the fouthern part, their continuity is lefs diftinftly defined. Until after forming the falls of the Mohawk, this range traverfes Herkimer county, forming a rugged traft, and diminidiing in altitude till they crofs the St. Lawrence into Canada, at the Thoufand iflands. Thefe mountains have obtained from the early Dutch inhabitants the name of Helderberg, or clear mountain, prefenting, inftead of lofty fummits of granitic and fchiftic mountains, an elevated plain of confiderable and very uniform altitudes. Around lake George, and to the W. of lake Champlain, we find the Peruvian mountains, which furnifti the northern fources of the Hudfon, and form the height of land that feparates the waters of the Hudfon and St. Lawrence. The higheft of thefe is probably that called White-face, which commands a view of Montreal, at the diftance of near 80 miles. The altitude of this fummit is little fhort of 3000 feet from the level of lake Champlain. Thefe mountains obtained the name of Peru from the French inhabitants, in allufion to their fuppofed mineral treafures. With fome few excep- tions, the whole country S. of the Highlands is underlaid by rocks of granite, with fuperftrata of other rocks, which appear in the elevated trafts. There are fome trafts of hme-ftone and fome of fand-ftone, but thefe are fo incon- fiderable in extent as to furnifh no objeftion againft deno- minating this the granitic region. Some ranges of hills on the W. of the Hudfon, compofed of fand-ftone, are under- laid by granite ; and the Catflcill mountains are a mafs of fand-ftone, fimilar to the Alleghany mountains in Pennlyl- vania, intermixed with lime ; the Helderberg, with fome particles of fand-ftone, occafionallyinterfperfed. N. andE. of the Highlands the rocks are chiefly fchiftic that form the fubftratum, while calcareous ridges of great extent occupy the furface. The hills on the eaftern border of Columbia and Renflellaer counties are formed chiefly of fragile fchif- tus, intermixed with quartz, and occafional fuperftrata of lime-ftone. On the eaftern declivities of thefe hills lime- ftone predominates, forming the marble quarries of Stock- bridge, Laneftjorough, &c. in Maflachufetts. The north- weftern continuation of the Catiberg or Catikill prefents a kind of calcareous granite, in which the abfence of the felfpar is fupplied by primitive lime-ftone. The Peruvian mountains are principally granitic, though ridges of lime- ftone, flatc, flint, and fand-ftone, appear in conglomerate maftes, and thefe are moft abundant in mineral treafures. The whole level county of the fmall weftern lakes is cal- careous. The Tauconick hills that border the fouth -eaftern part of Columbia county are granitic. The rivfrs of this ftate are numerous and extenfive ; and fo are its lakes and creeks. The Hudfon and the Mo- hawk are the moft confiderable rivers, to which we may add the Sacandaga, a branch of the Hudfon and Scroon rivers, connefted with Scroon and Brant lakes. The creeks of the Hudfon and Mohawk are numerous. The Sufque- hanna rifes in this ftate ; and its weftern branch, the Tioga, is a river of fome note, and claims diftinftion from feveral creeks belonging to the former river. The Delaware, which receives feveral rivers and creeks, forms a part of the weftern boundary of New York ; and the Alleghany, a principal branch of the Ohio, has its origin in this ftate, and its creeks, large and fmall, are too numerous for our re- cital. The Chatauqua lake difchargesitfelf into Connewongo creek. The Cataraugus and Buffalo creeks run into lake Erie ; Tonewanda and Ellicott's creeks into Niagara river, forming a part of the weftern boundary of the ftate. Lake Ontario, half of which is in this ftate, receives the Gencfee, the Ofwego, and Black rivers, which convey into this lake the YORK. tfif waters cf feveral other rivers and creeks. The St. Lawrence wafhes more than loo miles of the north-weftern boundary, and it receives a number of rivers and creeks. Half of lake Champlain alfo belongs to this ftate, and it is fupplied by feveral ftreams. Eaft river alfo belongs to this Jlate* The climate 3.nAfeafons muft in fuch an extent of country be very various, fo that it is difficult to accommodate any general obfervation to the whole ftate. In the eaftem ter- ritory, or wholly S. of the Highlands, where the prevaihng winds are foutherly through the warm feafons, the weather is very variable ; and the changes of temperature, governed by the winds, frequent and fudden. In the northern part of the ftate, the weather is lefs variable ; but the winters are long and fevere, with a clear and fettled (ky. This region, extending from the fouthem extremity of lake George, and weftward to near lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, may be diftinguiftied as the region of the •'northern climate." That of the " weftern climate" comprifes the great weftern territory of this ftate, extend- ing from the Catfberg or Catflcill mountains to the great lake. Here fouth-wefterly winds prevail in a confiderable proportion throughout the year. A gentle current of air, that may be traced from the gulf of Mexico, and reaching to a diftance of more than looo miles, prevails almoft con- ftantly from the S.W. ; and northerly and ealterly winds are almoft wholly unknown. In this diftrift, the average temperatures are about three degrees higher than in fimi- lar latitudes in the eaftern climate. Such is the general charafter of the weftern climate of the United States, and the diftinftion is faid to terminate, or nearly fo, with the region about lake Ontario. The weftern climate of this ftate is therefore warmer than the eaftern by about 3° of Fahrenheit ; and this is attributed to the greater prevalence of warmer currents of air from the S.W. In the region about Albany, the rigours of winter commence about the 20th of December, and end with February, or about the loth of March, when the ice ufually breaks up in the Hudfon. From the middle of March to the end of April, the weather is very variable ; the changes of temperature great and fudden, though it be generally rainy, with long- continued ilorms of eallerly winds. May is alio a variable month ; June afl^umes a fummer charafter ; in July, fouth- erly winds are diminiftied, and drought prevails ; Auguft is more ftiowery, and more uniformly temperate, than any month of the year, and aff^ording health and plenty. The former part of September refembles Auguft, and termi- nating with mild and pleafant weather. Oftober is an agreeable month ; early frofts occur about the 26th of September, though corn ripens till the middle of Oftober ; and from the 15th to the 25th of this month the fohage of the foreft-trees is deftroyed, and early falls of fnow com- mence about this time. December is ufually cold and Ihowery, and ftorms from the N. and E. are frequent, and of long continuance. It is obferved, that a general modi- fication of temperature, favourable to agricultural interefts, has occurred within the laft 10 or 15 years. This ftate aff^ords facihties for inland navigaiion fuperior to any other, combining both the objefts and the means of intercourfe. The conneftions of the rivers Hudlon, Mo- hawk, Ofwego, Delaware, Ohio, Sufquehanna, Alleghany, Mifliffippi, and ot. Lawrence, by creeks and ftreams, and canals with the lakes Oneida, Erie, George, Champlain, Ontario, &c. are peculiarly favourable to internal naviga- tion and commerce. The canal at Rome, which coanefts the waters of the Mohawk and lake Ontario, and which was completed in 1797, deferves particular mention ; and it fliould be noticed to the honour of tliis ftate, that the weftern inland lock navigation company is formed for the direft purpofe of improving the navigation of the weftern waters ; and that the projeft of a great weftern canal for connefting lake Erie and the Hudfon by a boat navigation is a very important objeft. The ftate of New York has few bays, excluCvely of thofe ot Long ifland, which are very numerous. It has many ifJands, among which Naffau, or Long ifland, claims the brlt place, as it aff'ords more than 100 miles of fea-coaft many excellent harbours, and many advantages for com! merce. Its bays are both numerous and large, and it has immediately dependent upon it many fubordinate iflands. Ihe iflands in the bay of New York, as well as that upon which New York itfelf is fituated, and Staten ifland, and thofe belonging to the Hudfon, Mohawk, Niagara, and St Lawrence nvers, to lake Ontario, Champlain, George, &c might be enumerated if our hmits would allow. In this conneftion we might alfo mention a variety of bridges that ferve to facilitate communication and intercourfe between the various parts of this ftate. The/5// and agriculture of New York deferve our parti- cular attention. The foil is of various charafters in different parts of the ftate. In fome diftrifts it is deep and warm, and well adapted to grain or grafs ; in other parts it is of a loofer texture, and is found in various proportions by the admixture of vegetable remains ; forming a thick vegetable mould, with a fmall proportion of earth, and called by the farmers in that country " black muck." This is foon ex- haufted, and as it refts on a fubftratum, called " hard-pan" by the farmers, that is cold and ftony, it is incapable of being reftored or reclaimed by any manure or art of huf- bandry. The weft end of Long illand is rich, fertile, and highly cultivated ; but the eaftern part has a large proportion of fandy barren plains. Below the Highlands, the foil is principally dry and warm, having a gravelly or fandy fub- ftratum, or granitic rock. North of the Highlands to the Mohawk, the foil is dry and warm, being either a gravelly or fandy loam in general ; and both thofe which we have men- tioned are ftated to be a medium foil. But on the eaftern border of the ftate, the rocks are principally fchiftic, and a fchiftic gravel forms moft of the foil, which is warm and pro- duftive, though not deep. The alluvial flats of Columbia and fome part of Renftelaer counties are very extenfive and rich ; and the valleys, prefenting a warm gravelly foil, are alfo extenfive, and furnifti much good medium foil. Weft of Albany are extenfive fandy plains, interfperfed with marfhes, and rather cold and wet till we approach the Helderberg hills. This plain is generally underlaid by clay ; but the Helderberg hills are calcareous, and prefent a better foil, though broken and much diverfified. The agricultural produfts of this divifion of the whole territory of the ftate confifts of all the various produflions of this country. The weft part of Long ifland, and the counties of Weft Chefter and Duchefs, are well cultivated. The latter is one of the beft farming counties in the ftate. The introduftion of gypfum as a manure has marked a new era in the agriculture and rural economy of this region. The weft fide of the Hudfon is confiderably behind the eaftern. The fouthern part of Wafhington county has a warm gravelly medium foil, and abundant crops. Saratoga has much good but more wafte land. Its general charafter is more fandy ; and, hke that of Albany, refts on clay. Around lake Champlain there is a large extent of clayey foil, extending to the hills that fkirt the Peru mountains. With the exception of the alluvial flats, which are extenfive and rich, the foil of the country of the Mohawk may be generally YORK. eeneraUy denominated a Wff loam, tiU we go weft of the CatikiU hills at the Littk- Falls. Here it affumes a new charader. The foil of the mountainous traft ot the weftern region is much diverfified : the hilh are rocky; the valleys deep and narrow, or fpacious and rich, ihis traft furni(hes confiderablc black muck, or deep vegetable mould, in the valleys. A very large proportion of the foil of this country may be denommated a rich mould, varioudy intermixed with earth of different kinds ; and much of the foil is well adapted for grain and grafs. No part of the ftate is more rapidly advancing in agricultural improve- ments than this weftern region. The foil of the level coun- try eaft of lake Ontario, and along the St. Lawrence, is a warm fandy loam, with a large proporUon of the firft rate of medium for agriculture. The rotation of crops lately introduced into this country marks a new era in its agriculture. We (hall clofe this de- tail with remarking, that the exertions of the agricultural fociety of this ftate have been very beneficial, though its publications need more general circulation. The botanical produa'wns of this ftate are numerous and various. Its foreft-trees are luxuriant. The region of the weftern climate is principally wooded with deciduous trees, and of the loftieft growth. Thofe of the eaftern or Atlantic climate are generally deciduous, but lefs lofty. The moft common foreft-trees are, oak, maple, beech, walnut, butter- nut, chefnut, birch, tilia or bafs-wood, poplar, cherry, fycamore or button-wood, afti, elm, faflafras, hornbeam, fumach, elder, pine, fpruce, larch, fir, hemlock, cedar, and in fome parts, locuft laurel, mulberry, black-walnut, cucumber-tree, crab-apple, and common thorn, of many varieties. The ftate of New York is eflentially agricultural. Wheat is the firft objeft of the farmers ; and they alfo cul- tivate rye, maize, oats, flax, hemp, peas, beans, &c. and moft of the domeftic graffes are cultivated with fuccefs. Fruits are abundant and various ; fuch as apples, affording cyder of the beft quahty, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, &c. The garden-fruits are as various as thofe of any ftate in the Union. The domejlic zoology of the ftate prefents the horfe, the cow kind, the merino and other kinds of ftieep, which furnifti good wool, and fwine. The wild animals, not to mention the mammoth, the moofe, and the bifon, now ex- tinft in this ftate, are, the deer, bear, wolf, and fox ; and more rarely, the otter, the wolverene, the wild-cat, racoon, martin, the weafel, hare and rabbit, fquirrel and moufe, &c. The lakes and rivers fupply abundance of fifti, fuch as the falmon-trout, trout, fturgeon, chad, herring, pike, and many others. The oyfters are in high repute. The number of birds ftationary and migrating is very great. Serpents are found in fmall numbers, and the rattle-fnake does not frequently occur ; other fnakes are numerous. It is needlefs to mention the infefts, of which the number and variety are confiderable. The mineralogy comprehends iron-ore, fait, gypfum, lime- ftone, marble, flate, native brimftone, coal, ores of lead, copper, zinc, tin, afteftos, mill-ftones, marie and peat, clays, alum, fwine-ftone, &c. Calcareous petrifaftions are very common in the calcareous regions. Siliceous fand for tlie manufafture of glafs, plumbago, a variety of ochres, mica, ifinglafs, magnefian ftones, amianthus, black flints for muf- kets, molybdena, iron and copper pyrites, emery, magnetic ores of iron, ores of zinc, ores containing filver and anti- mony, and rock cryftals, are feverally found in various parts of this ftate. Its mineral waters are held in high eftimation. The conjlitution of this ftate was adopted by a convention of delegates April 20, 1777, and revifed in 1801 ; and its charafter is republican. The conftitution of the United States was acceded to in this ftate in 1788. The fupreme executive power is vefted in a governor and lieutenant- governor, elefted every three years by free-holders poflefling a clear ellate of 250 dollars ; as are the fenators alfo. The fupreme legiflative powers are vefted in a fenate and houfe of aflembly, which meet at leaft once in each year. The fenators are elected for four years ; the members, or repre- fentatives, as they are called, who compofe the houfe of aflembly, are elefted annually. The number of fenators is hmited to thirty-two ; that of members is not to exceed 1 50. For the convenience of elefting fenators, the ftate i» divided into four great diftrifts : the fouthern, which elefts five fenators, and comprehends fix counties ; the middle, eight; the eaftern, nine; and the weftern, twenty-two. The general eleftion is held annually. A cenfus of the ele£lors is taken every feven years, and the reprefentation appor- tioned according to the numbers in the refpeftive counties, increafing the number of reprefentatives each year by the addition of two, until they amount to 150. The fenators are divided into four claflfes, elefted at different periods, fo that fome new fenators are chofen annually. The governor is commander-in-chief of the militia, and admiral of the navy, of this ftate: he has power to convene the legiflature; to grant pardons and reprieves for crimes, except treafon and murder ; and can fufpend the execution of fentences in thofe cafes till the fitting of the legiflature, which alone has a right to pardon. A council of revifion confifts of the go- vernor, the chancellor, the judges of the fupreme court, or any two of them, whofe duty it is to revife all bills about to be pafled into laws ; and if they objeft in writing to a bill, a re-confideration takes place, and the fame muft be amended or approved by two-thirds of both houfes before it can then become a law : and this is the negative of the executive power. If the council negleft to return a bill, in ten days it becomes a law, unlefs the legiflature has pre- vioufly adjourned. A council of appointment confifts of the governor, and a fenator from each of the four great dif- trifts, chofen annually by the legiflature. In this council, the governor prefides, with only a cafting vote. The right to nominate is vefted concurrently in the governor and the other members of the council. The lift of officers annually appointed by this council is enormous, and confifts of moft of the fubordinate officers of the ftate. The chancellor holds courts of equity, and appoints the officers of his court. The fupreme court is a court of law. It confifts of a chief-juftice and four aflbciate judges. County courts confift of a firft judge and a number of aflbciate juftices. Circuit courts are held in the refpeftive counties by a judge or juftice of the fupreme court, and the judge and juftices of the county. Juftices of the peace have cognizance of trials for the recovery of debts to the value of twenty-five dollars ; and in New York to the value of fifty dollars. The right of habeas corpus is preferved, and the trial by jury. The great officers of ftate are, the governor, lieutenant- governor, a fecretary of ftate, comptroller, treafurer, fur- veyor-general, attorney-general, council of appointment, coramiflioners of the land-office, the regents of the univer- fity, &c. for the department of ftate. Judiciary officers of ftate, a chancellor, five judges of the fupreme court, and a judge of probates. For the general convenience and the better adminiftration of juftice, the whole territory of this ftate is fubdivided into counties, and thefe into towns. From the report of the comptroller to the legiflature of this ftate in 181 1, the produAive funds of this ftate, in- vefted YORK. ▼efted in ftock of banks, United States ftock, &c. fecurities on lands, &c. &c. amounted to 4,191,803 dollars 25 cents, producing an annual i-evenue of 278,489 doll. 96 cents. To this amount of funds fhould be added the fchool fund, amounting to 483,326 doll. 29 cents, producing an annual income of 36,427 doll. 64 cents. The ftate alio owns about 1,000,000 acres of land, which, valued at two dollars per acre, amount to 6,675,129 doll. 54 cents. The expences of government for the year 1811 amounted to 268,366 doll. 22 cents. This eftimate draws an excefs of revenue amount- ing to 10,123 doll. 74 cents, and including the balance in the treafury, Feb. 16, 181 1, of ready funds, to the amount of 34,129 doll. 86 cent?. The militia of this ftate conCfts of every able-bodied male inhabitant between eighteen and forty-five years of age ; and the laws have made an honourable exception in favour of thofe whofe religious opinions are averfe to war. Agree- ably to the annual return of the adjutant-general for 1809, the enrolled infantry amounted to 95,324; the artillery, 3102 ; the cavalry, 3642 ; giving a total of 102,068. The conftitution provides for the free exercife of religion in this ftate in the following terms : " And whereas we are required by the benevolent principles of rational liberty not only to expel civil tyranny, but alfo to guard againft that fpiritual opprefTion and intolerance, wherewith the bigotry and ambition of weak and wicked priefts and princes have fcourged mankind : This convention doth further, in the name and by the authority of the good people of this ftate, ordain, determine, and declare, that the free exercife and enjoyment of religious profeflion and worfliip, without dif- crimination or preference, fhall for ever hereafter be allowed within this ftate to all mankind. Provided, that the liberty of confcience hereby granted (hall not be fo conftrued as to excufe afts of licentioufnefs, or juftify pradices incon- fiftent with the peace or fafety of this ftate. That no mi- nifter of the gofpel, or prieft of any denomination, Ihall ever hold any civil or military office or place within this ftate." In April, 1804, a law was paffed authorizing all religious denominations to appoint truftees, for the purpofe of fuperintending the temporal concerns of their refpeftive congregations. And thefe truftees become a body corporate by that general aft, capable of all legal tranfaftions in be- half of the congregation. All denominations, therefore, are left at liberty to fup- port their own miniftry, and maintain the order of their worfhip, in fuch way as is moft agreeable ; and every con- gregation may deCgnate from three to nine of its members as truftees, who are, with little trouble, inverted with cor- porate powers in behalf of the whole, and authorized to hold eftates producing an annual revenue of 3000 dollars. This free toleration has not produced more fefts in this than in other ftates lefs tolerant of religious opinions. There are many fefts however ; and in the enumeration of thofe, no regard is paid to comparative numbers. There are, Englifh Preftiyterians, Dutch Reformed, Congregation- alifts, Epifcopalians, Quakers, Baptifts, Methodifts, Ger- man Lutherans, Moravians, Roman Catholics, Shakers, Jews, and a few of the Univerfal Friends, or the followers of Jemima Wilkinfon, Scotch Cameronians, Anabaptifts ; and Chriftian charity would include fome Indians, befide thofe v.'ho profefs Chriftianity. But it is worthy of remark, that many of the above feftarian diltinftions exift merely in name, while their tenets differ lefs, perhaps, than thofe of the fame religious fociety, in the individual opinions. The manners and cujloms of this ftate have undergone a confiderable variation during the period that has elapfed from its firft fettlement to the prefent day. Among thofe Vol. XXXIX. who planted the colony of New York, and who for many years afterwards fettled in it, a large proportion confifted ot Dutch families, who migrated hither from the Dutch Netherlands, and transferred to the focieties which they" eftaclilhed here, the rural economy of the population of the Netherlands, of Holland, and of the banks of the Rhine. Soon after their arrival, various parts of this ftate prefented build- ings refemblmg thole of their native country, and habits of neatnefs, order, induftry, and frugality, which they had praftifed from their youth. After the conqueft of the Enghrti in 1664, multitudes flocked hither from various nations of Europe, and produced a confiderable change in the original and difcriminating charafter and cuftoms of this colony. In 1685 't f>ad a numeroHS acceffion of French Proteftants. In 17 10 it was augmented by about one hun- dred families of poor PaLdnes from Germany ; fixty or feventy of which fettled Germantown on the eaft bank of the Hudfon, and fome at Efopus, now Kingfton. Other early German emigrants fettled on the Mohawk, in Orange county, on Long ifland, and in many other parts where their defcendants are now found. The early Englifh fettled principally at New York and in Long ifland. The French, at New Rochelle, in Weft Chefter county, and on Staten ifland. The Scotch fixed themfelves, during the more early periods, about Albany, and in Wafhington county. Maffa- chufetts fupplied alfo the eaft part of Long ifland with in- habitants, whofe pofterity form a large fhare of the prefent population. But the Dutch were the original proprietors and firft colonifts, and therefore their poffeffiona were the greateft and the moft valuable : nor did they, or the Germans, next to them in number and importance, altogether abandon their difcriminating manners and habits. The Revolution, however, produced a material change in this ftate, and the change, though effefted by fanguinary conflifts, was not unfavourable to its general character. The profperity that fucceeded the peace widely diffufed a fpirit of enterprife and of emigration ; and was followed by a furprifing in- creafe of population and wealth. Hence arofe thofe various traits of national charafter, and thofe diverfified habits, manners, and cuftoms, which have diftinguiftied this ftate. It is obferved, that the new charafter imparted by the in- flux of emigrants is beneficial to the ftate ; more efpecially as the New England people have introduced their improved agriculture, their fpirit of enterprife, their ingenuity in the arts, and their focial habits. In this ftate, it is faid, there are about 100,000 freeholders ; and freehold etlates are known to produce for their proprietors from 30,000 down to 50 dollars per annum ; and this faft is alleged as form- ing a peculiar feature of the civil habits, manners, and cuf- toms of the population of this ftate. The Englifh language is chiefly prevalent in this ftate ; though the Dutch and German are in ufe among people of Dutch and German defcent : but thefe and other dialefts are declining, in confequence of the intercourfe and influence of a large majority of thofe who fpeak Englifh. Some few inftances, however, occur, in which public worfhip is per- formed in the Dutch, German, and Welfh dialefts. The tafte for literature znA/cience is gradually increafing, and is promoted by a variety of pubhcations ; and by the progreflive improvement of fchool education, for which a liberal fund is provided, which has been already mentioned. We are informed by the writer of communications, of which we avail ourfelves in the compilation of this article, that there are about a hundred printing eftablifhments in this ftate, and fixty-nine gazettes, befides a very confiderable number of other pubhc journals, which contribute to diffufe various kinds of knowledge. The advancement of literature is promoted by N an YORK. an i..aitution eftabli(hed in 1787. T'}'^' y^LT'' ioc^l I.n.verfity of the State of New York ; be^ ^ J-^ dill.naion, and the Columbia college claims h,gh repu '^tn'his'rat^therra're fifteen banking companies with a very confiderable fum of capital (lock, which >s fa.d to have amounted in .8,1 to .2,380,000 dollars; and •'=-?- rated alTurance companies. The manufaaure of this il.te, confiding of woollen, linen, and cotton cloths, leather, paoer hats, iron, &c. are in an improving condition, and are Uid to have amounted, in 18. i, to 30,000,000 dollars, ofwnich ,2,000,000 were produced by houfehold induftry ana enter- prife. If we judge of the commerce of this ftate by the re- turns of 1810, it mull appear to be very confiderable. 1 he domeftic exports of that year amounted to 10,928.573 dol- lars, and the foreign to 6,313,757, making a total ot J ,7^242,330 dollars; andit is faid that the port of New York yie'lds about one-fourth of the revenue of the United States, arifing from commerce. The exports, exclufive of articles from foreign countries, confift principally of beef, tallow, pork, hams, lard, wheat, maize, rye, butter, cheefe, pot and pearl afhes, flax-feed, peas, beans, horfes, cattle, lum- ber, flour and meal, bread and bifcuit. The foreign exports are compofed of important articles. Wheat, which is the na- tional ftaple, is exported annually to a very great amount ; and about 6,000,000 of bulhels on an average, after dedud- ing the fupplies for the country, are fent to market from the iuVplus produa of this ftate. The average annual payments into the treafury of the United States, for duties on imports, tonnage, &c. exceed 4,000,000 of dollars from the diftria of New York. The Societies for promoting ylgriculture and the Arts m this ftate are numerous. It has alfo feveral Tlft'^iW S'ociV/i^ ; an Hijlorical Society ; and alfo an Academy of Arts lately efta- bUlhed at New York. Bible and Mijfmnary Societies are in- ftituted in New York, Albany, and fome other counties ; and the Charitable and Humane Societies abound. In the city of New York alone there are about forty benevolent inlHtu- tions ; and there are focieties of the fame kind, as well as thofe of a liter.nry nature, in Albany, Hudfon, Schenec- tady, Troy, Poughkeepfie, Kingfton, Newburgh, Utica, and moll of the large towns. The Slate-Prlfon, or Penitentiary, is about two miles from the city-hall, in the city of New York, on the E. bank of the Hudfon: it was built in 1796-7, and together with its buildings and courts comprifes four acres of ground. The immediate government of the prifoii is committed to feven in- fpeaors. The convia? are all drcfled in uniform, the fexes kept feparate, and all are comfortably clothed and fed. Great care is taken of their morals, in the benevolent hope of a reformation. The Natural Curiofilies of this ilate comprehend the cata- rafts or falls of Niagara, of the Mohawk, of the Hudfon, of Weil Canada creek, of Black river, Seneca river, Genefee river, and fome others of lefs note. It is probable, that the fouthern and weftern parts of this ilate were occupied by a confiderable proportion of Indians at a remote period. So long ago as the year 1535, the country about the lake Onondaga was confidered as a favourite fituation by the wandering tribes : but their condition was not much known tillabout the year 1635. At that time, the Iroquoife, or Five Nations, occupied the countries from lake Erie to Ontario, the St. Lawrence, around lake Champlain, and the whole of that watered by the Hudfon down to the Highlands, were very numerous and warlike. Such was their afcefldancf, that the Indians of the lower country of the Hudfon, ou the Conneaicut, the Delaware, and Sufquehanna rivers, were in a kind of fubjeaion to them. Onondaga was the principal fettlement, and the feat of Indian power. Their combina- tion confided of Onondagas, Oneidas, Mohawks, Cayugas, and Senecas ; and it was then fo powerful as to be able to fend feveral thoufand warriors on diftant expeditions. The firft Chnftian colonids, availing themfelves of Indian wars, which they promoted, taught the Indians to defpife and abhor thofe for their hypocrify and perfidy whom they had firft confidered as beings of a fuperior order ; and thus ori- irinated the implacable enmities wiiich not only continued but increafed wheu the French and Britifh became rival nations. About the year 1690, the Englifh ereaed a ftrong fort at Onondaga; and in 1696, the French fent a confiderable force againft the Indian fettlement, and fucceeded in deftroy- ing it. From this time, colonies of each of thefe nations were planted there at different periods. But we forbear, to purfue their hidory, and to trace the fanguinary conflias that ferved mutually to irritate and incenfe Indians and pro- feffed Chridians. At this time, the principal fettlements of the Indians are at Oneida and Onondaga, on the Genefee and Alleghany rivers, Buffalo creek, and Tufcarora, befides other places which we have not room to enumerate in detail. But we mud haden to finifh this (Icetch of the New York ftate by a brief abdraa of its hiflory. Soon after the difcovery of America, towards the com- mencement of the 1 6th century, the prefent ftate of New- York was pofTeded by the Iroquoife, and Canada by the Al- gonquins, two rival nations of Indians. About the year 1608, the French planted colonies in Canada, which they had laid claim to from having firft failed up the St. Lawrence as far as the prefent Montreal. In 1609 Champlain, the foun- der, difcovered lakes Champlain and George, when he de- feated a fmall party of the Iroquoife. In 1608 Hudfon, an Englifhman, difcovered the Eail and North rivers, afcend- ing up the latter as far as the prefent Albany ; and foon after he fold his right to the Dutch. In 16 14 the States General of Holland ereaed a fort at Albany, and granted an exclufive trade on Hudfon river to the Dutch Weft India company ; and in 1629, Wouter van T wilier, the firft go- vernor, arrived, and took the command of New Netherland, as it was then called. The Englifh, who dill laid claim to this country, objeaed to the fale of Hudfon ; and in 1663-4, the Englifh king granted the whole to his brother James, duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II. A fmall armament fubdued the colony for England, which then took the name of New York, as did the city alfo. In 1673 New York was conquered by the Dutch, but reftored in 1673-4. The duke's grant was confirmed, and the co- lony afligned to the Englifh by treaty ; and this right they held till the Revolution. From the furrender of the pro- vince in 1664 to 1683, the duke of York poffelFed full fo- vereignty. He appointed the governor and the council, who made rules and orders that were acknowledged as laws. Thefe were called the duke's laws ; they werecolleaed and arranged about 1674, and a copy of them is depofited among the records of the ftate. Thofe, it is faid, which were made in 1683, and after the duke's acceffion to the throne of England, when the people were admitted to a participa- tion of the legiflative power, are defaced or loft. No regard is now paid to any laws made here antecedently to 1691, when the firft legiflative affembly was organized. New York was then divided into nine counties, and the houfe confifted of feventeen delegates. The fecond legiflative affembly was convened in 1 708. We fhall not minutely trace YORK. trace the feries of events that occurred in this ftate before the year 1776, when, on July 4, the thirteen united colonies were declared independent. This was followed in 1777 by the formation and adoption o£ the ftate conftitution, by a convention of delegates, which was revifed in 180 1. In 1783, New York was evacuated by the Briti(h,and general Wafhington made his public entry Nov. 25. In 1787 the prefent conftitution of the United States was propofed by the convention, and acceded to by this ftate in 1788, by a majority of 30 to 25 votes. General Wafhington was elefted prefident of the United States, and Congrefs met at New York for the firft time under the new federal conftitu- tion, M5rch4, 1789. In 1797 Albany was made the capi- tal of the ftate. In 1801 the legiflature divided the ftate into thirty counties, and thefe into towns. An academy of the fine arts was founded in New York, In 1807 a fteam- boat was eftablifhed on the Hudfon for paffengers, between New York and Albany ; and in 181 1 their number was 5. In 1809-10, the capital was built at Albany, at an expence of 1 1 jjooo dollars, and was firft ufed by the legiflature in the feffion of 1809-10. York, Nao, a county in the American ftate of the- fame name, comprifes the ifland of Manhattan, or York ifland, on the E. fide, and near the mouth of Hudfon river. It is about 14^ miles long from N. to S., and in breadth varying from half a mile to two miles : its area is about 2if fquare miles, or 13,920 acres. It is fituated between 40" 42', and 40° 52' N. lat., and o' and 8' E. long, fronri the city of New York. It is bounded on the N. and E. by Haarlem and Eaft rivers, S. and W. by the Hudfon, or by York bay, and the ftate of New Jerfey. The limits of the county, town, and city of New York are the fame ; and the only legal fubdivifions are the wards, ten in number. The jurifdiftion of the city and county of New York ex- tends to low-water mark on the oppoCte (hores of the waters that furround this county. The agriculture of New- York county is highly refpeftable, and its horticulture is in the firft ftyle of the country. The whole population of the county probably exceeds 100,000 ; by the cenfus of 18 10, it amounted to 96,373. This county fends 11 members to the houfe of aflembly. York, New, a city of America, the capital of a county of the fame name, is fituatedon the E. bank, at the confluence of Hudfon and Eaft rivers, at the fouth end of New York ifland. N. lat. 40'^ 42' 40". W. long, from Greenwich 74'^ o' 45". The compaft part of this city extends along the Hudfon about two miles, and along Eaft river, from the S.W. angle of the battery, near four miles : its circuit is about 71 miles. The ftreets of the ancient part are irregu- lar ; but the northern part has been recently laid out to greater advantage. Many of the ftreets are fpacious, run- ning in right lines, and interfefted by others at right angles. The furface has at prefent a gentle afcent from the Hudfon and Eaft rivers, and commands a fine view on the right and left of the town, the above-named rivers, and their crowds of ftiipping. The principal ftreets are, Broadway, opening to the N.E., and extending through the whole length of the city, Greenwich-ftreet, Pearl-ftreet, &c. &c. The ufual tides at New York are about fix feet, and the depth of water is fuf&cient for the largeft ftiips ; and the harbour, which is fafe and good, is capacious enough for the largeft fleets, and very rarely obftrufted by ice. The houfes of this city are well built of brick, and its public buildings are numerous and elegant. The firft of thefe that deferves mention is the city -hall, in which are held the courts for the city and county of New York. This building ftands on elevated ground, and its ftrufture is ornamental to the city. The whole number of the churches, or houfes for ChtiHiait worfliip, is 37, befides a Jewifh fynagogue. Of thefe. eighc are Prefljyterian, eight Epifcopal, four Dutch Reformed, three Scots Preftjyterian, three Methodift, two for Fnends or Quakers, two Baptift, two German Lutheran, one French Proteftant, one Moravian, one Roman Catholic, two African. The New York hofpital is an extenfiveeftablifli- ment ; the cuftom-houfe adjoins the battery at the S.W. angle of the city ; the gaol and bridewell are oppoCte to the Park, and the alms-houfe is on the fame fquare with the gaol, bridewell, and city-hall. The college is about mid- way between the Park and the river Hudfon ; and St. John's church, reckoned the moft elegant in the city, is in Hudfon- fquare, farther north. The ftate-prifon is two miles N. of the battery, on the bank of the Hudfon. Here are alfo a hbrary and theatre, fix market-houfes, and many other buildings that might, if fpace were allowable, be enume- rated. There are eight banking-companies in this city ; and their houfes and offices, together with thofe of the infurance, manufafturing, and other companies, and thofe of various fo- cieties, add to the number of edifices that adorn the metro- polis. The population, which by the cenfus of 1810 was eftimated at 96,373, is fuppofed to amount to more than 100,000. The city and harbour of New York have beea lately fortified againft naval aflaults at a very great expence : but we fhould be tedious in minutely defcribing the works which have been conftrufted for this purpofe. The number of charitable eftabliihments, and of fchools for education in this city, is very great, and does honour to the difpofition and liberaUty of its inhabitants. The markets, which are kept every day, are well fuppHed with the productions both of land and water. The public walks and amufements in the vicinity of this city afford attraftion to its ftated inhabit- ants, and to thofe who occafionally refort hither. The theatre, reading-rooms, public-gardens, park, and walks on the battery, afford amufement, and contribute to aftivity and health. The city of New York is governed by a mayor, recorder, aldermen, and afliftants, who conftitute the common coun- cil. Each ward choofes an aldemian and affiftant. The mayor, deputy-mayor, recorder, and aldermen, are ex -officio juftices of the peace, and juftices of oyer and terminer ; and the mayor, aldermen, and commonalty, are authorized to hold a court of record or of common pleas ; and this is called the mayor's court, and deemed of great importance. For the manufactures, commerce, literary inftitutions, &c. &c. of the city of New York, we refer to the account already given of the ftate of New York. Melifti. Morfe. Spaf- ford's Gazetteer of New York, 1813. York, New, a poft-town of Virginia; 167 miles S.W. of Wafhington. York Town, or York, a townfliip of Weft Chefter county, in the ftate of New York, 45 miles N. of New York, bounded N. by Duchefs county, E. by Somers and Newcaftle, S. by Newcaftle, W. by Cortlandt ; in length N. and S. 10 miles, and nearly 4 miles wide. The general furface is hilly, but produftive, and well diftributed into arable, pafture, and meadow lands. In 1810, here were 269 taxable inhabitants, 142 eleftors, and in all 1924 inhabitants. York Town, a town of the ftate of Virginia, capital of the county of York, on the right bank of York nver, about 10 miles from its mouth, containing about 800 inhabitants. In the year 1781, the Britifh army under lord ComwaUis furrendered themfelves prifoners of war to the united forces of America and France near this town, and was the occa- fion of a peace which followed foon after. A marble 5^ 2 column, YORK.sHIR'E. coiumii, with afuitableiiifcriptioii and trophies, was ordered by Coiigrefs to be ercttcd on the fpot in commemoration ot ttie event ; 8 miles E. of Wilhamfburgh. YORKSHIRE, a county in the northern part ot England, which, for extent, for its number of inhabitants, and for its natural and artificial produdions, is by tar the n.oft confiderable in the kingdom. In its general form the county is an irregular quadrangle ; the longeft diagonal ex- tends from N.W. to S.E. about 130 miles, and the fliorteft from S.W. to N.E. about 90 miles. The area of the county comprehends about 5,960 fquare miles, or above 3,814,000 (latute acres. Yorklhire, taken at its extreme points, is fituated between the parallels of 53° 18', and 54° 40' N. latitude-, and between 2° 40' of W. and o" 10' of E. longitude from Gre.-nwich. On the N., the E., and part of the S. fides, it i? diilinttly defined by rivers and by the fea. On the N. it is feparated in its whole extent, from the county of Durham, by the river Tees. From the mouth of r is river to the entrance of the Humber, the whole E. )' is wafhed by the German ocean. By the eftuary of »he Humber and the river Trent, it is divided from Lincolnfhire oa the S. The limits between York- fhire, and the count-es of Nottingham, Derby, and Cheller on the S., and tbife feparating it from Lancafhire and Weftmoreland on the W., are merely conventional, being indicated by no natural feature of the country ; the latter, however, in general, coincide with the mountainous range which diftinguifhes the northern from the fouthern pro- vinces of England. At a very early period of the Saxon dominion, the great county of York was fubdivided into three diftrifts, lliU recognifed, and ilill under the corrupted name of ridings. Thefe are termed north, eaft, and weft, in reference to their relative pofitions with refpeA to each other, and to the capital city of the county. The North Riding is fubdivided into 1 2 wapentakes, the Eaft into 7, and the Weft into 1 1 wapentakes ; the whole county thus con- taining 30 wapentakes and 563 parilhes. The wapentake, a divifion adopted in certain northern counties of England, correfponds generally to the cantred or hundred of the fouthern provinces. The whole county comprehends one archiepifcopal city, York, and 59 market-towns, of which 13 are parliamentary boroughs. Of thofc laft in the North Rid)agare 5, viz. Malton, Northallerton, Richmond, Scarborough, and Thirfk ; the Eaft Riding contains three^ boroughs, Beverley, Heydon, and Hull ; in the Weft Riding the five boroughs are, Aldborough, Boroughbridge, Knaref- borough, Pontefraft, and Ripon. Yorkftiire fends thirty members to parliament ; viz. two for the county, two for the city, and two for each of the borouglis juft named. According to the official reports made in 18 ri, the number of houfes and iniiabitants in the county was the following : — In the North Riding 33,567 houfes, and 152,445 inha- bitants; in the Eaft Riding (York city included), 31,420 houfes, and 167,353 inhabitants ; and in the Weft Riding, 129,575 houfes, and 653,315 inhabitants. From this ilate- nient, Yorkfhire, at that period, contained altogetlier 194,562 houfes, and 973,113 inhabitants, or on an average 163 perfons for each fquare ftatute mile. General Appearance^ Soil, and Climate Yorkftiire is an extenfive and interefting county : in its geographical fea- tures, and geological charafteriftics, it prefents important themes for inquiry and difquifition. Its a.xient hiftory, and the numerous antiquities with which it abounds, afford other and not lefs interefting topics for inveftigation and comment. The manufaftures, commerce, and trade of the county ; its mineral produftions, and agricultural praftices, are alfo entitled to the moft careful and critical develope- 9 ment of the topographer. It is, however, to be regretted, that neither of thefe fubjefts has hitherto been fatisfaAorily elucidated by a local hiftorian : whence we ftiall be necefli- tated to relort to and cautioufly analyfe feveral detached and imperfeft works, to rendes a ftiort topographical ac- count of this widely-extended county in any degree iifeful to the general reader. In the fequel thefe works will be referred to. Yorkftiire prefents a great variety of furface : mountains, hills, vales, moors, fens, rocks, coaft, and rivers, are its component parts ; but thefe are greatly diverfified. The North Riding confifts principally of two hilly regions, feparated by a comparatively low traft, which opens on the S. into the Ipacious plain or vale of York. The hilly parts are commonly termed, from their pofition and their nature, the E. and the W. moorlands. Thofe on the E. bounded by the valley of the river Tees on the N., and by the fea on the N.E., occupy a fpace of 30 miles from W. to E. by about half as much from N. to S. They confift in general of bleak heath, interfperfed with loofe blocks of ftone, or with peat-mofs and bog. The whole is deftitute of wood, ex- cepting in a few interefting dales or valleys, where culti- vation is prafticable. Of thefe dales a few are of moderate extent, particularly Eflcdale and B'lfdale, in the eaftern parts toward the fea. The weftern extremity of thefe moorlands, in the diftrift of Hamilton, produces heath in- termingled with large quantities of coarfe grafs. Between the N. edge of the moorlands and the river Tees is the fertile diftrift of Cleveland. Several produftive valleys interfeft the W. moorlands, of which Wenfleydale is the moft con- fiderable. Watered by the river Ure, the bottom of the valley furnifties rich grazing grounds, bordered on each fide by floping inclofed fields, which reach up the hills for more than a mile from the river. In the Eaft Riding the face urgh, or more properly Coningftjurgh. The caftle, ©ne of the moft interefting edi- fices of the kind in the N. of England, a building of great extent and ftrength, is commanded by the high ground on which the village is placed. The area of the caftle is in circuit about 700 feet, encompaffed by a very deep ditch, now filled with trees. Of Knarefburgh caftle, once a fortrefs of importance, but few remains are now to be feen. It is believed to have been erefted by Serlo de Burgh, who received the manor as a reward for his fervices at the Con- queft. Pontefraft caftle, the fcene of many tranfaftions of note in Englifh hiftory, in particular of the murder of Richard II., is built on a lofty rock. Sheffield caftle, for- merly of great ftrength from its fituation, between and at the meeting of the rivers Don and Sheaf, was levelled to the ground by the parHament in the civil wars. The ancient cattle of Skipton, in the W. part of the county, is ftill in a habitable ftate. It now belongs to the earl of Thanet ; but was formerly the refidence of the powerful family of Chffbrd, of which Henry, the fourteenth lord, was, in IJZJ, created earl of Cumberland. Near the E. bank of the Darwent, S.E. from York, are the remains of the magnificent caftle of Wrefsle, fuppofed to have been erefted by Peroy, earl of Worcefter, in the reign of Richard II., towards the end of the 14th century. Originally the caftle formed a quadrangle, having a tower at each corner, and a fifth over the entrance. Wrefsle was one of the places of refidence of the great earls of Northumberland, where they lived in a ftyle of fplendour and magnificence, formed on the model and with the ftate of the royal houfehold. Notwithftanding the zeal evinced by the earl of Northumberland in the caufe of the parha- ment, the caftle was, in 1650, difraantled. Three fides of the quadrangle were demoliftied, and an accidental fire in 1796 completed its deftruAion. The fcite belongs to the earl of Egremont. Seats To defcribe the number of admirable ftruftures of modern times, with which the county of York is adorned, would require a volume. In this place merely to no- tice fome of the moft eminent feats is all that can be at- tempted. About 13 miles N.N.E- from York is fituated Caftle-Howard, the princely manCon of the earl of Carhfle, of the illuftrious houfe of Howard. On the fcite of the ancient caftle of Hinderfkelf the prefent building was ereded, abont a century ago, by fir .lohn Vanbrugh, the celebrated O archited YORKSHIRE. architea of Blenheim. Caftle-Howard, in its general ar- rangement and appearance, bears an evident refemblance to that fuperb ilrudure, and indicates the geniu3 of that dif- tinguifhed artift. In extent of front it exceeds Blenheim, and in exterior difplay of magnificence it is, perhaps, fupe- rior. Tlie interior, fpacious and lofty, is enriched with a very vahiable alTemblage of paintings by mafters of the greateil celebrity ; and the colleaion of antique ftatues, butts, &c. is pccuUaily interefting. The furrounding park and grounds are diftributed and ornamented in a way fuitable to the grandeur of the ftruaure they inclofe. Duncombe-park, the feat of Charles Slingfty Duncombe, efq., 22 miles N. from York, alfo ereaed by Vanbrugh, is fplendid in itfelf, and fplendidly adorned with paintings of the moft eminent artifts. Harewood-houfe, the refidence of the earl of Hare- wood, fix miles N. from Leeds, is a magnificent ftruaure, commenced in 1760, in which are combined grandeur of defign and ornament, with convenience and accommodation of arrangement. One of the greateft ornaments, not of Yorkfhire only, but of the kingdom, is Wentworth-houfe, once the habitation of the diftinguiftied patriot Charles mar- quis of Rockingham, from whom it defcended to his nephew and heir the prefent earl Fitzwilliam. It is fituated in a fpacious park, four miles N.W. from Rotheram, and feven N.N.E. from Sheffield. The manfion extends in front about 600 feet, forming altogether a ftruaure of uncommon magnificence. Nor is the interior deficient in appropriate arrangement and fplendour. In approaching the houfe, the attention of the vifitor is arrefted by a noble maufoleum, raifed in 1788, by the prefent earl, to the memory of his uncle, the marquis. This monument is placed on an emi- nence, and is in itfelf 90 feet in height, divided into three parts. The fquare Doric bafement fupports a fimilar ftruc- ture of the Ionic order, with open arches on the fides ex- hibiting a farcophagus ; the whole furmounted by a cupola. Within the bafement ftory is a chamber containing a ftatue of the marquis, by Nollekens. Around the walls are bufts of eight of his principal political friends, C. J. Fox, fir G. Saville, &c. Wentworth-houfe, ereaed by the earl of Strafford in 1730, but now the feat of Henry Vernon, efq., is a noble fabric. Towards the fouthern border of the county, mid- way between Doncafter and Workfop, is Sandbeck, the fuperb manfion of the earl of Scarborough, ereaed nearly fifty years ago. Ecclefiajlical State. — A very important change in the con- dition of the ecclefiaftical eftabhftiments in Yorkftiire, and over England in general, was introduced by WiUiam I. Prior to the Conqueft the Saxon prelates, with their arch- deacons and other delegates, fat in the courts with the earls and (herifTs for the adminiftration of juftice ; receiving with the lay-judges a fhare of the fines impofed on offenders. According to the original charter, however, ft ill prefcrved among the records of the cathedral of Lincoln, the Con- queror declared, that no bifhop or archdeacon ftiould, in future, hold ecclefiaftical pleas in the hundred-court, nor fuffer any caufe of a fpiritual nature to come under the cognizance of fecular perfous. Whoever, therefore, of- fended againtt the canons of the church was to be tried by a tribunal, to be appointed by the bifhop of each diocefe. It was alfo ftrialy enjoined on all fheriffs, royal officers, or other lay perfons, not to encroach on the epifcopal jurifdic- tion. Thefe regulations were afterwards confirmed, in a general council of the nation, by the biftiops, abbots, and all the principal nobihty ; but thofe nobles and prelates were then almoft all Normans or other foreigners. To this artful feparation of the ecclefiaftical from the civil jurif- prudence, the jealoufies, contrarieties> contefts, and open ruptures, by which the kingdom was, on various occafioust brought almoft to its ruin, muft be afcribed. In addition to the diffenfions occafioned in this way, the difpute refpea- ing the fuperiority of the fee of Canterbury over that of York was conduaed with peculiar animofity, between^the Norman prelates of both. In 1070, Thomas, a canon of Bayeux in Normandy, appointed to York, repaired to Can- terbury for confecration from the hands of archbiftiop Lan^ franc, who had been previoufly inftallsd ; but refufing to fwear obedience to the fee of Canterbury, the confecration did not take place. The famous Gregory VII. making it now a rule to confer the pall on no prelate who did not ap- pear in perfon before him, the two contending Englifli arch- bifhops were required to prefent theicfelves in the court of Rome, where the difpute was referred for decifion to a fynod of the clergy of England. By this council, affembled at Windfor in 1072, a fentence amounting to acompromife was pronounced. The rights claimed by Canterbury were confirmed ; but Lanfranc difpenfed with the oath of obe- dience from Thomas of York. In his profeflion of obedi- ence, however, Thomas acknowledged that the archbifhops of York and their fuffragans were bound to obey the man- date of the primate of Canterbury, when required to attend him in council, wherever it fhould be held. On the ap- pointment to York of Thurftan, chaplain and fecretary of Henry I. in 1 1 15, the difpute was again revived ; but in 1 1 21, Thurftan, who had obtained favour at Rome, was permitted by Henry, whom his pertinacity had irritated, to return to York. It does not, however, appear that he ever made any fatisfaaion for his refiftance to the claims of Can- terbury ; or that a profeflion of obedience to that fee was ever made by any of his fucccffors. From this time, there- fore, York maintained its independency, and, a few years afterwards, had certain fufFragan bifhops placed under its authority. Roger of York, in 1 162, procured a bull from Rome, granting him the privilege of crowning the kings of England, pofTeifed by fomeof his predecefTors, and of having his crofs carried erea before him throughout the whole kingdom. But in 1 165, in the reign of Henry II., the latter privilege was by pope Alexander III. reftriaed to Roger's peculiar province. Oppofing claims were neverthelefs ad- vanced on both fides, until Edward HI. by influence and management procured from Rome a confirmation of the arrangement he had accomplifhed between the contending prelates. Then was introduced the cafuiftical and filly dif- tinaion, ftill preferved, in the titles of the two metropoli- tans, by which the arclibifhop of York is ftyled primate of England, and his brother of Canterbury primate of all England. The county of York is wholly and immediately under the fuperintendence of the archbifhop, whofe fuffragans are the bifhops of Carlifle, Chefter, Durham, and the Ifle of Man. The latter, ftyled bifhop of Sodor (the fouthern ifles of Scotland) and Man, prefiding over a diocefe not formerly pertaining to England, has no feat in the houfe of peers. Under the archbifhop, ecclefiaftical affairs are conduaed by archdeacons ; an office firft introduced into the diocefe, as it is faid, by Thomas the Norman, appointed in 1070. Fertile and extenfive as is the county of York, the number of religious honfes ereaed within its bounds, in former times, was prodigious. " Thefe were in all," according to Burton, (Monafticon Eboracenfe, ) " 106 ; -viz. abbeys 14, priories 44, alien priories 7, cells 13, and houfes of friars of various orders 28." Of thofe eitablifhments the ruins of many houfes ftill exift ; fome of them exhibiting very piaurefque and attraaive monuments of ancient devotion and liberality. St. Mary's abbey adjoining to York gives fufficient indica- tipns Y O R tions of its original grandeur. The abbots of St. Mary's and of Selby, both of the Benediftine order, were alone en- titled to wear the mitre on the N. fide of Trent. But for an account of thefe abbeys, and that of Whitby, the reader is referred to the defcription of the feveral towns in which they are fituated. Of fome others, erefted in detached fituations, a few may be here noticed. About three miles S.W. from Ripon are the magnificent and pifturefque ruins of Fountain's abbey, of the Ciftercian order, founded in 1 132 ; and fo named, not from any abundance of fprings of water at the place, but from the village of Fontaines in Burgundy, where St. Bernard, the great patron of the order, was born. But the ftrufture, of which the remains are fo great an ornament to the country, was commenced in 1 204. Built in the moft elegant ftyle of the ancient pointed architefture, the tower and the walls of the church ftill remain ; the roof only being ruined. The length of the church was 351 feet, and that of the tranfept 186. The great tower, Angularly fituated at the N. end of the tran- fept, is in height 166 feet. The whole edifice may be con- fidered as one ot the fined fpecimens of the fimple but ma- jeftic ftyle of the time of Henry III. and his fuccefTor Ed- ward I. The abbey now forms a peculiar ornament to the celebrated grounds of Studley-Royal. On the N. bank of the river Aire, three miles to the weft ward of Leeds, are the remains of Kirkftal abbey, founded in 1 147, by a colony of Ciftercian monks from Fountain's abbey. The venerable remains of the Ciftercian abbey of Rieval, or Rievaulx, are fituated in a valley, about three miles northwards from Dun- combe. park, from which they appear with peculiar advan- tage. Of the very ancient monaftery of Ripon no part now exifts. The collegiate church, or minfter, ftill an interefting edifice, was partly rebuilt in the middle of the 14th century. Roche abbey, fituated near lord Scarborough's feat of Sand- beck, in a deep narrow vale, is now reduced to a few arches, and a portion of the nave. AuAoritks. — Monafticon Eboracenfe, or the Ecclefiaf- tical Hiftory of Yorkfhire, by John Burton, M.D. F.S.A. folio, 1758. Topographical Diftionary of Yorkfhire, by Thomas Langdale, 8vo. 1809. Eboracum, or the Hiftory and Antiquities of the City of York, by Francis Drake, F.R.S. and F.S.A. folio, 1736. Hiftory of Cleveland, by the Rev. John Graves, 4to. 1808. Hiftory and Antiqui- ties of the Deanery of Craven, by T. D. Whitaker, LL.D. F.S.A. 4to. 1812. General View of the Agriculture of the North Ridmg of Yorkfhire, by Mr. Tuke, 4to. 1794. Ditto of Eaft Riding, by Ifaac Latham, Efq. 8vo. 1794. Ditto of Weft Riding, by Meflrs. Rennie, Brown, and Sheriff, 8vo. 1794. Yorkshire Cows, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes applied to a large fhort-horned breed of thefe cattle, which afford much milk, but which is not of the moft rich kind, and which are much produced on the fine paftures in that diftrift. See Cow and L-ivz-StocL Yorkshire White, in Agriculture, a perennial grafs that thrives well in moft fituations, and which grows very gene- rally on all foils, except thofe that are of the moft barren and dry qualities. It flowers in the middle of the fummer, and is well calculated for fheep, as it anfwers uncommonly ■well when clofely fed down. It is faid not to be much relifhed by neat cattle, and confidered injurious to horfes, which, in fome cafes, are fuppofed to become affefked with a profufe difcharge of urine and general weaknefs in confe- quence of the ufe of it. But fhould any hay, made from this grafs, be accidentally given to thefe animals, and pro- duce thefe effefts, an immediate change of the fodder will YOU prevent any further bad confequences. Its foliage Ts rather foft and woolly. The proportional value which the grafs at the time the feed is ripe bears to that at the time of flowering, is as 1 1 to 12. It is an ufeful fort of grafs in many cafes of laying land down to pafture and other fuch purpofes. See HoLCUS Lanatus. YO-SANPOO, in Geography. See Sakpoo. YO-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the province of Hou-ouang, fituated on the Yang-tfe river, and on the Tong-ting lake. This lake, which refembles a fea, is remarkable for the greatnefs of its circuit, which is rnore than 210 miles ; for th*" qu^.iti^y of its water, efpe- cially in certain feafons, in which the two great rivers of the provinces Ivvellcd with rains, difcharge themfelves into it, paffing out on the other fide fenfibly diminifhed ; and for its aftonifhing quantity of fine fifh which are caught therein. The great number of barks and merchandizes which are brought thither render it one of the richeft cities in the empire ; its diiliiSs contain one town of the fecond order, and feven of the third ; fome on the eaft fide of the lake, and others on the weft. The country round is every where extremely fruitfLil, and full of different kinds of orange and lemon trees ; 675 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 29° 23'. E. long. 1 12° 35'. YOUB, El, a town of Algiers j 50 miles S.W. of Tremecen. YOUGH Glades, a poft-town of Maryland ; 173 miles N.W. of Wafhington. YOUGHAL, a fea-port, borough, and poft-town of the county of Cork, Ireland, fituated at the mouth of the river Blackwater, in the eaftern part of the county. Youghal is an ancient corporation, and fends a member to the united parliament. It is one of the towns belonging to the duke of Devonfhire, as heir of the eldeft branch of the Boyle family. It has a confiderable corn trade, and is much fre- quented for bathing. There is a collegiate church, the wardenfhip of which is united to the fee of Cloyne. Youghal is 115 miles S.W. from Dublin, and 25 E. from Cork. YOUHIOGENY, a river of America, which rifes m the north part of Virginia, and runs into the Alleghany, at Pittfburgh. YOVIS, a tovra of Africa, in the county of Whidah ; 9 miles E.N.E.. of Sabi. YOULE, a river of Madagafcar, which runs into the fea on the weft coaft, S. lat. 20° 20'. E. long. 44° 40'. YOUNG, Edward, in Biography, a celebrated poet and clergyman of the eftablifhed church, was born at his father's living of Upham, in Hampfhire, in 1684, and removed from Winchefter fchool to New college, in the univerfity of Oxford in 1703, and afterwards to Corpus Chrifti college. In 1 708 he obtained a law-fellowfhip at All Souls by the patronage of archbifhop Tenifon, and at this time poetry was the chief objeft of' his purfuit. His firft performance in this department was " An Epiftle to Lord Lanfdown," one of the twelve peers created at the fame time in 1712 ; and this was followed in the next year by his " Laft Day," to which he prefixed a dedication to queen Anne, extolling the peace of Utrecht. From this circumftance he was re- garded as a court -writer with a fixed ftipend, under which charader Swift alludes to him in his " Rhapfody on Poetry :" »' Where Y muft torture his invention To flatter knaves, or lofe his penfion." O 2 Hi» YOUNG. Hi* next produftion was " Tlie Force of Religion, or Vanquifhed Love," founded on the ftory of lady Jane Gray ; and in 17 14 he infcribed a poem on the death of the queen and the acceflion of George I. to Addifon, who was then fecretary to the lords juftices. In 1719 he be- came tutor to the eldeft fon of the earl of Exeter ; but foon abandoning that conneftion by the folicitations of the duke of Wharton, he graduated doftor of civil laws in this year, and wrote his tragedy of " Bufiris, King of Egypt," vchich was dedicated to the duke of Newcaftle, and favourably received ; and in the fame year he dedicated in a very complimentary (train to lord chancellor Parker, his poetical " Paraphrafeon Part of the Book of Job." In the year 1721 his tragedy, "The Revenge," was exhibited with great applaufe, and dedicated to the duke of Wliarton, whom he avows at his peculiar patron, and from whom he received fome pecuniary favours. His fatires, entitled "The Love of Fame, or the Univerfal Paffion," were fepa- rately publilhed, from 1725 to 1728, and as they became popular, he derived from them confiderable profit. In 1726 he addrelTed his poem, entitled " The Inftalment," to fir Robert Walpole, on his receiving the honour of the Garter ; and he availed himfelf, on the acceflion of king George II., of his recommending an attention to the navy, to compofe two odes, one infcribed " To the King, Pater Patriae," introducing another under the title of " Ocean." Having attained his 44th year, he took orders, and in 1728 was nominated one of the royal chaplains ; and this change of his views and purfuits induced him to withdraw from the ftage his tragedy of " The Brothers," which was under rehearfal. His next publications were adapted to his new profeflion ; and among thefe were his " True Eftimate of Human Life," exhibiting the dark fide of the pifture ; and a fermon preached before the houfe of commons on the 30th of January, entitled " An Apology for Princes, or the Re- verence due to Government ;" a fubjeft not unappropriate to his fituation as royal chaplain. In 1730, Dr. Young was prefented by his college to the reflory of Welwyn, in Hertfordfhire ; and in the following year he married lady Ehzabeth Lee, widow of colonel Lee, and daughter of the earl of Lichfield. Before this time he had refumed his poetical pen, and written " Imperium Pelagi, a Naval Lyric ;" " Two Epiftles to Mr. Pope, concerning the Authors of the Age ;" and " The Sea-Piece," in two odes, dedicated to Voltaire. By his wife, who died in 1741, he had one fon ; and this circumftance, together with fome other domeftic loffes that occurred about the fame period, increafed that melancholy and depreflion of mind to which he was conftitutionally inclined. When he married lady Lee, (he had a fon, and alfo two daughters, the eldeft of whom, denominated by him Narciffa, falling into a dechne, went to the fouth of France, and died at Lyons in 1736. Her huf- band, Mr. Temple, fuppofed to be the poet's Philander, died in 1740; and his own lady died in 1741. If he re- ferred to thefe events in the annexed lines, he muft have taken a chronological hcence hardly allowable even to a poet : " Infatiate archer ! could not one fuffice ? Thy fhaft flew thrice, and thrice my peace was flain ; And thrice, ere thrice yon moon had filled her horn." It is certain that he began to write his " Night Thoughts" in the year 1741 ; and the occafion, as he de- clares, was real, and not fiftitious. The feventh of thefe poems is dated in 1744, and the interval muft have been occupied in the compofition of them. Notwithftanding the fublime ftrains jn which the author eXprefles his piotrs feeling, he is not rcgardlefs of the patronage of diftinguifhed perfons, for to fuch he infcribes them. On this work Dr. Young bellowed much attention and labour, and he valued it as the chief of his produftions. Among his other works, we may mention a poem written as an expreflion of his loyalty in 1745, and entitled "Some Thoughts occafioned by the prefent Junfture, infcribed to the Duke of New- caftle ;" " The Centaur not fabulous, in Six Letters to a Friend, on the Life in Vogue," an overcharged pifture of the exifting manners ; and " A Sermon preached before their Majefties," with a dedication to the king, 1758. Dr. Young, notwithftanding his genius and piety, and his folicitude to obtain preferment, feems to have been difre- garded ; and though archbifliop Seeker exprefles his fur- prife that he had been overlooked by perfons in power, he declines any interference in his favour. It ihould be recoUefted, however, that the attention which he paid to Frederick, prince of Wales, during his variance with his father, was not forgotten ; nor indeed would his junflion of the poetical and clerical character be any recommendation to George II. But the reafon of his name's being ftcuck out of the lift of court-chaplains on the acceflfion of his pre- fent majefty is not known ; it is the more unaccountable, as he was foon after appointed clerk of the clofet to the princefs dowager of Wales. In his retreat at Welwyn he maintained a refpeftable and dignified charafter ; and though the caft of his mind feems to have been gloomy, he was an agreeable and lively com- panion. The clofe of his hfe, however, was rather difcon- iolate than cheerful. The conduft of his only fon, fup- pofed to be the Lorenzo of the Night Thoughts, who is faid to have been a rake and free-thinker, afforded him re- newed opportunities for reproof and farcafm, amd muft have been the occafion of poignant grief ; though Mr. H. Croft vindicates his charafter, alleging that he was only eight years old when his father began that poem. But others have aflerted that he was alarmed and grieved on his account ; and that, notwithftanding the favourable change which took place in his fentiments and chara6\er, his father would not admit him to any interview in his latter years : and even on his death-bed he refufed to fee him, though he af- fured him of his forgivenefs, and made him his heir. Towards the clofe of his life, he furrendered himfelf to the influence of a houfekeeper, and from fome mifmanagement in liis concerns, and a growing difpofition to avarice, he became irri- table in temper and deprelfed in fpirits. His laft produc- tion was a poem, entitled " Refignation," printed in 1762, which indicated the decline of his mental powers. His life was prolonged to the year 1765, and he then died in his 84th year. He was interred in the church of Welwyn, and his fon erefted a monument near the remains of both his parents. Dr. Young is known principally, if not wholly, as a poet ; and his compofitions in this department are diftri- buted into fatires, tragedies, and night thoughts. His fatires are founded on the queftionable principle, that the love of fame is the univerfal paffion of mankind ; and as he did not excel in judgment, they are exercifes of wit and invention rather than grave expofures of vice and folly. As a dramatic writer, he is charged with not underftanding or not adhering to nature, and with indulging his imagi- nation and feehng, and running into exaggeration of cha- rafter and bombaft of expreflion. The only tragedy that has kept pofleffion of the ftage it) his " Revenge," the Zanga of which is faid to have no competitor for theatric effeft YOU efFeil among the perfonages of modern tragedies. His " Night Thoughts" are deemed original in defign and execution. Whatever were the caufes that produced them, they are adapted to excite devout feeling, and to produce moral effetl, though they are juftly complained of as in fome places unintelligible, and as affording too much fcope for criticilm. To many readers, the theology on which they are founded and which they exprefs is too awful and fevere, and not fo well calculated to footh and pacify the hum^n mind under trouble as the gentler and more confo- latory diftates of Chriftianity. They are fometimes tedious and jirolix. They will never be negledled as long as tafte and fufceptibility of virtuous and religious impreffions re- main. The lyric attempts of Dr. Young are faid to have been Angularly unfortunate. From the edition of his works publifhed in his life-time in 4 vols. 8vo., he himfelf excluded feveral compofitions which he thought of inferior merit. Biog. Brit. Croft's Life of Young in Johnfon's Englifh Poets. Gen. Biog. YouxG, Patrick, [Patridus Junius, Lat.), an eminent fcholar, was born in 1584, at the feat of his father, fir Peter Young, who had been co-tutor with Buchanan to James VI. of Scotland, at Seaton in Lothian. Educated in the univer- fity of St. Andrew's, and accompanying his father in the fuiteof king James, he was employed for fome time as libra- rian and fecretary, by Dr. Lloyd, bilhop of Chefter. In 1605 he affumed the degree of M.A. which he had before taken at St. Andrew's, and entering into orders, became chaplain at All Souls' college. During his refidence at Oxford he occupied himfelf in the ftudy of ecclefiaftical hiftory and antiquities, and alfo the Greek language ; and upon his removal to London, he obtained a penfion of 50/. a year, and was occafionally employed by the king and perfons in power in writing Latin letters. His patron was Montagu, bifhop of Bath and Wells, who procured for him the appointment of librarian to the king. In 1617 he was introduced at Paris, bv the recommendation of Camden, to the learned men of that city ; and upon his return, he afillled Thomas Rhead in making a Latin verfion of the works of king James. In 1620 he married, and afterwards was advanced to feveral preferments in the church ; and fucceeded Rhead in 1624 as Latin fecretary. Unknown by any publication, he was neverthelefs honoured as a perfon of diftinguifhed literature, who rendered acceptable and ufeful fervices to learned men. In this way, he was the coadjutor of Selden in the examination of the Arundelian marbles ; and when they were pubhfhed by this celebrated antiquary, he dedicated the work to Young. He was alfo employed in collating the Alexandrian MS. of the Bible with other copies ; and as the refult of his labours, he communicated many various readings to Grotius, Ufher, and other per- fons. It was his intention to have edited a fac-fimile of this MS., but his defign was never executed. He pubhfhed, however, in 1633, from this MS. the " Epiftles of Clemens Romanus," and he propofed editing the curious MSS. from the king's library ; but the civil wars, and the feizure of the royal^ library, prevented the accomplifhment of his purpofe. During the troubles of this period, he fought an afylum with a fon-in-law, at Bromfield in EfTex, where he died in 1652. Young is faid to have indulged to excefs a difpoCtion to oblige, which led him to lend valuable MSS. belonging to the royal library to foreigners and others ; and he has been charged with betraying his truft, by not returning MSS. which he removed to his own houfe in contemplation of the pillage of the library, and thefe were fold among his other eifeds. To obviate this imputation, it lias been alleged Y O U that he purchafed for himfelf many MSS. from Greeks who vifited this country. Smith's Vit. Erudit. Viror Gen. Biog. YouxG is a name borne by many perfons connefted with and remarkable in fome way or other for ufeful talents in the arts. Charles Young, organift of Catharine-cree church, near the Tower, father of three daughters, who were all pubhc fingers : Coecilia, the eldeft, was an ^leve of Geminiani, fpoke Italian well, fung in many of Handel's later operas, and was afterwards married to Dr. Arne ; the fecond Mifa Young, Ifabella, was married to the ingenious and excellent compofer Mr. Lampe, who fet the Dragon of Wantley ; and the third Mifs Young, Efter, afterwards Mrs. Johes, fung on the flage at Covent-Garden theatre to the time of their deaths. Charles, the father of thefe ladies, was, we believe, the fon of Anthony Young, a mufician and mufic feller in St. Paul's church-yard, commonly called Tony Young, who has been faid by fome of the family to have fet " God fave great George our King." But at the time of the rebellion of 1745, when this air was revived, which Dr. Ame's mother affured us was written and fet for king James II., when the prince of Orange was hovering over the coaft previous to the Revolution ; no claim' was then made by the defcendants of Anthony Young, or of any other compofer of this air, which no one durft fing or own after the abdication of king James, without incurring the penalty of treafon to king William ; fo that the fong or hymn lay dormant, and the author concealed for near fixtv years, before it was applied to king George II. There is a quibbhng glee in the firil volume of Purcell's catches on two perfons of the name of Young, father and fon, who lived in St. Paul's church-yard ; the one was an inftrument-maker, and the other an excellent performer on the violin : " You fcrapers that want a good fiddle well ftrung. You muil go to the man that is old while he's Young, But if this fame fiddle you fain would play bold. You mufl go to his fon, who'll be Young when he's old. There's old Young and young Young, both men of renown, Old fells, and young plays, the beft fiddle in town ; Young and old live together, and may they live long. Young to play an old fiddle, old to fell a new fong." Another Young, of the fame family, the proprietor of a mufic-fhop in St. Paul's church-yard till the middle of the laft century, had a relation, an excellent performer on the violin, known by the name of C^'n-Young, from the length of that feature, who led at almoft all the concerts within Temple-bar, particularly at the Blue-coat fchool chapel, Chrift's hofpital, on a Sunday evening, where there ufed to be a performance of facred mufic. Mifs Young, afterwards the hon. Mrs. Scot, and her filler Mrs. Bartleman, both public fingers, feem to have been the laft remains of the mufical family of Young. Young. See Generation, Conception, Gestatio.v, Embryo, Fcetus, Delivery, Child, &c. In the army, that regiment, or officer, is faid to be the younger, junior, which was laft raifed, or whofe commiffion is of lateft date, whatever be the age of the man, or how- ever long he may have ferved in other capacities. YoLXG Plantatiqns, Securing and Sheltering of, in Rural Economy. See Plantation and Sheltering. Young Frederick's IJland, in Geography, a fmall ifland among Queen Ciarlotte'o iflands, in Port Ingraham. Young Nicl's Head, a cape on the eaft coaft of New Zealand, fo called from Nicholas Young, a boy on board the YOU the Endeavour, who difcovered it in 1769. It forms the fouth-welt point of Poverty bay. Young Point, a cape on the eaft corft of St. Vincent. N. lat. 13" 12'. W. lonp. 6i°9'. Young'j IJland, a fmall ifland near the fouth coait ot the idand of St. Vincent ; 2 miles S.E. of Kinjrfton bay. YOUNGE, Nicholas, in Mufica! Hi/lory, an Italian merchant, the editor of "Muiica Tranfalpina," 1588 ; Ma- drigales of four, five, and fixe parts, chofen out of divers excellent Authours ; with the firft and fecond part of La Virginella, made by Maifter Bird upon two Stanzas of Ariofto, and brought to fpeak Englilh with the reft. The editor having opportunities of obtaining from his correfpond- ents the newell and beft compolitions fron-> the continent, had them frequently performed at his houfe, for the entertain- ment of his mufical friends. The fecond collection of the fame kind was publifhcd by the fame editor in 1597 ; in which, among others, there are three madrigals by Crou, three by Luca Marenzio, and fix bvthe elder Ferrabofco. Thefe two colleftions being feleSed from the works of Paleftrina, Luca Marenzio, and other celebrated mailers on the continent, feem to have given birth to that pafiion for madrigals which became fo prevalent among us afterwards, and which the compolers of our own country endeavoured with fuch zeal to gratify. If allowance be made for the wretched ftate of lyric poetry in England at the time the madrigals publiflied in Younge's two coUedlions were tranflated, which was long before the publication of the fonnets of Spenfer or Shak- fpeare, the undertaking feems to have been tolerably exe- cuted. Indeed, fometimes with fuch care and felicity as to transfufe the expreffion of the original words into that of the verfion. The Italians themfelves, at this time, had but little melody or rhyme in their mufic ; but their poetry having been long cultivated, and brought to a much greater degree of perfeftion than ours could then boaft, it indicated to the mufical compofer traits of melody, more airy and marked, perhaps, than we could derive from the profody or phrafeology of our own language. The tranflator of thefe niadrigals, whoever he was, for the editor does not tell us, feems in general to have imitated the original Italian mea- fure and ftrufture of verfe, as well as ideas ; and though they abound with concetti, to which not only Italian poets, but thofe of all the reft of Europe were then fo much ad- difted, the general tafte of the times was indulged in poetry as well as mufic, and metre and melody were at once fur- nifiied with new models. However, the perpetual double rhymes in Italian madri- gals and fonnets have fo much diftreffed our tranflator to fupply them in Englilh, that, as the prefervatinn of the original mufic obhged him to render his verfion toiidem fylla- bis, his embarraffments on this account are fometimes truly ridiculous. It feems as if the conftant double rhymes in Italian poetry, which throw the accent on the penultima, in- ftead of the final fyllable, of a verfe, gave a pecuhar caft to the melody in which it is clothed, and rendered it fpecifically different from that of EngUfh fongs, in which but few double rhymes occur. The conftant and regular mixture of mafculiap-aii3 feminine rhymes in French poetry may like- wife have had a latent effeft on the vocal melody of France, different from that of the other two neighbouring nations. But, after mentioning thefe fufpicions, we Ihall leave the fur- ther inveftigation of fo fubtle a fubjed to philofophers, not only poffeffed of the neceflary knowledge, but an equal zeal for the cultivation of philology, poetry, and mufic. No. 7, in Younge's fecond publication of Itahan madrigals Engliftied, in which the old Saxon termination of the prefent YOU tenfe of the indicative mood of our verbs is conveniently preferved, was doubtlcfs not thought the worll, as it is ap- plied to feveral compofitions in the colleftion. " In vayne he feeks for beauty that excelleth, That hath not fene hir eyes where love fejorneth, How fweetly here and there the fame (he turneth. He knows not how love heateth, and he quelleth. That knows not how flie fighes, and fweet beguileth. And how ftie fweetly fpeakes, and fweetly fmileth." Thefe madrigals were celebrated, nearly forty years after their publication, by Peacham, who has pointed out the pe- culiar excellence of feveral, particularly thofe of Luca Ma- renzio, which, he fays, " are fongs the mufes themfelves might not have been afhamed to have compofed ;" and of thofe by Alfonfo Ferrabofco, the father, he fays, " they cannot be bettered for fweetnefs of ayre and depth of judg- ment." Upon the ditty (words) of one of thefe, " I faw my Ladie weeping," (he fays) Matter Byrd and Alfonfo, in a friendly emulation, exercifed their invention." The words of the Nightingale, and Fay re Sufanna, were fo much admired, that they feem to have been fet by all the beft compofers of the times. A few lines of each will perhaps convey to the reader an adequate idea of the poetical beauty of thefe favourite fongs. The Nightingale. " But my poore hart with forrowes over-f welling, Through bondage vyle, binding my freedom fhort, No pleafure takes in thefe his fports excelling. Nor of his fong receiveth no comfort." Fayre Sufanna. " To them flie fayd, if I, by craft procur'd, Do yeld to you my body to abufe it, I lofe my foule ; and if I ftiall refufe it, You will me judge to death reproachfully. But better it is in innocence to chufe it, Then by my fault t'offend my God on hye." Indeed, in more than twenty fets, publifhed between the ycar« 1588 and 1624, during a period of near forty years, including almoft four hundred and fifty madrigals and fongs in parts, it would be difficult to find any one of which the words can be perufed with pleafure. The fonnets of Spen- fer aiid Shakfpeare, many of which are worthy of their au- thors, were indeed not publifhed till about the end of the fixteenth century ; but afterwards, it is wonderful, that, except one by Shakfpeare, none of them were fet by our beft mufical compofers of their time. YOUNGOULE, la Geography, a fea-port town, on the weft ccaft of the ifland of Madagafcar. S. lat. 23° 30'. E. long. 47'' 4'. YOUNGSTOWN, a townftiip of the ftate of Ohio, in the county of Trumbull, with 773 inhabitants ; 66 miles N. of Pittftjurgh. YouNGSTOWN, an inconfiderable fettlement called a vil- lage in Cambria, Niagara county, and ftate of New York, 1 mile from Fort Niagara, and 6 from Lewifton, containing about fix or eight houfes. YOUNKERS, among Sailors, are the younger h\\oTS, otherwife called foremajl-men ; whofe bufinels is to take in the top-fails, furl the fails, fling the yards, &c. YOU RE, in Geography. See Ure. YOURI, a town of Afffta, in the kingdom of Cafhna. N. lat. 16° ij'. E. long. 11° 2'. YOUTH, Y P 11 YOUTH, AdoUfcence. See Age and Adolescence. The renovation of youth has been much fought after by chemical adepts ; and many of them pretended to various fecrets for this purpofe : but unluckily the death of the pre- tenders proved a fufficient refutation of their doftrine. Pa- raeelfus talks of the mighty things he could do with his ens pr'imum ; and even Mr. Boyle tells us fome ftrange things about the ens primum of balm. ( Boyle's Works abr. Yol. i. p. 75.) But Mr. Boyle gives thefe wonderful ftories on the credit of a French chemift, and not on his own. Youth, Ju-ventus, or Juventas, in the Pagan Theology, a goddefs worfhipped among the Romans, viho, together with the gods Mars and Terminus, kept her place in the Capitol along with .Tupiter, when the other deities were turned out : whence the Romans drew a lucky omen for the duraUenefs of their empire. Mem. Acad. Infcrip. vol. i. p. 71. feq. This ftate of life was, by the ancients, compared to autumn. In which fenfe, Horace fpeakingof one approach- ing to puberty, fays, ■ Jam tibi lividos Diftinguet autumnus racemos, Purpureo vanus colore." The modems, on the contrary, when they fpeak of one in the autumn of his age, mean one that is upon the decline ; and choofe rather to ufe the comparifoii of the fpring, to denote youth. YOWRY, in Geography, a fmall iflaud in the Eaft Indian fea, near the north coaft of New Guinea, on which a nutmeg-tree was found growing by captain Forreft. S. lat. 15'. E. long. 130° 45'. YPAWA, a river of Bohemia, which runs into the Elbe, near its fource. YPERLEE, a river of France, which rifes near Ypres, and runs into the canal of Nieuport. YPOLOTE, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of Paraguay. N. lat. 8= 46'. E. long. 118° 21'. YPRES, or IpRES, a city of France, in the department of the Lys, fituated on the river Ypcrlee, from whence it takes its name. Before the year 800, it was only a chateau, which was facked and ruined by the Normans. Baldwin III. comte of Flanders, repaired the chateau, and built a town about the year 960, which was afterwards enlarged by Thierry, comte of Flanders, and Ferrand, the fon of San- chez, king of Portugal. In the year 1325, the inhabitants revolted with moft part of the neighbouring towns againft Louis de Nevers, comte of Flanders, and pulled down the old wall to build a new one, in which they inclofed the fauxbourgs, which had become fo extremely populous, from weavers and other tradefpeople, that in the year 1242, the number of perfons amounted to 200,000. In the 14th century, the inhabitants of Ypres, for the moft part weavers, were exceedingly troublefome to their neighbours, being unwilling that any people (hould carry on trade befides themfelves. In the year 1383, the rebels of Ghent, aflifted by the Englifti, under the command of the biftiop of Nor- wich, befieged this town with great vigour for fix weeks, but were compelled to retire ; and the Enghfh being obliged to quit Flanders, Philip the Hardy, duke of Burgundy, havmg become mafter by a marriage with the heirefs of the late comte Louis, enlarged it, and furrounded it with walls. It was erefted into a bifhopric under the arch- bifhop of Malines, by pope Paul IV. in the year 1559. The town-houfe is a very large building, forming a fquare, and is faid to have been built by the Englifti, 600 feet 10 Y S E in front ; it has a very handfome tower, in which were kept their pubhc archives from the year 1342. Befides the cathedral, it has feveral other churches, and fome re- ligious houfes. The inhabitants carried on formerly a great trade in woollen cloth, but by the feverity of the duke of Alva, the principal manufafturers were driven to England, from which time that branch of trade declined. At this time they carry on a confiderable manufafture of Imen of excellent fabric ; 4 miles N.W. of Lifle. N. lat. 50° 48'. E. long. 2° 53'. YPSILOIDES, i-liKoulri;, in Anatomy, the third genuine future of the cranium ; thus called from its refembling a Greek J, or upfilon. Some alfo call it XafxCco-i^,,,-, lamhdoides. There is alfo a bone at the root of the tongue, called ypfiloides, and hyoides. See Hyoides. YQUETAYA, in Natural Hiflory, a plant growing in Brafil, long ufed as a medicine in that country ; and lately difcovered to the Europeans by a French furgeon. It has been fince found in France ; where, being culti- vated and examined by Marchant, it appears to be no other than the common water-betony, or fcrophularia aquatica. It has this remarkable property, that it takes away from fena all its ill tafte and fmell ; which property of correfting the infufion of fena was before wholly unknown. To ufe this plant, it muft be dried ten or twelve days in the fhade, and afterwards expofed to the fun, till quite dry. YRAME, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro- vince of Yemen ; loo miles N.N.E of Aden. YRIARTE, Don John de, in Biography, was bom in the Ifle of Teneriffe in 1702, and having completed his education at Paris and Rouen, fettled at Madrid ; where he occupied feveral literary offices, and particularly that of librarian to the king. His life terminated, to the regret of thofe who knew his worth, in 177 1. Among his learned works, the principal are, " Paljeographia Grseca," 4to. ; " Mifcellaneous Pieces in Spanifh, with Latin Poems," 2 vols. 4to. ; " A Catalogue of Greek MSS. in the Royal Library;" and "A Catalogue of Arabic MSS. in the Efcurial," 2 vols. fol. Nouv. Did. Hift. YROUER, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- p.vtment of the Yonne ; 5 miles S. of Tonnerre. YRSEE Abbey, a princely abbey of Germany, in the circle of Swabia, founded in the year 1182. The territory includes the village of Yrfee, and feven others. In 1802, this abbey was given among the indemnities to the eleftor of Bavaria ; 3 miles N.W. of Kaufbeuren. YRVILLAC, a town of France, in the department of the Finifterre : 3 miles S. of Landerneau. YRUN, a town of Spain, in Guipufcoa ; 2 miles S of Fontarabia. YRVON, a river of Wales, in the county of Brecknock, which runs into the Wye, at Builth. YS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Athenseus, and fome other of the Greek writers, to the fifti called mus and fus by others. It is the caprifcus of later writers. See GoAT-FiJh. YSAMBRA, a word ufed by fome as a name for helle- bore, and by others to exprefs a fpecies of poifon prepared in Spain, of which hellebore is an ingredient. ■ YSARD, in Zoology, a name given to the chamois. YSCHE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs into the Dyle, 6 miles S. of Louvain. YSENDYCK, or Isendyck, a town and fortrefs of Flanders, fituated on the fide or arm of the Scheldt, called tlie Y T T the BUe : it was built near a town called Gafteinefre, fwal- lowed up by an inundation of the fea fome centunes ago, M inhabitants can.e to eftabli(h themfelves at this place. The Dutch made tnemfclves mafters of it in the r^r 1604, and fince that time it has been ilrongly fort.hed. wh.ch s Lch amaed by us fituation. being furrounded by mor Ifo. which they can lay under water at pleafure , 8 m.les i.. ofSiuys.N.lat. 51^21'. E. long. 3° 28. YSIPORTAM, in Jncient Geography, a place ot Alia, in Armenia, which had a Roman garnfon. YSNI, in Geography. See LsNV. r u u • 1 YSOPUS, a term ufed by fome to exprefs the chemical art of feparation. ... . YSPAR, a name by which fome of the chemical writers *^^YSSANDON, Jean, in Mujical Biography, born at LefTart in the Compte de Foix, wrote " A Treatife on Praftical Mufic, divided in Two Parts." This book is become very fcarce, and deferves to be reprinted. It was firft printed by Ballard in 1582. Laborde. YSSEL, in Geography. See Issel. YSSENGEAUX. See Issengeau.x. YSTAD, or Ydstad, a fea-port town of Sweden, on the fouth coaft of the province of Schonen, from whence a packet fails to Stralfund. It was formerly well fortified, and contained two churches. The harbour is neither large nor fafe ; 26 miles S.E. of Lund. N. lat. 55° 22'. E. long. 1 3° 44'- . , • r YSTLA, a town of North America, m the province of Mexico. YSTWITH. See Istwith. Y-TCHANG, a town of Corea ; 35 miles W.N.W. of Kang-tcheou. Y-TCHUUN, a town of Corea; 15 miles S.S.W. of Ou-tcheou. — Alfo, a town of Corea; 55 miles N. of King-ki-tao. YTHAN, a river of Scotland, a few miles N. of the Don, that joins the fea, about two miles from Aberdeen, which falls into the German ocean. The Ythan is a ftream formerly celebrated for its pearl filheries, of which fome relics are now found. YTHER, a river of Wales, which runs into the Wye, 3 miles N. of Builth. YTTERON, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Bothnia. I>'. lat. 63° 4'. YTTRA Bergon, a fmall iOand on the W. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 6l* 48'. E. long. 17° 13'. YTTRIA, or Ittria, in Chemljlry, is a pecuhar ele- mentary fubllance ufually confidered as an earth. Yttria has been hitherto met with in a peculiar mineral named Gadolinite, fo named from profeffor Gadolin, who firft analyfed it, and in Yttro-tantalite, both miaerals found only in Sweden. See thofe articles. Yttria has the appearance of a fine white powder, without tafte or fmell. It does not affeft vegetable blues. Its fpecific gravity is confiderably higher than that of the other earths, being no lefs, according to Ekeberg, than 4.842. Yttria is infoluble in water, yet, hke alumina, it is capable, according to Klaproth, of combining with nearly one-third of its weight of that fluid when precipitated from a ftate of folntion by the muriatic acid. In foUitiona of the pure alkalies it is dikewife infoluble ; but in the carbonate of ammonia, and indeed in all the alkaline carbonates, it ditfolves readily. It combines with acids, and forms with them falts, which, as far as they are known, are defcribed below. Yttria is not affeQ:ed by light, and probably does not Y T T combine with oxygen. According to the experiment! of Klaproth, it does not combine readily with Uilpliur. Sir Humphrey Davy found, that when potafQum was palfed through red hot yttria, it was converted into potafli, while grey metallic particles were perceived mixed with the alkali, which were confidered to be the metallic bafis of the earth or yttrium. Nothing further, however, is known refpefting this metallic bafis. The Salts of Titria are but little known. The following only have been examined. Nitrate of Tttria. — This fait was firft. formed by Ekeberg, and has been more lately examined by Vauquelin. It may be prepared by diffolving yttria in nitric acid. The folu- tion has a fweet aflringent tafte, and can fcarcely be made to cryftallize. Expofed to the air, it deliquefces. When fulphuric acid is poured into the folution, cryftals of fulphate of yttria are inftantly precipitated. Carbonate of Tttria. — This fait may be formed by pre- cipitating yttria from its folution in acids by means of a« alkahne carbonate. It is white taftelefs infoluble powd»r, compofed, according to Klaproth, of Carbonic acid Yttria Water 18 55 27 100 According to Vauquelin, however, it lofes only 32 per cent. when calcined. Phofpbate of Tttria. — Vauquelin formed this fait by mixing a folution of the phofphate of foda with the fulphate, nitrate, or muriate of yttria. The phofphate of yttria pre- cipitated in the form of gelatinous flakes. Sulphate of Tttria. — Sulphuric acid diffolves yttria readily. As the folution proceeds^ the fulphate cryftallizes in fmali brilliant grains. Ekeberg ftates thefe cryftals to be flat fix- fided prifms, terminated by four-fided fummits. Dr. Thom- fon obtained thefe in the form of long flender rhomboidal prifms. Their colour is amethyft-red : their fpecific gravity 2.791. They are foluble in about 30 parts of water at 60°. A red heat partly decompofes them. Oxalic acid, prufEate of potafh, and infufion of nutgalls, occafion a precipitate in the aqueous folution of this fait. It is decompofed by the phofphate of foda. The fulphate of Glucina is readily diflinguifhed from this fait by its being colourlefs, lighter, and more foluble in water. According to Berzelius, the fulphate of yttria is compofed of Sulphuric acid Yttria 50.0 50.0 1 00.0 Arfeuiate of Tttria. — When yttria is dilTolved in arfenic acid, and the folution boiled, arfeniate of yttria precipitates in the form of a white powder. Arfeniate of potafh alfo precipitates yttria from acids. Chromate of Tttria. — Chromic acid diffolves yttria cold in confiderable quantity, and with effervefcence. The folu- tion has an aftringent and pungent tafte, and, like moft of the chromates, has an orange-red colour, paffing into yellow. The folution is quite neutral. When evaporated, it forms minute prifmatic and cubic cryftals. It is very foluble in water. Acetate of Tttria. — Yttria diflblves readily in acetic acid, and the folution on evaporation yields cryftals of the acetate of yttria, the form of which is ufually that of thick fix -fided 12 plate;, Y U plates, obliquely truncated. Their colour is amethyft-red, and they are not altered by expofure to the air. Succinate of Tttria. — Yttria is not precipitated from its folution in acids by the fuccinates, unlefs the two falts be concentrated, in which cafe fmall cubic cryftals fall, which are the fuccinate of yttria. Oxalate of Tttria. — When oxalic acid, or the oxalate of ammonia, is dropped into a folution of yttria in an acid, a ■white infoluble powder falls, which is the oxalate of yttria. According to Vauquelin, tlus fait is compofed of Oxalic acid Yttria 57-5 42-5 lOO Tartrate of Tttria — Yttria is precipitated from its folu- tion in acids by the tartrate of potafti, but the precipitate is diflblved by the addition of water. Dr. Thomfon infers, from the analyfes above-mentioned, and more efpecially from the analyfis of the fulphate and carbonate by Bei^zelius and Vauquelin, that the combining weight or weight of the atom of yttria is 50, oxygen by 10, and confequently that it is compofed of Yttrium Oxygen 80 20 100 and the weight of the atom of yttrium will be 40. With refpecl to the falts of yttria in general, it may be faid, that many of them are bttle foluble ; that they are capable of being precipitated from acids by the phofphate of foda, the carbonate of foda, the oxalate of ammonia, the tartrate of potarti, and the prufiiate of pot- afh ; and laftly, that the fulphate of yttria may be dif- tinguifhed from the fulphate of lime by its greater folubility, and by its fweet tafte. YTTRIUM, the metallic bafis of yttria. See Yttria fupra. YTTRO-TANTALITE, in Mineralogy, Tantale yttri- fire, Brongniart, an ore of tantalum, combined with the newly-difcovered earth called yttria, and found at Ytterby, near Roflagen, in Sweden. The colour of yttro-tantalite is a dark iron-black ; when pulverized it is greyifh : it occurs in nodules, about the fize of a hazel-nut, and alfo cryftal- lized in oblique fix-fided and four-fided prifms. It occurs alfo in granular diftinA concretions. Its frafture is com- paft or finely granular, and it has a (hining metallic luftre. Yttro-tantalite fcratches glafs, but yields with difficulty to the knife. The fpecific gravity of this mineral is 5- 13. It decrepitates with the blow-pipe, but at length melts into a grcenifh-yellow flag. According to Vauquelin, the confli- tuent parts are, Oxyd of tantalum - - 45 Oxyd of iron and yttria - ^ Yttro-tantalite is nearly allied to gadolinite, the other mineral in which yttria is found, and occure with it at Ytterby, in a bed of flefh-red felfpar in gneifs. YTZAIMPATLI, in the Materia Medica, a name given by fome to the cevadilla, or hordeum cauflicum, the caujiic Indian barley. YU, in Geography, a city of China, of the fecond rank, Vol.. XXXIX. Y U C in Pe-tche-li; 87 miles W. of Peking. N. lat 50° r-' E. long. 114° 14'.— Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, m Ho-nan ; 442 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N lat 33° 22'. E. long. 112° 38'.— Alfo, a city of China, of thb lecond rank, m Ho-nan ; 377 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 34^ 16'. E. long. 113'^ i4'._Alfo, a nver of China', which nfes in Ho-nan, 12 miles N. of Pi-yang, and joins the Hoai, 20 miles E.S.E. of Sin-tfai.— Alfo, a river of China, which rifes about 26 miles W. from Ngan-fou, in Kiang-fi, and runs into the Kan-kiang, 7 miles N.N.E. of liin-kiang. YUCATAN, a province of Mexico : it is a peninfula, furrounded on the W. and N. by the gulf of Mexico, be- tween the bay of Campeachy on the S.W., and that of Honduras on the S.E., having the little province of Ta- bafco on the S.W., and that of Vera Paz, in the audience of Guatimala on the S., where it is joined on the continent by an ifthmus not 12c miles broad. The climate is pretty warm in fummer, which begins about April, and ends in September. It rarely rains here during the winter feafon, though the weather is tolerably cool, except in January and February, which are almoft as hot as in the middle of fummer. It is, however, very healthy, efpecially a large mountainous trad, extending from Salamanca on the W., to the eailcrn boundary, and where the natives live to a great age. The foulh fide of this ridge is ill-peopled, and worfe cultivated, for want of water ; but the north part is very populous, being rendered pleafant by gentle breezes, though the fun is very hot. The days and nights are nearly equal all the year. The foil when properly cultivated pro- duces great quantities of corn, cotton, and indigo. All forts of cattle, wild-beails, honey, wax, and fowls, are here in great plenty ; and on the coatts are found large pieces of amber ; but as no mines were ever difcovered in this country, the Spaniards are not fond of making fettie- ments here, fo that it abounds moftly with Indians, fubjecl to the Spaniards, who employ them in making fait, in the bay of Campeachy. This peninfula has very few rivers, but wells without number, and confiderable lakes ; and wherefo- ever they dig up the land, abundance of fliells are found, which with the lownefs of the country, and (hallownefs of the fea about it, has induced many to think that the greateft part of it was once under water. The capital of Yucatan is Campeachy, in the bay of which, and of Honduras, the former lying on the weft, and the latter on the call fide of this province, the Englifh cut their logwood. YUCCA, in Botany, is the Tucca, Tuca, or Jucca, of the original inhabitants of America. Gerarde appears firft to have pubhfhed this name in England. Cafpar Bauhin follows him. Linnseus, Phil. Bot. 164, lays to the charge of Tournefort the introduAion of Tucca, as a fcientific generic appellation, but we do not find it in his work. Dillenius however adopts it in his Nova Genera, and Hor- tus Elthamenjis, and Linnaeus rather overlooks than approves of the barbarifm. — Linn. Gen. 170. Schreb. 226. Willd. Sp. PL v. 2. 183. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 2. 291. Purfh 227. Juff. 49. Poiret in Lamarck DiA. V. 8. 824. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 243. Gxrtn. t. Sj. (Yuca; Dill. Nov. Gen. III. t. 5. Ponted. Anthol. 294. t. 6. f. N, O. Cordyline ; Van Royen Lugd.-Bat. 22.) — Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogjnia. Nat. Ord. Coro- naria, Linn. Lilia, or perhaps Bromeli^, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. bell-fhaped, in fix deep, ovate, very large, equal, -moderately fpreading fegments, connefted by their claws. Neftanes none. Stam. Fila- ments fix, in'ferted into the bafe of the corolla, very /hort, fwelling upwards, reflexed ; anthers minute, roundi/h, Pi/2. P Germen YUCCA. reprefenfalioii to be Icfs happy and charaderiltic ifian that in the Magazine. 2. Y. recufvifolia. Drooping-leaved Adam's-necdle. Sa- lifb. Parad. t. 31. Purfh n. 3. — Caulefcent. Leaves linear- lanceolate, furrowed, fecurved and drooping ; their edges at length fomewhat filamentous — Native of tht fandy fhores numerous,' in a Cngle row, feparated from each other by of Georgia, where it was found by M. Leconte, flowering tranfverfe membranes, roundiih-obovatc, flat, deprefled, at- in July and Auguft. Thefloivers are of a greenifh-yellow. Germen fuperior, oblong, bluntly triangular, with iix fur- rows, rather longer than the ftamens ; llyle none ; fl:igma obtufe, with three furrows, its lobes cloven, the centre pervious. Piric. Berry oblong, bluntly hexagonal, fleihy, perforated at the fummit, of fix cells ; three of the par- titions thicker than the three intermediate ones. Seeds very tached, by their pointed bafe, to the inner angle of the cdl. Eff. Ch. Corolla inferior, bell-fliaped, its fegments with- out neftaries. Stamens club-fliaped. Style none. Beny hexagonal, of fix cells. Seeds numerous, flat. Obf. We have, hke Schreber, adopted Gsertner's idea of the fruit, which Linnaeus does not appear to have feen in perfection, and which Dillenius confefles himfelf to have judged of from the unenlarged germen only. Analogy might well lead thefe authors to prefume it a capfule, which, from the flrufture of the germen, might be judged to confift of three cells. This idea was moreover fup- with a tinge of purple. Stem about three feet high. Purjh. This fpecies is recorded in the Paradifus Lomllnenjls, as having flowered, in the late Mr. Swainfon's garden at Twickenham, in 1805 ; yet it is not admitted by Mr. Dry- ander, or Mr. Alton, into the Hortus Keivenfis, or its Epi- tome. The Jloivers are faid by Mr. Salifbury to have a ftrong fmell, mixed with fomething like a citron flavour. The three inner fegments of the corolla are a httle the broadett. Stigma mod like the laft. The edges of the leaves fplit off in a few disjointed filaments, in the manner of T.Jilamentofa, though far lefs remarkably. We have feen no fpecimen. Mr. Purrti having obferved this, as well as the ghriofa, in a ported by an account which Ray "had fomehow obtained living ftate, in North America, chiefly indtices us to admit from the Eaft Indies ; where indeed no Yucca grows in r ^ • , . . ■ • . « r wild, and therefore this account cannot implicitly be trufted. Gaertner received, from profeflbr Hermann of Strafburg, the ripe fruit of Tucca clraconis ; and this being the only authentic inftanee of the feed-veflel of any one of the genus pafling under the invelligation of a critical bo- tanift, we mull rely on it as affording the only certain type of the genus in this particular. Juffieu appears to have followed Linnxus ; but the difcovery of the true nature of the fruit, rather favours his opinion above-mentioned, of the affinity of Tucca to his Bromelia. This is a liandfome perennial gi-nus, more or lefs caulelcent, with numerous, long, fimple, rigid or coriaceous, pungent leaves ; and it into our lift of fpecies ; garden plants being always lefs to be trufted in any doubtful queftion. 3. Y. aloifolia. Aloe-leaved Adam's-needle. Linn. Sp. PI. 457. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Purfii n. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 1700. (Y. arborefcenf, foliis rigidioribus reftis ferratis ; Dill. Elth. 435. t. 323.) — Caulefcent. Leaves linear-lanceo- late, even, ftraight ; their edges bordered with fine callous notches. — Native of South America, according to moft authors ; of the coaft of Carolina and Florida, flowering in Auguft. Pur/h. It was intro hiced, more than a hundred years ago, into the Englifli and Dutch gardens, and is ge- nerally treated as a green-honfe (hrub, though faid to fucceed and flower better, in mild feafons, in the open ground. The copious, panicled, white, liliiceous, very elegant though Jiem is generally fimple, and rifes to the height of fifteen to generally \t\odorous Jloivers. Some of the fpecies are toler ably hardy in our gardens, but they do not very readily or conftantly blofl()m. I . Y . gloriofa. Common Adam's-needle. Linn. Sp. PI. 456. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Purfh n. 4. Curt. Mag. t. 1260. Andr. Repof. t. 473. (Y. five Jucca, peruana; Ger. Em. 1543. Yuca indica, foliis aloes, flore albo ; Bar- rel. Ic. t. 1 194.) — Caulefcent. Leaves lanceolate, ftraight, furrowed ; their edges fmooth and entire. — Native of Peru and North America. On the fea (here of Carolina, flower- ing in July and Auguft ; the whole plant about ten feet high. Flowers white. PurJh. Tl'.e /km in our gardens is feldom two feet in height, fomewhat branched, thick. tough, crowned at the fummit of each branch, if divided, with a profiifion of crowded leaves, fpreading in every di- reftion, each a foot and a half or two feet long, tapering to a hard fpinous point ; contrafted in the lower part, but dilated at the very bafe, where they half clafp the ftem : their upper furf'ace is of a fine green, fmooth, furrowed longitudinally, efpccially towards the end ; the under paler, produced. and more even ; the edges quite even and fmooth. Panicle 4. Y. draconis. Drooping-leaved Adam's-needle. Linn. tenninal, compound, ereft, compofed of perhaps an liun- Sp. PI. 457. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (Y. draconis folio, dred drooping^owfrj, not much inferior in fize and beauty ferrato reflexo ; Dill. Elth. 437. t. 324. Tacori ; Cluf. to thofe of the White Water-Lily, but more cream-coloured, Exot. 48.) — Caulefcent. Leaves linear-lanceolate, even. eighteen feet, even in our confervatories, being for the moft part naked, round, three or four inches in diameter, marked with fears where leaves have been. The upper part, for the fpace of a foot or more, is thickly befet with leaves, fpreading in every diredlion, the lower ones pointing down- wards, the upper ones nearly upwards, a few in the middle only being horizontal. The leave! are all ftraight, narrower and ftiffer than in T. gloriofa, and diilinguiflied by their crenate edges, as well as even furface. The panicle alfo is more denfe and cylindrical, from two to tliree feet high. Flowers white, externally tinged with purple. Stigma abrupt, of three fliorter, lefs dilated and fpreading, lobes. Mr. Ker truly remarks, in the Botanical Magazine, that this fpocies will thrive for many years with very little earth, in pots not more than a foot deep. Its flowering is a rare occurrence, and after that event, the head decays at the top, throwing out lateral flioots, and the plant becomes branched ; but its elegant fimplicity is deftroyed, and we believe no more flowers, at leaft in our gardens, are ever tinged at the bafe and points with crimfon, deftitute of fcent. Partial _/?a/^j about an inch long, round, fmooth, with a pair of membranous irafleas at the bafe. Stigma in tliree diftmft, fpreading, cloven lobes. We cannot but think, notwnhftanding Mr. Ker's opinion, that Andrews's figure belongs to this fpecies, and not to aloifolia. This is evinced by the furrows and margin of the leaves, as well as by the itrufture of thcjligma; Aough v/e rouft allow the whole 9 reflexed, crenate. Segments of the corolla fpreading, fome- what recurved. — Native of South Carolina, according to Mr. Alton, who marks this fpecies as a hardy flirub, flower- ing in Odober and November. We have never feen an authentic fpecimen of the Jloiuers, but in the very admirable plate, communicated to Dillenius by his friend Sprckelfon of Hamburgh, and pubhfhed in the Hort. Elth. as above, the (orql/a is reprcfented with more lanceolate, flat, fpread- Y U C ing, and in fome meafure reflexed, fegments, than in any of the foregoing. The haves are defcribed longer, nar- rower, and thinner than in the lail fpccies, reflexed, being "bent downwards, and pendulous, from about the middle, or rather nearer the bafe ; they are moreover fhlning, of a deeper green, lefs concave, and with longer more flender terminal fpines. They are an inch broad, and above two feet long. DilleMtis lays the marginal notches are rather finer than in the laft. The Linnjean fpecific definition im- plies the reverfe. Commelin's plate in his Pneludla Bota- nka, t. l6, exhibits very large and diftant fpinous teeth, at the edges of the leaves, fuch as we have never fcen, even in young plants. We have therefore refrained from citing this author under the prefent fpecies, as well as his t. 14. of the fame work, and Plukenet's t. 256. f. 4. under the laft ; becaufe, though they may be right, fuch figures afford no information or inftruftion. Clufius fays the Indians ufe the fibres of the leaves of the fpecies of which we are treating, obtained by maceration and beating, as a fine kind of thread, like flax or filk ; and they alfo make flrong cordage of the fame, for tying the rafters of their huts together. Such qualities merit further inquiry. 5. Y.Jilamento/a. Thready Adam's-needle. Linn. Sp. PI. 457. WiUd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. Purfh n. i. Curt. Mag. t. 900. (Y. foliis lanceolatis, acuminatis, integerri- mis, margine fllamentofis ; Trew's Ehret 9. t. 37. Yuca, five Jucca, vera, foliis filamentofis ; Moril. feft. 4. t. 23. f. 2.) — Stem none. Leaves lanceolate, entire, coarfely fila- mentous at the edges. — On the (hores of Virginia and Caro- lina, and in the weftern parts of the fame countries, flower- ing in July and Auguft. Purjh. A hardy perennial in our gardens, flowering, though not very conftantly, in autumn. The leaves are numerous, a foot long, fpreading in the form of a rofe from the crown of the root ; their points fpinous, but (hort ; their furfaces both ftriated, a little glaucous, rough to the touch with minute harfh prickles ; their edges befet with long recurved threads. Flower Jlalh folitary, ereft, from four to five feet high, round, fmooth, leaflefs, bearing feveral fcattered, oblong, membranous, reddifh- brown bralteas, fuch as alfo accompany the partial ftalks. Panicle compound, lax and fpreading, of numerous large and handfome, pendulous, cream-coloured, bell-fhaped flowers, reprefented of much too yellow a hue in the Bota- nical Magazine. Their fegments are taper-pointed. Fila- ments tom^, or glandular, with very imall -, a company was formed, for tlie purpofe of making a navigable canal from the lake of Yverdun to the lake of Geneva, but it was never finifhed. The baihwick is one of the moil confiderable in the canton of Berne, containing about 25 parifhes and 20 lord(hips, and is about 15 miles in length. The fertility is moderate : the wine is not of the heft quality ; 34 miles S.W. of Berne. N. lat. 46° 48'. E. long. 6° 14'. YVES, or Ivo,in Biography, bifhop of Chartres, was born ■in the 1 ith century, of a noble family, in the territory of Beau- vais, and fludied theology under Lanfranc, prior of Bee. Be- ing made abbot of St. Quentiii, he opened a theological fchool, which became famous ; and having fuperintended this infti- tution for fourteen or fifteen years, and maintained a regu- larity among thofe who attended it conformable to the an- cient canons, he was juftly regarded as one of the chief founders of the order of canons-regular. Upon the death of Geoffrey, bifhop of Chartres, he was chofen as his luccefTor, and the eleftion was confirmed by Urban II. in 1091. The difcipline he maintained in his fee was ex- emplary, and in the duties of it he was employed for 25 years, his epifcopate and his life terminating in 1116. Belides fermons, a brief chronicle of the kings of France, and twocolleftions of ecclefiaftical decrees, he has left 287 epiftles, from which may be learned the manners of the times in which he lived. Of thefe we have a fummary by Dupin. A colleftion of his works was printed at Paris in 1647. His name is highly refpeftedin the church of Rome, and pope Pius V. ifTued a bnll in 1570, empowering the canons-regular of Latran to celebrate an anniverfary for " the blefTed Yves." Dupin. Moreri. YVETOT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Seine. This was once a place of confequence, and the capital of a kingdom ; 18 miles N.W. of Rouen. YUFTS, or Rujffia Leather, as it is called in Eng- land, are the chief produfts of the tanneries in RufTia ; and the principal places in which they are prepared, next to Mofcow and Peterfburg, are, Arfamas, Kof- troma, Yaroflaf, Pf9ove, Kazan, Vologda, Nifhney- Novgorod, Vhdimir, Ekatarinenburg, &c. Mr. Tooke has defcribed the procefs by which they are prepared : — The raw ox-hides are tirft laid in running water, or in large tan- pits full of water dug in the earth for that purpofe, to foak for a whole week ; but in fummer not fo long. During this time they are daily taken out of the water, and fcraped at a fcraping-bench, or wooden horfe. Having now been duly lleeped, they are put into a ley, thus prepared : In other vats, likewife dug in the ground, and under cover, they rnix two parts of good afhes with one part of unflacktd lime, in boiling water, and fink the wet hides in this ley on Y U F a grating, which being fufpended by cords, can be raifed or let down at pleafure. In this vat the hides are laid again for about a week, though in warm weather lefs, in cold perhaps even longer. The fign that they have lain long enough in the ley is, that the hair can without difficulty be rubbed off with the hand, fo that none remains. If the hides, after the expiration of a week, are not in that condition, frefh afhes are put into the ley, and the fliin funk in it. But if at length the hair be fufficiently loofe, the hides are entirely taken out of the ley, and all the hair fcraped off on a ftretching-block, by means of blunt iron fcrapers with two handles. The hair is wafhed clean, and fold for domeftic ufes. The hide?, thoroughly cleanfed from hair, are fuf- pended in vats of clean water on a running ftream, where they remain three days, diligently turning them to and fro, in order to purge them from the afhes and ley ; afterwards they are hung up, and left to drain. The hides muft now be fcraped on the flefh fide. To this end they employ either the aforefaid fcraping-iron, or others fharper in various de- grees. After this treatment, the hides are trampled. But calves-hides have another fort of preparation, which the yuft -tanners, in the interior towns of the empire, who moftly practife it, call rakfcha. This preparation is performed with the white excrement of dogs dried, which is diffolved in boiling water, and to a hundred hides about four vedros full of excrement is the rule. If here the right proportion with the water be not found, the hides corrupt in this flime, the objeiEt whereof feems to be the complete freeing of the fliin from the falts that adhere to it from the ley. The hides are left to lie twice twenty-four hours. With this is ftirred a four gruel of oatmeal with warm water, and to three ofmics, or eighths of a chetverik, three or four vedros of dregs of the common quas, which the people make of meal and a fmall portion of malt, put in the thin gruel, that it may quickly four with the hides. To ten hides, the tanners ufually reckon forty pounds of meal. After the hides have foured, which is done in large vats, they are laid in other vats, and well fteeped for two or three days in a flrong tan-juice, fok, thoroughly boiled from good bark. V^hen this is done they are brought ftraight to the tan. In the tan-pits, in which often fome hundreds of hides are lying, is poured half water and half tan, or water boiled with tan, and a grating is hung in with cords, having one hide after the other fpread upon it, thick ftrewed with good fine-pounded tan, and the grating conftantly let deeper into the pit, till it be nearly full ; yet fo that the tan-liquor is always above the hides, which are then again fprinkled over with tan. In this tan the hides continue to lie a week ; thofe of full-grown ani- mals longer. On being taken out, they are wafhed and trampled on, which two workmen in a fummer's day can perform with three hundred hides. The next day they are laid, in the manner above-defcrjbed, in frefh tan. Thus they generally get four times fucceffively frefh tan, and are every time rinfed clean. In the lafl tan they lie three weeks, or longer, are then finally wafhed, hung up, and, when they have tolerably drained, delivered to thofe workmen whofe bufinefs it is, in particular workfhops, to dye, drefs, and wax the yufts, and to dehver the goods finifhed. It is to be obferved, that the Ruflian yuft-tanners feldom ufe oak-tan, and never willingly. The choiceil and befl tan is that of the tfchernotal, as they call it, or the black willow ; and alfo the young bark peeled off from other fhrubby willows, which are coUefted by the boors, dried in bundles, and brought in cart-loads to market. To ten hides, the tanners compute one and a half fathom of thefe bur.dles of willow- bark. YUFTS. bark, as they are laid one upon another for fale, through all the tans. It muft not, however, be imagined that the excel- lence of the Ruffian yufts depends on this ; for in Siberia, where are no oaks, and but tew willows of any Cze, they tan yufts with only birch-bark, which are not much worfe than the Ruffian. The bark is made fmall by either ordinary^ tan-mills, turned by horfes or by water ; or the tanner him- felf, in many towns where there are no mills, caufes it, at unneceflary expence and labour, to be pounded in wooden mortars, or excavated blocks, with peftles, almoft like thofe in the tan-mills, by day-labourers. The dyeing of the yufts is performed in two ways, and of two colours have. Some work the fkins with the hands !i, Ll dry, not fprmkhng them till they are mangled with the card. Lallly thofe Ikins which are too harlh and ftiff to the feeling, are more or lefs fprinkled with linfeed-oil, and thus are ready for the merchant. In this connection we (hall introduce from the fame author an account of the Ruffian method of preparing and dyeing their laffiau, maroquin, or Morocco leather, which are dyed at Aftrachan of three colours, red, yellow, and black. The treatment of the red faffians, whicli are the moft famous, is ufually as follows :— The raw hides are firftlaid in large vats, _ , ?"^ ^^"^ """ ^^ts"" poured upon them, in which they are lours. The commoneft and moft natural cuftom of left to foak for three or four times twenty. four hours. They the colour to the hides is, by fewmg them together are then taken out, the water is drained and fqueezed from each ili'm, and are fcraped one by one on the ftretching-bank with fcraping-irons, uraki, quite gently on the flefh fide, io order to take away the groffer impurities, but principally for opening the ilcin, and to qualify it for the enfuing operation. They now proceed to make the hair fall clean off, chiefly by the application of lime. To a hundred hides is ftirred in about half a buihel of unflaked lime in vats with river water, and the hides are laid in fo as that the lime may as niuch as poffible be equally diftributed over all of them. ftamed, appears outwards, pouring the dye upon it out of The Aftrachan Tartars let the hides lie in this hme-pit fre- *.u^ J — i,_.*i- *:ii ..1 u„i„ /!,:„ ,, J 1 T^u_ .. __i _ .1 .1 1 . ■ . ... . . . C _ g"''°g . . . _ „ in pairs, the hair fide inwards, while they are yet moift, round the edges, with rufhes or ftripes of bark, thus form- ing them into a bag or fack ; into this fack the colour is put, the fack well fhook, and the fuperfluous dye let to run out, whereupon the flcins are dried. From this method of dyeing them, it feems to proceed that the yufts are called and taken by pairs. The other procefs, whereby much trouble, time, and colour are faved, and the edges of the Ikin entirely prrferved, is the following : Each (Icin is hung upon a horfe over a long trough, fo that the hair fide, which muft be the dye -kettle, till the whole Ikin is dyed. The two colours given to the yufts are red and black. The red dye is thus prepared: Pound brafil-wood (fandal) in the pounding- mill, or with hand-peftles, as fine as the tan, and boil it in kettles. Previous to the dyeing, fteep the fltins in alum- water. It is calculated, that to each fmall yuft-fkin a half, and to a large one a whole pound of logwood is put. But the latter are moftly coloured black. To a hundred ynfts to be dyed red, four pounds of alum is fufficient. For dyeing black the brafil-wood is likewife ufed ; but in the red dye, to a hundred Ikins three pounds of good iron vitriol is difFolved. After the firft tinfture the Ikins are dried, and afterwards on tables done over again with the fame dye and rolled up, that they may thoroughly im- bibe the dye. For heightening the colour this tinfture is fometimes thrice repeated. When the fl of the greater Zabus. See Zab. ZACA, in Geography, ztovin of Egypt ; 17 miles N.E. of El Arifh. ZACANTHA, in Jncient Geography, a town of Hif- pania, in Iberia, faid by Steph. Byz. to have been taken by Hannibal, and to have been called Zacynlhus or Saguntum. ZACAPA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the pro- vince of Vera Paz ; 42 miles S. of Vera Paz. ZACAPULA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Chiapa ; 130 miles S.E. of Chiai)a dos Efpagnols. ZACATECAS, a province of Mexico, bounded on the north by New Bifcay, on the eaft by Guafteca, on the fouth by the provinces of Mechoa. an, Guadalajara, and Cliiametlan, and on the weft by Ch ametlan and Culiacan. It is well inhabited, and abounds with large villages. Part of it lies in the temperate and part in the torrid zone : it is about J 00 leagues in length, and 45 in breadth. The i Z A C weftern part of it is an aridtraft, and would not be inhibited were it not for the mines, which were formerly reckoned the richeft in America ; but the eaftern part abounds with corn, and fruits of various kinds, and its forefts are full of deer. Zacatecas, the capital of the fore-mentioned dif- trift, the importance of which has declined with the mines. It formerly contained about 12,000 families of Spaniards and mixed breeds, though confiding chiefly of one ftreet, in a deep paflage between high rocks, crow nc d with cottages. Luis de Potofi on the S.E. is faid by Alcedo to tontain only 1600 families of Spaniards, Mulattoes, and Indians, though it has fix magnificient churches. The ridge of St. Peter, five leagues from the city, contained rich mines of gold and filver ; but they are now in part exhaufted, and the fuel has become fcarce. The opulence of this city- has in courfe declined, and the chief trade is in goat-fkins and tanned leather. Zacatecas. See St. Louis Je Zacatecas. ZACATLAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of Tlafcala ; 30 miles N. of Puebla de los Angelos. ZACATULA, or Sacatula, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan, on a river of the fame names, near the Pacific ocean ; 95 miles S. of Mechoacan. N. lat. 18° 35'. W. long. 103°. Zacatula, a fmall but fertile province in the dominion of Mexico. — Alfo, a river of Mexico, which runs into the Pacific ocean, near the town of Zacatula. ZACCARIA. SeeTEVO. ZACCHIA, Paolo, in Biography, an eminent phyfician, was bom at Rome in 1585, and in the progrefs of life was diftinguifhed by his learning, and by his fkill in mufic, painting, poetry, and eloquence, as well as in the more appropriate fciences relating to his own profcflion. He was phyfician to pope Innocent X., and celebrated among his contemporaries by various publications ; of which the prin- cipal is intitled " Queftionet Medico legales, in quibus omnes materiae medicse quoj ad legales facultates videntur pertinere, proponuntur, pertraftantur, refolvuntur ;" a work which has been often reprinted. He wa? alfo the author, in Italian, of two efteemed works, " Del Vilto Quadragefi- male," 1637, the fubjed of which is the regimen of diet in Lent ; and " De' Mali Ipocondriachi," 1639, a diffufe treatife on hypochondriacal afFeftions. He, died in 1659, aged 75. Haller. Eloy. Gen. Biog. ZACCONI, P. LoDOVico, of Pefaro, author of an ample treatife of mufic, entitled '* Prattica di Mufica," the firft part of which was printed at Venice, 3592, and the fecond in 1596 ; a publication in which the author not only propofes to give inftruftions for the regular compofition, but the accurate performance of every fpecies of mufic. The idea is fplendid ; but the world has been fo frequently- deceived by the titles of books, that authors are obliged to abate in their promifes, in proportion as the expeftations of the public are diminifiied. If arts and fciences could be acquired by the dead letter of filent inftruftion, every one who could read, in Italy, might, during the times under confideration, have been a mufician. But though no inge- nious occupation was perhaps ever yet completely taught by books, without a mafter, or by a mafter, without books, yet they are excellent helps to each other. It is hardly poffible for a didaftic work to fatisfy all the iloubts that arife in an inquiring mind during lolitary med'tation ; par- ticularly in the firft ftages of a ftudent's journey through the rugged roads of Icience. But when he has made fome progreis, if he Ihould be feparated from his guide, the way becomes daily fo much more ftraight and fmoothj that by •he Z A C the help of thefe kinds of charts, he will be enabled to advance with tolerable fpeed and facility by himfelf. Zacconi's work, though fometimes dry and tedious, con- tains much ufeful and praftical knowledge. And as he is almoil the only Italian writer on the fubjeft of mufic who has not bewildered hrmfelf in inquiries concerning the fyftems of the ancient Greeks, or the philofophy of found, he has had the more leifure for analyfing the art, and facilitating the ftudent's progrefs. This author regarded Okenheim, Jofquin, Ifaac, Brumel, Mouton, and Senfelio, as ancients compared with Willaert, Morales, Cipriano, Zarlino, and Paleftrina ; and thefe laft, ancient with refpeft to himfelf and cotemporaries ; and fays (lib. i. cap. x.), that as the ancient Greeks and Romans produced their mufical effefts by mere melody, united with poetry, and Jofquin and other early contrapuntifts, by notes of different lengths, harmo- nized and worked into perpetual fugue ; fo the more modern, though the rules of harmony are the fame, by a different difpofition of concords, inverfions, and other con- trivances, produce a greater variety of effects. He likewife obfervee (cap. xxiii.), that *' every age has vainly thought its mufic brought to as great a degree of perfeAion as was poflible ; but it was always found that the next age continues to change, and ftill to think the fame. Okenheim, the matter of Jofquin, and even in the days of Jofquin, John Mouton, his fcholar, had the fame ideas of their own improvements ; yet, fince their time, mufic has not ftood ftill, but made great advances towards per- feAion, being more light and pleafing." The change in mufical moJet has continued to our own time, and will doubtlefs continue to the end of a// time ; for melody, being a child of fancy and imagination, will fub- mit to no theory or laws of reafon and philofophy ; and therefore, like love, will always continue in childhood. Zacconi's chief labour and merit in the third book have been the explanation of the moods, and correftion of errors in the notation of old compofers, to which his work will ferve as a ufeful coUeftion of errata. In Book I. he dwells much on the fuperiority of the finging and fingers of his own time, over all that preceded them ; and has a long chapter upon the manner of gracing and embellifliing a melody, where he tells us, " Che ftile fi tenghi nel far di gorgia ; dell' ufo de i moderni pajfagi, come iijiorifchino le cantilene ;" and fpeaks of acconc'taturCf as the modern Italians do of riffioramenti, or graces. The divifions, however, into which he breaks paflages, in order to emielli/h them, if adopted by an opera- finger of the prefent times, would be like a modern fine lady appearing at court in the furbelows and flounces of queen Ehzabeth, or a fine gentleman in the peruke of fir Cloudefley Shovel. ZACHAN, or Sochan, in Geography, a town of Hinder Pomerania ; 14 miles E. of Stargard. N. lat. 52° 13'. E. long. 15° 28'. ZACHAREVSKAIA, a fort of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Ekaterinoflav, on the Konikija ; 28 miles W. of Mariupol. ZACHARIiE, Justus Frederick William, in Bio- graphy, was born at Frankenhaufen in Thuringia, in 1726 ; and during the courfe of his elementary education at his native place, he diftinguifned himfelf by various poetical pieces. In 1743 ^^ ^^'^^ ^° Leipfic to ftudy jurifprudence, but directing his chief attention to the belles lettres, he pro- duced his mock-heroic poem, entitled " Renommiilen," which Eichorn, in his Hillory of Literature, fays, was the commencement of heroi-comic poetry among the Germans. In the foDownng year, he was admitted as an alTociate by the young men who contributed to the work publiftied under 2 A C the title of " Amufements of Reafon and Wit." From Leipfic, where he remained about three years, he removed If I ^°"'"g«"' where, attrafting the notice of profeffor lUaproth, he was recommended by him to be a member of the German fociety. In 1748 he was appointed tutor at the Carohne college at Brunfwick, and in 1761 he became profelTor of poetry in that inftitution ; to which, in the lucceedmg year, were annexed the offices of infpedor of u P^P^g^P^'c and bookfeUing eftablithment belonging to the Orphan Houfe, and diredor of the Brunfwick Intelli- gencer. From 1768 to 1774, he was editor of the New Brunfwick Gazette; in 1775 he was appointed to the diaconate of St. Syriac, at Brunfwick ; and he died in the month of June, 1777, •" the 51ft year of his age. His biographer ftates, that " he poffeffed a very ft-rtile and vivid imagination, with a fine tafte, improved by t bfervation and acquaintance with the world. As a poet, he compofed with uncommon facility, and tried his talents m almoft every fpecies, but was the moft fuccefsful in the defcriptive and heroi-comic. His burlcfque poems were diftinguifiied from every thing of the kind that had before appeared in Germany." A coUeftion of Zachari^'s poetical works was pubhfhed at Brunfwick in 1763— 1765, 9 vols. 8vo. Gen. Biog. ZACHARIAH, or Zechariah, one of the minor prophets, who commenced the exercife of his ^ift in the 8th month of the 2d year of Darius, the fon of Hyllafpes ; and on account of the precifion and clearnefs of his predic- tions, he has been intitled " the fun among the minor pro- phets." The moft remarkable of his prophecies are thofe that relate to the advent of the Mefliah, and to the deftruc- tion of Jerufalem. Dupin. ZACHARIAS, Pope, a native of Greece, fucceeded Gregory III. in 741 ; at a time when the Roman territory was threatened with an invafion by Luitprand, king of the Lombards, and when the fons of Charles Martel were too much engaged by domeftic broils to undertake its defence. The pope, therefore, tried how far he might avail himfelf of the authority of religion in averting the ftorm ; and by a folemn embaffy and perfonal vifit, he not only obtained peace, but induced Luitprand to reftore to the Roman fee four cities which he had taken from it. He alfo interpofed, in 743, with Luitprand on behalf of the exarch of Ravenna, and prevailed with him to defift from an invafion of the exarchate, and to grant peace, as well as to give back the fortrefs of Cefena to the exarch ; and in the fame year he held a council at Rome to fettle fome matters of difcipline, particularly fuch as related to the clergy. During the pontificate of Zacharias in the year 746, Carloman, the eldeft fon of Charles Martel, who had furrendered his dominions to his brother Pepin, went to Rome, andaflumed the monaftic habit, with which he was folemnly inverted by the pope. Rachis, the fucceflbr of Luitprand, who, upon his acceffion to the throne in 747, was peaceable difpofed towards the pope and the Romans, took up arms againft them ; but his hoftile purpofes were averted by the remon- ftrances of Zacharias, and thofe of fome of his principal clergy and nobihty, who vifited his camp, in order to obtair peace ; nor were they fuccefsful merely in this objeft ; but the refult of their interview was Rachis's refignation of his crown, the alTumption of the monaftic habit conferred upon him by the pope, and retirement to the monaftery of Monte Cafino, where Carloman refided. In 752 Pepin applied to the pope for permiffion to feize the crown of France, and to fet afide Childeric III. ; the pope confented, and Chil- deric was provided for in a monaftery. Zacharias, having difpbyed talent* in the eiercife of hit office, which gave Q 2 'li'n Z A C }iim rank among tlie greatea of the popes, and having efta- bhflied an ettimable charaaer by his hberality to the poor, and by his munificence in public works, died in 752, in the nth year of his pontificate. Some of his decrees and epiftles, and alfo his trannation of the dialogues ot bt. Urc- .rory from Latin into Greek, are extant. B»«;er. . ZACHAROVA, in Geography, a fort "f l<^"l''i. "' tl'e government of Irkutfl^ ; 32 miles N.N-E of Ivirenflo ZACHAU, a town of Brandenburg, m the Middle Mark ; 10 miles E. of Brandenburg. _ ZACHAW, Frederic WiLHELM, m Biography, zn able mufician and organift at Halle, in Saxony, was born at Leipfic in 1665. He had f Seteef. ZAINE, or Wadel Berber, a river of Africa, which runs into the Mediterranean, N. lat. 36° 54'. E. long. 9" 16'. Z A I ZAIRA Kakongo, an ifland in the Atlantic, at the mouth of the river Zaire. ZAIRAGIA, or Zairagiah, a kind of divination in ufe among the Arabs; performed by means of divers wheels, or circles, placed concentric to one another, and noted with feveral letters, which are brought to anfwer to each other, by moving the circles according to certain rules. This is alfo called %ar'iah, becaufe the circles of this ma- chine, which are called mufazariat, lafai, &c. are intended to correfpond to the orbs of the planets, and the atmofpheres of the feveral elements. ?^IRE, or Saire, in Geography, a river of Africa, which rifes in the country of Matamba, about S. lat. 10", and takes a northerly courfe to lat. 3', in the kingdom of Congo ; after which it takes a fouth-wefterly direAion, and runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 6°. E. long. 12" 20'. It has been an important queftion, with regard to which geographers have entertained various opinions, what are the courfe and termination of the Niger. The ingenious geo- grapher, Mr. Rennell, on comparing the various accounts of the progrefs of the Niger beyond Houffa, declared his opinion to be, that its waters had no communication, either with the river Nile, as was thought, or with the fea, as others imagined ; but that they were fpread out into a great lake in Wangara or. Ghana, and evaporated by the heat of the fun. ( See Niger. ) Mr. Park, the late Afri- can traveller, direfted his particular attention to this fub- jeft, and was induced to conclude that the Congo would be found to be the termination of the Niger from the following confiderations : 1. The total ignorance of all the inhabit- ants of North Africa refpedling the termination of that river. If the Niger ended any where in North Africa, it is not eafy to account for this total ignorance, and for their fo generally defcribing it as running to the Nile ; and in faft, to a country with which they had not any acquaintance. A fecond confideration has been already fuggefted under the article Zad. A third is deduced from the general fuppo- fition that the river of Dar-Kulla, mentioned by Mr. Browne in his " Travels," was the Niger, or at leaft that it communicated with that river ; and this, it is faid, would be cxaftly the courfe which the Niger ought to take in order to join the Congo. 4. The quantity of water dif- charged into the Atlantic by the Congo cannot be accounted for on any other principle, but that it is the termination of the Niger. If the Congo derived its waters entirely from ' the S. fide of the mountains, which are fuppofed to form the belt of Africa, one would naturally fuppofe, that when the rains were confined to the N. fide of the mountains, the Congo, like the other rivers of Africa, would be much di- minifhed in fize ; and that its waters would become pure. On the contrary, the waters of the Congo are at all feafons thick and muddy- The breadth of the river, when at its loweft, is one mile, its depth is fifty fathoms, and its velo- city fix. miles per hour. 5. The annual floods of the Congo commence before any rains have fallen fouthof the equator, and agree corretlly with the floods of the Niger, calculating the water to have flowed from Bambarra at the rate of three miles per hour. Mr. Park, during his refidence in Scotland, became acquainted with a Mr. George Maxwell, formerly an African trader, who was well acquainted with the whole weftern coaft of Africa, more efpecially S. of the equator, and had publifiied a chart of the river Congo. Mr. M. had been led by a variety of circumilances to conjecture that the fource of the Congo lay confiderably inland, and far to the cortb ; and horn a perufal of Mr. Park's travels be ZAIRE. he concluded, that tl.e C«n-o and the Niger were one and the fame ftream. Mr. Maxwell's reafonmg confirmed Mr. Park in his opinion ; and in this opinion he perleverea to the end of his life. . „ Since the difcoveries of Mr. Park, it is very generally aUowed that the courfe of the Niger is from weft to eaft ; and his opinion with regard to its termination in the Congo, or, as it is fometimes called, the Zaire, has received a con- fiderable degree of confirmation from the account of the Congo given by Mr. Maxwell. "Before ever the Niger came to be the topic of converfation," fays Mr.M., 'it ftruck me, that the Congo drew its fource far to the north- ward, from the floods commencing long before any rains take place S. of the equator ; fince it begins to f well per- ceptibly about the latter end.of Oaober, and no heavy rains fet in before December, and about the end of January, the river muft be fuppofed to be at its higheft. At no time, however, can the rains to the fouthward of the line be com- pared with thofe in the Bight of Guinea, where (hips are obliged to liave a houfe erefted over them during thefe months."—" If the Niger has a fenfible outlet, I have no doubt of its proving the Congo, knowing all the rivers be- tween Cape Palmas and Cape Lopas to be inadequate to the purpofe ; nor need the immenfe courfe of fuch a river fur- prife us, when we know that the river St. Lawrence, con- temptible in fize compared with the Congo, encompaffes the whole of North America, iffuing through a chain of lakes. But infteadof feven or eight lakes, the Congo may be fup- pofed to pafs through feventeen or eighteen ; which will folve any difficulty as to the floods of the Niger not imme- diately affefting the Congo." He adds, the river Congo, compared with other rivers, muft rank as the third or fourth in magnitude. Confidering the force of the current it pro- duces in the fea, carrying out floating iflands fixty orfeventy leagues from the coaft, the Amazon or Plata only can cope with it. At the diftance of 600 miles from its mouth, the Congo traders report that it is as large at the place from which they came, and that it went by the name Enzaddi, as it does among all the nations upon the coaft. If the fhallow water oppofite to Suenda fhould be thought to detract from the afTumed fize of the Congo, it fhould be confidered, that the river there is fpread out ten miles in width, the middle channel of which has never been accurately founded. " It has long been my opinion, that Leyland's or Molyneux ifland at Embomma, (a fettlement on the banks of the Congo, diftant thirty leagues from its mouth,) either of which might be rendered as impregnable as Gibraltar, at a very fmall expence, could be a choice ftation foreftablifhing an extenfive commerce vnth the interior of Africa. Indeed, if the idea of the Congo being the outlet of the Niger prove fo upon trial, we may confider it is an opening de- ligned by Providence for exploring thofe vaft regions, and civilizing the rude inhabitants." The Congo appears from other teftimonies to be a river of the firft clafs, and larger, probably, than the Nile. The waters of the Congo, it is faid, may be diftinguifhed at fea more than thirty leagues from the coaft ; and the water is frelh at the diftance of thirty miles. If thefe accounts are thought to be exaggera- tions, it is a general opinion among navigators that this river has a wonderful fize and force. All accounts con- cur in reprefenting that the ftream of the Congo is of a more uniform height, and fubjeft to much lefs variation from the dry and rainy feafons, than any tropical river which is known ; and that on a comparifon with fuch rivers, it may be confidered to be in *' a perpetual ftate of flood." The average rifing of the Ganges in the rainy feafon is ftatcd by major RenncU to be thirty-one feet, being almoft the fame with that of the Nile ; whereas, the difference between t he highefl point of the Congo about February, and the loweft, in September, is only about nine feet ; and the river, at the latter period, has all tbe appearance to a ftranger of being in full flood. It is this remarkable peculiarity which diftin- guiflies the Congo from other great rivers of a fimilar de- fcription, and which leads to important conclufions with re- gard to its origin and caufe. " In fupport then of the hy- pothefis which identifies the Congo with the Niger, the fol- lowing arguments deduced from the preceding facts and ob- fervations may be alleged : i. The great magnitude of the Congo. 2. The probability that this river is derived from very remote fources, perhaps confiderably north of the equator. 3. The faft, that there exifts a great river N. of the equator (the Niger), of which the termination is un- known, and which may, perhaps, form a principal branch of the Congo. " Such being the evidence in favour of the hypothefis refpefting the Congo, the objections muft be admitted to be weighty and formidable : the principal of thefe are, I. That it fuppofes the courfe of the Niger to be through the vaft chain of the mountains (anciently Monies Luna), the great central belt of Africa." — " It is difficult to un- derftand how the Niger could penetrate this barrier, and form a paflage fouthwards. 2. The courfe of the Niger, eftimated from its fource in the mountains of Senegal, (fup- pofing it to be the fame river with the Congo, and to flow by Wangara and Cafhna, through the centre of Africa into the Atlantic, ) would be confiderably more than 4000 miles. But the courfe of the Amazon, the greateft river in the old or new world, is only about 3500 miles ; and although the exiftence of a river confiderably greater than any yet known may be within the limits of phyfical poffibility, yet fo improbable a fuppofition ought not to be adopted upon flight or conjeftural reafoning, or upon any thing much Ihort of diftindl and pofitive proof." The editor of Mr. Park's Travels, &c. in 2 vols. 8vo. 1816, which we are now citing, very laudably expreffes a hope, " that this diftinguifhed river, which hitherto has been only known as one of the greateft marts of the Slave Trade, may at length be rendered conducive to objefts of civiliza- tion and fcience ; and that fome ufe will now be made of this great inlet into Africa, for the purpofe of exploring a part of that continent which as yet is entirely unknown ; or, at leaft, of obtaining more complete and authentic informa- tion relative to the Congo itfelf, which muft unqueftionably be confidered as a very curious and interefting fubjeft of inquiry." Another opinion with regard to the termination of thfc Niger has been advanced by M. Reichard, a German geo- grapher, and pubhfhed in the " Ephemerides Geogra- phiques," at Weimar, in Auguft 1808. This opinion is, that the Niger, after reaching Wangara, takes a direftion towards the fouth, and being joined by other rivers from that part of Africa, makes a great turn from thence towards the fouth-weft, and purfues its courfe till it approaches the north-eaftern extremity of the gulf of Guinea, where it divides, and difcharges itfelf by different channels into the Atlantic ; after having formed a great Delta, of which the Rio del Rey conftitutes the eaftern, and the Rio Formofa, or Benin river, the weftern branch. This hypothefis, - though it diminifhes the diftance which the Niger has to flow in its courfe to the Atlantic, does not remove the ob- jeftion arifing from the Niger's being conceived to penetrate the Kong mo'untains. But we mufl notpurfue this fubjefl 6 any Z A L any farther. For the lengths of the courfe of the raoft noted rivers, fee River. ZAKA. See SCHAREDSJE. ZAKEPH GADHOL, Rex Pauperrimus, one of tL: Hebrew accents, iometiraes denoting no kind of pauie, and marked over a letter thus ( j ) . Zakeph Kctin Rex. one of the Hebrew accents, confti- tuting either a comma or femicoloii, and marked over a letter thus (5). ZAKERZEZIN, in Geography, a town of Kurdiftan ; 26 miles N.N.W. of Van. Z AKIEH, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the Tigris ; 10 miles N. of Korna. ZAKLIKOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ; 40 miles S. of Lublin. ZAKROCZYN, or Sakrotschim, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, on the Narew. In 1794 the confede- rate Poles were defeated here by the Ruffians ; 40 miles N.W. of Warfaw. Z AL Aleksakdrovskoi, a bay of the Cafpian fea ; 260 miles S.S.E. of Aftrachan. N. lat. 43°. E. long. 51° 14'. Z ALA, in Botany, fo called by Loureiro, Cochinch. 405, from ^jiXv, a tcmpejl, or agitation of the fea, becaufe the plant floats, and is driven about, at the mercy of the winds and waves. This is no other than the Pistia of Linnaeus (fee that article ) ; where the generic charafters, as correfted by Schreber, come fufficiently near to thofe of Loureiro, to leave no doubt in the mind of the reader, allowance being made for the peculiarities of ftrufture in fo fingular a flower. Zala, in Ancient Geography, z. town fituated in the vicinity of Amafaea, which was a town of the Peloponnefus, in Achaia Propria. Zala, in Geography. See Wadan. ZAL ACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the interior of Media. Ptol. Z ALACUS, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Cxfariana. Ptol. Z ALACUS Mons, {Van-nafli-reefe,) mountains of Mauy- tania, at fome diftance from and to the S. of the river Chinalaph. Ptol. ZALAKNA, in Geography, a town of Tranfylvania ; 14 miles W. of WeifTemburg. ZALAMEA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville ; 38 miles W.N.W. of Seville. Zalamea de la Serena, a town of Spain, in the province of Eftremadura. This town was anciently called Ilipa, and many veftiges remain of its former fplendour ; 27 miles N.E. of Llerena. ZALANTZ, a town of Hungary ; 10 miles S.E. of Cafchau. ZALAPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, S. of Adrumetum. Ptol. ZALESCE, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ; 32 miles S. of Lemberg. ZALEUCUS, in Biography, a philofopher and legidator of Greece, and founder of the Locrian ftate, flourifhed in the 7th century B.C. He was of obfcure birth, and lived in fervitude as a fhepherd ; but his extraordinary abilities and merit attraAed notice even in his humble ftation, and advanced him to the government. His laws were deemed fevere, but being adapted to the circumftances and manners of the Locrians, their conftiturion was for feveral ages highly celebrated. His difcipline was rigorous, fo that he prohibited the life of wine, otherwife than as a medicine ; . Vol. XXXIX. ZA M and he ordained, that adulterers ihould be punifhed with the lofs of their eyes. W^hen his fon had incurred this penalty, lie blended paternal lenity with a pretence of main- taining the authority of the laws, by ordering his fon to be deprived of one eye, and by fubmitting to the lofs of one of his own e-; .^. In order to fecure the permanent ftability of his fyftem of legillation, he requi.-d that a perfon who pro. u n-^ •^'-2"ge in any or.e of them fhould come before the aflembly with a cord about 'i^z neck, tliat he might be mitantly ftrangled, if upon examination the old law were preferred. Valer. Max. Diod. Sic. Laert. Brucker by tnfield. ■' ZALGIN, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba : 47 miles R of St. Jago. ZALIKARA, the moft confidcrable city of Mingreha, fituated on tne right bank of the Hippus, which rifes in the higheft mountain of the Soane, not far from the fource of the Phafis, flows through Letfghuani, divides Mingrelia from Iberia, and enters the Phafis near the Tredia : an open place, at the confluence of the Hippus and Phafis, well peopled by different nations, particularly Jews. ZALISCUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, ia Galatia. The mouth of this river in the Euxine fea lay between Cyptafia and Galorum. ZALISSA, a town of Afiatic Iberia. Ptol. ZALLANT, in Geography. See Salland. ZALSSING, a town of Auftria ; 5 miles N.W. of Aggfpach. ZALUZIANSKIA, in Botany, fo named by Necker, m " Aa. Palat. v. 3. phyf. 303," according to Willd. Sp. PI. v. 5. 538, is no other than Marsilea quadrifoUa, which the reader will find in vol. xxii. The above name is defigned, as we prefume, to commemorate a Polifli botanift, author of Methodi Herbarix, publiftied at Prague, anno 1592, in 4to., and at Frankfort in 1604. This work is fpoken of by Haller, Bill. Bot. v. 1. 387, as a tranfpo- fition of the arrangement of Dodonasus, without any im- provement or additional information. ZAM, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia ; 8; miles N.W. of Balk. ZAMA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Arequipa ; 30 miles N. of Arica. Zama, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria, 5 journeys from Carthage. This town, to which ancient authors give the title of royal and a fortrefs, is famous in the wars of Jugurtha and Juba, and more efpecially on account of a battle between the Carthaginians under Hannibal and the Romans, commanded by Scipio, in the year 551 of the RepubUc. At the time when this town was in a flourilhing ftate, it was affignedto Numidia. Cor- nelius Nepos fays, that it was 300 miles from Adrumetum. Appian fays 3000 ftadia. It was fituated on a plain, and owed its ftrength to its fortifications more than to its fitu- ation. Hirtius fays, that it was the ordinary refidgnce of king Juba, where he had his wives, children, and treafures. Phny fays, that it became a Roman colony. Zama, a town of Cappadocia, in the prefecture of Chamane. — Alfo, a town of Afia, in Mefopotamia. Ptol. ZAMAMIZON, a town of Africa Propria, between the town of Tabraca and the river Bagradas. Ptol. ZAMBOSE, or Cumana, in Geography, a river of Africa, which rifes in the interior parts of Mocaranga, and runs into the Indian fea at feveral mouths : the principal of which takes the name of Luabo. S. lat. 19°. E. long. 37". Z AMBOZIN, a town of Congo ; 24 miles S.S.W. of St. Salvador. ZAMBRANO, Juan Luis, in Biography, a Spanifh R painter. Z A M politer, wasliom at Cordova in 1599. He was a difciple of Paolo de Cefpedes, and was a fuccefsful follower of the ilyle of that mailer. His principal works are in the cathedral at Cordova, and in the church of the convent of Los Mar- tyros, where he painted two altar-pieces, reprefenting the ftoning of St. Stephen, and the martyrdom of St. Acifclo and St. Vidoria. In the colegio di Santa Catalma is a fine pifture by him of a guardian ang^el, and a St. Chrifto- pher, which Palomino defcribes as defigned in tlie great flyle of M. Angelo. He pafTed the latter part of his life at Seville, where he painted feveral altar-pieces for the church of St. Bafil, and died in that city in 1639, at the age of 40. ZAMBROKRI, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 14 miles S.W. of Rofenberg. ZAMBROW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 80 miles N.E. of Warfaw. ZAMECH, a name given by fome writers to the lapis lazuli. ZAMETUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Arabia Felix. Ptol. ZAMFARA, or Zanfara, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital of a kingdom of the fame name ; 170 miles E.N.E. of Wangara. N. lat. 18° 20'. E. long. 16° is'- ZAMIA, in Botany, from ^ifna, damage, or lofs. This name, which firft occurs, as the appellation of a genus, in the Gen. PL ed. 6. of Linnsus, is taken from Pliny, who ufes it for fuch cones of the fir as " fplit while they are upon the tree," and, as he fays, " require to be taken off, that they may not injure the reft." This (hould feem to apply to the male catkins, however falfe the phyiiology of Pliny, and the praftice founded upon it, may be. Our Zamia anfwers to his, merely in the cone-like form of its fruftification, which, being male on one plant, and female on another, exhibits in the former the appearance of lofs, or fterility, like the male catkins of the fir. — Linn. Gen. 574. Suppl. 68. Schreb. Gen. 778. Willd. Sp. PL T. 4. 845. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 5. 410. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. I. 348. Purfli 648. JulT. 16. Poiret in Lamarck Dift. V. 8. 831. La- marck Illuftr. t. 892. Gnsrtn. t. 3. — Clafs and order, Dioecia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Filires, Linn. JufT. Cy- cadeit, Perfoon, Brown. Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Catkin ovate, teflellated-fealcs horizontal, obtufe, thickened towards the end, permanent. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments none ; anthers numerous, feflile, crowded on the under fide of each fcale, efpecially towards the extremity, elliptical, fmooth, of two valves and one cell, fplitting lengthwife. Female, Cal. Catkin ovate, teflellated : fcales horizontal, obtufe, more or lefs peltate, permanent. Cor. none. Pijl. Germens two, oval, feflile, horizontal, inflexed, on the under fide of each fcale, near the extremity ; ftyle very fhort, fomewhat conical ; ftigma obtufe, undivided, pervious. Perk. Drupa roundifh, fomewhat angular, of one cell. Nut hard, roundifh or elliptical, of one cell. EfT. Ch. Male, Catkin teflellated. Scales abrupt. An- thers oval, feflile at the under fide of each fcale. Female, Catkin teflellated. Scales peltate. Drupas two, at the under fide of each fcale. Obf. Mr. Brown, to whom we are obliged for the remark of the fl;yle being finally pervious, records an idea of the late Mr. Dryander, that the American Zamia, which conftitute the original genus, having more perfeftly peltate fcales to the male catkin, and the anthers aflembled in two diftinft mafles might poffibly form a diftindt genus from Z A M the Cape and Now Holland fpecies ; more efpecially as in thefe American plants, the leajlets are each manifeftly arti- culated with a projeftion from the main rib of the leaf ; whereas in the others they are either very obfcurely jointed, or perfeftly decurrent. We conceive, however, that they all together compofe a very diftinft genus, which cannot, without violence to nature, be divided. It is nearell akin to Cycas, but differs eflenti.illy in the female part of the fruftification being a catkin, whofe fcales bear two germens underneath; inftead of an aflemblage oi fronds, or leafy receptacles, bearing an indeterminate number upon their margins. The herbage is perennial, generally without v. Jlem. Leaves abruptly pinnate, Angularly hard, rigid, and often fpinous ; r,irely lobed. Catiiiu radical, italked. It being extremely difficult to obtain and to compare good fpecimens of the difl^erent fpecies, as well as to~ deleft and define their eflcntial charafters, authors have not very clearly defcribed them. Jacquin has publiilied magnificent figures of feveral ; but their mod fatisfaftory marks require to be fought at an earlier period of their growth, and in more minute parts, than he has generally exhibited. 1. Z. cycadifolia. Sago-palm-leaved Zamia. Jacq. Fragm. 27. t. 25, 26. Willd. n. i. — Leaflets very numer- ous, two-ranked, linear, entire, with fimple fpinous points ; common ftalk femicylindrical, channelled, downy. Catkin of the fruit elongated, fomewhat cylindrical. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Cultivated in the Imperial gardens at Schoenbrun, but not mentioned by Mr. Aiton as known to our Englilb colleftors. The thick globular fcaly head of the root, near a foot in diameter, bears numerous fpread- ing peftinate leaves, very much refembling, at fiift fight, thofe of Cycas revniuta. Thejlalk of each is, in its naked part, two feet long, as thick as a fwan's quill, all over downy, as is alfo its leafy portion, and the young leaflets themfelves. The full-grown leajlets are from 50 to 80, rigid, parallel, acute, pungent, each about three inches long ; the lower- mofl: gradually fliorteft, and rather more diftant. The ripe fruit, brought from the Cape, is ovate-oblong, about fifteen inches in length, and five in diameter, brown, each feale bearing two ovate, angular, orange-coloured drupas, about an inch long, their points direfted towards the bafe of the fcale. Nut not much fmaller, ovate, angular. 2. Z. pungens. Needle Zamia. Linn. fil. MSS. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 3. 478. ed. 2. n. i. Willd. n. 2. Poiret n. 3. (Palma fobolifera aegyptia, foliis losvioribus, fruftu nigro ; Till. Pif. 129. t. 45. ) — Leaflets awl-fliaped, fpreading, ftraight, rigid, pointed, entire ; their outer margin rounded at the bafe ; common ftalk nearly cylin- drical, unarmed Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence it was brought by Mr. Maflbn, to Kew garden, in 1775, but has not yet flowered. The ieajlets are very thick and coriaceous, much fewer than in the pre- ceding fpecies, moftly oppofite, four or five inches long, and one broad ; their under furface fomewhat ftriated ; the upper fmooth and fliining ; margin quite entire ; point fimple, fpinous, ftout and rigid. 3. Z. tridentata. Three-toothed Zamia. Willd. n. 3. — Leaflets linear, obfcurely furrowed, fmooth, with three fpinous teeth at the end ; common ftalk femicylindrical, channelled. — Suppofed to be a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The leajlets are fourteen to fixteen pair, linear, ta- pering at each end, with two lanceolate, pointed, terminal teeth, and a third fituated a little lower at the outer edge. Common Jlalk finooth. Willdeno'w. No other author ap- pears to know this fpecies. We have fpecimens in the her- barium of the younger Linnseus, without name, indication of their native country, or any traces of fruftification, which anfwer ZAMIA. anfwer to the above charafters ; except the kaflets being more numerous, fometimes with a fimple fpinous point only, on the fame ftalk with others that have two or three, very rarely four ; and in one inftance the leafy part of the com- mon foot ftalk is fhaggy with foft hairs. Each leaflet is two, or two and a half inches long, thick-edged and flightly re- volute, entire, except the above-nientioned points ; fmooth on both fides ; furrowed beneath ; tapering at the bafe, and fomewhat decurrent at its infertion. See n. 15. 4. Z. angujl'tjolia. Narrow-leaved Zamia. Jacq. Coll. V. 3. 263. Ic. Rar. t. 636. WiUd. n. 4. Poiret n. 6 Leaves hnear, elongated, entire, obtufe, with two terminal callous points ; common ftalk femicylindrical. Fruit ovate, pointed Native of the Bahama iflands ; cultivated at Schoenbrun, where it was raifed from feed, and bore flowers and fruit, the calkins being about eight months in going through their different ftages. The root is fcarcely bigger than a large radifh ; its ovate crown enveloped in a few pointed, very broad, fcales. Leaves about a yard high, with (lender ftalks and leaflets ; the latter drooping, a fpan long, and two lines broad. Catkins three inches long, on ftalks about the fame length ; the male ones moil flender, and nearly cylindrical. Fruit three inchei. long, of a thick ovate, or elliptical figure, with a blunt point. Drupas concealed, red. 5. Z. tenuis. Slender Zamia. Willd. n. 5. — " Leaflets linear, obtufe, fomewhat revolute ; tapering at the bafe ; with one or two obfolete teeth near the extremity ; common ftalk triangular, fmooth." — Native of the Bahama iflands. Willdenow faw a living male plant. Leaflets about four- teen pair ; the upper ones furnifhed, near the point, with one or two very inconfpicuous teeth. An intermediate fpecies between the laft and the following ; agreeing nearly with Z. angujlifolia in the form of its leaflets, but tliey are broader, and their flali is triangular : the hajlets are nar- rower than thofe of the following, neither are they minutely ferrated towards the point ; but the flalhs are fimilar. Wllldenoiu. d.'L. media. Intermediate Zamia. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. V. 3. 77. t. 397, 398. Willd. n. 6. Poiret n. 7. — Leaf- lets linear-lanceolate, obtufe, flat ; obfcurely ferrated towards the point ; common ftalk triangular, fmooth. — Native of the Weft Indies ; cultivated at Schoenbrun. The crown of the root is as big as the fift. Leaves two feet long, be- fides their naked_^a//6, which is half as much. Leaflets from fourteen to twenty pair ; five inches long, and one-third or half an inch broad, flat, for the moft part entire, except a few (hallow diftant ferratures towards the extremity, which is bluntifh, and without any fpinous termination. Female cat- kins on fhort thick ftalks, ovate, with a blunt point. Fruit oval, brown, rough, three inches long. Jacquin. That au- thor confiders the prefent fpecies as alhed, on the one hand, to his anguflifolia (fee n. 4.), and on the other to integrifoUa, n. 8. Still we cannot queftion its being fpecifically diftinft from both. 7. Z. debilis. Lax-leaved Zamia. Linn. fil. MSS. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. i. v. 3. 478. cd. 2. n. 2. Willd. n. 7. ( Palma prunifera humilis non fpinofa, infulce Hifpaniolas, fruftui jujubino fimilis, ofTiculo triangulo ; Commel. Hort. V. I. II I. t. 58.) — Leaflets lanceolate, acute, pointlefs, fer- rated towards the point ; common ftalk triangular, fmooth. — Native of the Weft Indies, from whence it is faid to have been imported, in 1777, by the late Meffrs. Kennedy and Lee. It flowers in the ftove, in July and Auguft. The leaflets are five or fix pair, half an inch broad ; though only two and a half or three inches long, and are diftinguiftied from all the foregoing by their confpicuous ferratures, all indeed near the end, the greater part of the leaflet being entire : the upper fide is fmooth and ftiining ; under fur- rowed or ftriated. Commelin originally raifed this fpecies from feed in the Amfterdam garden, and was informed that the fruit was reddifh, growing partly underground. 8. Z. integrifolia. Dwarf Zamia. Linn. fil. MSS. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. i. v. 3. 478. ed. 2. n. 3. Willd. n.8. Purfli n. I. Poiret n. 5. excluding the reference to Com- melin. Jacq. Coll. V. 3. 261. Ic. Rar. t. 635. Lamarck t. 892, copied from Jacquin. (Z. pumila ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1659, excluding all the fynonyms. ) — Leaflets fmooth, ftriated, lanceolate ; rounded, obtufe, and finely ferrated at the end ; tapering at the bafe. Common ftalk fmooth, fomewhat quadrangular. — Native of Ealt Florida, from whence it was introduced into the Englifli ftoves, by the celebrated John Ellis, efq. in 1768. Jacquin fays it groyvs alio in Hifpaniola. The crown of the root is fometimes as thick as a man's arm, dividing below into feveral flout branches and fibres. Leaves uf ually about eighteen inches long ; fometimes twice as much. Leaflets from ten to twenty pair, oppofite or alternate, each two and a half or three inches long, varying in breadth from one-quarter to three-fourths of an inch, entire, rather ftiining, ftrongly ftriated on both fides, with many parallel ribs ; the extre- mity rounded and pointlefs, with a greater or lefs number of flight toolh-like ferratures in proportion to its width. Catkins on fhort ftalks, ovate, clothed with dark brown pubefcence ; the male ones about two inches long. Fruit three inches long, elliptical, pointed, downy ; its fcalet finally widely feparating, each of them peltate and angular, fupported by a rather flender angular ftalk, above an inch in length, and remaining long after the fruit is fallen. Each drupa is elliptical, about half an inch, or more, in length, with a fmall quantity of fweet orange-coloured pulp, and a large, rather pointed, nut. The leaflets are too ftrongly ferrated in Lamarck's plate ; and rather broader and more luxuriant than ufual in Jacquin's, otherwife admirable, re- prefentation. The male catkins are very frequently pro- duced ; the female ones we know only from dried fpecimens, and the works of Jacquin. 9. Z. muricata. Prickly-ftalked Zamia. Willd. n. 9. — " Leaflets oblong, pointed, fmooth, ftriated ; ferrated from the middle to the extremity ; common ftalk fpinous." — Gathered by Humboldt and Bonpland, in South America, near Porto Cabello. Leaflets about four pair, fix inches long ; tapering at the bafe ; ftriated and ribbed on both fides ; (harply ferrated in their upper half. Footflalk chan- nelled, armed with very (hort, blunt, fcattered fpines. Wllldenoiu. 10. X.furfuracea. Broad Rufty-leaved Zamia. Linn, fil. MSS. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. l. v. 3. 477. ed. 2. n. 4. Willd. n. 10. Poiret n. 2. (Palma americana, foliis poly- gonati brevioribus, leviter ferratis, et nonnihil fpinofis, trunco craffo ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 103. f. 2. and t. 309. f. 5. P. americana, craflis rigidifque foliis ; Herm. Parad. 210. t. 210. Palmifoha fruAu clavato polypyreno ; Trew Ehret, 5. t. 26. ) — Leaflets eUiptic-oblong, pointlefs ; co- pioufly ferrated from the middle to the extremity ; ftriated and hairy beneath ; common ftalk fpinous. — Native of the Weft Indies. Plukenet faw it in the royal gardens at Hampton-Court in king WiUiam's time. It is ftill pre- ferved in our ftoves, flowering towards autumn. The crown of the root is often a foot in diameter. Leaves from one to two feet long, exclufive of their prickly ftalks. Leaflets ufually eight or nine pair, three or four inches long, and one or one and a quarter broad, very rigid and coriaceous ; (hining, and roughifh to the touch, on the upper fide ; more R 2 furrowed. ZAMIA. furrowed, and clothed with (haggy, chafFy pubefcence, which gives them a rutty or tawny hue, underneath. 1 heir ferratures, or teeth, are numerous, obtufe, very irregular. Caliins ovate, hoary and dow.iy, about three inches long, on Jlalh about the fame length. Hermann fays this plant pro- duces a white infipid gum. „ ,.„ „ j -iiriu 11. Z./bWu. Spiral Zamia. Salifb. Prodr. 401. WiUd. nil Aitn. C. Brown n. i.— Leaflets numerous, linear, very fmooth, fomewhat curved, with a few fpinous teeth at the extremity. Catkins fmooth, with pointed fcales ; thoi^ of the male ones wedge-ftaped. -Native of Nevv South Wales, from whence feeds were fent, in 1791, by Dr. John White, to the writer of this, and plants were raifed from them in the following year, by the late Mr. Fairbairn, m Chelfea garden, being the firit introduftion of this fpecies into Europe. The whole cone, filled with thefe nuts, was about half as large as a man's head ; the nuts themfelves about the fize of fmall chefnuts. They were faid to be eaten roafted by the natives of New South Wales, but on being tried by our Englifh fettlers, occafioned ficknefs. Their flavour is certainly inferior to a chefnut, and even to the nuts of Cycas rcvoluta, ripened in thebifhopof Winchefter's ftove at Farn- ham caftle. The plants foon grew to a confiderable fize, and according to Mr. Aitou, this fpecies flowers in the ilove, in July and Auguft. The leaves are very fmooth, of a fine green, a yard or more in length, fpreading, each compofed of from thirty to forty pair of long narrow leaflets, tipped with from three to five fpinou'i teeth. FootJtalLs faid to be fomewhat fpiral. The catkins are ilalked, cylindrical, about live inches long, and two in diameter, fquarrofe, fmooth, not downy nor hairy x fcales of the male ones obovate-wedge- fhaped, an inch long, with a fhort, broad, fharp, afcending, pohfhed point ; their upper fide fmooth and naked ; under nearly covered with an uninterrupted heart-fhaped aflem- blage of crowded, oval anthers, the fize of poppy-feed: fcales of the female catkins ftalked, gibbous, two-edged and deprefied, larger than the male ones, each tipped with an creft, fword-fliaped, pungent, fmooth point, an inch long, and, as the fruit ripens, extended to three inches, the gibbous flefliy part of the fcale being then alfo much enlarged. Ger- mens two, ovate, feflile, clofe together, at the inner edge of this flefliy part of the fcale, and direfted horizontally in- wai-d. Driipas roundifti, gibbous, an inch or inch and a half in diameter, orange-coloured, with a rather thin pulp, at leaft in the dried ftate, and a large, ovate, hard nut, not burfting, whofe kernel, after keeping twenty-five years, is horny, femitranfparent, and as hard as the ftiell. Mr. Brown fufpefts there may be two fpecies confounded under Z.fpi- ralis ; one found in the neighbourhood of Port Jackfon, to which our defcription and : -lyms entirely belong, and which is from two to four igh ; the other, often ten feet in height, noticed by hit. Jirown on the fouthern coail of New Holland, and which we have never feen. Mr. Brown remarks, that in both, the catiim, ufually folitary, fome- times grow two together. 12. Z. longifoHa. Tall-leaved Zaraia. Jacq. Fragm. 28. t. 29. Willd. II. 12. Poiret n. 10 Leaflets numerous, elliptic-lanceolate, pcintlefs, entire, clothed with fliaggy down. S -'es of the male catkins wedge-fliaped, with abrupt quadrangular points. — Native of fouthern Africa, above a hundred miles from the Cape of Good Hope. Cul- tivated at Schoenbrun. The crown of the root is fcaly, a foot in diameter, fni0 3l!i Leaves flightly fpreading, from five to feven feet high ; ^rxjlalks quadrangular, without fpines ; leajlds from forty to fifty or fixty pair, two-ranked, three or four inches long and one broad, coriaceous ; ftriated beneath ; clothed on both fides, as well as the leafy part of their common ftalk, with a cobweb-like down, eafily rubbed off ; the lower ones only fomewhat pointed. This fpecies has not flowered in Europe ; but the male catkin, brought from Africa, and reprefented in Jacquin's magnificent plate, is elliptic-oblong, near two feet in length, and five inches iu diameter, brown, fmooth, compofed of innumerable wedge- fhaped fcales, covered underneath with anthers, and each tipped with a quadrangular, or pyramidal, abrupt, promi- nent point, without any of the fpinous termination feen in the laft. 13. 7j. lanugtnofa. WooUy-fcaledZamia. Jacq. Fragm. 28. t. 30, 31. Willd. n. 13. Poiret n. 9. — Leaflets lanceolate, fmooth, fpinous-pointed, with a few unilateral fpinous teeth. Radical fcales woolly. — Native of fouthern Africa, from whence a fingle plant was brought long ago to the Imperial ilove at Schoenbrun. After twelve years' culture, it had made but flow progrefs, and (hewed no figns of fruftification. The root confifts of numerous, very thick, tap-fliaped radicles ; its crown being as large as a man's head, and covered with imbricated, deltoid, pointed fcales, two or three inches broad, all clothed with foft, denfe, hoary wool. Leaves a yard high, or more, dark green, very fmooth and ftiining, with unarmed quadrangular_/?a/ij, and from twenty-five to thirty pair of linear-lanceolate leaf- lets, each four inches long, with a fhort fpinous point ; their margins all entire, except being often furnifhed with one, two, or three broad, fpinous, tooth-like lobes, always at the lower edge of each leaflet, by which this fpecies is at firIt fight readily diftinguiflied. Profeffor Willdenow fufpcfted it might not be diilinft from Z. cycadis ( fee our 15th fpecies ) ; but we fee no reafon to concur in that opinion. 14.. 7.. horrida. Grey Thorny Zamia. Jacq. Fragm. 27. t. 27, 28. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 6. Poiret n. 8 Leaf- lets lanceolate, glaucous, acute, fpinous-pointed, with a few unilateral, lanceolate, fpinous teeth. Radical fcales fmooth. — Native of fouthern Africa, a hundred miles above the Cape of Good Hope. Cultivated at Schoenbrun, and intro- duced into the Enghfli green-houfes, in iSoo, by John Lip- trap, efq., who poffefled, for feveral years, a fplendid co!- leftion of exotics at Mileend ; but it does not feem to have bloflbmed either here or in Germany. The fcaly crown of the root is as large as the preceding, but the fcales are not woolly. The leaves and their ftalks are all over finely glau- cous, which diftinguifhes the plant from the reft of its ge- nus. The leaflets, as well as their lateral fpinous lobes, are longer, and more pointed, than in Z. lanuginofa ; the points and bafes green, as the whole furface becomes when rubbed. A ripe female cone, brought from its native country, is fifteen inches long and eight thick, brown, teflellated, and warty, but not fpinous. i)ru/iaj orange-coloured, oval, each with a thick, elongated, obtufe point, in the place of the Jlyle. Nut oval, fomewhat triangular. This fpecies is, as Willdenow obferves, very nearly related, in fize and general habit, to the laft, but differs in its fmooth crown of the root, and glaucous colour of the herbage. 15. Z. cycadis. Bread-tree Zamia. Linn. Suppl. 443. Ail. n. 7. Poiret n. 4. (Cycas caffra ; Thunb. Nov. Aft. Upfal. V. 2. 284. t. 5. ) — Leaflets lanceolate, fpinous-pointed, fmooth, entire ; tapering at the bafe. Scales of the catkins abrupt, obtufe, pointlefs Native of the north-eaft part of fouthern Africa, far above the Cape of Good Hope, from whence Hving plants were fent to Kew, by Mr. Maffon, in 1775. This is the fpecies figured by Gsrtner. It grows on the fides of hills, in dry open fpots, efpecially where the ground has been cleared by burning, and flowers in Au- guft, or the following months. The crown of the root is round and large, imbricated with fcales, and, according to Linnaeus, Z A M Linnsus, downy ; with age, the plant acquires, like the palm tribe, a thick fcaly_^«n, as tall as a man. The leaves are from a fpan to two feet long, of rather numerous and crowded leaflets, each two or two and a half inches in length, and one-quarter or one-third of an inch in breadth ; fmooth and even above ; ftriated beneath ; the younger ones, or rather thofe of young plants, tipped with a fliarp tooth or two, befides the terminal fpine. Common Jlalks fmooth. Cat- kins ftalked, ovate : the male a fpan long ; \Ufcales fomewhat triangular, very obtufe, rugged, fmooth ; flat on the upper fide ; keeled underneath, and covered with anthers the fize of millet-feed : female catkin larger than the male, near a foot long, green and fmooth ; its fcales ftalked, with a quadran- gular, peltate, thick termination, lodging a pair of ovate angular drupas, with a red pulp. Nut of each the fize of an acorn, not very hard, with a white folid kernel. Thun- berg fays, the older plants, which have acquired ^Jlem, are broken off, or cut down, by the Caffres and Hottentots ; and the pith, which is of confidorable thicknefs, being tied up in the ficin of a fheep or calf, previoufly well rubbed with greafe, is buried in the ground. After remaining there a month, or longer, it is taken up in a putrefying itate, and being bruifed between two ftones, and moiftened with water, forms a fort of pafte, which is made into little round cakes, about an inch in thicknefs. Thefe are baked in wood-aflies, and are efteemed a great luxury ; though, as the author ob- ferves, not very tempting to people of more renned habits, efpecially if they happen to have witnelTedthe whole procefs of preparation. We are not without a fufpicion that Willdenow's Z. tri- dentata (feen. 3.) may_be this very fpecies. This is more probable, at lealt, than his own conjefture, of Jacquin's lanuginofa, n. 13, being Z. cycadis. Authors, even the moll intelligent, ufe the term frond, inftead of leaf, in their defcriptions of this genus, becaufe Linnseus confidered Zamia as either a Palm, or a Fern. But its fructification is by no means cryptogamic, or obfcure ; nor do the leaves bear the flowers of either fex. There is a curious coincidence of ftrufture and appearance between its anthers, and the fuppofed capfttles of fome of the fpiked or racemofe Filices, efpecially of Botrychium (the Ofmunda lunarla, &c. of Linnseus) ; indeed the likenefs is fo great, that we can fcarcely perfuade ourfclves that the two parts in quelllon are not deftined to anfwer the fame purpofe. Zamia, in Gardening, comprifes fome low plants of the tender palm kind, among which the fpecies chiefly cultivated in this climate are, the dwarf pinnated palm (Z. pumila), the thorny dwarf palm (Z. fpinofa), and the entire leaved palm (Z.integrifolia). The firlt is the finefl; fort, but the other two are occa- fionally preferved in fome ftove collections among other plants of the fame clafs. Method of Culture. — They may be raifed from feed?, and by other means,' in pots plunged in the bark-beds of hot- houfes and ftoves, where they muft conftantly be kept in light rich earth or mould, having the management of other exotics of limilar kinds. They afford variety in all fuch colleftions of tender plants. ZAMIANSK, in Geography, a fort of Ruffia, on the Volga ; 20 miles N.W. of Aft;rachan. ZAMIN, a town of Grand Bucharia ; 50 miles N.E. of Sam.arcand. — Alfo, a river of Afia, which rifes about 70 miles S. of Kogend, and after a N.W. courfe of about J 50 miles, lofes itfelf in the earth. ZAMIRiE, in Ancient Geography, a people of India that were Anthropophagi, near mount Mcecander. Ptol. Z A M ZAMOLXIS, in Biography, a celebrated perfon among the Scythians, was, as fome have fuppofed, a flave of Py- thagoras, who, having attended him into Egypt, obtained his freedom, and taught his mailer's doftrine among the Getz. It has been alfo faid, that in order to enforce the belief of the immortality of the foul, he dug a fubterraneous apartment, and concealed himfelf in it for three years ; but re-appearing as one rifen from the dead, he there ellablifhed his authority as a teacher. But Herodotus, who relates this fabulous ilory, as a common tradition, gives it no credit, but exprefsly fays, that fo far from being a Pytha- gorean, he ^flouriflied at a much earlier period than Py- thagoras. The general teftimony of the ancients furnilhes reafon for concluding, that Zamolxiswas a Thracian, v.ho, at a very remote period, taught the Scythians the doctrine of the immortality of the foul, and that after his death, they enrolled his name among the divinities, with whom they affiircd themfelves they ihould affociate in the invifible world. Herodotus relates, that at certain feftivals, they chofe feveral perfons by lot, who were to be deputed as meffengers to Zamolxis ; and that they put them to death, by throwing them up into the air, and catching them, as they fell, upon the points of their fpears ; and this (lory is thought to be the more credible, becaufe it is well known, that the praftice of offering human facrifices prevailed among the Scythians and the Thracians. Herodotus. Brucker by Enfield, vol. i. ZAMORA, iu Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Leon, on the Duero ; the fee of a bifhop, fuf- fragan of Compoilella. In the year 967, this town was taken by the Moors and deftroyed ; but afterwards rebuilt and fortified. It is now a frontier town againfl Portugal, and place of arms. The ftreets are narrow, and the general appearance of the town is gloomy; 120 miles N.W. of Madrid. N. lat. 41-' 50'. W. long. 6°.— Alfo, a town of Algiers, fouudrd in honour of a Mahometan faint. Here is a fmall garrifon ; 28 miles W. of Seteef. — Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Guadalajara ; 80 miles N.W. of Mechoacan. N. lat. 20° 54'. W. long. 103° 40'. — Alfo, a town of South America, in the audience of Quito, on a river of the Amazons. In the neighbourhood are fome gold-mines ; 20O miles S. of Quito. S. lat. 4°. W. long. 78° 46'. ZAMOSCIE, or Samostzic, a town and fortrefs of Aiillrian Poland, in Galicia, built by the famous great chancellor, John Zamoyfici. It has a ftately cathedral, and feveral other churches, a decayed univerfity, a chari- table foundation called Mons Pietatis, and feveral valuable privileges ; but the fortifications are now in a bad condition. The proprietor of this town, &c. tliled himfelf prince Zamofcic. It now belongs to Auftria ; 60 miles N.W. of Lemberg. N. lat. 50° 3 1'. E. long. 23° 15'. ZAMPAL A, a river of Mexico, which rifes in the pro- vince of Tlafcala, and runs into the gulf of Mexico, N. lat. 1 9° 40'. Zampala, Chempoalla, or Zempoala, a city of Mexico. When Cortez landed in the year 1519, the chief or lord of this place, who was tributary to Montezuma, offered his fervice to the Spaniards. It was at that time a large city and exceedingly populous, the loweft account reckoning the inhabitants at 20,000 or 30,000. It was the capital of a country called Totonacapan, now the N.E. part of the pro- vince of Tlafcala ; 90 miles E. of Puebla de I03 Angelos. N. lat. 20° 10'. W. long. 97° 50'. ZAMPERINI, Anna, in Biography, of Venice, arrived in England in 1767, as a buffa finger, 7^ parte cguak, with the Z A M tlie Guadafrni, fifter to the great finger and aftor Guadagni, who had been here in early youth. The Zampcriiii was a very pretty woman, coquetilh, and an affefted finger. Her tlrll appearance on our ftage was in La buona figliaola Maritata of Piccmi, of which the inufic was fo difficult to perform, and not eafy to hear, that it was never fufficieutly repeated for the public to be fami- liarly acquainted with it. They were glad, therefore as well as the performers, to return to La buona hgliaola, for their own relief from a too ferious attention. The filter of Guadagni, an degant finger, and graceful aftrcfs, the original performer of the part of Cocchina in Italy, being fuperfeded in that part by the Zampermi, occa- fioned a great rupture between Guadagni juft arrived here in 1769 for the fecond time, and the honourable patentee and imprifario of the opera ; which generated faction and a party fpirit that deftroyed the comfort of the opera, ferious and comic, at a time when the public, in a ftate of tran- quillity, would have been more delighted than at any other period. We never heard the Zamperini fing ferious mufic, but arc told by M. Laborde (EfTai fur la Muf. ), that " having a natural talent for mufic, and great fpirit and fire in her aftion, though her excellence of performance was princi- pally manifefted in comic operas, yet (he fung equally well in the ferious. After performing with great applaufe in London, Lifbon, and Italy, (he quitted the ftage, and was well married." ZAMPIERI, DoMENico, called Domen'ichino in the Hiftory of Painting, was born at Bologna, in 1581, and placed when very young under the tuition of Denis Calvert ; but being ill treated by him, he prevailed upon his father to permit him to enter the fchool of the Carracci, at the time when Guido and Albano were both ftudents there. He foon diftinguilhed himfelf, but more by his care and afliduity than by brilliancy of talent. He here attached himfelf to Albano, and, when he left the Carracci, they travelled to- gether to Parma, Modena, and Reggio, to ftudy the works of Corregio and Parmeggiano, and foon afterwards they both went to Rome. In that city his firft patron was car- dinal Agucchi, who employed him in his palace, and com- miflioned him to paint three pictures for the church of S. Onofria, of fubjefts from the life of S. Jerome. His former mafter. An. Carracci, alfo employed him for fome time to affift in his great work at the Farnefe gallery ; and he painted from his own defigns, in the loggia in the garden, the Death of Adonis, when Venus fprings from her car to affift her unfortunate lover. As the health of A. Carracci became rapidly impaired, and he was neceffitated to refufe many commiflions offered to him, he recommended them to his fcholars ; and had the fatisfaftion of feeing Guido and Domenichino employed by the cardinal Borghes to paint the frefcoes in S. Gregorio, which have fubfequently become fo celebrated, and of which the Flagellation of S. Andrea by the latter is fo juftly ad- mired. The cardinal Farnefe alfo employed him to paint fome frefcoes in the chapel of the abbey at Grotto Ferrata ; among them is that pifture of the Cure of the Demoniac Youth, which has been compared with and by many pre- ferred to the one of Raphael in the Transfiguration. An- other cardinal, Aldrobrandini, availed himfelf of the cftab- li(hed renown of Domenichino, and engaged him to paint in frefco ten piftures of the hillory of Apollo, in his villa at Frafcati, which added greatly to his reputation. Soon afterwards he completed the work which more than any other has ferved to immortahze his name, his well- known piSure of the Communion of S. Jerome, painted Z A M for the principal altar of the church of S. Girolamo della Carita. This fine produftion ranks with the beft of any age. It is faid with great femblance of truth, that the arrangement of its compofition was borrowed of Agoftincs Carracci, who painted the fame fubjedl for the Certofi at Bologna. But if Domenichino did borrow the thought, he has amply made amends by the mode in which he has adorned it. It received its due meed of applaufe at the time, and was ranked as the work next in value to the Transfiguration by Raphael ; but while the merit of its author thus excited the admiration of the public and moft of the artifts of Rome, it eHcited in the minds of feveral, and among them of Lanfranco, the bitterift fpirit of envy and malignity, which was adlively exerted againft him. He was reviled as a plagiariil, and the execution of his piftures condemned as heavy and ungraceful ; and in fpite of their powerful effeft, the influence of his adverfaries fo far prevailed, that for a time he failed of commiffions, and had ferious thoughts of changing his profefiion for that of fculpture. The celerity and freedom with which Lanfranco invented and painted, and all thofe machinifts who applauded the means of art above the end, were oppofed to the flow and uncertain power of invention poflefted by Domenichino. But upon this fubjeft Lanzi juftly obferves, that if Domenichino had had the good fortune which he merited, he would, like the Carracci in Bologna, have foon triumphed over his adver- faries, admitting that he was an imitator, but not a fervile one, and that if his works were more flow in their birth than thofe of his enemies, they merited a much longer exiftence. " The public," he adds, " is juft in its judg- ment, but before its tribunal a good caufe is not fufficient of itfelf unlefs able pleaders give it credit. Domenichino timid and folitary, mafter of httle, had not then fufficient means to proteA himfelf againft the torrent which over- whelmed him, and report feemed to verify the remark of the cardinal Agrecchi, that his worth would not be duly appre- ciated till after his death. Impartial polterity does him juftice, and there is now no gallery which is regarded as complete without fome fpecimen of his talents." The virulence of thefe perfecutions difgufted and dif- turbed Domenichino fo much, that he returned to Bologna, and there he tranquilly paflcd fome years in the delightful praftice of his art. Among the moft renowned of his pro- duftions about this period are his piftures of the Martyr- dom of S. Agnes, for the church of that faint, and the Madonna della Rofario, both large works, and of fufficient merit to attract the infipidity of the French, and for a while they adorned the walls of the Louvre ; but they are now returned to their original deftinations. When malice and envy had exhaufted themfelves, and fame added frefli laurels to the brow of Domenichino, he was invited back to Rome by pope Gregory XV., who appointed him his prin- cipal painter, and architeft to the pontifical palace. The cardinal Montotto engaged him to paint the vault of S. Andrea della Valle, where he reprefented the four Evan- gelifts with Angels ; and in the chapel of cardinal Bandini, in the church of S. Sylveftro, in the Quirinal, he painted four pictures, which rank amongft his beft : the fubjefts are, Efther before Ahafuerus, Judith with the Head of Holo- fernes, David playing and finging before the Ark, and Solo- mon and his Mother Bathfheba feated on a Throne. The former are certainly of a very high clafs of art, and though lacking the fimplicity and grandeur of M. Angelo or Raf- faelle, yet they are full of rich and fine forms, particularly thofe of the angels, &c. which accompany the figures. The latter are not of fo elevated a ftyle, but are more famih'ar, and wrought with fine colour : they are engraved by Jacomo Frey. Z A N Vrey. About the fame time he painted four of the Cardinal Virtues in the angles of S. Carlo Catenari, wliich have been preferved to us by the graver of G. Andran. Domenichino not only excelled in hiftorical painting, in works both great and fmall, but he has alfo left us many landfcapes of extraordinary excellence in point of tone ; feldom can fo much be faid of their compofitions. They are generally feleft in fcenery, of a grave and dignified cha- rafter, and are executed with boldncfs and freedom, and en- riched with figures. A very fine one may be feen in the coUeftion of the marquis of Stafford. He is univerfally efteemed as the beft among the difciples of the Carracci, and Nicolo Pouffin is faid to have preferred him before them : but that favour, if we except the Communion of S. Jerome, his works will fcarcely be found to fupport. M. Fufeli has remarked, that " expreffion which had languilhed after the death of Raphael feemed to revive in Domenichino ; but his fenfibility was not fupported by equal comprehen- fion, elevation of mind, or dignity of motive." His forms are by no means fo pure or graceful, or his aftions fo natu- ral and unconftrained, as thofe of that divine painter. His invention does not appear to have been vivid, but his ftudy was unremitting, and with all his defefts he well deferved the title of a great painter, and certainly has not fince been equalled. He died in 1641, aged 60. ZAMPOGNA, in the Italian Mufic, is ufed to denote any inftrument that founds like a flute ; and particularly a bagpipe, being an affemblage of divers pipes of different fizes. It is alfo taken for a common flute. ZAMRECOTTA, in Geography, a town of Bootan ; 34 miles S.E. of Damfong. Z AMZEVRIZI, a town of the principality of Georgia, in the province of Carduel ; 15 miles S.W. of Gori. ZANA, a river of Peru, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 7°. Z ANAATHA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the in- terior of Arabia Petrxa. Ptol. ZANCHI, Basilic, in Biography, an elegant Latin poet, was born at Bergamo in 1501, and purfued his (Indies under Giovita Rapicio with fo much ardour, that at the age of feventeen he made a coUeftion of Latin poetical epithets, which was afterwards publiflied. Before he had attained the age of twenty he vifited Rome, and was much noticed by the poets of that city. According to the praftice which then prevailed he changed his baptifmal name Pietro into L. Petreius ; but afterwards, returning to Bergamo, and entering, in 1524, among the canons-regular of Lateran, he affumed that of Bafil ; devoting his attention to facred literature, and pubhfhing fome works on the fcriptures. In the progrefs of his life he frequently changed his refidence ; and was every where refpeded, on account of his learning and talents, by the principal fcholars of the age. Under the fevere decree of pope Paul IV. iffued in 1558, which commanded, under the threatened penalty of the prifon or galleys, all the religious to return to the cloifters to which they belonged, Zanchi was imprifoned, and fell a facrifice to the rigour of confinement. One of his biographers fays, that he had few equals in the fweetnefs, and fewer in the elegance of his poetry ; fpecimens of which occur in his eight books of poems, one of which bears the title of " De Horto Sophise," and defcribes the moft remarkable faAs and doftrines of the Catholic religion. Some of his poems are inferted in the " Delicis," and the " Carmina Poctarum Italorum." He alfo publiflied a kind of Lexi- con, entitled " Latinorum Verborum ex variis auctoribus Epitome." Moreri. Gen. Biog. Zanxiii, GmoLAMO, an Italian Proteftant, was born in 12 Z A N 1516 at Alzano, in the territory of Bergamo, and entered among the canons-regular of Lateran at the age of fifteen in which conneAion he remained for ten years. But Peter Martyr having communicated to him, and others of his fra- ternity, the opinions of the reformers, he departed with him from Italy in 1530, and went to Geneva. From Ge- neva he removed to Strafljurg upon an invitation to fupply a vacancy in the profefTorfliip of facred literature, whjch he accepted in 1553, and which he occupied for about eleven years. Having figned the Augfturg confelfion, with fome reftriftions, he was aggregated to the chapter of St. Thomas, in Strafburg. Although his difpofition was moderate and con- cihatory, he was engaged in fome difputes with the zealous Lutherans, who determined to procure his expulfion. With this view, they acquired his fignature of a formulary, to which he aflented in the following terms : " Hanc doftrinse formulam ut piam agnofco, ita etiam recipio." The am- biguity of this declaration was not fatisfaAory to his adver- faries, and he was therefore induced to refign, and to accept an invitation to a church in Chiavenna. The articles with regard to which he was fufpefted by the Lutherans were predeftination, the perfeverance of the faints, the eucharift, ubiquity, images, antichrift, and the end of the world. Having refided at Chiavenna from the year 1563 to 1568, he removed to the theological chair at Heidelberg, when he took the degree of doftor. When Frederick III., who was a zealous Lutheran, fucceeded the eleftor palatine, and re- moved the Heidelberg profeflbrs, Zanchi declining offered fettlements at Leyden and Antwerp, took a place in count John Caflmir's college at Newftadt. Upon the reftoration of the expelled profeffors, Zanchi, on account of his age, was declared " emeritus ;" and having loft; his fight, died at Heidelberg in 1590. Highly efteemed among Proteftants in general on account of his learning and invincible attachment to their principles, John Sturmius affirmed of him, " that he fliould not be at all anxious for the caufe of reformed religion, if Zanchiu* alone were to difpute in the council of Trent againft all the fathers prefent." Bayle. ZANCLE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily, on the Itrait which feparates this ifland from Italy. According to Herodotus, the Meffenians, driven from the Peloponnefus by the Lacedaemonians, tranfplanted themfelves into Sicily, took poffeffion of Zancle, and gave it the name of Meffana, whence Meffina. ZANDENDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the margravate of Anfpach ; 2 miles S.W. of Cadolzburg. ZAND HOP, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland ; 16 miles S.E. of Heilfberg. ZANE, a town of Virginia; 9 miles S.S.E. of Win- cheiler. — Alfo, a townfhip of Champaign county, in the dillrift of Ohio, with 645 inhabitants. ZANES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper Moefia, fortified by Juftinian, fo as to render it one of the ftrongeft bulwarks of the empire. ZANESVILLE, in Geography, a tovvnfliip of the fl;ate of Ohio, in the county of Muflcingum, on the Scioto, with 2154 inhabitants. Z ANETTI, Antonio, in Biography, of Venice, maeftro di capella to the duke of Modcna, the latter end of the 17th and beginning of the ]8th century, for whom, and for the theatres in Venice, he produced fix or feven operas that were much efteemed in thofe days. Zanetti, Francisco, was born in the year 1740, maeftro di capella in the cathedral at Perugia in 1770. He had prcvioufly paffed fome time in London, where fome elecant and cafy fonatas of his compofition were pubhflied ° by Z A N by Bremner. He loft his place in the church at Perugia, by having appeared on the Albcrti ftage at Rome, as a ■finger in an opera of his own compoiition, and that, nierely to fupply the place of the principal tenor, who had run away, and to prevent the piece from being ftopped : he however married afterwards a pretty woman, who fung well, and indemnified him for the lofs of his place. Since his marriage he has compofed feveral fuccefsful operas, in which fignora Zanetti has performed the princi- pal female part, particularly one at Milan in 1785, in which (he was much applauded, as well as her hufband's mufic. He has compofed much natural and pleafmg mufic for in- ftruments ; as fix viohn trios, fix quintets for three violins, and two violoncellos, &c. 7. fiL'HYAKP^,m Geography. See Zamfara. Z ANGARISA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ; 6 miles N.E. of St. Severina. ZANGESAIR, or Sanguseer, a fea-port of Hin- dooftan, in Concan, with a good harbour, but not much frequented; 15 miles S. of Severndroog. N. lat. 17° 38'. E. long. 72° 54'- ZANGUEBAR, a name given to a large territory of Africa, bordering on the Eaftern fea, including many king- doms ; the name is faid to import " the coaft of the ne- groes," all the inhabitants being blacks, with curled woolly hair ; extending from two degrees north to the twenty-firft degree of fouth latitude. The principal king- doms on the coaft have been feparately fpoken of and de- fcribed. Of the country in general little is known ; the whole traft is reprefented as barren and unhealthy, the lands lying low, and interfedted with rivers, lakes, thick woods, forefts, and marfhy grounds. The fruits of it are very unwholefome, their rivers, for the moft part, covered or choked up with weeds, bullies, and thickets ; all which fo ftagnate the air, and corrupt the produfts of the earth, and render the inhabitants fo fickly and indolent, that they receive little or no benefit from its produce. The Bedouin Arabs are the only people who make advantage of it by breeding multitudes of cattle, and living moftly upon their flefh and milk ; whilft the negroes, or Zanges, content themfelves with feeding upon wild beafts and fowl, which fwarm all over thofe parts. To fupply the want of corn, pulfe, roots, and other wholefome food, of which they are deftitute, the Divine Providence hath inter- fperfed that whole country with mines of gold, eafily got, by the help of which they can purchafe all the ne- ceffaries and conveniences of life from other parts : but this is the very circumftance that makes them fo ex- tremely jealous of letting ftrangers penetrate into the in- land ; more efpecially fince the Portuguefe have made themfelves mafters of fuch a number of places along this coaft. They are in their nature fierce and Itout, igno- rant and brutifti, without religion, efpecially the negroes ; upon which laft account they have the name of CafFers. As for the Bedouins, they have fome kind of rehgion, or rather obferve a variety of fuperftitious rites, but are no lefs ignorant and uncivilized than the Caffers ; yet they chiefly herd among themfelves, and live at a great diftance from the coafts, and by the fides of lakes and nvers, for the convenience of pafture for their numerous herds. They go all naked, both CafFers and Arabs, ex- cepting that they wrap a piece of cotton cloth round their middle, which defcends a little below the knee ; but thofe who live along the coafts are fomewhat more civihzed, af- lect a little more finery in their drefs, and inftead of cotton cloth cover themfelves with the fkins of wild beafts, more or lefs rich, according to their rank, with Z A N the tails of animals trailing behind on the ground ; they likewife adorn their necks, arms, and legs, with a variety of beads, bugles, and other trinkets, of amber, jett, glafs, and other materials, which they purchafe from the merchants with their gold, furs, ivory, and other commodities. There are among thefe coafters a great number of Mahometans, but a much greater number ftill among the iflanders along the coaft ; they being for the moft part defcended from thofe Arabs who were baniftied out of their country. The countries are, Melinda, Mongala, Jubo, Mofambique, and fome others. ZANHAGA, or Zanzaga, or Zenhaga, a province of Africa, in the country of Sahara, bordering on the Atlantic. ZANIA, in jlnc'tent Geography, a town of Afia, in the interior of Media. Ptol. ZANNA, the name of a medicinal earth, defcribed by Oribafius : he fays it is found in Armenia, in that part which borders on Cappadocia ; and that it is very drying, and of a pale colour, and eafily difunited by water, falling into a fine powder hke lime. It is called by the natives zarina, and the mountain from which it is taken is near the city Baganona. It is of a drying and aftringent nature. ZANNICHELLI, John Jerome, in Biography, a phyfician and naturalift, was born at Modena in 1662, and fettling in the medical department at Venice, he publifhed a work on the preparation of chemical medicines, entitled " Promptuarium Remediorum chymicorum." In 1702 he was created, by a patent of the duke of Parma, doftor of medicine, furgery, and chemiftry. He afterwards formed a mufeum of natural hiftory, and made many j journies in order to coUeft foffils and other fubjefts for this repofitory. Some of his excurfions were undertaken by public authority, as he was nominated by the chamber of health, phyfician-naturalift to all the ftates of Venice. He died in 1729. During his life-time he publiftied feveral trafts relating to botany and lithology ; and after his death his fon John James edited from his MSS. " Opufcula Botanica Pofthuma," 1730, and " Iftoria della Piante che nafcono nel lidi intorno a Venizia," 1735, being a de- fcription, with figures, of the plants on the Venetian (hores. Haller. Eloy. ZANNICHELLIA, in Botany, was fo named by Micheli, in compliment to John Jerome Zannichelli, an eminent apothecary at Venice, who fpared no expence or labour, even at an advanced age, in the ftudy of botany, on account of which he undertook feveral hazardous and diffi- cult journies. He was particularly devoted to the obferv- ation of marine produftions, as well animal as vegetable. In purfuit of thefe he was Micheli's companion and guide, among the iflands and ftiores of the Adriatic ; and has wrote an account of the plants there to be found ; which, with the hiftory of fome of his mountain tours, were printed after his deceafe. Zannichelli publiftied a pamphlet on the medical quahties of Rufcus, as well as various chemical and geological works. He died in 1729, aged 67. His fon, John Jacob ZannicheUi, wrote on the properties of the horfe-chefnut, as well as an account of his own and his father's mufeum. — Mich. Nov. Gen. 70. t. 34. Linn. Gen. 476. Schreb. 616. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 181. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 229. Sm. Fl. Brit. 955. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 22J. Purfti 4. JulT. 19. Poiret in Lamarck Dift. v. 8. 836. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 741, Gsertn. t. 19. ( Graniinifolia ; Dill. Gen. 168.) — Clafs and order, Monoecla MonaiiJriii. Nat. Ord. Inundata, Linn. Naiades, Jufl". Gen. Z A N G«n. Ch. Male, Cal. none. Cor. none. Stam. Fila- ment one, fimple, elongated, ereft ; anther ovate-oblong, ereft. Female, clofe to the male. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, hollow, fwelling, oblique, with two or three teeth. Cor. none. Pijl. Germens from four to eight, ftalked, oblong, converging ; ftyles as many, fimple, rather fpread- *ng ; ftigmas ovate, peltate, flat, fpreading outwards. Perk. none. Seeds as many as the germens, naked, ftalked, oblong, comprefled, a little incurved, beaked with the permanent ftyles, tuberculated at the back, with a fimple coriaceous coat. Obf. Schreber fpeaks of fome folitary, difperfed, male flowers, furniihed with a fingle-leaved calyx, whofe orifice is oblique, acute at the pofterior part, and entire. He fol- lows Gaertner in confidering the coat of each feed as a cap- fule ; but the latter allows there is fcarcely any internal coat, or integument, to the kernel, and the outer one is deftitute of valves ; fo that although the ftyle be perma- nent, we rather follow Linn^us than other authors ; and we conceive that if the exiftence of a naked feed be admitted in any inftance, it muft be in the prefent ; there being only a fimple covering to the embr^'o, which is indifpenfable. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx none. Corolla none. Filament elongated, eredl. Anther oblong. Female, Calyx of one leaf. Corolla none. Germens four, or more. Stigmas peltate. Seeds ftalked, naked. I. "Z,. palujlris. Marfli Horned-Pondweed. Linn. Sp. PI. 1375. WiUd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 1844. Purfli n. I. Mill. Illuftr. t. 77. Fl. Dan, t. 67. (Z. paluftris major, foliis gramineis acutis, flore cum apice quadricapfulari, embryonis clypeolis integris, et vafculo non barbato, capfulis feminum ad coftam dentatis ; Mich. n. I. t. 34. f. I. Potamogeito limilis, graminifolia, ramofa, ad genicula polyceratos ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 102. f. 7. ) — Anther of four cells. Stigmas entire Native of ponds, ditches, and rivulets, in Italy, as well as other parts of Europe, from Sweden to Conftantinople, flowering in fum- mer. It is found alfo in Virginia, near the fweet fprings, according to Clayton and Purfli. The root is annual. Stem flender, floating, branched, round, leafy, and fmooth, with the habit of a Potamogeton. Leaves hnear, gran"y, feflile, narrow, acute, and entire, two or three inches long. BroRea membranous, tubular, axillary, including a pair of green Jloivers, one male, the other female. Anther tawny. Seeds blackifli when ripe, rugged or toothed at the back. 2. Z. dentata. Toothed Horned-Pondweed. Willd. n. 2. Poiret n. 2. (Z. paluftris minor, foliis gramineis acutiflimis, flore minimo cum apice bicapfulari, embryonis clypeolis circumcrenatis, et vafculo barbato, capfulis femi- num ad coftam afperis ; Mich. n. 2. t. 34. f. 2.) — Anther of two cells. Stigmas toothed. — Found in the neighbour- hood of Florence, with the foregoing, as well as in mountain pools in the adjacent country. Rather fmaller than the firft fpecies, with flnorter leaves ; but moit eflentially different in havmg only two cells to the anther, and remarkably toothed Jligmas. The feeds alfo are tuberculated all over, not merely toothed at the back, or keel. Loureiro has a Z. tuberoja, Fl. Cochinch. 543, to which he attributes " ovate-oblong fingle-feeded berries." It grows in the waters of Cochinchina, and has tuberous perennial roots, radical, fword-fliaped leaves, fpiked^o'Zffrx, the calyx of the female in fix deep fegments. We agree with M. Poiret that it would be too hazardous to admit this fpecies without examination. Loureiro had probably never feen a real ZanntcheUia. ZANOE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftin^, in Vol. XXXIX. Z A N the mountains of the tribe of Judea.-Alfo, a town of i'aleltine, in the plain of the tribe of Judea. Joftiua ZANONA, in Geography, a fmaU ifland in the Mediter- ranean ; 2 miles N.E. of Ponza. ZANONIA, in Botany, bears that name in memory of an Italian botanical writer of the 17th century, James Zanom, fuperintendant of the public garden at Bologna. Hepubhftied in 1675 a folio volume, in Italian, entitled IJiona Botamca, with 80 plates, of new or rare plants, ac- companied by defcriptions. Monti gave an enlarged edition of this work, in Latin, in 1742. Zanoni died in 1682, aged 67. Plumier, who fpeaks of him as a learned and cri- tical inveftigator of the plants of the ancients, pubhflied a Zanonta, in his Nov. Gen. 38. t. 38, which Linnxus has re- duced to CoMMELiNA (fee that article, fp. 12.) ; and which fomebocanifts reckon a Trade/cantia. — Linn. Gen. 523. Schreb. 690. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 769. Mart. Mill. Dift. V. 4. Jufl". 397. Poiret in Lamarck Did. v. 8. 837. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 816.— Clafs and order, Dioecia Pentandria. Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaceie, Linn. Jufl". Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of three ovate fpreading leaves, fliorter than the coroUa. Cor. of one petal, in five deep, fpreading, pointed, inflexed, equal fegments. Stam. Filaments five, fpreading, the length of the calyx ; anthers fimple. Female, on a feparate plant, Cal. Perianth as in the male ; feated on the germen, deciduous. Cor. as in the male. Pift. Germen oblong-clubftiaped, inferior ; ftyles three, fpreading, conical, reflexed, permanent ; ftigmas divided, crifped. Peric. Berry large, elongated, abrupt ; tapering at the bafe ; encompailed near the top with a crifped future, of three cells. Seeds two in each cell, rounded-oblong, flat, in the centre of a lanceolate fcale, or wing. Efl". Ch. Male, Calyx of threa leaves. Corolla in five deep fegments. Female, Calyx fuperior, of three leaves. Corolla in five deep fegments. Styles three. Berry of three cells, with a lid. Seeds winged, two in each cell. I. Z. ind'tca. Chmbing Indian Cucumber. Linn. Sp. PI. 1457. Willd. n. I. Poiret n. i. (« Penar-valli ; Rheede Hort. Mai. V. 8. t. 49, male; t. 47, 48, female.") — Native of Malabar and Ceylon. A ftranger in the gardens of Europe, nor do we recolleft having ever feen a fpecimen, Linnaeus having, in this inftance, confided entirely in the Hortus Malabaricus, which was very rarely his cuft:om. The herbaceous branching_y?fm appears to chmb by means of fimple, fpiral, axiUar)' tendrils. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate-oblong, acute, entire, fmooth. Flo'wers in lax droop- ing clujlers, which in the male appear to be fomewhat com- pound. Fruit oblong, abrupt, obfcurely triangular, with the flavour of a cucumber according to Rheede. There oan be little doubt of this genus belonging to the gourd tribe, whether it anfwers to all the charafters which authors have been pleafed to apply to that tribe or not. The open- ing of the fruit betrays fome analogy to Momordica operculata. ZANORI, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the pro- vince of Cuhacan ; 80 miles N. of Culiacan. N. lat. 25° 40'. W. long. 108° 10'. ZANOTTI, Francis Maria, in Biography, a mathe- matician and philofopher, was born at Bologna in 1692, began his education among the Jefuits, and purfued acourfe of natural philofophy at the place of his nativity. De- clining the profecution of jurifprudence, to which he di- refted his firft attention, he devoted himfelf to the ftudy of philofophy, laying the foundation in an acquaintance with mathematics, and commencing with the works of Defcartes S and Z A N and Mafebranche. But being defirous of ftudying the works of Ariftotle and Plato in the original language, he apphed with diligence to acquire a knowledge of the Greek, lo that he became able not only to read but to write it. 1 hu3 furnilhed, he obtained leave to give ledures in ph.lofophy ; in the courfe of which he inftituted a companfon between the fyftem of D-fcartes and that of Newton, avowing a de- cided preference to the latter; more particularly as it refpeas optics and aftronomy. It was by his advice, and under his direction, that Algarotti undertook to compofe a popular trcatife on light and colours. Declining to go to Padua for the purpofo of giving ledures, he was appointed librarian to the Inftitute at his native place, and afterwards fecretary, in which office he drew up in Latm an account of the tranfaftions of the academy, with a hiftory of its inllitu- tions, which he continued till the year 1766. This work was rendered peculiarly pleafing and inftruftive by the clear- nefs of his arrangement, and the excellence of his ftyle ; in both which refpeAs he feems to have formed himfelf on the model of Fontenelle. To thefe tranfaftions he was himfelf a contributor ; communicating a method of fquaring dif- ferent fpaces of the hyperbola, and feveral important difco- yeries with regard to the circle, fphere, and circumfcribing figures. Of thefe difcoveries he traufmitted an account to the Academy of Sciences at Montpellier, of which, as well as of the Royal Society of London, he had been eleCled a member. He alfo difcovcred a method of feparating inde- terminate quantities, detefted feveral errors in philofophy, and profecuted a variety of experiments ; on thefe and other fubjefts he delivered papers to the Bologna Inftitute, which were publifhed in his commentaries. Several of his papers on the central forces were alfo infertcd in the Tranf- aftions of the Academy. His theorem on the means of de- termining the velocity of a body drawn or repelled from its centre, in any point of its orbit, were held in high eftima- tion by Paul Frifius, who availed himfelf of it in the com- pofition of his work on univerfal gravity. On the fubjeft of the " Vis viva," which in his time engaged particular at- tention, he wrote three dialogues in Italian, diftinguifhed for perfpicuity and elegance. In thefe he adopted the opinion of Defcartes in oppofition to that of Leibnitz, who con- ceived that this force was not to be eftimated from the ve- locity, as he aflerted, but from the fquare of the velocity. The properties of numbers likewife engaged his peculiar attention ; and he (hewed, that if any multiple of the num- ber 9 be taken, the fum of the figures forming that mul- tiple will be alfo a multiple of 9. In his fpeculations on moral philofophy, he defended the Peripatetics againft Maupertuis ; and his adverfary Anfaldi, in his " Vindicise Maupertufianac," accufed him of depreciating the Catholic religion, as he afcnbed too great influence to the Stoic philofophy in al- leviating the misfortunes of human life. This contro- verfy gave occafion to many publications. Zanotti was a poet as well as a mathematician and philofopher, and wrote Terfes both in the Tufcan and Latin languages ; aiming, in imitation of the moft celebrated poets of Italy, to blend the fuavity of Petrarch with the energy and vigour of Dante. Many of his Italian poems were publifhed by Euftatio Manfredi ; and fome of his Latin elegies were edited by J. Antonio Vulpi ; who fays of them, that Catullus himfelf would not have been afhamed to acknowledge them. Both his Italian and Latin poems were afterwards publifhed fepa- rately, firll at Florence, and laftly at Bologna ; and in this edition are contained imitations of Tibullus, Ovid, and Virgil, a» well as of Catullus. After the death of Beccaria, Zanotti, whofe modefty was no lefs confpicuous than his talents and acquirements, accepted the office of prefident of Z A N the Inftitute, which he deemed peculiarly honourable, as it was a token of efteem conferred upon him by his countrymen. Among the learned men with whom he maintained inter- courfes of fricndfhip or correfpondence were the famous anatomift Morgagni, Voltaire, and pope Bcnedift XIV. He died in the month of January 1777. For an account of his works, which, befides thofe to which we have already re- ferred, were numerous, we refer to " Fabroni Vitx Italorum Doftrina excellentium ;" and for an abftraft of their titles, and time and place of publication, to Gen. Biog. Zanotti, Giovanni Pietro, was born at Paris, though of Italian parentage, in 1674. He was fent young to Bologna, and became a pupil of Lorenzo Pafiinelli. Under that maftcr he acquired an agreeable tone of colour- ing, a mellow pencil, and an intelligent acquaintance with the principle of the chiaro ofcuro. He painted feveral altar-pieces for the churches at Bologna, of which the moft efteemed are, the Incredulity of St. Thomas, in the church of S. Tommafo del Mercato ; the RefurreAien, in S. Pietro ; the Nativity, in La Purita ; and a large pifture in the palazzo publico, reprefenting the ambafladors from Rome fwearing fidelity to the Bolognefe. He refided great part of his life at Cortona, where he alfo diftinguifhed himfelf by feveral piftures painted for the churches, par- ticularly Chrift appearing to the Magdalen, Chrifl bearing his Crofs, and the Murder of the Innocents. Zanotti was a laborious and intelligent writer on art. Of his numerous publications the moft confiderable is his " Storia dtli' Academia Clementina di Bologna," publifhed in two vols. 4to. in 1739. He died in 1765, aged 91. Bryant's Didt. Zanotti, I^'Abate Giancalisto, of Bologna, a dif- ciple of Padre Martini, was born in 1 7 70, of whofe compofition at the annual performance of the mufical Undents, who were members of the celebrated Philharmonic Society in Bologna, founded in 1666, we heard a dixit, in which there were all the marks of an original and cultivated genius. The movements and even pafTages were well contrafted ; and to make ufe of the language of painters, there were difcernible in it not only light and Ihade, but even mezzo tints. He proceeded from one thing to another by fuch eafy and infenfible gra- dations, that it feemed wholly the work of nature, though condufted with the greateft art. The accompaniments were judicious, the ritornels always expreffed fomething, the melody was new and full of tafte, and the whole was put together with great judgment, and even learn- ing. We have very feldom been more pleafed or com- pletely fatisfied than by this produftion ; and yet the vocal parts were but indifferently executed, for there were then no great fingers at Bologna. We expe6tcd to have heard of future works by this moft promifing young compofer, who was one of the maeftri di capella in the church of San Petronio ; but as that has not happened, we fear he did not long furvive this performance. ZANOW, in Geography, a town of Pomerania ; 6 miles E.N.E. of CafsHn. ZANTE, an ifland in the Mediterranean, near the coafl of the Morca, about 12 miles in length, and fix in breadth, chiefly inhabited by Greeks, till lately under the Venetians, who appointed a governor, called proveditor, and two coun- fellors. The Greeks have 40 churches, befides convents, and a bifhop ; the Roman Catholics have three convents and a bifhop. By the treaty of Campo Formio, Zante was given to France ; but in 1 799 it was taken by the united fleets of RufTia and Turkey, and in the year 1800 connefted with other neighbouring iflands, to form a republic of the Seven illands, named the Ionian, which are to pay a tribute to th« Z A N the Porte, and guaranteed both by the Turks and Ruflians. Corfu, Cephalonia, and fonie others lately in the pofleffion of Venice, were of this number. The illand produces ex- cellent wine, and that fpecies of grapes called currants, olives, figs, melons, peaches, and other choice fruits : to- ward* the coafts, the ifland is in general mountainous, but level in the interior parts. It is much fubjeft to earth- quakes. N. lat. 37° 40'. E. long. 21° 4'. Zante, a town and capital of the ifland of Zante, fituated on the N.E. fide, with a harbour fafe and commo- dious for vefiels of any fize. The town ftretches between the harbour and the foot of a mountain about a mile in length, but narrow ; the ftreets are not paved, and. the houfes in general low. On a mountain above the town is a citadel, which commands the harbour, and contains a little city within its walls. It is to be afcended with difficulty, is ftrong, and well fupplied with ftores, and furnifhed with a garrifon. This is the reiidence of the governor and officers. Zante is the fee of a Greek and Latin bifhop. There are feveral churches, and the Jews have a fynagogue ; 21 miles S.S.W. from the towr. of Chiarenza in the Morea. N. lat. 37° 50'. E. long. 21° 8'. ZANTHENES, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the ancients to a foffile fubftance found in Media. Pliny quotes Democritus for faying, that if rubbed in palm wine and faffron, it became foft as wax, and yielded a very fweet fmeU. ZANTHER, in Cetgraphj, a town of Pomerelia ; 10 miles S. of Marienburg. ZANTHORRHIZA, in Botanj, L'Herit. Stirp. Nov. t. 38. See Xanthorrhiza. ZANTHOXYLUM, Linn. Gen. 519. See Xan- THOXYLUM. Zanthoxylum, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy and tender exotic fhrubby kinds, in which the fpecies cultivated are, the Canada tooth-ache-tree, or Hercules's club (Z. clava Herculis), and the Chinefe tooth-ache-tree (Z. trifoliatum ) . The firft is a plant of the tree kind, of which there is a variety ; the a(h-leaved tooth-ache-tree, with oval-oblong folioles, and prickly mid-ribs. And the laft is a woody branching plant. Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafed by feeds and layers. The feeds Ihould be fown in the fpring, either in an eaft border, or in pots placed in the morning fun all the fummer, being ftiekcred in a frame in winter ; and in the fpring following removed to the full air till Ofto- ber, giving proper waterings all the fummer ; and towards winter be placed again under fhelter from froft till March, when the young plants may be potted feparately ; and thus continued for a year or two, being (heltered in the winter, ■when they may be tranfplanted mto the fhrubbery, where they are to remain. The layers of the young wood may be laid down in autumn or early fpring, and when they have ftricken root be taken off and managed as the feedlings. They alfo fucceed by cuttings in fpring or fummer, planted in pots, afiilled by a hot-bed, in wliich they foon flrike, when they fhould be inured to the full air ; and the young plants will be fit for planting out in the autumn, or the fpring following. The firft is a very ornamental plant in the borders and other dry parts of (hrubberies, and the latter among potted plants in the green-houfe coUefkions. ZANTOCH, in Geography, a town of the New Mark of Brandenburg ; 8 miles E. of Landfberg. ZANZALUS, in Biography. Sec BaradjEUS. Z A R ZANZIBAR, or ZANGlBAR.in Geography, an lOar.d of Africa, in the Indian fea, near tlie coaR of Zanjru-bar governed by a kmg, who is tributary to the Ponuirucfe' o. lat. 6". E. long. 41"^ 15'. '' ZANZOUR, a town of Africa, in the counlrv of Tripoh ; 15 miles W.N.W. of Tripoli. ZAOIE, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile ; 13 miles N. of Benifuef. ZA-OSTROG, a town of Morlachia, near the coaft • 15 miles S.E. of Macar/lva. ' ZAOZERSKOI, a town of RufTia, in the govern- MU of Novgorod, on the Sula ; 28 miles W. of mc Tchertpovetz. ^AP-^TA, or Sapata, a kind of feaft, or ceremony, held m Italy, in the courts of certain princes, on S». Ni- cholas's day, in which people hide prefents in the flioes or flippers of thofe they would do honour to ; in fuch manner, as to furprife them on the morrow, when they come to drefs. The word is originally Spanilh, capato i and fignifies a (hoe, or flipper. It is done in imitation of the praAice of St. Nicholas ; who ufed, in the night-time, to throw purfes of money in at the windows, for portions to poor virgins in their marriage. F. Meneftrier has defcribed thefe zapatas, their origin, and different ufagcs, in his Trealife des Ballets Anciens et Moderns. ZAPATERO, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Mexico, in lake Nicaragua, near the weft coaft ; 30 miles S.E. of Grenada. ZAPATILLA Lagoon, a bay on the eaft coaft of Yucatan. N. lat. 18° 52'. W. long. 89° 32'. ZAPETRA, in .Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the mountains of Coniagene, upon a fmall river, which dif- charged itfelf into the Euphrates, S. of that town. ZAPFENDORF, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the bifliopric of Bamberg ; 9 miles N. of Bamberg. ZAPHOR, a name given by fome writers to Zafftr ; which fee. ZAPOROGIAN Cossacks, in Geography. Se« Cos- sacks. ZAPOTITLAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of Tlafcala ; 62 miles S.E. of Puebla de los Angelos. ZAPOTLAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan ; 25 miles N. of Colima. N. lat. 20* 10'. W. long. 104° 36'. ZAPPANIA, in Botany, was fo named by Scopoli, in honour of Paul Anthony Zappa, an Italian botanift, to whom the public garden at Pavia was indebted for many valuable communications. The French, not always exaft in orthography, will have it Zapania, and they have mifled our more accurate countr)'mai\ Mr. Brown, who follows JufTieu and Lamarck in adopting this genus, in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. V. I. 514. Scopoli publifhed it in his Delicis Florx et Faunz Infubricae, v. i. 34. t. 15. The fpecies, on which he founds the genus, and which he erroneoufly tufpeAed might be the Lantana involucrala of Linnxus, is the Verbena globiflora of L'Heritier. (See Verbena, n. 3.) We do not find it neceffary or expedient to retain Zappania as a diftinft genus. ZAPUNTELLO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Melada, which fometimes gives name to the ifland. ZAQUALPAN, a town of Mechoacan, in the province of Mechoacan ; 6 miles S. of Zacatula. ZARA, a city and fea-port of Dalmatia, fee of an arch- bifliop, fituated in a diftrift, called " The County of Zara," which was purchafed of the king of Naples, in the year S 2 1409, Z A R 1 400, by the Venetians, in whofe Lands it afterwards con- tinued. Zara is furrounded on all f.dcs by the fea, except that it has a communication eaftvvard with the continent, bv means of a draw-bridge, commanded by a fort. It is reckoned one of the bell fortifications in Dalmatia, and deemed ahnoll impregnable. The citadel >s divided from the town by a very deep ditch, hewn out of a rock 1 he harbour, which lies to the north, is capacious, fafe, and xvell guarded. The rain is carefully preferved in citterns, to iupply the want of fred. water. In the caftle ref.des the govern^ or proveditor uf Dalmatia, whofe office is only friennial. It now belongs to the kingdom of Italy ; 28 miles N.W. of Scardona. N. lat. 44° 22'. E. long. 15 Zaka Fecchla, Old Zara, or BlograJ, or ^Iba Man- tima, a town of Dalmatia, now little better than a village. In the time of the Romans it was a place of confiderable figure, and received a new fet of inhabitants by a numerous colony of that people. In the middle ages it was called Behrad, or jllba Maris, and more anciently Blandona. According to fome it was ruined by Attila ; but we know with more certainty that it was deftroyed in the war between the Venetians and the Hungarians, by the doge Ordelafo Falieri. Some banditti afterv^ards mixing with the inhabit- ants that remained, the republic, to check their exceffes, ordered a general maffacre of the robbers, in which the ancient inhabitants were not fpared. Here was alfo a bilhop's fee, which, on the demolition of the town, was re- moved to Scardona ; at prefent its inhabitants confift only of a few pcafants ; 18 miles S.E. of Zara. Zara. See Scharedsje. Zara, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Moabites, taken by Alexander Jannxus. — Alfo, a town of Afia, to- wards Armenia, upon the route from Arabiffum to Satala, between Eumeas and DagolafTum. Anton. Itin. ZARAISK, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go- vernment of Riazan, on the Ofer; ^24 miles S.W. of Riazan. N. lat. 54° 30'. E. long. 38° 24'. ZARAMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the interior of Media. Ptolemy. ZARANDA, a name anciently given to the Euphrates. ZARANG, the Zarange of Ptolemy, in Geography, a populous city of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan or Sciftan, fituated pleafantly on the banks of the Hearmund. This was the cuftomary refidence of Jacob Ben Lath, the conqueror of the caliph of Bagdad, and ftood a long fiege againft Tinuir, by whom it was at laft. taken. Zarang is fuppofed to be the fame with the prefent Doofhak, the old name having been loft in the revolutions to which this province has been fubjeft for more than a century, and to which its prefent defolated ftate may, in a great meafure, be attributed. For a further account of it, fee Segestan. ZARANIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the interior of Media. Ptolemy. ZARATE, Augustine de, in Biography, a Spanifh hiftorian, was fent by Charles V. in 1543 to South Ame- rica, as comptroller-general in Peru and Terra Firma ; and having colIeCled all the memoirs he could procure, he com- pofed his work " Del Defcubrimento y Conquifta de la Provincia del Peru," firft printed at Antwerp in 1555, 8vo. jnd reprinted at Seville, 1577, foho : the firft edition being regarded as moft authentic. It has been tranflated into Italian and French, and is commended as a work of repu- tation and credit by Dr. Robertfon. Moreri. Robertfon's America. Zakate, in Geography, a town of South America, in the province of St. Martha ; 15 miles S. of TenerifFe. 9 Z A R ZARAYOS, or Sharayos, a fuppofed lake of Ame- rica, in the courfe of the river Paraguay, which only exifts during the annual inundations, that are on a far grander fcale than thofe of the Ganges, and may be faid to deluge whole provinces. ZARCA, a town of Egypt, on the eaft branch of the Nile ; lo miles S. of Damictta. ZARCHAS, or Tcharkas, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chorafan, or Khoraflan ; 150 miles N. of Herat. ZARCOIA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan ; 1 2 miles W. of Zarang. ZARDAM. See Sardam. ZARE, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chorafan, or Khoraffan, on the north fide of a lake fo called ; 70 miles S. of Herat. — Alfo, a lake of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan ; 60 miles N. of Zarang. See Zerreh. ZARED, in Ancient Geography, a torrent beyond Jor- dan, on the frontier of the Moabites. This torrent had its fource in the mountains, E. of the country of Moab, and proceeding from the E. to the W. difcharged itfelf into the Dead fea. The Ifraelites paffed it 38 years before their departure from Kadefti-Barnea. Numb. xxi. 12. Deut. ii. 13, 14. ZAREPHATH. See Sarepta. ZARESH-SHEKER,orSARAT-AFER, a city of Reu- ben, beyond Jordan. Jo(h. xiii. 19. Z ARETHA, or ZaretjE, a people comprifed under the name of Scythians, on this fide of the Imaus, fouth of mounts Maflsi and Alani. Ptol. ZAREX, a port of Laconia, on the Argolic gulf, S. of Cyphanta. Near this port was a temple of Apollo, with a ftatue of this god, holding in his hand a lyre. To the fouth, and parallel to the coaft, was a mountain called Zarex. ZARFA, in Botany, a name given by Leo Africanus, and others, to the lotus, or nettle-tree. ZARGIDAVA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated on the bank of the river Hierafus, in the interior of Lower Mcefia, a httle above Tamafiava. ZARIASPA, or Zariaspe, a town of Afia, in Baftriana, watered by a river of the fame name, which dif- charged itfelf into the Oxus. Strabo. It was alfo called Badlra. Steph. Byz. ZARIFU, a word by which fome of the chemical writers have expreffed tin. ZARIK, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea ; 22 miles E. of Mifitra. ZARIMA, a town of South America, in the province of Quito; 220 miles S. of Quito. S. lat. 3° 36'. W. long. 79° 36'. ZARJON, a town of South America, in the govern- ment of Buenos Ayres ; 300 miles N.N.W. of Buenos Ayres. ZARLINO, Giuseppe da Chioggia, maeftro di capella of St. Mark's church at Venice, and the moft general, voluminous, and celebrated theorift and writer on mufic in the Italian language during the i6th century, was born in 1540, and author of the following mufical treatifes, which, though feparately printed, and at different periods, are generally bound up together in one thick folio volume : — " Inftitutioni Harmoniche," Venice, 1558, 1562, 1573, and 1589; " Dimoftrationi Harmon." Vtn. 1571, and 1589 ; and " Sopplimenti Muficali," Ven. 1588. We difcover by thefe dates, that Zarhno firft appeared as an author at the age of 1 8 ; and from that period till he had arrived at 49, he was continually revifing and augmenting his works. The Z A R The mufical fcieiice of Zarlino, who died in 1599, may be traced in a right line from the Netherlands : as his mafter Willaert, the founder of the Venetian fchool, was a dif- ciple of John Mouton, the fcholar of the great Jofquin. A commentary upon the voluminous writings of this author would occupy too large a portion of our work ; and to refer the reader to the analyfis of his feveral treatifes by Artufi would be doing him little fervice, as the writings of Artufi would be difficult to find. There are few mufical authors whom we have more frequently confulted than Zarlino, having been encouraged by his great reputa- tion, and the extent of his plan, to hope for fatisfaftion from his writings concerning many difficulties in the mufic of the early contrapuntifts ; but we muft own, that we have been more frequently difcouraged from the purfuit by his prolixity, than enlightened by his fcience : the mod trivial information is involved in fuch a crowd of words, and the fufpenfe which it occafions is fo great, that patience and curiofity muft be invincible indeed to fupport a mufical inquirer through a regular perufal of all his works. He begins his Inftitutes with a panegyric upon mufic, in the ufual ftrain ; then we have its divifion into mundane and humane, faithfully drawn from Boethius ; after this, there is a great wafte of words, and parade of fcience, in attempting to explain the feveral ratios of greater and lefs inequality, proportion, and proportionality, &c. where, in his commenting on Boethius, we have divifions of mufical intervals that are imprafticable, or at leaft inadmiffible, in modern harmony. In his account of the ancient fyftem, he difcovers much reading ; and that is what he chiefly wifhes the reader fhould know. > In defcribing the diatonic genus, in which the tetrachord is divided into tone major, tone minor, and major femitone : 4, '-^t and -J-J, for which divifion, commonly called the fyntonou?, or intenfe of Ptolemy, he conftantly contends, we have the fubftance of his difpute with Vincenzio Galilei, which will be mentioned hereafter. The fecond part of his Inl\itutes is chiefly employed in meafuring and afcer- taining intervals by means of the monochordy and an inftru- ment called the mefolabe, which is faid to have been invented either by Archytas of Tarentum, or Eraftohenet, for the purpofe of halving an interval. Whether the praftical mufi- cians of antiquity applied thefe calculations or imaginary divi- fions to their flutes and lyres, we know not ; but of this we are moft certain, that the greateft performers of modern times are Ariftoxenians, and make the ear the only inftrument of calculation ; which, by means of harmony, and the con- ftant opportunities of comparifon which the bafe or other accompaniment affords them, during performance, is ren- dered a much more trufty guide than it could be in playing a fingle part. It feems, however, as if the ancient inftru- ments, upon which all the tones zrcjixed, had more need of the affiftance of calculation and mathematical exaAnefs in regulating their intervals than thofe of the violin -tribe at prefent ; which, except in the open llrings, which often lead the performer to erroneous intonation, depend on the ftrength and dexterity of the mufician's hand, and accuracy of his ear, during ptrformance. See an ingenious and ufeful work, called " Eflay upon Tune," publifhed at Edinburgh, 1781 ; where the imperfeftions in the fcales of modern in- flruments are clearly fhewn, and remedies for correfting them prefcribed. The elements of counterpoint, and fundamental rules of compofition, which chiefly concern the praAical mufician, are given in the third part of the Inftitutes ; and thefe are more ample, and illuftrated with more examples, than in any Z A R preceding writer ; particulariy the laws of canon and fikrue, tor which no mftrudions have been given by Franchmua, though they were in fuch high favour during his time! P. Aaron and Vicentino have indeed ftarted the fubjeft, but the purfuit of it was left to Zariino. In the fourth part of the Inftitutes we have a fhort hif- torical account of the inventors of the feveral ecclefiaftical modes : it is, indeed, a mere flveleton of aflertions or con- jedures without proof, more derived from traditional thao written evidence. He here hkewife gives inftrudions for compofing in all thefe modes, in which he rehgioufly keeps within their legal limits, and fubmits to all the reftraints which antiquity had prefcribed. Padre Martini, faggio di contrappunto, in recommending the ftudy and imitation of ancient mafters, has well de- fcribed the difficulties they had to encounter ; where, after confronting the ecclefiaftical fcales with the fecular, we have the following pan"age : " From an attentive and comparative view of thefe fcales, any one defirous of learn- ing the art of counterpoint for the fervice of the church, will fee what diligence and efforts were neceffary to unite the different quahties of canto-fermo and canto-figurato ; and by carefully examining the examples given of both, will difcover what artifices were ufed by ancient mafters to avoid fuch founds as differed from the canto-fermo, and with what parfimony they admitted fuch accidents as canto- figurato requires, particularly in the third and fourth tones ; where, inftead of modulating into B mi, the 5th of the mode or key, as is conftantly praftifed at prefent, they have paffed to the key of A in the fourth tone, and C in the third, by which means they hare been able, dexteroufly, to unite the different qualities of canto-fermo with thofe of canto-figurato." He gives excellent rules for compofing motets and madri- gals ; but it is remarkable, that he advifes the compofer to make the tenor proceed regularly through the founds of the mode he fliall choofe ; and above all, that this part be fo much the more fmooth, regular, and beautiful, as the reft are to be built upon it ; whence, fays he, its founds may be called the nerves and ligaments of all the other parts : by which it appears that the cantilena, or principal melody, was not given, as it is by modern compofers, to the foprano, or higheji part ; that caftrati were not fo common as at pre- fent ; and that the tenor being the kind of voice moft eafily found, and more generally good than that of any other pitch, was judicioufly honoured with the principal melody. ZarUno fays, that fo great was the rage for multiplying parts in mufical compofitions, that fome mafters, not content with three or four, which fufficed to their predeceffors, had increafed them to fifty ; from which, he truly obferves, nothing but noife and confufion could arife. However, in another part of his book, he tells us, that Adriano Willaert had invented niaffes a Due Cori, over a tre, or, as fome call them, a Cori Spe%zati, which had an admirable effeft. We know not how Okenheim difpofed his thirty-fix parts in the motet already mentioned ; but they would have furnifhed nine choirs of four voices each. In the large churches of Italy, where the performers are divided into two bands, placed in oppofite galleries, all the imitations and folo parts are diftinftly heard, and when united in at leaft eight real parts, completely fill the ears of the audience with all the charms of congregated found. ZARMISOGETUSA Regia, in Ancient Geography, a capital town of Dacia, upon the river Sargetia. When this city became a Roman colony, it joined to its ancient name " Colonia Ulpia Trajana," or that of " Augufta Dacica." ZARU Z A R ZARN, in Geography, a towa of the duchy of Berg ; 4 aides E. of Duifturg. r , , ZARNAB, in the MaUria Mcdtca, a term ufed by Avicenna and Serapio to exprefs the carpefia of the ancient ZARNACH, the fame as the word ^arnUh, the name of the orpiment of the Arabians. , . ^ r 1 u . t was^not conhned, however, to this fenfe alone, but was ufed as a name for other things ufed m pa.ntmg^^ and par- ticularly for the laph arm.nu.- However, D.ofcondes and Theophrallus call the hpls armcnu^ by the name of tumenion, ai,d tl>e ■^arnach by that of arrtncoon, that is, orpiment. rm 1 i u ZARNAK, in Geography, a town of Turkeltan, on the Sirr; 100 miles W. of Toncat. ZARNATA, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea; 16 miles S.W. of Mifitra. ZARNAW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Sandomirz ; 32 miles N. of Sandomirz. ZARNICH, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a genus of foffils, the charaders of which are thefe : They are in- flammable fubllances, not compofed of plates or flakes, but of a plain, fimple, and. uniform ftrufture, not flexile nor elattic, foluble in oil, and burning with a whitilh flame, and noxious fmell, like garlic. ... That thefi foffils are really fulphuretted arfenics is evident from fundry experiments. When fet on tire, the arfenical as well as the fulphureous fmell is plainly dillinguithable. If triturated with quickfilver, and expofed to a ftiitable heat, the fulphur is detained by the mercury, and a pure white arfenic fublimes. A mixture of fixed alkaline fait, with any vegetable or animal fubftance, as the compound called by the affayers black flux, in like manner keeps down the fulphur, and at the fame time revives the arfenic into its reguline or metallic form. Thefe native minerals have been ufed as medicines in the eaftern countries, and by fome im- prudently recommended in our own. Lewis. Of this genus there are four known fpecies : a red one, which is the true Sandarach ; a yellow one, found in the mines of Germany, and brought to us under the name of orpiment ; a greenilh one, common alfo in the mines of Germany, and fold in our colour-(hops under the name of a coarfe orpiment ; it is alfo found in the tin-mines of Corn- wall ; and a whitifh one, which has the property of turning black ink into a florid red, common in the mines of Ger- many, but of little value. Hill. ZARNOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Pruffian Pomerelia, on a bay of the Baltic ; 40 miles N.N.W. of Dantzic. ZARNOWNO, a town of Auftrian Poland, in the kingdom of Galicia, on the Dnieiter ; 15 miles N.W. of Halicz. ZAROW. See Soraw. ZARP, a river of Afia, which runs into the Tigris, 40 miles below Moful. ZARP ANA, or Rota, or St. Ann, one of the La- drone iflands, about 40 miles in ciccumference, with a port on the S. coaft, and another on the N.W. coaft ; 21 miles from Guam. ZARUANA, m Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Greater Armenia. Ptolemy. ZARUBINA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutflc ; 60 miles N-W. of Ilimflc. ZARUMA, a town of South America, in the audience of Quito. ZARUTHAN, in Surgery, a word ufed by fome to Z A V exprefs a hard and unequal tumour of the bread, attended' with a burning heat, and a violent but not continual pain. This is by lome referred to the cancer, and accounted a fpecies of that terrible diforder : its caufe is fuppofed to be a ftiarp ichorous humour in the blood. , ZARZA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Eftrema- dura ; 22 miles S.W. of Plafencia. ZARZEDO, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura ; 20 miles N.E. of Caftel Branco. ZARZINA. See Sarsina. ZASAWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ; 8 miles S.W. of Kaurzim. ZASHIVERSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Irkutfk ; 1320 miles N.N.E. of Irkutflc. N. lat. 67° 25'. E. long. 138° 14'. ZASLAW, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 24 mile« N. of Conilantinow. ZASMUKI, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Kaurzim. ZASNARAS, a town of Tranfylvania ; 16 miles S.W. of WeifTemburg. ZASPEL, in Commerce, a meafure for linen and yarn at Leipfic ; where a piece of woollen or cotton yarn confifts of 4 ftrehns, or I2 zafpels, and a piece of linen yarn confifts of 6 ftrehns, or 12 zafpels. A zafpel contains 20 gebinds, 400 fadens, or 1600 ells. ZATETZ, in Geography. See SaATZ. ZATHAG, or Zatag, a town of Arabia, in the pro- vince of Hedsjas ; 20 miles S.E. of Karac. ZATHUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Greater Armenia. Ptol. ZATIBA, in Geography, a town of South America, in New Grenada ; 36 miles N.N.E. of Tunja. ZATMAR, a town of Hungary. This is properly two towns, namely, Zatmar, 011 an ifland in the river Samos ; and Nemethi, oppofite to it, on an arm of the river: but in the year 1715, both were erected into one town ; the firft of which is fortified. The reformed held a national fynod here in 1646; 56 miles N.N.W. of Colofvar. N. lat. 47° 47'. E. long. 22° 24'. ZATOR,a ftrong town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ; 22 miles W.S.W. of Cracow. ZATSCHIT Kabanovskaia, a fort of Ruffia, in the government of Kolivan ; 20 miles S. of Biifl<. ZATUENEBO, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 65 miles S.S.E. of Havannah. ZATURCE, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Lucko. ZAUALA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan ; 1 10 miles N. of Mechoacan. ZAUARA, a river of Africa, which runs into the Indian fea, S. lat. 24° 15'. ZAVARA. See Asinara. ZAUDNITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Troppau ; 9 miles N.N.E. of Troppau. ZAUECES, in Ancient Geography, 3 people of Africa, in the weftern part of Libya, and in the vicinity of the Libyans Mexycans. According to Herodotus, when thefe people went to war, their wives condufted their cars or chariots. Z AUED VL Bahri, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile ; 8 miles S. of Shabur. ZAVEL, a river of Perfia, which pafles through Cho- rafan, or Khoraffan, and lofes itfelf in lake Zare, or Zarreh. ZAVELSTEIN, a town of Wurtemberg, near which is a medicinal fprine ; 2 miles N. of Bulach. ZAVIDEI, an ifland of Ruifiia, at the entarance of the gulf Z A Y gulf of Tchaunfkaia, in the Frozen fea ; about 60 miles in circumference. N. lat. 71° jo' to 72° 20'. E. long. ;66^ 14'. ZAVODE BiRUiLEVA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutfk, on the Argunia ; 121 miles N.E. of Stretenlk. Zavode Dutcharjioi, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutfk ; 88 miles S.E. of Stretenfk. Zavode Ga-zimu-Jhoi, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutfk ; 44 miles S.S.E. of Stretenfk. Zavode Irb'tnjloi, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Kolivan ; 40 miles E. of Abakanllc. Zavode Kutamarjloi, a town of Ruffia; 100 miles E.S.E. of Nertchinfk. Zavoue Lanina, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutllv, on the W. coafl of the Baikal lake; 80 miles N.E. of Irkutfk. Zavode Midnoi Kuruzulaeii/ioi, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk ; 32 miles S. of Nertchinf]<. Zavode Niznei Suziii/ioi, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Kolivan ; 32 miles S.E. of Kolivan. Zavode Novopavlov/ioi, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Kolivan ; 80 miles S.S.E. of Kolivan. Zavode Popovo, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Kolivan. N. lat. 56° 31'. E. long. 95° 32'. Zavode Sihiria Kova, a town of Ruffia, on the Argunia ; 100 miles E.S.E. of Stretenfk. Zavode Tifova, 2l town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the river Poim ; 124 miles N.N.W. of Niznei Udinfic. Zavode Verchoturova, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutfk, on the Argunia; 132 miles N.E. of Stretenfk. Z AVOLOCZE, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Polotllc ; 50 miles N.E. of Polotn<. ZAURGATCH, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tobolflc, on the Irtifch ; 80 miles E.S.E. of Tobolfk. ZAUROS, in Ichthyology, a name given by the ancient Greeks to that fifh which we call faurus and lacertus, and which is called at Rome the tarantula. It is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name of the ofmerus, with eleven rays in the pinna ani ; and in the Linnaean fyflem it is the falmo faurus, with ten rays in the pinna ani. ZAUZAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro- vince of Chorafan ; 70 milee N.W. of Herat. Z AW A J A, a lake of Abyffinia, in the fouthern ex- tremity of the kingdom, which is the chief fource of the river Hawafh. ZAWEH, a diftrift or province of Perfia, bounded on the N. by Karafm, on the E. by Chorafan, on the S. by Mazanderan, and on the W. by the Cafpian fea Alfo, a town of Perfia, and capital of a diftrift, on tlie river Tedjen, about 24 miles from the Cafpian fea ; 81 miles N. of Mefchid. Z AWICHOST, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Sandomirz ; 8 miles N. of Sandomirz. ZAWIEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern- ment of Diarbekir, on the Euphrates ; 24 miles E. of Anah. ZAWILA. SeeZuEELA. ZAWOLOW, a town of Auflrian Poland, in Galicia ; 20 miles N.E. of Halicz. ZAXO Sultax, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government of Diarbekir ; 5 miles S. of Rahabeh. ZAYRE. See Zaire. Z E A ZAYTE, a river on the W. fide of the ifland of C-elebe*, which runs into the fea, N. lat. 30'. E. long. 120° ic' ZAZIMOWICZE.atown li Lithuania! in tV^p;!^. tmate of Brzefk ; 32 miles N.E. of Brzefl.- ^ tt^.^^^^.^9t',' ^°" °^ ^"'^•^' '^ "-^^ government of Upha, on the Ural ; 68 miles W. of Orenburg. ZBANITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim ; 5 miles E. of Hohenmant. ZBARAS, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Braclaw ; 36 miles N. of Braclaw. ZBIROW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Beraun- 12 miles S.W. of Beraun. ZBORRI, a town of Hungary ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Szeben. ZBORROW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in the new kingdom of Gahcia, near which an obftinate battle was fought between the Poles on one fide, commanded by their king John Cafimir, and the combined army of the Coffacks and Tartars on the other. In this engagement the latter w-ere defeated, and left 10,000 men dead on the fpot ; but the day after, a treaty of peace was concluded on terms difadvantageous to Poland ; 63 miles E. of Lemberg. ZBRASLAWIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau ; 10 miles S.W. of Czaflau. ZDANICHA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Chatanga, N. lat. 70° 40'. E. long. 98° 14'. ZDAUNSKY, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hradifch : 15 miles N. of Hradifch. ZDIAR, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Prachatitz ; B miles N.W. of Horafdiowiz. ZDISLAWITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ; 10 miles S.E. of Benefchow. ZDZIECOL, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Novogrodeck ; 1 2 miles W. of Novogrodeck. ZEA, in Botany, a name borrowed from the ancient Greeks, whofe i^nx., however, appears to have been fome kind of Trittcum or Hordeum, agreeing with our prefent American genus, the Maize, only as being a grain culti- vated for the food of man Linn. Gen. 480. Schreb. 621. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 200. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. V. 5. 235. Purfli 46. JufT. 33. Lamarck lUullr. t. 749. (Mays; Tourn. t. 303 — 305. Gsrtn. t. I . ) — Clafs and order, Monoecla Trlandria. Nat. Ord. Gramina, Linn. JufT. Gen. Ch. correfted by Schreber. Male flowers dif- pofed in diftinft lax fpikes. Cal. Glume two-flowered, of two ovate-oblong, fweUing, pointed, beardlefs valves, the outermoft rather the longeft. Cor. Glume of two oblong beardlefs valves, about the length of the calyx ; the outer- moft fwelling, obtufe ; the innermoft terminating in two teeth. Neftary of two very fliort flefhy fcales, dilated upwards, abrupt, furrowed at the fummit. Stam. Filaments three, capillary ; anthers fomewhat prifmatic, cloven, burfl- ing at the top. Female flowers in a very denfe fpike, below the male, on the fame plant, concealed by the leaves. Cor. Glume fingle-flowered, of two permanent, roundifh, thick valves, membranous and fringed at the margin ; the outer cne thickeft. Cor. Glume of four unequal, membranous, tranfparent, broad, fhort, permanent valves. Pijl. Germen very fmall ; ftyle thread-fhaped, extremely long, pendulous ; fligma fimple, downy towards the fummit. Perk. none. Common Receptacle very large and long, with five or more angles, and as many rows of cells, tranfv-crfely excavated, in each of which are imbedded the fruits of two flowers, fur- rounded with their own calyx and corolla. Seed folitary, 1 2 roundifh. ZEA. Mundifti. ftalked, longer than the glume* ; angular and comprefTed at the bafe. Obf. Two out of the four valves of the female carolla appear to belong to an abortive flower. Schreber. EIT. Ch. Male flowers in diftinft fpikes. Calyx a two- flowered beardlefs glume. Corolla beardlefs. Female, Calyx a glume of two valves. Corolla of four valves. Style one, thread-fhaped, pendulous. Seeds foli- tary, imbedded in an oblong receptacle. I. Z. mays. Common Maize, or Indian Corn. Linn. Sp. PI. 1378. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Purfh n. I. (Frumentum indicum ; Camer. Epit. 186. F. afiaticum, turcicum et indicum; Ger. Em. 81, 82. Morif. feft. 8. t. 13. f. I, 2, 3.) — Leaves entire. — Native of America. Cultivated there, as well as in the fouthern countries of Eu- rope. One of the largeft of the family of corn or graffes. Root annual, of innumerable fibres. Stem ereft, fomewhat branched, round, ftout, jointed, leafy, from five to ten feet high. Leaves fheathing, lanceolate, concave, acute, ribbed, two or three feet long, and three or four inches broad. Male foiuers in numerous, aggregate, terminal fpiies, each three or four inches long, greyifh, downy, with purple anthers. Female ones below, in a generally fimple, cylindri- cal fpike, covered by the large (heaths of the upper leaves. Styles fix or eight inches long, very numerous, of a fhining yellowifh or reddifh hue, hanging down like a long filken taflel. Seeds white, yellow, red, or purplifh, forming a heavy, teflellated, cone-like, naked fpike, from fix to ten inches long. There are innumerable varieties, in the fize, figure, colour, and qualities of the grain, which, though valuable for many purpofes, and yielding an abundant crop, is far inferior to wlieat as a bread corn. It requires a richly manured foil. Mr. Purfli mentions a variety, brought lately by governor Lewis from the Mandan nation, on the Miflburi, which promifes to be particularly valuable, as ripening earlier than any other fort, and yielding an excel- lent produce. See Maize. i. Z. Curagua. Chih Maize. " Molina Chil. German edition, 107." Willd. n. 2 Leaves ferrated. — Native of Chili. Annual. Smaller in all its parts than the foregoing. Molina. Of the qualities or hiftory of this fpecies, we have no further account. Zea, in Gardening, contains a plant of the hardy her- baceous annual kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is the maize, or Indian corn (Z. mays). It has a large flfong, herbaceous ftalk, which fometimes rifes to the height of ten or twelve feet ; and there are varieties ; with yellowifh-white feeds, with deep yellow feeds, and with purple-blue feeds. This plant is moftly cultivated in the garden and pleafure ground for the fake of its fingular tall growth. Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be raifed by fowing feed in the fpring, as March or April, in a dry warm fituation, where the plants are intended to remain, in patches of two or three feeds or more in each, about an inch and a half deep : when the plants are come up, they fhould be thinned out to one or two of the ftrongeft. But to have the plants more forward, fo as to produce ripe feed-fpikes more efFeftually, fome fhould be fown in a hot-bed at the fame time, and when the plants are three or four inches high, be forwarded by pricking them out upon another hot- bed, either under a deep frame, or an awning of hoop arches, to be covered with mats occafionally, allowing them plenty of free air ; and when they have fufficient growth, as in May, they may be tranfplanted, with balls of earth about thek roots, into the full ground in the borders or fhrubbery clumps, in warm funny fituations, being well watered ; and when the fummer proves vrarm and dry, they often produce perfeA heads, and the feeds ripen in a good manner. As the plants moftly run up in tall ftalks, it is proper to fupport each with a tall neat ftake, efpecially where much expofed to wind and rain. Thefe plants in the different varieties have a fine effeft in the back parts of borders, clumps, and other places, in warm fheltered fituations. It is obferved by a late writer, that he has planted a fmall quantity of this fort of grain in his garden, and it turned out fuperior to his expeAations ; and he is of opinion, that this crop may be raifed to advantage in the field on fome light foils, particularly the poor fands of Norfolk and Suffolk, or on any hot burning lands ; as the countries where it grows naturally are light hot foils. And he adds, that he prefers the drill method of culture for it in this country ; as the fmall hillocks in planting the feeds fepa- rately make the land unfightly and improper for other crops. But to raife the greateft produce in corn, the hills are, he conceives, the befl way ; however if the crop is intended chiefly for fodder, then drills are beft. The feed is to be put about an inch deep in the ground. And that when the corn firft appears above the furface, the hillocks or drills muft be examined, to fee whether it all comes up properly ; and if it has not, there muft be frefh feeds put into the vacant places to prevent a lofs in the crop. And as foon as the plants take root in the ground, the crop fhould be examined again to fee whether any have died away, or the birds have taken the feed. The plants muft alfo be thinned to two on a hill, and good plants fubftituted for weak ones. In the cultivation while growing in the hill-way, the hoe muft be ufcd at every operation to the plants, and earth be given to them, as the land cannot be made too light for this crop ; but when in drills, the corn muft be hoed in the fame manner as garden peas. He alfo further obferves, that when the corn gets out of the milk, the blades below muft be all pulled off while green : tie them up in fmall bunches, about the fize of a birch-broom, and hang them on the top of the ftalks of the corn ; for at the fame time that the blades are pulled, the tops muft be cut off, and fet up in round bunches to dry, and tied round the topmoft part to keep them from falling : when thefe are dry, they muft be harvefted. The blades are generally ready in four or five days, but the tops take longer ; when thefe blades and tops are properly harvefted, they are excellent food. And it is fuggefted, that as thefe procefles will be finifhed about the end of Auguft, the land might be ploughed and then fown with rye. If feeds were required, he is of opinion that it would be very proper to fow the feeds at that time on this poor hot land ; as the warm feafon would be over, and the feeds would have fuificient time to take root before winter. If only rye was wanted, he would eat it with fheep in the fpring or during the winter. But the ftalks muft, he fays, ftand, for the corn to ripen after the rye is fown ; and the corn ought to hang on the ftalk till it is hard. In America, it is often December before the white corn can be pulled, or September for the yellow corn : if it is pulled before it is hard, and the cob is perfeftly dry, it will mould and fpoil, and the corn will be apt to rot, therefore great care fhould be taken not to pull it too foon. This fort of corn is, it is faid, given to horfes, cattle, and hogs, without fhelling, and only huflced in the ear ; but when given to fowls, or intended for fale, it is rubbed oflF by burn- ing a cob in the fire till hard, and then rubbing the corn with I Z E A with it. It is a fort of grain which is fometimes given to pigs, but more frequently- when ground to fowls. Count Rumford has fhewn in his Efiay on Food, that this is per- haps the mod nutritious grain, except wheat, either as human fuftenance, or as provender for brute animals. See Maize. Zea, in Geography. See Zia. ZEAGONG, a town of Birmah ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Raynangong. ZEAL, Zelus, ZrX-,:, the exercife of a warm animated afFeftion, or paflion, for any thing. Some will have jealous sea/ to be properly a mixed or compound fenfation, where one affection is raifed or inflamed by another. On thefe principles, jealoufy may be defined an affedion arifing from love and indignation, which cannot bear a thing to be given to another, that a perfon defires for himfelf, or one whom he loves and favours. Others make it confill in an eaget ftudy, or defire, to keep any thing inviolate ; or a fervour of mind, ariiing from art in- dignation againft thofe who abufe or do evil to a perfon beloved. The Greek philofophers make three fpecies of %eal. The firft, of envy ; the fecond, of emulation, or imitation ; the third, of p'tety, or devotion ; which laft makes what the divines call religious zeal. ^. Jofephus fpeaks much of a party, or faftion, called the Zealous, or Zealots, which arofe among the Jews during the war with Vefpafian and Titus. Lib. xiv. cap. 6. Antiq. and lib. iv. cap. 12. de Bello Judaico. ZEALAND, or Zeeland, or Seeland, (in Danifh Siiland,) in Geography, the largeft ifland belonging to the kingdom of Denmark, bounded on the north by the Scag- gerac, on the eaft by the Sound, on the fouth by the Baltic, and on the wefl: by the Great Belt ; about 65 miles in length from north to fouth, and where wideft 60 from eaft to weft, though in fome parts fcarcely 30, and in no part above 20 miles from the fea : reckoned about 700 miles in circumference. The coaft is much interfefted with large bays ; and within the country are feveral lakes, which, as well as the rivers, abound in fiih. The country is pleafant ; the foil is generally fertile, and produces corn, chiefly barley and oats, more than fufficient for the inhabitants, with ex- cellent paflures ; and in moft parts is plenty of wood, except towards the centre of the ifland, where the inhabitants ge- nerally ufe turf for fuel. The fields are feparated by mud- walls ; the cottages are of brick or white-wafhed : fand-hills are fometimes defl;ruClive on the coaft ; and the beft pro- teftion from their ravages, fays Catteau, is the elymus anemaria. Copenhagen is the capital. N. lat. 55° 2' to 56° 6'. E. long. 10° 58' to 12' 40'. See Denmark. Zealand, State of, one of the former United Dutch States, and now part of the recently eftabUflied kingdom. . It confifts of iflands which are formed by thofe branches and outlets of the Scheldt, called Zeeuwfche Stromen, or Sea Streams ; on the north it is bounded by Holland, eaft- ward by Brabant, fouthward by Flanders, and wellward by the North fea : its name fufficiently indicates its natural pofition and Ctuation. The iflands of Walcheren and .Schouwen, on the weftern coaft, are defended againft the violence of the fea, by downs or fand-hills, and on the other fides, like the reft of the iflands of Zealand, by vaft dykes, which, at the bottom, have a breadth of 25 German ells, and at the top are fo wide, that two carriages may pafs abreaft : the height is alfo proportioned to their thicknefs ; notwith- ilanding which, in high tides and ilormy weather, the waves in many places force a pafl^age, or even flow over them : the £rft formation of thefe dykes muft have been. attended' with Vol. XXXIX. ZEA immenfe expence, the very repair and maintenance of them requiring large fums. Emanuel van Meteren, in the fix teenth book of his Commentaries, fays, and confirms ,f by the atteftations of the workmen employed in them, that ti c dykes in this province alone, if placed in one diredio ■• would form a length of 40 miles, each mile to be reckonod at 1400 rods, and that the expence of one rod with anotli-r was a pound Flemifli, or fix Dutch guilders. Thus th- charge of the outward dykes taken together amounts i . 340,000/. fterhng. Though the inhabitants of the other provinces, and foreigners in general, complain of the air being heavy, difagreeable, and unhealthy, vet no people lor'- better, or enjoy a more confirmed ftate of health, than t' ^ natives who are born and bred up in it. The foil too 1 • very fruitful, and famed for its excellent wheat, as likewii- for madder, the cultivation of which furnifhes out grea- employment for the inhabitants of Zealand : it abounds alr> in good fruits, and its rich paftures are covered with flock- of fine flieep. The waters around the iflands fupply them with plenty of fifli, particularly with oyfters, lobfters, and mufcles, of an uncommon fize and goodnefs. Zealand en- joys hkewife an afiluence of all kinds of provifions, but fuel IS very fcarce there, efpeciaUy turf, which, being brought from other provinces, bears a high price ; great quantities of Enghfti coals are ufed here. In the whole province are 121 towns and villages, fome of which are very large. The inhabitants are reckoned the moft wealthy in all the Nether- lands, which is, in a great meafure, owing to their traffic by fea, and for this, indeed, they have every conveniency that can be defired. ( See Holland. ) The right bank of the Scheldt, called the Eaft Scheldt, divides this province into two quarters, -viz. into that on the eaft and that on the weft of the faid river. The quarter on the Weft Scheldt is com- pofed of five iflands, viz. Walcheren, South Beveland, North Beveland, Wolferfdyk, and St. Jooflland. The quarter of the Eaft Scheldt contains four iflands, viz. Schouwen, Duiveland, Tholen, and St. Philip's Land. Zealand, New, two iflmds in the South Pacific ocean, firft difcovered by Tafman, a Dutch navigator. In the year 1642, he travcrfed the eaftern coaft from lat. 34° to 43°, and entered the ftrait called Cook's Strait ; he was at- tacked by the natives foon after he came to an anchor in the place,' to which he gave the name of Murderer's Bay, and never went on fliore : he gave the country the name of Staaten Land, in honour of the ftates-general, and it is now generally diftinguiflied in our maps and charts by the name of New Zealand. As the whole of this country, except that part of the coaft which was feen by Tafman from on board his ftiip, had from his time to the voyage of the Endeavour, in the year 1770, remained altogether unknown, it was by many luppofed to be part of a fouthern continent. It is, however, now known to confiil of two large iflands, divided from each other by a ftrait or paflage, which is about four or five leagues broad. The northernmoft of thefe iflands is called by the natives Eaheinomauwe ; and the fouthernmoft Tovy, or Tavai Poenammoo. The latter is the name of a lake, and fignifies the water of green talc. This lake is fituated in the northern part of the ifland, and the country adjoining it only is known to the natives under this name. From my obfervation, fays captain Cook, and from other information, it appears to me, that the New Zealanders muft live under perpetual apprehenfions of being deftroyed by each other ; there being few of their tribes that have not, as they think, fuftained wrongs from fome other tribe, which they are continually upon the watch to revenge ; and perhaps the defire of a good meal may be no fmall incite- ment. They will even preferve their enmity from father to T fon, ZEALAND. fon, and the foo never lofes fight of an injury done to his tather. The method of executing their liornble deiigr.s is by Iteahug upon their enemies in the night ; and it they lind them unguarded, (which however is but felJom the cafe,) tliey kill every one iudifcriminately, not even fpanng the women and children : the dead bodies they either devour on the foot, or carry them home for that pnrpofe If they are difcovered beiore they can execute their bloody purpofe, they generally Ileal ofF; and fometimes are purfued and at- tacked by the other party in their turn. They never give quarter, or take prifoners. This perpetual ttate of warfare renders them fo circumfpeft, that they are never off their guard either by night or day. According to their fydem of belief, the foul of the man whofe flefh is devoured by the enemy is doomed to perpetual fire ; while the foul of him whofe body has been refcued, as well as thofe who die a natural death, afcciid to the habitation of the gods. They do not eat the bodies of their friends who have been refcued. Their common method of difpofing of the dead is by burying in the earth ; but if they have more of their flangh- tered enemies than they can eat, they throw them into the fea. They have no fuch things as morais, or other places of public worfhip ; nor do they ever affemble together with this view. But tlity have prietts who alone addrefs the gods in prayers for the profperity of their temporal affairs. Whatever the principles of their rehgion may be, they are ftrongly inculcated from their infancy : of this I had a remarkable inftance in the youth who was firft deftined to accompany Taweiharooa. He refrained from eating the greateit part of the day on account of his hair being cut ; though every method was tried to induce him to break his refolution ; and he was tempted with the offer of fuch vic- tuals as he was known to like beft. He faid, that if he ate any thing that day, the Eatooa would kill him : how- ever, towards evening the cravings of nature got the better of the precepts of religion, and he ate, though but fparingly. Notwithltanding the divided and hoftile flate in which the New Zealanders live, travelling ilrangers who come with no ill defign are well received, and entertained during their ftay ; which, however, it is expefted will be no longer than is requifite to tranfaft the bufinefs that they come upon. Polygamy is allowed amongft; the people : the women are marriageable at a very early age ; and one who is unmarried is but in a forlorn ftate : Ihe can with dif- ficulty get a fubfiftence, and is in a great nieafure without a proteftor, though in continual want of a powerful one. The New Zealanders feem to be perfeftly fatisfied with the little knowledge they are maders of without attempting in the leaft to improve it ; nor are they remarkably curious either in their obfervations or inquiries. Tovy Poenammoo is for the moil part a mountainous, and to all appearances a barren country, and thinly peopled. Ealieinomauwe has a much better appearance ; it is indeed not only hilly, but mountainous, yet even the hills and mountains are covered with wood, and every valley has a rivulet of water ; the foil in thefe valleys and in the plains, of which there are many that are not overgrown with wood, is in general light, but fertile, and fit for every kind of European grain, plants, and fruit. From the vegetables that were found here, there is rea- fon to conclude the winters are m.ilder than in England, and the fummer not hotter, though it was more equally warm : dogs and rats are the only quadrupeds that were feen, and of the latter only a few. The inhabitants breed the dogs for the fole purpofe of eating them. There are feals and whales on the coait, and a fea-lion was once feen. The birds arc, hawks, owls, quails ; and there are fong-birds, whofc note is wonderfully melodious. There are ducks and (liags of feveral forts, not unlike thofe of Europe ; and the gannct, which is exaftly the fame. The fea-coaft is vifited by albatrofles, flieer-waters, pintados, and penguins. The infefts are, flefh-fiies, beetles, butter-flies, fand-flies, and mufquitoes ; and the neighbouring fea abounds with firti, which are equally delicious and wholcfome food. Captain Cook feldom came to anchor but they caught enough, with hook and line only, to fupply the whole fhip's crew ; and when they fifhed with nets, every mefs in the (hip, except thofe who were too indolent, faked as much as fupplied them when at fea fome time after. The fifh was not lefs various in kind than plentiful in quantity ; there were many forts they had never before feen, but the failors readily gave names to all of them. The higheft luxury which the fea afforded was the lobfter, or fefa cray-fifh. Here were alfo feveral fpecies of the flcate, or ftingray : foles, flounders, and fhell-fifh, were abundant. This country abounds with forefts filled with very large, flraight, and clean timber. There is one tree about the fize of an oak, which was diilinguilhed by a fcarlet flower, that appeared to be compofed of feveral fibres ; the wood of which was hard and heavy, excellently adapted to the ufe of the mill- wright : and another which grows in fwampy ground, very (Iraight and tall, bearing fmall bunches of berries, and a leaf re- fembling that of a yew-tree ; the wood of which is very tough, and thick enough to make mafts of any fize : about 400 fpecies of plants were found, all of which are un- known in England, except garden night-fhade, fow-thiftle, two or three kinds of fern, and one or two forts of grafs. They found wild celery, and a kind of crefTes, in great abundance on the fea fhore, and of eatable plants raifed by cultivation, only cocoas, yams, and fvveet potatoes. There are plantations of many acres of thefe yams and potatoes. The inhabitants hkewife cultivate the ground ; and the Chinefe paper mulberry-tree is to be found, but in no abundance. There is only one fhrub or tree in this coun- try which produces fruit, and that is a kind of a berry almoft taftelefs ; but they have a plant which anfwers all the ufes of hemp and flax. There are two kinds of this plant, the leaves of one of which are yellow, and the other deep-red, and both of them refemble the leaves of flags ; of thefe leaves they make lines and cordage, and much ftronger than any thing of the kind in Europe. Thefe leaves they like- wife fplit into breadths, and tying the flips together form their fi(hing-nets. Their common apparel by a fimple pro- cefs is made from leaves, and their finer by another prepa- ration is made from the fibres. This plant is found both on high and low ground, in dry mould, and deep bogs ; but as it grows largeil in the latter, that feems to be its proper foil. The men of this country are as large as the largeft Euro- peans. Their complexion is brown, but little more fo than that of a Spaniard. They are full of flefh, but not lazy or luxurious, and are ftout and well (haped. The women pof- fefs not that delicacy which diltinguifhes the European ladies, but their voice is fingularly foft, which, as the drefs of both fexes is fimilar, chiefly diftinguiflieB them from the men. The men are aftive in a high degree ; their hair is black, and teeth are white and even. The features in both fexes are regular ; they enjoy perfeft health, and live to a very advanced age ; they are of the gentleft difpofi- tions, and treat each other with the utmoft kindnefs, but they are perpetually at war, every little diftrift being at en- mity with all the refl, and towards their enemies they are implacable, never giving quarter. They have neither black cattle, flieep, hogs, nor goats ; fo that their chief food being fifli, and tliat not at all times to be obtained, they are in ZEALAND. in danger of dying through hunger : tljey have a few, and but a very few dogs ; and when no fi(h is to be got they have only vegetables fuch as fern-root, clams, yams, and potatoes to feed on ; and if by any accident thefe fail them, their lituation niuft be deplorable. This will account for their (hocking cuftom of eating the bodies which are flain in battle, for he who fights through mere hunger will not fcruple to eat the adverfary he has killed. The inhabitants of New Zealand are modeft and referved in their behaviour and converfation. The women, indeed, were not dead to the fofter imprefiions ; but their mode of confent was, in their idea, as harmlefs as the confent to marriage with us, and equally binding for the ilipulated time. If any of the Englifh addrefled one of their women, he was informed, that the confent of her friends muft be obtained, which ufually followed on his making a prefent. This done, he was obliged to treat his temporary wife at lead as delicately as we do in England. They anoint their hair with oil, melted from the fat of fifh or birds. The poorer people ufe that which is rancid, fo that their fmell is very difagree- able : but thoCe of fuperior rank make ufe of that which is freih. They wear combs, both of bone and wood, which are confidered as an ornament when ftuck upright in the hair. The men tie their hair in a bunch on the crown of their head, and adorn it with the feathers of birds, which they likewife fometimes place on each fide of the temples. They commonly wear (hort beards ; the hair of the women fome- times flows over the (houlders, and fometimes is cut (hort. Both fexes, but the men more than the women, mark their bodies with black Itains called Amoco; in general the women ftain only the lips, but fometimes mark other parts with black patches ; the men, on the contrary, put on additional marks from year to year, fo that thofe who are very ancient are almoll covered. Exclufive of the Amoco, they mark themfelves with furrows ; thefe furrows make a hideous ap- pearance, the edges being indented, and the whole quite black. The ornaments of the face are drawn in the fpiral form, with equal elegance and correftncfs, both cheeks being marked exaftly alike, while the painting on their bodies re- fembles fiUagree work, and the foliage in old chafed orna- ments, but no two faces or bodies are painted exaftly after the fame model. Thefe Indians likewife paint their bodies, by rubbing them with red ochre, either dry, or mixed with oil. Their drefs is formed of the leaves of the flag, fplit into flips, which are interwoven, and made into a kind of matting, the ends which are feven or eight inches in length hanging out on the upper fide. One piece of this matting, being tied over the (houlders, reaches to the knees ; the other piece, being wrapped round the wailV, falls almoft to the ground. Thefe two pieces are faftened to a firing, which, by means of a bodkin of bone, is paffed through, and tacks them together. The men wear the lower garment only at particular times. What they confider as the moft ornamental part of their drefs is the fur of dogs, which they cut into ;lripes, and few on different parts of their apparel. As dogs are not in plenty, they difpofe thefe ftripes with great economy. They have a few dreffes ornamented with fea- thers ; and one man was feen covered wholly with the red feathers of the parrot. The women never tie their hair on the top of their head, nor adorn it with feathers ; and are lefs anxious about drefs than the men. Their lower garment is bound tight round them, except when they go a-fifhing, and then they are careful that the men (hall not fee them. The ears of both fexes are bored, and the holes ftretched fo as to admit a man's finger. The ornaments of their ears are, featliers, cloth, bones, and fometimes bits of wood : a great many of them ufe nails, which were given them by the Englifh for this purpofe ; and the women fometimes adorn their ears with the white down of the albatrofs, which they fpread before and behind the hole, in a large bunch. They likewife hang to their ears by ftrings, chifels, bodkins, the teeth of dogs, and the teeth and nails of theii- deceafed friends. The arms and ancles of the women are adorned with (hells and bones, or aiiy thing elfe through which thcv can pafs a firing. The men wear a piece of green talc, or whalebone, with the refemblance of a man carved on it, hanging to a firing round the neck. The houfes are from fixteen to twenty-four feet long, ten or twelve wide, and fix or eight in height. The frame is of flight flicks of wood, and the walls and roof are made of dry grafs, pretty firmly compaded. Some of them are lined with bark of trees, and the ridge of the houfe is formed by a pole, which runs from one end to the other. The door is only high eno'jgh to admit a perfon crawHng on hands and knees; and the roof is floping. There is a fquare hole near the door, ferving both for window and chimney, near which is the fire-place. A plank is placed near the door, adorned with a fort of carving, and this they confider as an ornamental piece of furniture. The fide walls, and roof, projefting two or three feet beyond the walls at each end, form a fort of portico, where benches are placed to fit on. The fire is made in thenmiddle of a hol- low fquare in the floor, which is inclofed with wood or flone. They fleep near the walls, where the groui.d is co- vered with ftraw for their beds. Befides the fern-root, which ferves them for bread, they feed on albatroffes, pen- guins, and fome other bird?. Whatever they eat is either roafled or baked, as they have no vefTels in which water can be boiled. No plantations of cocoas, potatoes, and yams, were feen to the fouthward, though there were many in the northern parts. Tlie natives drink no other liquor than water, and enjoy perfeft and uninterrupted health. When wounded in battle, the wound heals in a very fhort time, without the application of medicine ; and the very old people carry no other marks of decay about them than the lofs of their hair and teeth, and a failure of their mufcular ftrength, but enjoy an equal fnare of health and cheerfulnefs with the youngell. The canoes of this country are not unhke the whals-boats of New England, being long and narrow. Thofe of the larger fort feem to be built for war, and will hold from ;o to 100 men; one of thefe mealured near feventy feet iii length, fix in width, and four in depth. It was fharp .it the bottom, and confided of three lengths, about two or three inches thick, and tied firmly together with flrong plaiting : each fide was formed of one entire plank, about twelve inches broad, and about an inch and a half thick, which were fitted to the bottom part with equal flrength and ingenuity. Several thwarts were laid from one fide to the other, to which they were fecurely faftened, in order to ftrengthen the canoes. Thefe veffels are rowed with a kind of paddles, between five and fix feet in length, the blade of which is a long oval, gradually decreafing till it readies the handle ; and the velocity with which they row with thefe paddles is furprifing : their fails are conipofcd of a kind of mat or netting, which is extended between two up- right poles, one of which is fixed on each fide. Two ropes faftened to the top of each pole ferve inftead of fheets. -The veffels are fteered by two men, having each a paddle, and fitting in the ften ; but they can only fail before the wind, in which diredion they move with confi.lerable fwiftuefs. „. , T 2 Thefe Z E B Thele Indians ufe axes, adzes, and chiiels, with which !all they likewife bore holes. The chifels are made of jafper, or of the bone of a man's arm ; and the:r axes and adzes of a hard black Hone. Their tillage of the ground is excellent, owing to the ncceffity they are under of cultivating, or running the rilk of llarving. A long narrow ftake', (harpened to an edge at bottom, with a piece fixed acrofs, a little above it, for the convenience of driving It into the ground with the foot, fupphes the place both of plough and fpade. The foil being light, their work is not very laborious, and with this inftrument alone they will turn up ground of fix or fevcn acres in extent. Their fifh- hooks are of (hell or bone ; and they have balkets of wicker- work to hold the fi(h. Their warlike weapons are, fpears, darts, battle-axes, and the patoo-patoo, in which they chiefly confide. This is fattened to their wrifts by a ftrong itrap led it fliould be wrenched from them, and the princi- pal people generally wear it fticking in their girdles, confi- dering it as a military ornament and part of their drefs, like the poinard of the Afiatic and the fword of the Eu- ropeans. The fpear, which is pointed at each end, is about twenty-fix feet in length, and they hold it in the middle, fo that it is difficult to parry a pufh from it. Whether they fight in boats or on Ihore, the battle is hand to hand ; th.eir contcfts mull be bloody. The war-dance confifts of a great variety of violent motions and hideous contortions of the limbs, during which the countenance and tongue perform their parts. This horrid dance is always accomp.-.nied by a fong, every ftrani of which terminates with a deep and loud figh. The employment of the men is fuppofed to confift in cultivating the ground, making nets, catching birds, and fifliing ; while the women are engaged in weaving cloth, procuring fern-roots and fhell-filh, and drefllng food. With regard to religion, they acknowledge one fuperior being, and feveral fubordinate. Their mode of worlhip could not be learned, nor was any place proper for that purpofe feen. There was indeed a fmall fquare area, encompafled with Hones, in the middle of which hung a bafl the foot of the mountains E. of Ifpahan. ZEISELMAN, a town of Auftria ; 3 miles E. of TuUn. ZEISPERG, a town of Auftria ; 3 miles E.N.E. of Crems. ZEITHAYN, a town of Saxony, in the margravate of Mciflen, famous for a pleafure-camp which king Au- gullus II. made there, in 1730, at the cxpence of five mil- lions of rix-doUars. On the fpot which was ufed for thi?! camp, and the exercifing of the army, are ereftedfix large pyramids ; and medals have likewife been (Iruck upon it, and a grand rcprefentation thereof engraved on copper ; 8 mile; W.N.W. of GrolTenhayn. ZEITLOSS, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on the river Sinn ; 10 miles N- of Gmunden. ZEITON, a town of European Turkey, in ThefTaly, on a gulf to which it gives name. Here are about 400 Chriftian families, but the greater part of the inliabitants confifts of Turks ; 48 miles S.S.E. of Laiiffa. N. lat. 39° 6'. E. long. 22° 58'. Zeiton, a gulf or bay of the Egjean fea, on the E. coatl of ThefTaly, N.W. of the ifland of Negroponte. ZEITOON, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ears or Farfiftan, containing about zooo inhabitants, and fituated in a pleafant valley, fertilized by both the branches of the river Tab, which here form a junftion. Zeitoon is about fifteen miles dlftant from Behaban, the capital of the mountainous diftricl of Khogilfea, which extends from the valley of Ram Hormuz to the vicinity of Kazeroon. ZEITOUN,atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the government of Sivas, on the Kizilermak ; 33 miles W. of Samfoun. ZEITRABRA, a term ufed by fome of the chemifla to exprefs any thing that is fluxile. ZEITZ, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the bi- fliopric of Naumburg, anciently the fee of a bifhop, founded by the emperor Oti.o I. afterwards transferred to Naum- burg, after this to. vn had been facked and almoft dellroyed by the Vandals in the year 982 ; 15 miles E.S.E. of Naum- burg. N.lat. 5i°3'. E. long. 12° 2'. ZEKELHEIB, atown of Hungary ; 8 miles N.N.W. of St. Job. ZELA, atown of Perfia, in the province of Segeilan ; 25 miles S.W. of F?rah. Zela, Ziela, or Zeleja, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, afterwards called Flaviopolis. — Alfo, a town of Afia, in Cappadocia Pontus, near the Lycus. It was ce- lebrated by the defeat of Triarius, the Roman general, and afterwards by that of Pharnaces. Here was a famous tem- ple, reprefented upon fome medals, confecrated to the god- defs Anaijtis, a Perfian divinity, whofe pontiff was very powerful under ancient kings ; but in procefs of time his authority and revenues werediminifhed. The town and the minifters of the temple were dependent on Pithodiris, who poffefled a part of the territory ; other parts were ceded to the pontiffs of Zela and Comanes,''and the reft was annexed to the Roman province. According to Strabo, Zela and its territory were fituated to the left of the river ; the facred lands of the temple, and the domains of the pontiff, were in the environs of the town. He adds that it was fortified and built in the retrenchment of Semiramis ; and in the firft times it had dnly fome houfes near the temple ; but Pompey made it a town. ZELAH, or Sela, a city of Benjamin (Jofh. xviii. 28.), where Saul was buried in the tomb of his father, Kifli. 2 Sam. xxi. 14. ZELAN, Z E L ZELAN, in Geography, a mountain in the county of Tyrol ; 20 miles N.E. of Trent. Z EL ANDY, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the W. coaft of Sumatra. N. lat. o^ 53'. E. long. 98° 14'. ZELANICA, a cape on the N. coail of Nova Zembla. N. lat. 78°. E. long. 77° 24'. ZELATE, a town of the country of Candahar ; 30 miles N.E. of Candahar. ZELEBI. See Schelebt. ZELEEFA, a town of Africa, in the country of Tunis ; 10 miles S.E. of Cairoan. ZELEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government of Sivas, anciently a town of Pontus, and called Zela. Near this place the Romans, under Triarius, were defeated by Mithridates ; and Pharnaces, fon of Mithridates, was after- wards defeated by Julius Csefar ; 21 miles W.S.W. of Tocat. See Zela. ZELEIA, in Ancient Geography, a town built, accord- ing to Homer, at the foot of mount Ida. It was watered bytheTarfius, and had to the S. the lake Aphnitis. Ac- cording to Strabo, it had alfo in ancient times an oracle, but in his time it was not confulted. ZELEM, in the Materia Medica of the ylncients, a name given by Avicenna and others to a fruit common in Africa in their time, and much efteemed by the people of that country, and called there by fome piper tiigrorutn, the black people's pepper, or negro-pepper. Avicenna tells us, that the zclem was a fattifh feed, of the fize of a chich, and of a high flavour, in colour yellow on the outfide, and white within, and that it was brought from Barbary. He adds, that there was another plant, properly called fulful alfuaden, that is, piper nigrorum. This, he fays, was a feed contained in pods like kidney-beans, and was black, and of a pungent and acrid tafte. ZELENIN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Frozen ocean, near the S.W. coall of Nova Zembla. N. lat. 70^ 50'. E. long. 56° 24'. ZELENOIKOLOK, a fort of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Caucafus, on the Ural ; 44 miles N. of Curitv. ZELES, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpauia, in Bcetica, upon a ftrait which feparated Hifpania from Africa, according to Strabo. This author reports, that the Romans traufported the inhabitants into Mauritania, together with others drawn away from Tingis, eftabliftied the town of Julia Joga. ZELETAWA, in Geography. See Scheleta. ZELEZENSKAIA, a fort of Ruflia, in the govern- ment of Kolivan, on the E. fide of the Irtifch. N. lat. 53° 25'. E. long. 75° 40'. ZELITO, or ZiLiTO, a fort of South America, in the harbour of Carthagena. ZELL, a town of Auftria ; 14 miles N.N.W. of St. Wolfgang Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 10 miles W. of Bamberg. — Alio, a town of Germany, in the principality of Culnibach ; 12 miles S.S.W. of Hof. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 3 miles N. of Schweinfurt. ZeLL. See LlEBENZELL. Zell im Ham, a town of Germany, on the Mofelle ; 25 miles N.E. of Treves. N. lat. 50° 4'. E. long. 7° 7'. Zell in the Pizgau, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz- burg, on the Zeller See ; 30 miles S.S.W. of Salzburg. Zell in ZHlerlhal, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz- burg, en the Ziller ; 50 miles S.W. of Salzburg. Zell am Hammerjbach, a town of Germany, fituated in the vale of Hamraerfbach. The town vv-is imperial, .ind Z E L aflelTed twenty-one florins till 1802, when it was given to the margrave of Baden ; 9 miles W. of Freudenlladt. N lat. 48° 23'. E. long. 8° 7'. ZELLA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, which was ruined during tlie war of Cssfar againft Scipio. Strabo. ZELLANG, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft of the iiland of Celebes. S". lat. 4° 20'. E. long, i 20° 3'. ZELLE, or Altenzelle, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 2 miles W. of Nofl'en. Zelle, u city of WellphaHa, in the principality of Lune- burg. This is a fortified and well-built town, fituated on the Al'.er, which is here navigable, and behind the New Town is joined by the Fuhfee. The town itfelf, in con- jiindtion with the fuburb of Fritzenweife, confifts of 564 houfes ; but including the other fuburbs, fummer-houfes, and buildings without the gates, the number of them amounts to about 1400. At this place was held the high courtof appealsforthe feveral territories of theekaoralhoufe of Brunfwick-Luneburg, together with the chancery j chief tribunal of the principality of Luneburg. H and ere alfo itands the provincial houfe for the diets of the princi p;dity, together with one of its fuperintendencies, and a fpecial fuperintendency which is adminiftered by the general fiiperiutendant, who is always firft minifter of the town church. The other public edifices in it are, the Guildhall, the ridinghoufe, the mews, and the armoury. The magif- tracy is poireffcd of the lower jurifdiftion in the town, and likewife in fome parts of the fuburbs. At this place, too, are manufafturers and artificers in various branches, particu- larly in gold and filver. The prince's feat, near the town, is walled and moated in, and was the refidence of the Zelle line of Brunfwick-Luneburg, which failed in 1-05. It was built by dnke Henry, in the year 1485, and afterwards improved ; 40 miles S. of Luneburg. N. lat. 53° 42'. E. long. 10° 14'. ZELLENBERG, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Upper Rhine ; 9 miles N. of Colmar. ZELLER See, a lake of Germany, in the archbifhopric of Salzburg ; 28 miles S.S.W. of Salzburg. ZELLE RFELD, a town of Wellphalia, in the Harz Forefl ; filver to the value of 20,000 imperial crowns is ar.nnallv coined in this town ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Goflar ZELLERNDORFF, a town of Auftria ; 3 miles S.E. of Sch ratten taal. ZELLHOFEN, a town of Auftria; lo miles N.W. of Grem. ZELLIA, in Ar.cient Geography, a country of Upper Pannonia, inhabited by the Slavi. ZELL IN, in Geography, a town of the New Mark of Brandenburg ; i 3 miles N.W. of Cuftrin. ZELLINGEN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 8 miles N. of Wurzburg. ZELLITZ, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 8 miles W. of Marburg. ZELON, a town of Thibet ; 27 miles S.W. of Laffa. ZELOTTI, Battista, m Biography, was born at Ve- rona in 1532. He was a pupil of Titian, .iccording to Vafari, and a fellow-ftudent with Paolo Veronefe, with whom he co-operated in feveral important works at Venice. He particularly excelled in frrfco, and that induced Paolo to court his afTiflance in many of the great works in which he was engaged. In confequence many of his works are given to Vtronefe, and tliofe in the hall of the Council of Ten, in the palazzo S. Marco, have been engraved by Le Febre as the works of that mafter. His pifture of the rloly Family, in the Carara coUeftion, is painted with the fitengih ai,d warmth of Titian, and others of his works in oil oil are Conve Z E M ■e defervedly efteemed and admired, particularly the erflon of S. Paul, and Clirift with his Difciples in the FifhinjT.boat, in the cathedral at Vicenza. He fell fhort of the grace and talle of Vcroncfe, yet his invention was not lacking in energy ; his touch is free and animated, and his compofitions managed with ikiU and judgment. He died in 1592, aged 6o- ZELPHI. See Zenda. . ZELPITSCH, in Geography, a town ot lltna ; 10 miles N.E. of Mitterburg. , „ _, . , ZELTURINSKOI, a fort of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutdc ; 72 miles S.S.E. of Tunginflcoi. ZELUIA, a town of Lithuania, m the palatinate of Novogrodek ;' 25 miles N. W. of Slonim. ZEM a river of Albania, which runs into the Moraca, 12 miles W. of Cattaro. ZEMA a word uled by many of the old writers tor a decoftion or apozem. ZEMARAIM, or Semaraim, in Ancient Geography, a citvof Benjamin near Bethel. Jolh. xviii. 22. ZEMARITES, an ancient people of Syria, mentioned by Strabo, who places them on a plain, two leagues to the N. of mount Libanu?, and gives them the term of Simyra. ZEMASARUM, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers as a name for cinnabar. ZEMBLA, Nova, Novaya Zemlia, or Ne'w Land, in Geography, a Ruffian idand, or rather a group of five iflands, with the intervening channels always filled with ice, (ituated in the Frozen or Northern ocean. Of the nume- rous iflands in this ocean, Novaya Zemlia and Kalgeva are the moit confiderable ; but both are uninhabited, and fre- quented only by fifhermen and hunters. The former is indeed well fupplied with water ; but is rocky, unfertile, and deftitute of wood, furnifhing vegetation only for a few ftunted bufhes and polar plants. It abounds, however, with rein-deer, white bears, white and blue foxes; and the ihores fwarm with morfes, walrufes, and various kinds of fifh. Its magnitude is eilimated at 950 verfts in length, 520 in breadth, and 3090 in circumference, wiiliout following the fmuofities, and 425,509 German miles of fuperficies, ac- cording to Mr. Storch. On the northern fide it is entirely encompafled with ice mountains ; and to the fouth is the fea of Cara, Kara, or Karllcoge, in which the tide flows about two feet nine inches. Among the lakes of this ifland there is one of fait water. From the middle of Oftober till February the fun is not at all vifible ; but they have the ad- vantage of numerous and ftrong north-lights and of much moon-light. In fummer they have no thunder-llorms. The fnow falls in many places to the depth of four arfliines. For two months, ij/z. June and July, the fun never fets. Be- tween this ifland and the main land is the famous pafl'age known by the name of Vaggat's or Waygat's fl.raits. ZEMECH, a word ufed by fome writers as a name for lapis lazuli. ZEMENIE, in Geography, a town of European Tur- key, in Romania; 16 miles S.W. of Gallipoli. ZEMIA, ZniM'x, among the Athenians, is fometimes taken in a large and general fenfe for any kind of punilhment ; but more frequently for a pecuniary mulft or fine laid upon the criminal, according to the degree of his offence. ZEMLIANSK, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Voronez ; 44 miles N.N.W. of Voronez. N. lat. 52= 12'. E. long. 38=42'. ZEMLIN, or Semlin, a fortrefs of Sclavonia, at the union of the Save and the Danube, oppofite Belgrade. Here is a lazaretto, where travellers and merchandife from the Levant are detained to prevent infeiSlion. The number ZEN of inhabitants is about 1200 Rafcians, Greeks, Jews, Ar- menians, and Turks : during a fire at Zemlin, Jofeph II. emperor of Auttria, affifted in perfon to fupprefs it. ZEMME, a town of Grand Bucharia, on the Gihon ; 60 miles S. of Bucharia. ZEMOKARTLI, a town of Turkifli Armenia, in the government of Cars; 50 miles N. of Ardanoudji. ZEMORGET, or Zermogete, a fmall ifland in the Red fea, 30 miles from the coaft of Egypt. This ifland was called by the ancients " Ophiodes," from the abundance of fcrpents, and the ifland of topazes from the number of thofe precious Itones found there. N. lat. 23"^ 25'. E. loner. 53° 5'- ZEMOVAH, a town of Pegu ; 50 miles S. of Prone. ZEMPHYRUS, in the Materia Medico of the Ancients, a name give to a precious fl.one, the fragments of which they ufe as a cordial and fudorific. It appears by their accounts, that this ftone was blue ; and hence many have too haftily judged, that it was the lapis lazuli ; but in truth it was the fapphire. The word zemphyrus is no where ufed but in the writ- ings of the later Greeks, and it is plainly formed, as mod of their names of things are, on the Arabian word exprefl^- ing the fame thing. This Arabian word is femphir ; and this, in Avicciina and Serapio, is always ufed as the name of a fapphire, never as that of any other gem. We find alfo by their accounts, that this fapphire was not the fap- phire of the ancient Greeks, but the fine blue pellucid gem we now know by that name ; for the fapphire of Theo- phrafl;us, and the other old writers, was only a kind of lapis lazuli. ZEMPLIN, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 16 miles N.E. of Patak. ZEMPOALA. See Zampala. ZEMZEM, the holy well of Mecca, which fee. ZENANICH. SeeSELANIEH. ZENATI, a river of Algiers, formed by the union of two ftreams, which foon after changes its name to Seiboufe. ZENDA, a general term coined by Paracelfus, by which he and his followers exprefs extraneous or equivocal generation, or the produftion of bodies without a feminal principle. The word zerunda is ufed to exprefs this par- ticular fort of generation of men, and zelphi in regard to other animals. ZENDAVESTA, by contraAion Zend, and, as it is vulgarly pronounced, Ztinda-vefloiu and Zund, in Antiquity,. denoLes the book afcribed to Zoroaster, ( fee his article, ) and containing his pretended revelations ; and which the ancient Magians and modern Perfees, called alfo Gaurs, obferve and reverence in the fame manner as the Chriftians do the Bible, and the Mahometans the Koran, making it the fole rule of both their faith and manners. See Magi, Persees, Gebres, &c. See alfo Gentoos. The word, it is faid, originally Cgnifies any inftrument for kindling fire, and is applied to this book to denote its aptitude for kindling the flame of religion in the hearts of thofe who read it. Zendavefta is compounded of Zend, denoting the letters of the book, and Avejla, fignifying the language in which it was written. See Persia, Language of. M. Anquetil du Perron, to whofe account we fliall refer more at large in the fequel of this article, has taken pains, in the 37th volume of the work cited below, to prove that Zoroailer lived under Hyftafpes, the father of Darius, in the fixth century before Chrift. The Zendavefta, or Zend, contains the fyilem of doftrine and duty, which is faid to have been fupernaturally com- municated ZENDAVESTA. municated to Zoroafter, and which his followers hold in very extraordinary veneration. A copy of this book is kept, fays Dr. Prideaux, to this day in every oratory and fire- temple, and portions of it are read at flated times by the priefts to the people : and to this they appeal as the ftand- ard of the good and evil of their aftions. This work, af- cribed among other numerous writings to Zerdufht, or the Perfian Zoroaller, and efteemed by his followers as of facred authority, is faid to have been written in the Perfian language, and to have confifted of two parts ; one of which contains their forms of devotion and order of ceremonies, the other the precepts of religion and moraUty. A com- pendium of it, called the Sadda or Sadder, is read to the people on every facred day by their priefts. There is, however, much reafon to queftion, whether this book be of fuch ancient date as the time of Zoroaft;er ; and it has been fuggefted as probable, that it was written about the time when many Jews and Chriftians refided among the Perfians ; that is, about the 4th or jth century. In proof of its being later than the time of Zoroafter, but written fince the days of Mahomet, it is alleged, that the word Jhaitam occurs in it, which is pecuhar to the Arabs ; for in other oriental languages it is written yitem, or faton. Dr. Hyde gives us the following account of it. The Zend is the general name of the book, which is alfo called, the book of Abraham ; and it confifts of twenty-one or twenty-two feparate parts, with diftinft names. Its con- tents were originally written on twelve hundred Ikins ; and the ancient copies of it, like the original, are in the pure old Perfian language ; but the later copies are in the fame language, mixed with modern Perfic or Arabic words, ferving to explain fuch as were becoming obfolete. Some parts of the Zend contain the original text, and others contain Zerdufht's fecond thoughts fubjoined, for more fully explaining his doftrine. Some writers fug- geft, that Zerduftit firft intended to comprife his book in four parts, viz. the Zend, containing the liturgy and chief doftrine of his rehgion, and the Pazend, or com- mentary upon the former ; and that the farther additions were occaConed by the oppofition of adverfaries, and unforefeen circumftances that occurred. The charafter in which the Zend is written is that of the old Perfian, called Pehlavi ; and the Pazend charafter differs in a fmall degree from this. Dr. Hyde has given a catalogue of the feveral parts of the Zend, each of which is called nojh or nujb. In procefs of time, when the old Perfian language be- came antiquated, and little underftood, one of their deftours or bifhops (about A.D. 1500) compofed the Sadda, which is a compendium, in the vulgar or modern Perfic tongue, of thofe parts of the Zend that relate to religion, or a kind of code of canons and precepts, drawn from the theological writings of Zoroafter, ferving as an authorita- tive rule of faith and praftice for his followers. This Sadda is written in a low kind of Perfic verfe, and, as Dr. Hyde informs us, it is bonorum et malorum farrago, having many good and pious things, and others very fuperftitious and trifling. The Zend contains a reformed fyftem of Magianifm ; teaching that there is a Supreme Being, eternal, felf-ex- iftent, and independent, who created both hght and dark- nefs, out of which he made all other things ; that thefe are in a ftate of conflift, which will continue till the end of the world ; that then there fhall be a general re- furreftion and judgment ; and that juft retribution (hall be rendered unto men according to their works ; and that the angel of darknefs with lus followers (hall be con- Vol. XXXIX. out figned to a ftate of everlaftmg darknefs and puniftiment, and the angel of hght with his difciples introduced into a ftate of everlaftmg light and happinefs ; after which light and darknefs ftiall no more interfere with each other. The Zend alfo enjoins the conftant maintenance of facred fires and fire-temples for religious wor(hip, the diftinftion of *^ k^V""^ unclean beafts, the payment of tithes to priefts, which are to be of one family or tribe, a muhitude of waftiings and purifications, refembling thofe of the Jewifti law, and a variety of rules and exhortations for the exercife of benevolence and charity. Dr. Prideaux charges the Zend with allowing the worft kind of inceft ; and Dr. Hyde alfo intimates that it was allowed by Zoroafter, till it was at length abohihed ; but no authority has been cited to juftify this charge. The above-mentioned doftrines of the Zend are accom- modated to the eaftern tafte by a great intermixture of fable. In this book there are many paflTages evidently taken t of the Scriptures of the Old Teftament, particu- larly out of the Pfalms of David : the author reprefents Adam and Eve as the firft parents of all mankind, gives in fubftance the fame account of the Creation and Deluge with Mofes, differing indeed with regard to the former by converting the fix days of the Mofaic account into fix times, comprehending in the whole three hundred and fixty-five days; and fpeaks alfo of Abraham, Jofeph, Mofes, and Solomon. Moreover, Dr. Baumgarten (Univ. Hift. Suppl. vol. ii. p. 367, &c.) aflerts, that this work contains doftrines, opinions, and fafts, aftually borrowed from the Jews, Chriftians, and Mahometans ; whence, and from other circumftances, he concludes, that both the hiftory and writings of this prophet were probably in- vented in the later ages, when the fire-wor(hippers under the Mahometan government thought fit to vindicate their religion from the fufpicion of idolatry. The Zoroafter, fays the abbe Foucher, ( fee Zoroaster, ) who was the author of the Zend, is reprefented by him as an apoftate Jew, a fubtle philofopher, and an obfequious art- ful courtier, who infinuated himfelf into the favour of Darius Hyitafpes ; and he fays that his great defign was to reconcile the Hebrew with the Perfian rehgion by a mixture of the leading and eflfential doftrines of each, to revive the credit of the Magi, and to accommodate, by a proper colouring, the Jewi(h religion to the weaknefs and prejudices of the Medes and Perfians, by taking from it that exclufive charafter that rendered it oflfenfive to other nations, and mixing with it the reveries and viCons of the ancient Zoroafter. See Hyde's Religio Veterum Perfa- rum. Prideaux's Conn, of the Old and New Teftament, vol. i. p. 317, &c. edit. 9. Univ. Hift. vol. ii. p. zo6, &c. fol. The account more lately given both of the Perfees and Zend, by M. Anquefil du Perron, diff^ers in feveral particu- lars from that of Dr. Hyde. This gentleman made a voy- age to India, and employed himfelf between the years 1755 and 1 76 1 in ftudying the Perfic and San(l